ANTHROPOLOGY MAINS TEST SERIES

TEST NO: 1

MODEL ANSWERS Model Answers for Test 1

1) a) Archaeology exists as a separate discipline but in its study of humans, it gets connected to anthropology, and thus making it a humanistic science. Archaeological anthropology tries to find and explain the origin, growth and development of cultures in the past. The material remains of humans and humans themselves (from burial remains) are matters of investigation through methods like excavation where differences, origin, both biological and social evolution can be comprehended. Archaeological anthropology use scientific methods to recover and construct human being’s past through deductive and inductive processes.

According to Elliot Abrams, “Archaeological anthropology is the study of past humans and cultures through material remains. It involves the excavation, analysis and interpretation of artifacts, soils and cultural processes”.

Scope of archaeological anthropology:- In archaeological anthropology the material remains of humans and humans themselves (from burial remains) are matters of investigation through methods like excavation where differences, origin, both biological and social evolution can be comprehended. Time period covered includes pre-history, proto-history and civilization periods. Today,archaeological anthropology also deals with palaeoanthropology, ethno archaeology, settlement archaeology, processual archaeology.

Different sub-branches of Archaeological Anthropology include:-

(i)Pre-historic Archaeological Anthropology:-It studies that portion of the human past that has no written records. This comprises most of our human past. It is the study of prehistoric cultural history since the first appearance of the humans, till the age when they began writing about themselves. It covers origination, evolution, and diffusion of culture and traditions.

Prehistoric stages are studied by archaeological anthropologists with the help of substances like stone, wood, bone, bone, metals, earthen ware, tools, ornaments, outfits, etc. Initially prehistoric archaeologists used the three age system where human prehistory was divided into tool making stages such as Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age respectively. Later on pre-historic archaeological anthropologists preferred to classify humans according to the subsistence economy which the humans made use of in different stages, like barbarian or food gathering stage, food producing stage and finally urbanization stage

(ii)Text aided Archaeological Anthropology:- Text-aided archaeological anthropology is assisted by documentation and inscriptions. It is commonly known as classical archeology. It basically deals with the reconstruction of various ancient civilization which has developed the art of writing documents. In India, from the Harappan Civilization to the time of Mauryan rule, can be said to fall under Text aided Archaeological Anthropology.

(iii)Text free Archaeological Anthropology:- This type includes old and new archeological anthropology. It is concerned with the illiterate people who do not require text materials. They try to find out the evidence by digging out things at the excavation sites.

(iv)Salvage or Synthetic Archaeological Anthropology:- In this branch of Archaeological Anthropology extra effort is done by the archeologist anthropologist in order to find out the maximum information possible thorough investigation. They usually excavate the site which is threatened by natural calamities and try to bring out facts and statistics about cultural life. Applications of Archaeological Anthropology:- (i)Today Archaeological Anthropology also deals with palaeoanthropology, ethno archaeology, settlement archaeology, etc. as the gamut of knowledge accumulated from the reconstruction of the past has become vast. (ii)Archaeological anthropology has been studying the history of cultures and its processes through studies like new-archaeology, processual archaeology and the latest being post-processual archaeology. Much earlier the subject only depended on methods like absolute and relative chronological dating to know about both physical and material cultures. Later demographic conditions and environmental order, looking into subsistence patterns, economy, etc. also fell under the purview of study in archaeological anthropology. (iii)Palaeoanthropology is one important area of study where people who lived in the Paleolithic times are studied. Evidences on which this study is based on are skull remains, bones, burial grounds, etc. Fossils too form an important component in this study by which human lineages and its evolution are learnt. (iv) New- archaeology or processual anthropology involves studying the processes by which humans lived, i.e. how humans in the past did things like create artifacts and how they finally got decayed. (v) Settlement archaeology deals with the study of settlements in landscape and how they build themselves according to some principles, it also concerns itself with relationships shared between urban and rural spaces, also how work done by humans have an impact on the environment, etc. Hence, archaeological anthropology is the study of mankind from the time of their creation, their processes of development and the different cultural achievements they made in it. The way to study it is reconstruction of history with the help of material remains along with matter like skulls, bone remains, fossils, pollen remains, artifacts, burial grounds, etc. It uses various kinds of method for its investigation and hence we find different categories in archaeological anthropology like, new –archaeology, paleo-anthropology, environmental archaeology, post-processual archaeology, etc

1)b) GAUSE’S RULE:

Introduction: G.F.Gauss a Russian Biologist has put forward this concept.

Definition:- It is also known as Competition Exclusion Principle.

“Adaptive Radiation (AR) is characterized by replacement of one form of an organism by another form of organism consequent of their inability to share the same ecological niche for an indefinite period of time due to inherent differences in competitive ability and rates of reproduction.” That means “the species with identical ecological requirements cannot occupy the same ecological niche for long time and hence less competent species may either be driven away or becomes extinct.” Explanation:- AR is evolution in several specialized directions starting from a common and generalized ancestral type, or the entry of the organisms of the original stock to new adaptive zones.

In other words, organisms of the same group or closely related groups exhibit great divergence in their morphology when they are found in different habitats (divergence). This AR leads to :

(i)Replacing one generation form of organism by another form of organism. (ii)Prepare different firms of organisms to occupy different ecological niche’s. (iii) Enables different forms of organisms to acquire different competitive abilities. (iv)Endows different forms of organisms with different rates of reproductive success.

Therefore, Gauss Rule explains about competitive ability and replacement of species. In nature all living organisms are directly or indirectly dependent upon food chain. In this food chain, each and every species occupies a definite place. This is known as ecological niche. In this, the species always get their food from lower niche. They have threat from the upper niche. If two or more species occupy a niche, a lot of competition will arise for food, shelter and breeding space. In this competition, the species which have more competitive ability will get success. Due to this, in all ecological niches only one type of species can survive.

Examples: Numerous examples from reptiles, birds and mammals.

(i)Galapagas Islands:-equator in Pacific Ocean, 900 km west of equator, South America. These islands are volcanic in origin. Finches look like sparrows, live in these islands. Finches generally have stout conical beaks adapted for crushing seeds. However, in these islands the finches have undergone great diversification in their feeding habits. Accordingly, they have formed into different varieties displaying morphological differences in shape and size.

These different forms are

a) Ground Finches : seed crushers, beaks-stout, conical b) Warbler Finches:- insectivorous, beak-slender warbler like c) Vegetarian tree Finches:-feed on leaves, buds, fruits, beak-parrot d) Wood Pecker Finches:- insectivores, beak-stout, long straight e) Insectivorous tree finches:-insectivores, beak-curved, very sharp, pointed. f) Cactus ground Finches:-Feed on nector and soft pulp present in fruits, beak-decurved, split tongue.

Criticism:- a) It is not a law like laws of Physics or Chemistry. b) It is just a descriptive generalization. c) Gauss law speaks of parallel evolution in terms of structural adaptations but not in terms of physiological (internal changes), protective animal association (Panic call), biotic and organic adaptations.

1) c) Anthropology and Medicine: Much of the development of medical anthropology has occurred since World War II. The beginning of major anthropological involvement in medical problems was cogently reviewed by Caudil in his landmark paper on Applied Anthropology in medicine.

But, even at that time, involvement of anthropologists and other social scientists in health programme and medical research has changed considerably and there has been a marked increase in the input of social scientists in medicine and medically related areas. In recent times, there was a spurt in ethno-medical studies particularly among rural and tribal communities. Medical Anthropology, in fact is fact is one of the main areas where a holistic bio-cultural approach is called for. Basically, quite a few things are common in anthropology and medicine. In the proper study of mankind, anthropology aims at discovering man as a human being, so it should be the case with a physician. He should make a human approach to the patient, if he is to remain useful to them.

As a student of anthropology, we put more emphasis on the groups. We are particularly concerned about the study of human being s within the framework of a culture. Culture, in the simplest word may be defined as a set of beliefs and behaviours shared by a group of people. It is the culture that provides people with a way of perceiving the world at large and with the ways of coming into terms with the problems they face. This includes their attitudes about the body and ways in which a person should be treated when ill. Obviously, people with different culture orientations and experiences have different notions with regard to the concepts of disease cure, treatment and have different expectations from the physician. If this communication is impeded, the purpose of the physician is defeated.

Thus, e.g. in simple societies seven main types of disease concepts may be recognized. They are: (i)Sorcery or Magic:- Accidents, stumbling, etc., among the Australian aborigines as among many other simple people. Death is never regarded as due to natural causes, but is always ascribed to sorcery. Diagnosis, treatment and prognosis are done by traditional medicine men as counter magic. (ii)Breach of taboo:-The “Voodoo death” where the victim dies of a shock is scarcely distinguishable from true wound shock. Expiation of offence can be done by a traditional medicine man using some magical acts. (iii)Disease-object-intrusion: Entrance of foreign object may be caused by human/ super-human agency. It carries some spiritual essence which is the real cause of the illness. Object may be pebble, splinter of wood or bone, a hair, an insect, a lizard or a worm. Extraction is the only curative measure. (iv)Spirit intrusion:- Disease, caused by a spirit, ghost or a demon intrusion. There are three curative measures:- A.exorcism-ejection by conjuration b.mechanical extraction and c.transference (v)Exorcism is nearly always practiced together with one or both the other methods. Soul or Body (organ)loss: Amongst the Australian aborigines, the abstraction of the kidney fat is held to be a common cause of disease. It may be removed by sorcery which may lead to death. Diagnosis and prognosis are done by divination and curative measures are suggested accordingly. (vi)Dreaming: In the Pacific and the South Western areas of North America, one may dream that one has eaten poisoned foods or that an animal has entered one’s body and fallen ill shortly afterwards. (vii)Independent occurrence:-These kinds of diseases can be treated with domestic remedies. This knowledge about the various concepts of disease and healing in various communities is very essential for a medical practitioner. Anthropological studies provide such information to us. With regard to the direct relationship between anthropology and health, it may be specifically noted that cultural anthropology has exercised a remarkable influence upon the fields of psychiatry and psychosomatics, and many other forms of diseases.

Malinowski (1948) developed the theory of culture in terms of operating basic and derived needs of the organism. It appears that the structure of the ego is largely determined by the manner in which these basic needs are satisfied. The function of the ego is to secure adequate satisfaction of basic and secondary needs to maintain the organism in equilibrium. When needs are not adequately satisfied, there is a failure of ego-integration and physic-dis-equilibrium of one sort or another results. Similarly, anthropologists had known since long that feelings and somatic functions are closely related. Accordingly, they had been advocating the psychosomatic Medicine that has been recognized as a branch of Medicine only recently. Psychosomatic functions are culturally organized. Thus, the problems of “Adolescent Sterility” came to the attention of physiologists after the publication of the Sexual Life of the Savages (1929). Thus, the average adolescent sterility period for the white is 3 years, for Dap (New Guinea) 5 years and for the Lepchas 9 years. Further, Margaret Mead’s coming of age in Samoa (1928) demonstrates the stresses and strums during ‘adolescing’ are largely the consequences of cultural factors peculiar to particular societies. Even otherwise, health cannot be given to the people, nor can it be bought or sold as a commodity. It invariably calls for people’s active participation (e.g. life style, food, attitude towards various medical systems). Thus, anthropology can assist more clearly and satisfactorily in identifying the health needs, and in clarifying the factors influencing acceptability and utilization of health services, and can also assist in showing how these needs can be most appropriately solved. 1) d) Doll’s Rule

Introduction:-Louis Dollo, a Belgian paleontologist put forward this rule.

Definition:- According to this rule, “Evolution is irreversible and irrevocable”. A structure that changes its form in evolution does not revert to its earliest form.

Explanation:- Once an animal lineage has passed through different stages, a reversion stage by stage to the original ancestral condition doesn’t occur.

Examples:- (a) Races, species and genera form over a period of time via gene alterations. All alterations cannot be traced back to their original stage. (b) Organisms adopt to different environmental conditions. For example, humans in case of lower jaw (mandamal), dentition (assemblage of teeth), erect posture, bipedal locomotion and bio-cultural realms. (c) Evolution of animals, for e.g. evolution of mammals from pisces (fishes)-gills lost.

Exceptions to Doll’s Rule:- According to Doll’s Rule, a structure that changes its forms in evolution doesn’t revert to its earlier form. However, this does not mean similar structures or even the same adaptive patterns will not be repeated a second time in the evolutionary record. Consider the flying reptiles. After they became extinct, wings and adaptation to the air-borne way of life appeared in two other distinct lineages- namely the lineages of birds and the lineage of mammals again reappeared.

Criticism:- (a)Although it was called Doll’s Rule or Doll’s Law, it has no logical or substantive similarity to the laws of Physics or Chemistry (b) Irreversibility is a descriptive generalization but not a law of nature. It is only a property of living organisms.

1) e) Types of locomotion in Primates: Primates being unguiculate, not only have nails, but usually have flat nails instead of claws. This is because hands and feet have become modified for grasping. The exceptions is the prosimians, they still have nails. Types of locomotion in primates include

Quadripedalism: May be arboreal (African monkey) or terrestrial (macaques and baboons). A specialized form called knuckle walking is seen in african apes, gorillas, chimps, and bonobos.

Leaping: seen in squirrel monkeys. Vertical leaping from a clinging position on a trunk is seen in the prosimians such as the tarsiers and indiris (who still have claws).

Suspensory climbing: Hanging down from hands from branches. Orangutans do this. Gibbons do a special type of suspensory travel; they brachiate.

Bipedalism: Examples are human beings; also chimps and spider monkeys do it, mostly for shorter distances or when carrying something, but don’t use it as their primary mode of movement. Diagrammatic representation of primate locomotion 2) a) Living Major Primates: includes Hominoids (Apes and Humans). Characteristics that distinguish hominoids from monkeys: larger body size, absence of a tail, shortened trunk, long arms relative to legs (except humans), more complex behavior, more complex brain and enhanced cognitive abilities, increased period of infant development and dependency. Some important major primates are as follows:

Gibbons and Siamangs: found in tropical southeast Asia. Locomotion type is brachiation. Diet is largely fruit with supplements of leaves, flowers and insects. Basic social unit is monogamous offspring and their dependent offspring. Males and females are territorial and delineate their territories with whoops and songs.

Orangutans: found in forested areas of Borneo and Sumatra. Slow, cautious climbers and almost completely arboreal. Large animals (males=200 pounds, females =100 pounds). Sexual dimorphism is present. Solitary animals and principally frugivorous.

Gorillas: The largest of the living primates confined to forested regions of central Africa. Exhibit marked sexual dimorphism. Males can weigh up to 400 pounds and females 200 pounds. Primarily terrestrial, employing a semi-quadripedal posture called knuckle walking. Live in groups that consist of large silverback male and a few adult females and their sub adult offspring.

Chimpanzees: found in equatorial Africa. Anatomically similar to gorillas particularly in limb proportions and upper body shape. Locomotion include knuckle walking on the ground and brachiation on the trees. Eat a variety of plant and animal foods. They live in large communities of as many as 50 individuals.

Bonobos: found only in area south of Zaire River. Their population is believed to be only a few thousand individuals. They exploit many of the same foods as chimps, including occasional small mammals. Male- female bonds constitute the societal core. Bonobo sexuality includes frequent copulations and occur throughout the female’s estrous cycle.

Humans: Primate heritage is evident in anatomy, genetic makeup and aspects of behavior. Human teeth are typical primate teeth. Dependence on vision for orientation to the world. Flexible limbs and grasping hands. Omnivorous diet. Cognitive abilities are the result of dramatic increase in brain size. Bipedal locomotion. Many of these major living primates except humans are endangered and may face immediate extinction due to habitat destruction, hunting for meat, live capture for the pet trade or export to collectors etc.

2) b) Primate Taxonomy:- Kingdom: Animalia Sub-Kingdom: Metazoa Phylum: Chordata Sub-Phylum: Vertebrata Class: Mammalia Sub-Class: Eutheria Order: Primates 2) c) Positive and negative implications as a result of skeletal changes due to erect posture and bipedalism:- Human beings evolved from non human primates in the course of evolution. Hominoids transformed to Hominids through hominization process which resulted in the emergence of modern man. In this process of hominization bioloigical and cultural factors played a pivotal role. Terrestrial quadripedalism (Pronograde) walking with body approximately horizontal transformed to semi erect (Clinograde) later to erect posture (Orthograde) walking upright, bipedalism.

Positive implications due to erect posture and bipedalism include: Energy efficiency: Bipedalism increased the energy efficiency of travel and that it is an important factor in the origin of bipedal locomotion. Human walking is about 75% less costly than both quadripedal and bipedal walking in apes. Human walking is about 75% less costly than quadripedal and bipedal walking in apes. Foot: Human feet has enlarged heels which bear the amount of weight increased. In apes flat feet acts as a gripping structure. Humans have a foot arch rather than flat feet which helps in transference of weight thereby energy conservation during locomotion.

Knee: Knee joints are enlarged to better support an increased amount of body weight and also help in balancing and gait. Femur: is long and strong, attached to the sides of pelvis, linea aspera, strong buttock muscles etc helps in better support, weight transference, balance and bipedalism.

Hip: Human hip joints are larger than in quadripedal ancestral species to better support the greater amount of body weight passing through them as well as having a shorter and broader shape. This alteration in shape brought the vertebral column closer to the hip joint, providing a stable base for support of the trunk while walking upright.

Vertebral Column: of humans takes a forward bend in the lumbar (lower) region and a backward bend in the thoracic (upper) region. Without the lumbar curve, the vertebral column would always lean forward, a position that requires much more muscular effort for bipedal animals. With a forward bend, humans use less muscular effort to stand and walk upright. Together the lumbar and thoracic curves bring the body’s centre of gravity directly over the feet. Also, the degree of body erection is significantly smaller to conserve energy.

Skull: Human skull is balanced on vertebral column. The foramen magnum is located inferiorl under the skull, which puts much of the weight of the head behind the spine. Human face helps to maintain balance. Human muscles of forehead are used for facial expressions. Increase in brain size has also been significant inhuman evolution (human brain is 3-4 times larger than chimpanzee).

Negative Implications of erect posture and bipedalism: Even though human beings better adapted to bipedalism and erect posture, some features of the human skeleton remain poorly adapted to bipedalism, leading to negative implications prevalent in humans today

Lower back and knee joints plagued by osteological malfunction, lower back pain a leading cause of lost working days, because the joints supports more weight.

Arthritis has been a problem since hominids became bipedal, scientists have discovered its traces in the bone remains of pre-historic hunter gatherers.

Physical constraints have made it difficult to modify the joints for further stability maintaining efficiency of locomotion.

3)a) Lamarck’s Theory/ Theory of Inheritance of acquired characters:- Jean Baptise de Lamarck is a French Biologists. He gave his theory in his book philosophique Zoologique.

Four proportions given by Lamarck:-

(i)Internal Vital Force/ Elan Vital:- Every organisms has an internal vital force which keeps organisms growing. (ii)Affect of Environment and New needs (Doctrine of Desires/ Doctrine of Appetancy) Environment Changes to New Environment

Creates new needs in organisms

Change in environment leads to creation of new needs/ desires in an organism. (iii)Use and Disuse of organs:- Due to change in environment and creation of new needs and presence of internal vital force in an organism some organs are used and some organs are disused. (iv)Theory of Inheritance/ theory of inheritance of acquired characters:- With extreme use of organs/ organs that have been used more, develop properly and those characters that are inherited to the subsequent generations.

Examples in support of Lamarckism:-

(i)Evolution of giraffe (ii)Evolution of snake/ disappearance of limbs of snakes (iii)Webbed toes of aquatic birds, e. g. Duck (iv)Flat fishes: they live in bottom of water, so they have eyes on only one side. (v)Flight less birds, e.g.Ostrich, Emo, Kiwi, Dodo (vi)Retractile claws of mammals and carnivorous animals, e.g. lion, only when attacking the prey. They have evolved for better step , otherwise walking is a problem. (vii)Fast running ability of deer (viii)Emergent hydrophytes

Criticisms of Lamarck Theory

(i)No internal force, heavily criticized (ii)Agree that affect of environment is there but that doesn’t necessarily create new needs. (iii)Use and disuse of organisms-partially correct (iv)Inheritance of acquired characters-completely disputed

Theory of Continuity of Germplasm:-

The Theory of Continuity of Germplasm is given by August Weismann, a German Biologists. It opposes Lamarckism, he says characters influencing the Germ Cells are only inherited. Example-

(i)Tails of rats cut of generations (ii)Burning of ear pinna and nose of Indian women (iii)European women’s tight waist Garments (iv)Chinese Women Iron shoes (v)Circumcision of Penis in Jews and Muslims (vi)Muscles of wrestlers

Evidences in favour of inherited acquired characters:-

In certain cases somatic cells can produce Germ Cells which is against Weismann’s arguments. This occurs in Vegetative reproduction plants and regeneration (tails of certain animals, liver in, hair, nails-human body). Example-Budding, Grafting. Harrison illustrates affect of environment on Germ Cells. Through somatic occurrence of dark variety of moth in localities having manganese pollution. Natural pale variety of moth for several generations fed on manganese rich diet produced dark/malenic variety which bred true.

Neo-Lamarckism:- This concept is given by Morgan and Cope (i)Formation of germ cells from somatic cells is possible. For example-Asexual vegetative reproduction in plants and reproduction in animals. (ii)Effect of environment in Germ Cell. Example- Harrison Moth (iii)Direct Effect of environment on Germ cell Tower -Tower exposed young ones of potato betel to abnormal temperature and humidity. It did not produce any change in colour of bettels in that generation. But, in successive generations it produced marked colour changes.

3)b)Meaning of mutation, different types of mutations, agents that cause mutation:- Meaning of Mutation:- A mutation is a change that occurs in our DNA sequence, either due to mistakes when the DNA is copied or as the result of environmental factors such as UV light and cigarette smoke. Mutations range in size; they can affect anywhere from a single DNA building block (base pair) to a large segment of a chromosome that includes multiple genes.

Types of mutation:-Gene mutations can be classified in two major ways: (i)Hereditary (Germline)mutations:- They are inherited from a parent and are present throughout a person’s life in virtually every cell in the body. These mutations are also called germline mutations because they are present in the parent’s egg or sperm cells, which are also called germ cells. When an egg and a sperm cell unite, the resulting fertilized egg cell receives DNA from both parents. If this DNA has a mutation, the child that grows from the fertilized egg will have the mutation in each of his or her cells. (ii)Acquired (or somatic) mutations:- It occur at some time during a person’s life and are present only in certain cells, not in every cell in the body. These changes can be caused by environmental factors such as ultraviolet radiation from the sun, or can occur if an error is made as DNA copies itself during cell division. Acquired mutations in somatic cells (cells other than sperm and egg cells) cannot be passed to the next generation. Genetic changes that are described as de novo (new) mutations can be either hereditary or somatic. In some cases, the mutation occurs in a person’s egg or sperm cell but is not present in any of the person’s other cells. In other cases, the mutation occurs in the fertilized egg shortly after the egg and sperm cells unite. (It is often impossible to tell exactly when a de novo mutation happened.) As the fertilized egg divides, each resulting cell in the growing embryo will have the mutation. De novo mutations may explain genetic disorders in which an affected child has a mutation in every cell in the body but the parents do not, and there is no family history of the disorder.

Agents that causes of Mutation:- (i) DNA fails to copy accurately :- Mutations result from errors during DNA replication (especially during meiosis). Mutations happen for several reasons.Most of the mutations that we think matter to evolution are "naturally-occurring." For example, when a cell divides, it makes a copy of its DNA — and sometimes the copy is not quite perfect. That small difference from the original DNA sequence is a mutation. (ii) External influences can create mutations:- Mutations can also be caused by exposure to specific, chemicals or radiation. These agents cause the DNA to break down. This is not necessarily unnatural — even in the most isolated and pristine environments, DNA breaks down. Nevertheless, when the cell repairs the DNA, it might not do a perfect job of the repair. So the cell would end up with DNA slightly different than the original DNA and hence, a mutation (v)Most disease-causing gene mutations are uncommon in the general population. However, other genetic changes occur more frequently. Genetic alterations that occur in more than 1 percent of the population are called polymorphisms. They are common enough to be considered a normal variation in the DNA. Polymorphisms are responsible for many of the normal differences between people such as eye color, hair color, and blood type. Although many polymorphisms have no negative effects on a person’s health, some of these variations may influence the risk of developing certain disorders.

3)c) Basic mating patterns found in non-human primates i) Single female and her offsprings: e.g. Orangutans, Mouse, Lemurs, Galagos ii) Monogamous: e.g. Gibbons, Siamangs, Titi monkeys, Indiris, Tarsus, Potto’s iii)Polyandrous : e.g. Marmosets, Tamarins iv)One male and many female: e.g. Baboons, Langurs, Howler monkeys v)Multi male and multi female: e.g. Macaques, Colabus, Rhesus vi)Fission-Fusion: e.g . Chimpanzees

4)a) Anatomical differences between Apes and Human

Cranial region

Ape Human Being 1. Cranial region is less compared to 1. Facial region is less compared to Cranial facial region region 2. Facial region is more 2. Facial region is less 3. Cranial region is less 3. Cranial region is more 4.Skulls are Asymmetrical 4. Skulls are symmetrical 5. Skulls are disharmonious 5. Skulls are harmonious 6.Non-linear arrangement of bones 6. linear arrangement of bones 7.Skull is known as Prognathus 7. Skull is known as Orthognathus 8.It is because of protusion of jaws 8.In humans, protusion of jaws is very much reduced 9.Frontal bone/forehead is slant and 9. Frontal bone is vertical and wide narrow 10.Temporals are poorly marked 10. Temporals are well marked in case of humans 11.Parietals not protruded and reduced 11. Parietals are protruded and well-marked 12.Sagital is poorly marked 12.Sagital is well marked 13.Occipital is not extended back. In apes 13.Occipital extended back. It is round and it is flatenned archedin humans 14.Nuchal bones are well-marked 14. Nuchal bones are absent 15.Foramen Magnum is slightly higher 15. Foramen Magnum is located at the base of the skull 16. Cranial region is flattened and 16. Cranial region is high, arched, round and receeding back. extended back. Facial Region

Apes Humans 1.Inter orbital ridges are massive and are fused 1.In case of humans, Inter orbital ridges are to form a plate like structure known as Torus well marked and distinct. 2. Inter orbital space are absent 2. Inter orbital space is present 3.Orbits are sound and egg shaped 3. Orbits are rectangular and curved in case of humans 4.Nasal bones are flattened in case of apes 4. Nasal bones are elevated in case of humans 5.nasal bridge is low 5. Nasal bridge is high and elevated 6.Nostrils or Nasal openings are wide and 6. Nostrils or Nasal openings are narrow and round shaped pear shaped 7.jaws are protruded and massive 7. jaws are reduced and not massive 8.Both maxilla and mandible are strong 8. Both maxilla and mandible are strong and because of processed raw food, muscles not as massive as apes because of processed attached to maxilla and mandible are very raw food strong and massive 9.Chin is absent or poorly marked in apes 9. Chin is present and well marked in humans 10.Zygomatic bones are poorly marked in apes 10. Zygomatic bones are well marked in humans Dentition Apes Humans 1.Dental arch is ‘U’ shaped and rectangular 1. Dental arch is ‘V’ shaped and parabolic 2.Dental formula=2133, total teeth=36 2. Dental formula=2123, total teeth=32 3.Diastema or simian gap is present 3. Diastema is absent 4.jaws are wide and massive 4. jaws are narrow and reduced 5.Teeth are slant and towards front particularly 5.Incisors are vertical incisors 6. Teeth are bigger in size and sharper 6. Teeth are smaller in size and less sharper 7.canines are sharper, very long and higher 7.Canines are less sharper and not higher than than other teeth other teeth. 8.Pre molars and molars are very big and 8. Pre molars and molars are small and blunt sharp 9.Y5 pattern is absent 9. Y5 pattern is present (present of cusps) 10.Palate is infront of the skull 10. Palate is at the back of the skull Neck Apes Humans 1.Neck is not prominent in case of apes 1.Neck is prominent in case of humans 2.Neck muscles are well marked 2. Neck muscles are poorly marked 3.Neck cannot be rotated freely because of not 3. Neck can be rotated freely because of free free muscles muscles 4.Collar bone/Clavicle is not strong and 4. Clavicle is strong and almost straight flexible Thorax Apes Humans 1. In case of apes, thorax is wide and 1.It is compressed and ‘V’ shaped in case of extended humans (In both males and females) 2.Axis of gravity is more in case of apes 2. Axis of gravity is less in case of humans 3.Depth of the thorax is less in case of apes 3. Depth of the thorax is more in case of humans Vertebral Column Apes Humans 1.One or two curves are present, mostly 1.Four curves are present in humans straight C7-Cervical • Two curves are present in gorilla T12-Thoracic L5-Lumbar S5-Sacral C4-Cocyx Forelimbs Apes Humans 1.Forelimbs are longer and also stronger due to 1. Hindlimbs are stronger and longer due to quadripedal orboreal and terrestrial adaptation bipedal and terrestrial adaptations 2.Forelimbs fingers are longer than palm 2.Palm is longer than finger due to erect region due to orboreal adaptations posture and terrestrial adaptations 3.Finger teeminals are pointed and sharp 3. Finger teeminals are round and smooth 4.Fingers are round and not flattened 4. Fingers are round and flattened 5.Nails are sharp and claw like but somewhat 5.Nails are flattened flattened 6.Phallenges are curved due to orboreal 6.Fingers are cylindrical and straight adaptations 7.In apes, thumb muscles and thumb are poorly 7. thumb muscles are strongly developed developed 8.Size of thumb is less 8. Size of thumb is more than in apes. It is also large and strong 9.Gap between thumb and index finger is 9. Gap between thumb and index finger is similar to other fingers more than any other finger which facilitates firm grip, precision grip. 10.Thumb is opposable but not perfectly 10. Thumb is perfectly opposable opposable

Pelvis Apes Humans 1. Iilium, ischium and pubis forms a plate like 1.Iilium, ischium and pubis forms a plate like structure due to quardripedal locomotion structure due to quardripedal locomotion 2. Buttex muscles are poorly developed in 2.Buttex muscles are well developed in apes humans 3.Thigh bone is attached from the centre of 3. Thigh bone is attached from the acetabulum pelvis 4.Angle between head of pelvis and axis of 4. Angle between head of pelvis and axis of femur is very low femur is very high 5.Femur bone is long straight and cylindrical 5.Femur is slightly curved 6.The number of surfaces for the attachment of 6. The number of surfaces for attachment of muscles on femur bone are less muscles are more. These surfaces are known as linea aspera because of bipedal 7.Platymeric condition is absent 7.Platymeric condition is present Foot (Hind limbs) Apes Humans 1.Foot is flattened and do not have any curve 1.Foot is flattened but has curve 2.Foot has prehensile (changing) capacity to 2. Foot has no prehensile (changing) capacity hold branches 3.Gap between great toe and second toe is 3. Gap between great toe and second toe is more than the other equal to the other 4.Great toe is normal just like other toe 4.Great toe is very strong and very prominent 5. Meta torsal ligaments are absent 5. Meta torsal ligaments are present

4)b) Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection:-

Darwin travelled in a ship known as HMS Beagle to an island Gala Pagos which is volcanic in origin. This Galapagos Island is known as living lab of evolution. Alfred Wallace is a contemporary of Charles Darwin who worked in Malaya Archaepalago. Both have similar thinking with respect to organic evolution. Darwin was inspired by Malthus Theory of Human Population Growth. 1. Over Production/ Rapid Multiplication:- Example-Insects, Chord fishes, rabbit elephant, etc. Some animals are very fast breeders producing number of off-springs whereas some animals are slow breeders which produces less number of off-springs . That is why, in nature, there is differential rate of reproduction. 2. Limited food and space 3. Struggle for existence:- (a)Intra-Specific Struggle (cannibalism) (b)Inter-Specific Struggle (Predation) ( c) Environmental Struggle (Natural calamities) 4. Appearance of variations:-Adoptive modifications are caused through the struggle for existence. Variations are gradual, continuous and those which are helpful in the adaptations of an organism towards its surroundings would be passed on to the next generation. While the others disappear except identical twins (Monozygotic) no individuals are similar. These differences are called as “Variations”. 5. Natural Selection/Survival of Fittest:-Darwin used the word Natural Selection and Herbert Spencer used the word survival of the fittest. Example-Extinct reptiles (dinosaurs, etc). 6. Inheritance of Useful variations:-Non-useful variations are eliminated . In this respect Darwin argued with Lamarck’s view because according to Darwin the acquired characters which are useful to possessors could only be inherited. However, Darwin could not differentiate between continuous and discontinuous variations. 7. Speciation (formation of New Species):- Continuous and gradual variation in the possessor would be so distinct that they form new species.

Weakness of Darwin’s Theory:- Darwin was unable to explain the basis of variation and the mode of transmission of these variants to the next generation.

Criticism/Drawbacks:- Theory of Natural Selection failed to explain:- (i)Inheritance of small variations (small wings in birds) (ii)Over specialization of some organs (like tusks, antelers, etc) (iii)Vestigial Organs (iv)Degeneration of organs (v)Discontinuous Variations Evidences in favour of Darwin:- (i)Rate of reproduction (ii)Limited Resources (iii)Struggle for existence (iv)Abundance of variations (v)Production of new varieties of animals and plants by artificial selection (vi)Mimicry and protective colouration of certain animals for survival.

4) c) Biological and cultural factors behind modern man-Gene -Culture Co-evolution

• Human evolution includes two inter dependent yet separable processes namely biological evolution and cultural evolution. • Culture has little/ no influence on the lives of Australopithecenes/ Australopitheus. • Australopithecenes lived just like animals in the environment. • There is a definite relation between biology and culture. • Sherwood L. Washburn termed Bio-Cultural feedback. He also mentioned emergence of modern man is because of intrigiving interplay between biological and cultural factors.

• Washburn further opines that “ culture became more advantageous for the survival of our ancestors, natural selection favoured genes responsible for such behaviour.

• Charles Lumsden and E.O. Wilson opined “Gene-Cultural Co-evolution”.

• Hominization process is moved by the combined force of biology (organic) and culture (super organic).

• Emergence of humankind and emergence of culture are dependent and simultaneous.

• It is a double headed impact.

• When humans evolved, they had to satisfy their basic needs of existence namely hunger. In order to satisfy hunger, they had to resort to food collection and hunting. This food collection and hunting which constituted art of the cultural activity have affected biological evolution.

This Biological Evolution in turn affected the cultural evolution. Hence, this interplay has led to the overall evolution of modern man and hence the evolution of modern man can be termed as bio-cultural evolution or bio-cultural adaptation to environment. Food collection and hunting created a positive effect on brain and also various morphological, anatomical and physiological aspects of HB. The following chart shows the effect of food collection and hunting (culture) on human biological organization.

Additional information:-

Biological factors Cultural Factors 1. It began billion of years ago but human have 1. It is relatively a recent phenomenon evolved four millions years ago 2. It is organic evolution 2. It is super organic 3. It is continued with organic evolution 3. It commenced only after emergence of humans

4. It takes place by transmission of genetic 4.It is passing of information by behavioural means information from one generation to next as that involves training and learning via language per DNA configuration mostly.

5. In it, information is transmitted by DNA 5.It is not passive but active and incorporates life which involves passing from one individual long teaching and learning. which can be done at only single point (conceive)in his life span. 6. Information is stored as a sequence of 6. Information can be memorized or recorded. nucleotides in DNA Audio taped and videotaped and transmitted using sounds, pictures and words. 7. It spreads very slowly 7.It spreads very quickly

Section B 5)a)Grimaldi The remains of GRIMALDI were discovered in a cave called Grotte des enfantes in a village in Grimaldi in Italy. Time period:- Era- Coenozoic Period- Quartenary Epoch-Upper Pleistocene (40,000 BC-10,000 BC), Climatic conditions- Glacial-WURM & RISS Pluvial-Kanjeeran and Gamboulin Cultural Age-Upper Paleolithic Salient Features:- 1. Skull is long, narrow and high. So are called as hyper-dolico-cephalic 2. Cranial capacity -1300-1450 B.C. 3. Skull is elliptical 4. Parietals are flattened 5. Forehead is well developed and bulging foreward 6. Cheek bones are poorly marked 7. Skull is disharmonic and asymmetric 8. Supra orbital ridges are not well developed 9. Orbits are large and sub-rectangular 10. Nasal bones are flattened 11. Nasal bridge is low and hence flat nose. 12. Jaws are slightly protruded 13. Palate is very deep, long and narrow 14. Detition is slightly U shaped 15. Jaws are strong 16. Chin is poorly developed 17. Teeth are large 18. Lower limbs are longer than upperlimbs 19. Fore arms and legs are very long in proportion to the arm and thigh respectively. Skull Diagram

Cultural Characteristics:- It belongs to Aurignation Culture (stone and bone tools) belonging to Upper Paleolithic. Knives, scrappers, gravers, etc. were important tools. The flints were worked on both sides. The Grimaldi man can be very prominent. Therefore, Grimaldi is supposed to be late incursion of African race into European territory.

5)b)Chalcolithic Age Era: Cenozoic Period: Quartenary Epoch: Holocene

Chalcolithic (4500-3000 BC) Climatic Conditions: warm Fossils: Homo sapiens sapiens Culture: (i) Invention of copper (ii) Individual property (iii) Urbanization In this period, major revolutionary change is invention of copper. First time in South East Turkey scholars identified copper pins, beads, hammers and borers. This copper ornaments belong to 6600 B.C. that means using of copper started much early. Pre-Harappan sites belong to this age. Chalco- means copper, lithic means stone. It is a transitional stage between rock and metal age. Man used copper tools along with rock tools. Due to invention of metals, social division became very complex and prominent. Extraction of metals and production of metals is completely developed in this period, first time individual property became very prominent where this metallic skill persons lived that villages became very prominent. Later these centres became towns and cities. This period is a transition between rock cultures to metallic cultures. First time, in this period, script gained prominence. Leadership also gained prominence. Small leaders after conquering some territories treated themselves as Kings. The Kings to collect more revenue developed number of infrastructural facilities, introduction of proper units and measurements, imposition of taxes etc. became prominent. Due to individual property concept, number of social rules, code of conduct also gained prominence. Kings introduced some intelligent people as priestly caste to collect some advises domestication of horse for both administrative and for trade and commerce and for fast transportation. Script was invented which was major turning point. Thus, metal became an indication of civilization.

Images of tools and metals used in Chalcolithic Age

5)c)Definition of Animal Cell An animal cell is a type of eukaryotic cell that lacks a cell wall. It has a true, membrane-bound nucleus along with other cellular organelles. These cells exhibit the presence of DNA inside the nucleus. They also comprise of other organelles and cellular structures which carry out specific functions necessary for the cell to function properly. Shape and size of animal cell:- Animal cells range in size from a few millimetres to microscopic microns. The largest known animal cell is the ostrich egg, which can stretch over 5.1 inches across and weigh about 1.4 kilograms. This is in stark contrast to the neuron in the human body, which is just 100 microns across. The shape of animal cells also varies, with some being flat, others oval or rod-shaped. There are also more intriguing shapes such as curved, spherical, concave and rectangular. Most of the cells are microscopic in size and can only be seen under the microscope. Animal cells are generally smaller than plant cells. Another defining characteristic is its irregular shape. This is due to the absence of a cell wall. But animal cells share other cellular organelles with plant cells as both have evolved from eukaryotic cells. A typical animal cell comprises the following cell organelles: (i)Cell Membrane:- A thin semipermeable membrane layer of protein and fats surrounding the cell. Its primary role is to protect the cell from its surrounding. Also, it controls the entry and exit of nutrients and other microscopic entities into the cell. (ii)Nuclear Membrane:- It is a double-membraned structure that surrounds the nucleus. It is also referred to as the nuclear envelope. (iii)Nucleus:- It is an organelle that contains several other sub-organelles such as nucleolus, nucleosomes and chromatins. It also contains DNA and other genetic materials. (iv)Centrosome:- It is a small organelle found near to the nucleus which has a thick centre with radiating tubules. The centrosomes are where microtubules are produced. (v)Lysosome (Cell Vesicles):- They are round organelle surrounded by a membrane comprising of digestive enzymes which help in digestion, excretion and in the cell renewal process. (vi)Cytoplasm:- A jelly-like material which contains all the cell organelles, enclosed within the cell membrane. The substance found within the cell nucleus, contained by the nuclear membrane is called the nucleoplasm. (vii)Golgi Apparatus:- A flat, smooth layered, sac-like organelle which is located near the nucleus and involved in manufacturing, storing, packing and transporting the particles throughout the cell. (viii)Mitochondrion:- They are spherical or rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. They are the powerhouse of a cell as they play an important role in releasing energy. (ix)Ribosome:- They are small organelles made up of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules and they are the sites of protein synthesis. (x)Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):- This cellular organelle is composed of a thin, winding network of membranous sacs originating from the nucleus. (xi)Vacuole:- A membrane-bound organelle present inside a cell involved in maintaining shape and storing water, food, wastes, etc. (xii)Nucleopore:- They are tiny holes present in the nuclear membrane which are involved in the movement of nucleic acids and proteins within the cell. Animal Cell Types:- There are numerous types of animal cells, each designed to serve specific functions. The most common types of animal cells are: (i)Skin Cells:- Melanocytes, keratinocytes, Merkel cells and Langerhans cells (ii)Muscle Cells:- Myocyte, Myosatellite cells, Tendon cells, Cardiac muscle cells (iii)Blood Cells:- Leukocytes, erythrocytes, platelet Nerve Cells:- Schwann cell, glial cells etc (iv)Fat Cells:-Adipocytes

5)d)Cell Cycle Term Meaning The series of growth and development steps a cell undergoes between its formation and Cell cycle reproduction Interphase Phase of the cell cycle where the cell grows and makes a copy of its DNA The cell cycle:- In eukaryotic cells, the cell cycle is divided into two major phases: interphase and mitosis (or the mitotic (M) phase). Interphase is the longest part of the cell cycle. This is when the cell grows and copies its DNA before moving into mitosis. During mitosis, chromosomes will align, separate, and move into new daughter cells. The prefix inter- means between, so interphase takes place between one mitotic (M) phase and the next. Diagrammatic representation of cell cycle

Stages of the cell cycle A cell must complete the following three stages (i) it must grow, (ii)copy its genetic material (DNA), and (iii)physically split into two daughter cells.

Cells perform these tasks in an organized, predictable series of steps that make up the cell cycle. The cell cycle is a cycle, rather than a linear pathway, because at the end of each go-round, the two daughter cells can start the exact same process over again from the beginning. In eukaryotic cells, or cells with a nucleus, the stages of the cell cycle are divided into two major phases: interphase and the mitotic (M) phase. • During interphase, the cell grows and makes a copy of its DNA. • During the mitotic (M) phase, the cell separates its DNA into two sets and divides its cytoplasm, forming two new cells.

Interphase:- Interphase consists of three steps: (i)G1 phase: first gap phase; the cell grows larger and organelles are copied (ii)S phase: synthesis phase; the cell synthesizes a complete copy of the DNA in its nucleus (iii)G2 phase: second gap phase; the cell grows more, makes proteins and organelles, and begins to reorganize its contents in preparation for mitosis Cells that are meant to divide will complete G2 start and enter mitosis. Other types of cells that divide slowly or not at all may exit the G1 phase and enter a non-dividing state called G0.. Some cells remain here indefinitely, while others may re-enter division under the right conditions. Mitosis (the M phase) The process of mitosis, or cell division, is also known as the M phase. This is where the cell divides its previously-copied DNA and cytoplasm to make two new, identical daughter cells. Mitosis consists of four basic phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Prophase:- In prophase, the chromatin condenses into discrete chromosomes. The nuclear envelope breaks down and spindles form at opposite poles of the cell. Prophase (versus interphase) is the first true step of the mitotic process. During prophase, a number of important changes occur:

• Chromatin fibers become coiled into chromosomes, with each chromosome having two chromatids joined at a centromere. • The mitotic spindle, composed of microtubules and proteins, forms in the cytoplasm. • The two pairs of centrioles (formed from the replication of one pair in Interphase) move away from one another toward opposite ends of the cell due to the lengthening of the microtubules that form between them. • Polar fibers, which are microtubules that make up the spindle fibers, reach from each cell pole to the cell's equator. • Kinetochores, which are specialized regions in the centromeres of chromosomes, attach to a type of microtubule called kinetochore fibers. • The kinetochore fibers "interact" with the spindle polar fibers connecting the kinetochores to the polar fibers. • The chromosomes begin to migrate toward the cell center.

Metaphase:- In metaphase, the spindle reaches maturity and the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate (a plane that is equally distant from the two spindle poles). During this phase, a number of changes occur: • The nuclear membrane disappears completely. • Polar fibers (microtubules that make up the spindle fibers) continue to extend from the poles to the center of the cell. • Chromosomes move randomly until they attach (at their kinetochores) to polar fibers from both sides of their centromeres. • Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate at right angles to the spindle poles. • Chromosomes are held at the metaphase plate by the equal forces of the polar fibers pushing on the centromeres of the chromosomes. Anaphase:- In anaphase, the paired chromosomes (sister chromatids) separate and begin moving to opposite ends (poles) of the cell. Spindle fibers not connected to chromatids lengthen and elongate the cell. At the end of anaphase, each pole contains a complete compilation of chromosomes. During anaphase, the following key changes occur: • The paired centromeres in each distinct chromosome begin to move apart. • Once the paired sister chromatids separate from one another, each is considered a "full" chromosome. They are referred to as daughter chromosomes. • Through the spindle apparatus, the daughter chromosomes move to the poles at opposite ends of the cell. • The daughter chromosomes migrate centromere first and the kinetochore fibers become shorter as the chromosomes near a pole. • In preparation for telophase, the two cell poles also move further apart during the course of anaphase. At the end of anaphase, each pole contains a complete compilation of chromosomes. Telophase:- In telophase, the chromosomes are cordoned off into distinct new nuclei in the emerging daughter cells. The following changes occur: • The polar fibers continue to lengthen. • Nuclei begin to form at opposite poles. • The nuclear envelopes of these nuclei form from remnant pieces of the parent cell's nuclear envelope and from pieces of the endomembrane system. • Nucleoli also reappear. • Chromatin fibers of chromosomes uncoil. • After these changes, telophase/mitosis is largely complete. The genetic contents of one cell have been divided equally into two. Cytokinesis :- Cytokinesis is the division of the cell's cytoplasm. It begins prior to the end of mitosis in anaphase and completes shortly after telophase/mitosis. At the end of cytokinesis, two genetically identical daughter cells are produced. These are diploid cells, with each cell containing a full complement of chromosomes. Cells produced through mitosis are different from those produced through meiosis. In meiosis, four daughter cells are produced. These cells are haploid cells, containing one-half the number of chromosomes as the original cell. Sex cells undergo meiosis. When sex cells unite during fertilization, these haploid cells become a diploid cell.

5) e) Chronology types:

Study of different events in chronological order one after the other from past to the present in a sequential order is known as chronology. Chronology is useful to understand, evaluate and analyze historical, geological, biological, geographical, climatical and socio-cultural events in a sequential order.

Generally, chronology is of five types:- (i)Biological (ii)Geological (iii)Climatology (iv)Socio-cultural (v) Historical

(i)Biological Chronology:- It is the scientific and sequential evolution of biological events from past to present. It is useful to understand the origin of species and process of evolution. Biological anthropology is specific to evolution of man that includes sequential development of modern man.

(ii)Geological Chronology:-It is a scientific and sequential evaluation of geological events from past to present. It is useful to understand, analyze and evaluate the gradual changes that has taken place on earth.

(iii)Climatical chronology:- It is a scientific and sequential evaluation of climatic changes from past to present. It is useful to understand and analyze different climatical conditions that existed earlier times. It is useful to analyze changes in atmosphere, environmental pressure, different natural selection process, formation of mutation and finally origin of new species. Environment is dynamic. Environmental changes are inevitable. These climatical changes are the main reasons for the formation of new species.

(iv)Socio-cultural chronology:-It is a scientific evaluation of social and cultural events from past to the present. Human society and culture are also dynamic. This chronology is useful to analyze different historical, economic, political, socio-cultural and religious changes in a sequential order. (v)Historical Chronology:-It studies the sequence of events that have occurred from past to present. This chronology is used to analyze the vents that have occurred during different time period i.e. ancient period, medieval period and modern period.

All these geographical, geological, climatical, biological, socio-cultural and historical aspects are not separate. They are interdependent. One change leads to change in the other. For example: biological and cultural factors behind emergence of modern man. The process of evolution and socio-cultural activities directly depends upon geological and climatic conditions. 6) a)Phylogenetic status, characteristics and geographical distribution of Australopithecines:- Cenozoic Era (70 mya-present), Quartenary period (3mya-1 lakh B.C.) low Pleistocene epoch, Gunz and Mindel for Glacial and in between Kangeeran and Kamasian for pluvial.

Australopithecus Afarensis found Fiji, Ethiopia, Lactoli-Tanzania, Hadar-Ethiopia, Sterkfontein-South Africa

Australopithecus Africanus (Southern Ape of Africa) which is also known as Taung’s boy fossil found in taung (S.A.). kanapoy (Kenya) Swart kaens (South Africa)

Paranthropus Robusts:-Swart Kaens-South Africa Paranthropus Bosci-Olduvai gorge-Tanzania Discoverers associated with fossils:- Raymond Dart discovered fossil at Taung known as Taung’s boy fossil Robert Brown, Richard, katt Winkel

Skull Diagram:-

Salient Features:- 1. Around 3.5 to 4.5 foot in height, 30-80 kgs in weight. 2. Sexual Dimorphism Skull:- Cranium Capacity-400-600 C.C. It has both ape characters as well as human characters Basic Characters:- 1. Foramen Magnam is slightly towards the base of skull 2. Nuchell bone slightly reduced 3. Zygomatic bones slightly marked

Ape Characters:- 1. Jaws are protruded 2. Prognathism is present 3. Nasal bones are flattened 4. Pre-manilla is present 5. Diastema is present 6. Molars are big 7. Cranial vault flattened 8. Parietals and accipitals are also flattened Human Characters:- 1. Face is smaller than apes 2. Cranial capacity is slightly higher than apes 3. Fore head slightly became vertical 4. Inter orbital space slightly more than Apes 5. Incisors and canines less than Apes 6. Incisors slightly vertical

Cultural characteristics Osteo-Donto-Kerato Culture Australopithecines instead of making tools started using bones, teeth and horns of animals for hunting. There is division of labour because Australopithecines was a bipedal hunter. Leakey was of the opinion that Australopithecines might have a definite home as he found out Semi-Circular wall like structure in Olduvai gorge. According to Phil beam, there is evidence of symbolic language and the beginning of verbal communication. These inference were based on the study of interior surface of cranium.

Conclusion: Australopithecus Afarnesis is believed to be in the hominid line of evolution and Australopthecus africanus and Paranthropus robustus and P. bosci are not in the line of evolution and in due course of time they persisted.

6) b) Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis is a process of asexual reproduction in which the cell divides in two producing a replica, with an equal number of chromosomes in each resulting diploid cell. Meiosis is a type of cellular reproduction in which the number of chromosomes is reduced by half through the separation of homologous chromosomes, producing two haploid cells. Following are the differences between Mitosis and Meiosis:

Sr.No. Differences Mitosis Meiosis 1 Type of Asexual sexual Reproduction 2 Genetically Similar Different 3 Crossing Over No, crossing over cannot Yes, mixing of chromosomes can occur. occur. 4 Number of Divisions One two 5 Pairing of Homologs No Yes 6 Mother Cells Can be either haploid or Always diploid diploid 7 Number of Daughter 2 diploid cells 4 haploid cells Cells produced 8 Chromosome Remains the same. Reduced by half. Number 9 Chromosomes Does Not Occur Takes place during zygotene of prophase I Pairing and continue upto metaphase I. 10 Creates Makes everything other Sex cells only: female egg cells or male than sex cells. sperm cells. 11 Takes Place in Somatic Cells Germ cells 12 Chiasmata Absent Observed during prophase I and metaphase I. 13 Spindle Fibres Disappear completely in Do not disappear completely in telophase I. telophase 14 Nucleoli Reappear at telophase Do not reappear at telophase I 15 Steps Prophase, Metaphase, (Meiosis 1) Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase, Telophase Anaphase I, Telophase I; (Meiosis 2) Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II and Telophase II. 16 Karyokinesis Occurs in Interphase Occurs in Interphase I 17 Cytokinesis Occurs in Telophase. Occurs in Telophase I and in Telophase II. 18 Centromeres Split The centromeres split The centromeres do not separate during during anaphase anaphase I, but during anaphase II. 19 Duration of prophase is Prophase is comparatively longer and may Prophase short, usually of few hours. take days. 20 Prophase Simple Complicated 21 Synapsis No synapsis Synapsis of Homologous chromosomes takes place during prophase 22 Exchange of Two chromatids of a Chromatids of two homologous Segments chromosome do not chromosome exchange segments during exchange segments during crossing over. prophase. 23 Discovered by Walther Flemming Oscar Hertwig 24 Function Cellular reproduction and Genetic diversity through sexual general growth and repair reproduction. of the body. 25 Function Takes part in healing and Takes part in the formation of gametes and repair. maintenance of chromosome number.

6) c) Neolithic age is revolutionary in the history of Human kind. Neolithic Age: Era: Cenozoic Period: Quaternary Epoch: Holocene Neolithic (6000-4500 B.C) Fossils: Homo sapiens sapiens Culture:- 1. Polished Stone tools 2. Domestication of plants and animals 3. Agriculture, Pastoralism 4. Permanent villages The cultural evidences were found throughout the world particularly in Finland, India, China, Pakistan and many parts of the world. In these cultures, man used grinding and polishing tools. They are grinders, rock spoons, pots, adzes, etc. According to G.V. Childe Neolithic Period is known as the first revolutionary period in human history. In this period man first started agriculture and domestication of animals. In the beginning, man started cultivation. By the end of this period, permanent agriculture became very prominent. Due to agriculture and pastoral development and food production surplus a number of villages came into existence, population also increased. For the first time in this period man invented the wheel. The invention of wheel, pottery, transportation system became prominent. This is the first period in which nomadic man became sedentary. A food gatherer became a food producer. According to Morgan, this cultural period is known as Primitive Communism. In this period, total cattle’s, sheep’s, goats, their production, etc belonged to the whole community and the concept of individual property was totally absent. In society, agriculturalist, pastoralists, pot makers and many other skill based divisions were there but it was not a class based or caste based society. It is an egalitarian society because there were no social and economic differences. Usage of cotton and flags increased.

7) a) Cultural characteristics of Neanderthals:- Neanderthal mostly lived in cold climates wearing skins and residing in caves. They have done better than their fore runners-Homoerectus. They were excellent hunters and tool makers who probably spoke crude language and felt the first primitive stirrings of religion. This culture is designated as Mousterian/Levalosian Culture. This culture belongs to middle Paleolithic and also having flake industry. This tool assemblage consists of smaller proportion of large core tools like hand axes and cleavers and bigger proportion of small flake tools like scrappers. Some of the tools like points might have hafted/ attached to a shaft or a handle. Further tool kits involved in killing and butchering of animals and for food processing have also been identified from various sites. They were using caves/ rock shelters for dwellings. These caves were made for more comfortable winters by covering it with animal skins. They seemed to have relied more on fire as these were thick layers of ash in many rock shelters/ cave. Fire was regularly lit for both warming and cooking. Pot holes and hearth places along with some remains of charcoal were also found at some sites. Open air sites were also identified which were located on flood plains and on the edges of lakes and springs. They developed bear-cult. In a number of excavated caves in France, the skull of bear in large numbers have been placed in a rectangular lined pit covered with enormous stone slabs. The big brown bear therefore might be an object of greater reverence to Neanderthals. Human burials found at La-Mousterior and Shanidar indicate the possibility of funeral rituals. The dead bodies are usually accompanied by burial offerings. A flint tool kit and food offerings are often placed with the dead person. In Shanidar Cave, skeleton remains of persons along with pollen grains have been found indicating that they might have put some flowers in the grave. Language development in Neanderthal is doubtful. However, communication increased. Group activities like hunting and migration led to the formation of nomadic societies with interpersonal relations which might have paved the path for leadership and political system in order to keep the society harmonious. Some sort of religion has appeared. Ritualistic burials are direct of this fact. Neanderthals had awareness of dignity of individuals and independence of individuals and society. In La-Chappelle Aus saints the remains of a dead man indicate severe arthritis and in Shanidar, had undergone surgical operations on the right hand.

7) b) Relative Dating Methods:- Relative dating methods are scientific but not absolute. They are based on some known facts; these are comparative methods.. So, these methods give appropriate age of fossils and monuments. There are different types of relative dating methods. 1. Strategraphic Method/ Geological Method 2. Pollen Method 3. Fluorine Method 4. Colagen Method 5. Nitrogen method 6. Uranium method 7. Seriation Method

1. Strategraphic Method/ Geological Method:- It is the most popular and reliable dating method. It is based on the stratification of earth rocks and soils. On the basis of earth, layers and sedimentation, scientist can calculate the age of fossils and monuments.

Example: Harappan Culture. Harappan Culture has 7 flooded layers. According to geological knowledge, each layer formed about 500 years ago. On the basis if this, they are estimating the age of Harappa to be 3,500 years.

2. Pollen/ Botanical Method:- It is based on the Pollenological knowledge. By using this method, Palentologists and archaeologists are estimating the age of the fossils and monuments. Pollen grains are male reproductive parts of the plants present in the flower. They have perfect structure. These anthers are very specific. Each plant species has its own anthers. On the basis of availability of the pollen grains, scholars estimate the age of fossils and monuments.

3. Fluorine Method/ Chemical Analysis Method:- It is based on the Fluorine percentage. Fluorine is generally present in the water and the soil. At the time of fossilification, bones absorb this fluorine. The absorption of the fluorine is dependent upon the percentage of fluorine in water and soil. On the basis of the fluorine percentage in the fossils and in the water and soil, scientists estimate the age of the fossils. 4. Collagen Method/ Chemical Analysis Method:- Chemical is an inter-cellular fibrous protein present in bones. In the process of fossilification, bones loose this protein. On the basis of collagen percentage in the fossils, scholars estimate the age of the fossils. If bone is fresh, percentage of collagen is high. If bone is old, percentage of collagen is low.

5. Nitrogen Method/ Chemical Analysis Method:-In the process of fossilification, bones loose nitrogen present within it and it starts absorbing the other contents present in the soil. So, if the bone is very old, percentage of nitrogen is very less. If the bone is fresh, the percentage if nitrogen is high. So, on the basis of the percentage of the nitrogen present, scholars identify the age of fossils.

6. Uranium Method/ Chemical analysis Method:-It is based on the uranium percentage. Uranium is generally present in the soil. At the time of fossilification, bones absorb the uranium. The absorption of uranium is dependent upon the percentage of uranium present in the soil. On the basis of the uranium percentage in fossils and soil, scientists estimate the age of fossils. 7. Seriation Method:- It is a relative dating method in which assemblages or artifacts from numerous sites, in the same culture, are placed in chronological order. It is a standard method of dating in archaeology. It can be used to date stone tools, pottery fragments, and other artifacts. In Europe, it has been used frequently to reconstruct the chronological sequence of graves in a cemetery.

7) c) Salient features of Paleolithic Age Era: Cenozoic Period: Quaternary Epoch: Pleistocene Lower Pleistocene (3 mya-1 lakh B.C) Climatic conditions: GUNZ and Mindel (Inter glacial period) Kangeeran and Kamasian (Inter Pluvial period) Fossils: Australopithecus, Homohabils and Homoerectus Culture:- 1. Stone tools are called as Olduvan tools (core-pebble tools) 2. Hunting and scavenging 3. Seasonal camp sites 4. Probable division of labour (bisex) 5. Abvellian and Acheullian tools (hand-axes)

Australopithecus had little or no culture:- With the emergence of Genus Homo in bio-evolutionary path the emergence of cultural evolution also took place. It was with the use and manufacture of stone tools, the man was started with Old Stone Age. In the due course, the Homohabils (or handy man) manufactured the Olduvan tools. These are the tools made by simple and direct percussion. The name Olduvan is derived from its site of discovery Olduvai Gorge in eastern Africa. Tools include choppers, discoits, scrappers, burins. The choppers are simply stone pebbles chipped at one end to create sharp edges. They were used to cut skin, meat or wood, to slice meat, to work on hides (skin), to scrap or to shape bone or wood into tools. Besides choppers the flakes which were chipped from the core in the process of making chopper tools were often used for cutting. Early Olduvan tools were simple and unspecified. Very late Olduvan tools like scrappers and Chisels were for single specific purpose. Homohabilis were food gatherers and hunters. Women and children were involved in food gathering and men were involved in hunting. Sharing of food became voluntary and systematic. At the time of Homoerectus, hand axes, utilizing Abvellian (axes which were chipped at one end) and Acheullian (hand axes which were chipped at both end). Acheullian tools are higher and sophisticared tools than Abvellian because of providing continuous working end. Homoerectus users were first users of fire. They had shelters and open camp sites. They were food gatherers and hunters and involved in big game hunt. Ritual activities were present. E.A. Hoebel suggested that cannibalism were practiced by China man for ritualistic and survival purpose. According to Philbeam- symbolic behaviour would have led to language and communication. Marked differences in facial features of man and female also took place. Middle Paleolithic Era: Cenozoic Period: Quaternary Epoch: Middle Pleistocene (1 lakh-40,000 B.C.) Climatic conditions: Glacial- in between RISS and MINDEL Pluvial- in between KAMASIAN and KANJEERAN Fossils: Neanderthals Culture:- 1. Mousterian culture or flake tools 2. Burrials 3. Probable religious beliefs Neanderthals developed the flake culture this type of culture involved a new culture named as Mousterian after the site Le mousterior in France. It consisted of repeated removal of flakes all around a piece of stone and making of desired tool out of flakes so removed. The tool types were prevalent in middle Paleolithic age were the points, were used as Arrow heads, borers and scrappers.

.-.-.- .-.-. .

Neanderthal lived in cave and rock shelter dwelling. The caves were made more comfortable in winter by covering it with animal skin. Light was lit both for warming and cooking.

Winter covering became more essential due to severe glacial climate. Bear cult developed the big brown might be an object of great reverence to the Neanderthal. The evidences of Le Mouterior in France and Shanidar caves in Iraq indicate possibility of funeral rituals. In most cases the bodies wwere accompanied by burial offerings. A flint tool kit and food offering were placed at the deadmen. Shanidar cave in Iraq shows the skeletal remains of man along with pollen indicating humans might have put flowers in the grave. Language development in Neanderthals was doubt ful. Group activities like hunting and migration might have led to the formation of nomadic society with interpersonal relationship. This might have paved the way for leadership and political system to keep society in harmony. Some sort of religion might have appeared. Ritualistic burials are testimonials to this fact. Neanderthals perhaps had awareness of dignity of individuals, interdependence of individuals and society.

La-Chapelle-Aus-Saints had severe arthritis and in Shanidar had undergone operation to right hand both survived to maturity. Shanidar 4 was laid to rest with eight varieties of flowers. UPPER PALEOLITHIC CULTURE:- Era: Cenozoic Period: Quaternary Epoch: Upper Pleistocene (40,000-10,000 B.C.) Climatic conditions: Glacial- in between RISS and wurm Pluvial- in between KANJEERAN and GAMBOULIN Fossils: Homo sapiens, Cromagnan, Grimaldi, Chancelede Culture: 1. Blade tools 2. Cave painting 3. Female figurines Man manufactured blade tools out of thin flakes by percussion and pressure technique. The blade tool complex consisted of burins, blades, such as lunates, knife points and blunted black arrow heads. They used knives and harpoons.

Cave paintings and figurines were also found. In this period also man is food gatherer, hunterers and nomadic, living in temporary sites and hides. Group living, family system, kinship bonds became permanent. First time perfect language was developed, the major achievement in this period is development of art, the development of artistic skill is because of sufficient of time. In this, man used highly decorative tools and ornaments etc. In this, man produced number of figures and paintings. Willindorf which is present in Austria is very popular for woman figurines. In this site number of women statutes and figures were present. In all these sexual and reproductive parts are extremely decorated and depicted. Paintings are found in hall of bull. The major theme of painting included hunting and planning’s for hunting. In these painting mammoths, rhinoceros, sheep’s, goats, fish and birds are present. All these figures are natural even they used different paintings which even today looks fresh.

8)a) Different types of stone reduction techniques Basic stone tool making techniques (Stone reduction)

Percussion Pressure Grinding, pecking, polishing

Direct Indirect Punch ✓ Bi-polar ✓ Anvil or ✓ Block-on-block ✓ Stone hammer ✓ Cylinder hammer Percussion:-The simplest and most obvious way to remove a flake by directly striking the stone with another object preferably a stone as a hammer.

Pressure flaking force is applied by pressing instead of striking. This allows great precision, but generally limits the amount of force. It is often used for the final work on refined tools like various leaf points, arrow-heads and for notching and other details that cannot be done by percussion.

Grinding and Polishing:-It involves grinding and shaping of rock by rubbing it against another rock. Prior to the said operations, the selected core for this purpose is processed by percussion technique in giving a desired shape to the future tool. Cells that include axes, adzes, and chisels manufactured. Polishing is a stage that is applied to give the tool a smooth and shining texture. It is done by rubbing the tool to furry animal skin. Basic flake tool making techniques

Clactonian Levalloisian Mousterian Retouching and blunting

Clactonian:- ✓ Use of anvil technique to produce flake tools ✓ Clacton-on-sea ✓ Highly variable in structure and thickness

Levalloisian:- ✓ Prepared core technology ✓ Levallious-Perret (suburb of Paris) ✓ Most characteristic feature of Middle Paleolithic

Mousterian:- ✓ This core technology by centripetal flaking around the entire core margin on one or both surfaces. ✓ La-Mousterain in South Western France ✓ Neanderthals

Retouching and blunting:- ✓ Retouching involves removal of flakes from a piece of stone. ✓ Sometimes the term primary retouch refuse the initial roughing or stage of stone reduction ✓ Secondary retouch disintegrates the more refined reduction of stone material, as in case of bifacial thinning or the shaping of flake tools ✓ U.P. a Mesolithic

8)b)Structure of DNA and its application in Anthropology:-

Introduction:- DNA ( Deoxyribonucleic acid) It is an acidic material. Nucleus was first identified by Friedrich Meischer in 1869 named it as Nuclein. Watson and Crick Double helical model 1953.

Importance:- (a) It opened a new realm of molecular biology. (b) How DNA can reproduce during cell division (c) Passing hereditary characters (d) Secrets of protein synthesis (e) It gave rise to biotechnology/ genetic engineering Types of DNA:- 1. On the basis of number of strands (i)Double stranded DNA-present in all living organisms except some viruses.

(ii)Single stranded DNA:- Bacteriophages. e.g :-viruses such as O X 174 which attacks Escherichia coli. 2. On the basis of number of nucleotide residues per turn landeduers (left to right) A to E & Z. A, B, Z (important). A-DNA 11, right handed helix. (dehydration of B-DNA) B- DNA 12, right handed helix (found under normal physiological conditions) Z-DNA 10, left handed helix. 3. On the basis of shape Single stranded e.g. some viruses like O X 174 (i)Circular DNA Double stranded e.g. bacteria , most of the viruses, mitochondria, chloroplast, etc. (C=G bases >A=T) Relaxed DNA (circular DNA without helical coiling) Super coiled DNA (axis of double helix itself is twisted to form double helix). 4. On the basis of nucleotide sequence in duplex DNA: -Palindromic DNA -Repitive DNA or Satellite DNA.

Application of DNA in the field of Anthropology a.Anthropological uses of ancient DNA

Application Implications Markers Genetic sexing Understand marriage and burial Sex chromosome markers patterns, differential mortality rates between sexes, and differential patterns by sex of disease, diet, status, and material possessions Nonhuman DNA Understand hunting and dietary Mitochondrial, chloroplast, and patterns, domestication of autosomal DNA animals and plants, environmental reconstruction, commensal animals as proxies for human populations, and trace history and patterns of prehistoric and historic diseases Maternal and paternal Understand social structure, Mitochondrial and sex kinship status, marriage patterns, burial chromosome DNA, and customs, and migration autosomal microsatellites Population continuity and Trace prehistoric population Mitochondrial, sex chromosome, replacement movement, ancestor descendant and autosomal DNA relationships between groups, and relationships among ancient group

Phylogenetic reconstruction b. DNA Technology in Anthropology:- DNA technology has significant contributions in three spheres of medicine like diagnosis, treatment and profilacsis (prevention). DNA Technology is useful in- (i)DNA Probes (ii)gene therapy (iii)Production of hormones and Proteins (iv)Production of synthetic vaccines DNA Probes:-They are short segment of DNA that recognize complementary sequences in DNA and thus allow identification of specific DNA sequence. This method is very useful in diagnosis. DNA probes can hybridize with specific DNA sequences and allow identification of specific parasite. Earlier, the identification of parasite required the culture of blood or stool sample in different media but with development of this technique, the identification of parasite is easily accomplished. DNA probes have been developed for triposoma, leischmania, plasmodium. DNA probes are also used to identify which were earlier difficult to culture. Gene Therapy:-Mainly useful to introduction of functional genes in individuals suffering from non- functioning of some of their genes. Production of hormones & Proteins:- Hormones like insulin, growth hormone, proteins like Eurotionase are industrially produced today using this technique. In DNA technique the genes responsible for their production can be introduced into bacteria by vectors. This genetically ordered bacteria produce greater amount of substances. Production of Synthetic Vaccines:-These are produced by separation of pure antigens using monoclonal antibodies. Synthetic vaccines can also be produced by transferring genes certain antigens into bacteria. Vaccines for hepatitis virus are manufactured by this way.

Maternity Diagnosis & Paternity Diagnosis:- Parentage test is conducted to find out parent child relationship. Paternity test is the genetic proof of biological father. Maternity test is genetic proof to determine biological mother. DNA analysis also known as genetic Finger Printing offers more reliable way of determining genetic parents. Although older methods have included ABO blood grouping, analysis of various proteins and enzymes uses HLA antigens. Current technology for paternity diagnosis is using PCR and RFLP. DNA testing is currently most advanced and accurate technology to determine parentage. Pre-Natal DNA Testing:- 1. Aminocentesis:-It is performed in 2nd trimester any where from 4th-20th week of pregnancy with the help of Ultra Sound needle which is perced through the abdomen and draws small aminnotic fluid and then tested. Risk of this technique include harming the baby, miscarriage, cramping, leaking of aminotic fluid or vaginal bleeding. 2. Chorionic Villus Sampling:-This needle or tube is inserted into vagina then into cervix guided by ultrasound and obtaining chorionic vills. This chorionic villi are finger like pieces and tissues on the wall of Uterus. This testing is done in 10th-13th week of pregnancy. 3. Post-Natal DNA Testing:- a. Blood collection and Testing b. Buccles and swap testing c. Umbilical cord. d. Collecting other samples like semen, hair and other tissues.

8)c) The term anthropology is derived from the Greek language: anthropos and logos. The term anthropos corresponds to the word mankind or human being, whereas logos means study or science. So, the combination of both the words together means anthropology, which is the study of humankind. Anthropology can also be defined as the science of human beings. Anthropology is both a biological science and a social science. More precisely, anthropology may be called “the science of man and his works and behaviour”.

Anthropologists are interested in all aspects of the human species and human behaviour, in all places and at all times, from the origin and evolution of the species through its prehistoric civilizations down to the present situation. Anthropologists study human behaviour not concerned with particular men as such but with men in “groups”, with races and peoples and their happenings and doings. So, anthropology may be defined briefly as the “science of groups of men”. Scope and subject matter of anthropology:- Anthropology studies various aspects of man. The physiologist studies the processes of life of an individual only. Similarly the psychologist deals with the mental conditions of man. The pathologist investigates the pathological conditions or diseases of man. Economics deals with the household management and fulfillment of the needs of man or in the broad sense, production, distribution and consumption of wealth. The sociologist discusses the social groups and institutions and their interrelationships and various social problems. Thus, each of the above biological and social sciences deals with one aspect of man or with particular individuals only. But the anthropologist focuses his attention on men in groups and studies the total society consisting of different races or peoples of the world, both past and present. Kluckholon points out that out of all other scientific disciplines that deal with various aspects of man, Anthropology is the science which comes nearest to the total study of man. It may be called a holistic or synthesizing discipline or a science of “man in its totality”. Anthropology is both a biological and a social science. It deals on the one hand with man as a member of the animal kingdom and on the other with man’s behaviour as a member of society.

Branches of Anthropology: Anthropology includes four main branches: physical/biological anthropology, socio-cultural anthropology, archaeological anthropology, and linguistic anthropology. a)Physical Anthropology: Physical Anthropology deals mainly with:- i) Human biology ii) Human evolution iii) Human variation and iv) Human genetics.

Human Biology: The Physical anthropologist studies human biology as he is interested in Homo Sapiens alone. He studies man out of the vast range of creatures that claim the attention of the general biologists. Therefore, there is close relationship between the Physical Anthropology and the study of other living beings. The Physical anthropologist tells about the man’s place in the animal kingdom by making a comparative study on the different groups of man and his near relations like apes, monkey, etc. whom we call primates. Human Evolution: Another object of Physical Anthropology is to deal with human evolution. Like other creatures man is also a living organism. It is difficult to explain under what conditions life had appeared on earth. But from the geological and paleontological evidences it has been known that the first living organism that had appeared on earth consisted of one cell only, which is known as a unicellular organism or amoeba. In course of time this simple homogeneous organism through the process of changes attained the heterogeneous form at various stages. Ultimately, a complex form of animal called man had emerged. All living forms of humanity today belong to the single genus and species of Homo sapiens. Man is said to have emerged during the quaternary epoch of Cenozoic era. As time elapsed varieties of man had evolved from the date of his origin. Human Variation:- The physical anthropologist after having studies the origin, development and place of evolution of man focuses his attention on the study of the different varieties of man. Outwardly through they appear different, all men have some common characteristics and belong to the species - Homo-sapiens. However, it is generally found that the common hereditary does not resemble those of other groups in various ways. Each of these groups is designated as race. So, in Physical Anthropology the different aspects of race are studied. Human Genetics: In recent times the attention of physical anthropologist has been diverted to Genetics a branch of biology, which deals with descent, variation and heredity. They now study the blood types, difference in musculature etc. They also study the group differences in time of sexual maturation, in growth rates and various disease immunities. These studies have practical value and the results may be used in various ways. The physical anthropologist studies also the influences of the natural environment on man and trees to find out whether the physical traits of man are affected by environment. Moreover, he studies the problems associated with physical changes, effects of food and mode of life on racial and physical characteristics. Demography:- Another aspect of study of Physical Anthropology is demography which is directly related to fertility and mortality. There are various factors including heredity and environment that influence fertility and mortality. These are studied by the physical anthropologists. Pedagogical Anthropology is studied under Physical Anthropology. It is directly concerned with education. In various educational fields pedagogical studies are utilized by many advanced countries. Anthropometry: Anthropometry is the science of measuring the different limbs of the body. It is an inevitable part of Physical Anthropology, and with its help various measurements of the limbs of the body are taken so as to know the proportions of the limbs. With this knowledge the physical anthropologists can give advice in respect of sitting arrangements in aeroplanes, railways, class rooms, offices etc.

Physical Anthropology is also useful in detecting criminals. With the knowledge of foot and hand prints it becomes easier to detect criminals as the types of foot and hand prints are never changed during man’s life time. Similarly analyses of hair texture and blood groups also help in detecting criminals. b)Socio-cultural anthropology:- It concerns itself with the cultural diversity of humans and their societies in time and space. Man is a gregarious animal and lives in a society. So he has to adapt to the social environment and learn to live in social cohesion. A man is born in a family, the smallest unit of a society. He is socialized through this unit. As a society is a web of social relationships, a man is tied to the society with various strings of social relationships. He is a member of different kinship groups such as the family, the lineage, the clan, the phratry, the moiety etc. Man is also involved in social institutions such as marriage, government, law etc. So in adjusting with social environment and to keep the society in continuity, one has to abide by the various laws and customs formulated by the society. But society has got intimate relationship with culture which is created by man. Culture exists to make the society survive but without the existence of society culture has no entity. So the social anthropologist studies various aspects of society in keeping with the cultural development. It includes ethnography, ethnology, economic anthropology, folklore, religion, kinship. Ethnology: Ethnology is a field of study under Cultural Anthropology. It made its appearance as a recognised branch in about 1840 and it developed greatly during the next hundred years. It makes a comparative study of the cultures of the world and emphasizes the theory of culture. It is often called Cultural Anthropology and sometimes used as synonym for Anthropology also. Ethnology: Ethnology includes in its fold Economic Anthropology, Social Anthropology, Religion, Art, Recreation, Folklore etc. As a matter of fact ethnology interprets the facts on data collected through ethnographic studies, classifies them and formulates principles with regard to the nature of human behaviour and the evolution and functioning of culture. Ethnography: Ethnologic studies are essential for a cultural anthropologist to know the links between the different cultures and the principles guiding the socio-cultural systems. Ethnography is the study of the cultures of the living peoples of the world through direct and indirect observation of behaviour. Ethnography is not the study of races, which is the work of the physical anthropologist. It involves the collection of data only, the raw materials for scientific analysis. Economic Anthropology: The anthropologist studies under Economic Anthropology the different means of subsistence of man. He studies different features of production, distribution and consumption of material goods and their relationships with other aspects of the socio-cultural complex. Thus, the anthropologist studies what man produces, how he produces, what and how he consumes and what and how he distributes or exchanges. He also analyses how far the economic factors are responsible to the growth of socio-cultural system of a people. Religion: Religion is a part of cultural anthropology. It is a product of psychic reaction and adjustment of man to the supernatural world. Man could not explain why there exist the earth, the sun, the moon, the stars, fire, water, air, other etc. Man also did not know what were the causes of storm and thunder, earthquake and volcano, drought and floods, life and death, etc. He most often questioned why man suffers from diseases. Similarly he was curious about many other natural phenomena. These made him think and believe that there were some supernatural powers in the background by the action of which these phenomena had come into being. Thus religious ideas and beliefs seemed to have arisen out of these situations. Man believed that of these supernatural powers, some were benevolent and some harmful. So he did some magico-religious performances in order to propitiate those powers. With these were associated some rituals which represent the various techniques that are applied as a means of controlling or influencing the supernatural world. Thus the anthropologists study the varieties of rituals connected with different beliefs and practices found among different groups of people living in different parts of the world and how they are related to their day to day activities which make them survive peacefully.

There are many theories regarding the origin of religion among people. Some of the major theories are Animism, Animatism, Manaism and Primitive monotheism. The perceptions of people regarding the differences between man and nature are studied first of all. The beliefs in natural forces and super-natural forces, and/or being are investigated. The operation of religious traditions including the rituals and ceremonies among non-literate and peasant societies are studied in detail. The practices which fall within the domain of religion such as taboo and totemism are also examined. The differences between magic, religion and science are discussed and debated. Witch craft and Sorcery are examined as important aspects of non-literate magic. Above all, the social and Psychological functions of magic and religion are emphasized.

Folklore: Folklore may be treated as one of the branches of Cultural Anthropology. It is a science “which deals with the survivals of archaic beliefs and customs in civilized peoples. It embraces everything relating to ancient observances and customs, to the notions, beliefs, traditions, superstitions and prejudice of the common people. But also folk tales, songs, legends, myths, proverbs, riddles, folk music and folk dance as well as folk drama belong to the sphere of folklore”. c)Archaeological Anthropology studies the material remains of humans and humans themselves (from burial remains) through methods like excavation where differences, origin, both biological and social evolution can be comprehended. Today archaeological anthropology also deals with palaeoanthropology, ethno archaeology and settlement archaeology. The time period covered under archaeological anthropology is prehistoric, proto-historic and also later periods like what is called civilization. Archaeological anthropology tries to find and explain the origin, growth and development of cultures in the past. For this, experts take help of tool remnants or material like pottery, ornaments, artifacts, etc. to understand the ability of a particular past culture studied. For all these, burials where much of the remains are found turn to be the best place to investigate. Along with these, the environment and climatic condition of a particular time period is also comprehended from evidences gathered from the earth’s surface. Though the main method employed by the archaeologist is excavation; surveyance and data analysis also form important methods. d) Linguistic anthropology is an interdisciplinary science in anthropology. It deals with the study of language and how can it be viewed as a part of cultural reality in human society. It acknowledges language as an accomplishment which furthers human social behaviour and activities. Linguistic anthropology as an interdisciplinary subject works hand in hand with anthropological linguistics, ethno-linguistics and socio- linguistics. This linkage helps in the investigation of how language affects the creation and management of individual and group identities, social norms and ideals and also concentrates on the biological implications language has in the functioning of society. It is concerned with the languages of all people, past and present as it is the chief vehicle through which man preserves and transmits his culture from generation to generation. It also interested in the relationship between language and cultural cognition as well as cultural behavior. Initially this branch started off with the attempt to study the origin, evolution and development of languages and the salvaging of languages which were on the verge of disappearing. Eventually it progressed to embrace various facets of language and how it influences even the minutest concerns of social life. Fieldwork with its use of anthropological methods and techniques remains a significant aspect in the linguistic inquiry. Apart from the above mentioned four branches of Anthropology, other areas in the study of Anthropology includes Applied Anthropology and Action Anthropology.

Applied Anthropology and Action Anthropology:- Applied or practicing anthropology refers to the application of anthropologic data, perspectives, theory and methods to identify, assess and solve the contemporary social problems. In its most general sense, applied anthropology includes any use of the knowledge and/ or techniques for the four sub-fields to identify assess and solve practical problems. It has many applications, and this is why, more and more anthropologists from the four sub-fields now work in such “applied” areas as public health, family planning and economic development. Applied anthropology makes use of the research done by physical and cultural anthropologists in order to help government and other institutions form and implement policies for specific population groups It deals with societal problems, such as poor health, inadequate food production, high infant mortality, and rampant population growth. Action Anthropology:- Action anthropology was a product of and sustained by the personal dynamism of anthropologist Sol Tax (1907-1995). Action anthropology is a scholarly enterprise based in field research, data collection, and theory building, during which the anthropologist is also committed to assisting local communities in achieving their goals and meeting specific felt needs. Rather than pursuing pure science or perusing their own agendas, action anthropologists see themselves more as tentative co-explorers who help the host community to identify challenges and seek ways to meet them. In the process, action anthropologists contribute to the community while learning from their experiences. While applied anthropology generally focuses on programmatic concerns of nonlocal funders, both public and private, action anthropology discovers local concerns in the course of ethnographic work and engages local resources in addressing them. Considering the four branches of Anthropology, Applied Anthropology and Action Anthropology, it can be concluded that Anthropology is both a biological and a social science. This makes Anthropology as the most humanistic of the sciences and the most scientific of the humanities.