ABRACADABRA AND PROCESS THOUGHT: REALIZING IN

FEMINIST

Deyu Wang

Abstract:

Between 1960 to 1980, America’s mainstream society considered as a combination of nonsense, themes of entertainment, and an umbrella word to describe indescribable events. However, Wicca, the counter-cultural Pagan , adopted the word as a form of resistance against a predominantly male-driven culture. By transforming and inventing socially devalued words such as magic into magick, Wiccans attempted to salvage and validate their practices. This allowed Wiccans to create their culture within the society that rejected them, and provide new interpretations of magick to separate from mainstream definitions. For instance, the practice of spells such as abracadabra exemplified how new categorical inventions and interactive kinds could be used to reconstruct the idea of magic. Additionally, Constance Wise’s application of the metaphysical philosophy of process thought demonstrated the reconstruction and invention of magick into a paradoxically new concept founded on old traditions. Feminist Wiccan subgroups adopted these new values and established new symbols from pre-existing traditions in order to further sociopolitical goals, particularly in respect to gender equality. From these instances, magick served as a tool and mediator for Feminist Wiccans against their social environment.

Keywords: Wicca, magick, mainstream, spells, reconstruct, metaphysical philosophy, sociopolitical, gender, equality, feminist

1. Introduction social groups allowed self identifying Pagans to access similar and ideas for individual spiritual

purposes. In the macrocosm of social , In the 1960s, the adoption of Pagan specifically in America, a discrepancy separated practices as a form of religion spread across Pagans from more widely accepted and well-known America in a sweeping movement with a touch religions. In particular, a mixture of Christian and of feminism. Different Pagan terms such as secular defined the major social attitudes toward Wicca, Witch, and the all-compassing label of certain practices and ideas. The idea of magic practice, Pagans came to be adopted by different groups common among Wiccan groups and other Pagans, of individuals, growing in popularity in the suffered from the majority’s automatic assumption of 1970s particularly with women. Despite their two extremes: that magic was not real or that it was distinctive group names, they shared similar real but harmful. While the former echoed notions of religious practice, pulled from both Enlightenment reactions to and , the widespread religions such as and latter generally represented the remnants of Medieval obscure traditions from ancient Greek texts and European fear of the Devil and . This fear Medieval European . With the increase of contributed to the overall negative connotations of informational technology, internet forums and © Deyu Wang 2016. Originally published in Explorations: The UC Davis Undergraduate Research Journal, Vol. 18 (2016). Explorations.ucdavis.edu © The Regents of the University of California. 2 magic, and by extension, Witchcraft. Wiccan sociopolitical motives in gender equality rose Regardless of popular attitudes toward and continue to persist in recent Wiccan groups. magic and Witchcraft, Pagans who self In comparison to the exclusive religious identified as Witches, Wiccans, or both, practices in Christianity, specifically embraced their religions and practices with a targeted and assimilated a wide range of rituals from subtle defiance against mainstream ideas. In the different cultures. Other Pagan groups sought to create 1980s, Paganism fell under counter-cultural new rituals from older and obscure practices, finding categories of religion and social groups. inspiration in ancient Hebrew and Greek texts. One Conservative Christianity, which held a strong such example was the word and practice of but slowly declining following in America abracadabra, a popular “magic” word in mainstream during that time, viewed the spread of Pagan society. Other practices combined created and religions as dangerous on a theological sense, previously existing traditions with dead languages, and nonsensical. The words “witch” and such as Latin and Hebrew to form a working religious “magic” held different meanings in the eighties . For instance, provided than they do now. The “witch,” in particular, a detailed myth using previous traditions for his drew unpleasant images of green skinned hags religious cult, the cult of . Yet others on broomsticks, as seen on Halloween episodes attempted to define and legitimize their by of the popular television cartoon, Tom & Jerry.1 applying mathematical and metaphysical theory, such The word “magic,” on the other hand, served as the idea of process thought. These different ideas primarily as an umbrella term used by two and creations not only demonstrated a salvaging and extremes: by entertainment venues as a fictional reclaiming of ancient practices into modern religious genre and by scholars in academia. Current practices but also reflected a re-invention of old mainstream notions differ from 1980s with the traditions into new ones. In this process, Pagans greater ease of accessing information via the applied new values and constructions to their adopted Internet.2 In this essay, I address the reaction terms. against the mainstream and constructions of However, for what purposes did these re- certain definitions by Pagans, specifically inventions and salvaging have in the larger scope of Wiccans, in the period of the spread of Wicca in Paganism? What benefits could be derived from the early 1960s to the surge of feminist Wicca in embracing a primarily counter-cultural tradition? On the 1980s. Thus, mainstream culture and an individual level, personal satisfaction and spiritual references to a social reaction by Wiccans to a attainment might seem to be a popular reason for the social majority refers primarily to the adoption of Pagan identities. Yet on a macrocosmic aforementioned time period. During this period, level, mainstream culture and beliefs in the 1960s to 3 1980s opposed majority of Pagan ideas. The use of the 1 William Hanna and Joseph Barbera. “The Flying word magic, for instance, aptly illustrated the Sorceress.” Tom&Jerry. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer: 1956. discrepancies between popular culture and the counter- 2 As Jason Pitzi-Walters writes, “When I became a Pagan culture. Additionally, different political and social in 1990, we still operated largely as a counterculture. But in the last 20-plus years, I’ve heard the conversations, the movements also suggested a deeper motivation in debates, and the yearnings, and I know that many want the Pagan identity. respect, and the power, that comes from being part of the In an attempt to identify these motivations, I institution.” The institution mentioned here refers to a seek to demonstrate that although Wicca and Paganism theoretical vast social community – the mainstream. The are inter-changeable words due to highly varied and mainstream refers to the specifically a period between 1960 and the late 1980s. Pitzi-Walters, as a Pagan, nonspecific religious practices, distinctions between indicates that even by 1990s, Paganism was still counter- using one label over the other rests in Gardnerian cultural to the social majority, which was less forgiving, Wiccan emphases on the natural environment. as described in his article. This time is echoed in other Secondly, I seek to highlight and track the history of a published pagan works, particularly in that of Cynthia famous “magic” word, abracadabra, to demonstrate a Eller, Constance Wise, and Kristy Coleman. Jason Pitzi- Walters. “Institutions vs. Counter Culture in Paganism.” 3 The Wild Hunt. wildhunt.org, accessed 11 Jan. 2014. UC Davis | EXPLORATIONS: THE UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL Vol. 18 (2016) D. Wang p.2 3 blend of salvation, re-invention, and social Enlightenment notion of superstition. Like construction of magic, subsequently Wiccan superstition, something founded on an irrational fear of practices, as an interactive kind. Through an the unknown, magic holds a similar meaning. evaluation of a Wiccan application of As an interactive kind, magic represented a metaphysical theories, I highlight that the different problem in academic scholarship than in Wiccan approach to magic seeks to validate its society. While society viewed magic as baseless practice in a functional scope. From these entertainment, academic scholarship struggled to instances, magic practice mediate discrepancies define magic with the existence of historical magical in juxtaposing socially-related concepts between practices. Scholars attempted to provide a symbolic Wiccan groups with mainstream culture. background to explain magic efficacy in different Finally, in the larger function and legitimization cultures. For instance, Claude Levi-Strauss, an of magic and Pagan practices, I connect these anthropologist and ethnologist, provided a process and re-constructions to demonstrate one psychological description for the belief in magic.6 possible motivation in a sociopolitical context Propagation in the belief of magic, Levi-Strauss for Wiccan and Pagan practices. maintained, parallels psychoanalysis techniques in patient treatment.7 He essentially equated the practice 2. Scholarship on Magic and the of magic to psychological neuroses, providing a Wiccan Notion of Magick practical scientific understanding to magic, the antithesis of science. Levi-Strauss also described that

magic efficacy is related to the belief in magic, Definitions of magic, religion, and represented in three components: the sorcerer's belief science change over time. Historically, general in his effectiveness, the victim's belief in the sorcerer's society discards or assimilates old definitions power, and the expectations of the group driving and with new concepts, often reworking the identifying the relationship.8 reconstructed definitions with old ideas from While Levi-Strauss's argument highlighted one other sources. This process of reconstructing a perspective of magic, other scholars proposed to single idea can be described by the phrase abandon the term magic altogether. For instance, “interactive kind.” An interactive kind is "one Jonathan Z. Smith proposed to abandon the term magic that is created or significantly modified once a from a religious context based on its ineffectiveness in concept of it has been formulated and acted discourses on .9 Magic, he described, is upon in certain ways.”4 Interactive kinds "essentially synonymous with...'religion'" and a constantly associate with the social "second-order term" in academic discourse.10 Kyle environment, resulting in dynamic re- Fraser further developed Smith's idea by identifying classifications or definitions.5 Magic, religion, the Christian influences in religious scholarship. Fraser and science all appear to be categories argued for the erasure of the Christian-established functioning within the parameters of an boundaries between magic and religion as a interactive kind. Yet these parameters, or "dichotomy...shaped within pagan discourse, definitions, change throughout time. However, and...adapted to Christian polemical purposes."11 underlying historical attitudes and events Levi-Strauss, Fraser, and Smith illustrated the cement religion and science as functional categories as opposed to magic. Sociological 6 Claude Levi-Strauss, "The Sorcerer and His Magic," in Magic and academic trends places magic on a lower and Religion, 160-179. intellectual level as religion and science, since 7 Levi-Strauss, “The Sorcerer and His Magic,” 178. magic has close connections to the 8 Levi-Strauss, “The Sorcerer and His Magic,” 177. 9 Jonathan Z. Smith, “Trading Places,” Relating Religion: Essays 4 Muhammad Ali Khalidi, "Interactive Kinds," British in the Study of Religion (): 215-217 Journal for the Philosophy of Science 61. 2 (2010): 335- 10 Smith, “Trading Places,” 219. 360. 11 Kyle Fraser, "The Contested Boundaries of 'Magic' and 5 Ian Hacking, The Social Construction of What? 'Religion' in Late Pagan ," in Magic, Ritual, and (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999), 104. Witchcraft 4. 2 (2009): 131-151, doi: 10.1363/mrw.0.0144. UC Davis | EXPLORATIONS: THE UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL Vol. 18 (2016) D. Wang p.3 4 problem of magic discourse in scholarship. of Paganism, “magic” was developed into an Magic and religion were on the same scale: that important religious term.14 The Pagan religion Wicca the notion of magic bleeds into the category of both adopted and reconstructed the word into an religion, and that the two counteracted yet integral part for Wiccan identity and practices. interacted with one another under different The word “magic,” or magick, refers to various political and religious purposes. However, religious Pagan practices. Before we delve into its popular media trends followed by the social purpose, however, the use of the word Pagan in this majority identified magic more with essay describes the contemporary practice of Medieval entertainment than an idea of practical value.12 “pagan” traditions as classified by Christian Magic lacked the realness perceived in religion. scholarship between the Enlightenment period and the Additionally, post-Enlightenment attitudes, time before the spread of Gardnerian Wicca. This coordinating with an emphasis on thought and definition provides the common understanding of reason, judged religion as superior to magic in Paganism in regards to Christian , which will later both function and realness. This realness demonstrate the Wiccan reaction against popular referred to the practical evaluation of a concept religions through the adoption of the label “Paganism.” that yield seeable results. Since science has a The word “magic,” in Pagan practices represent a clear function in the physical world, capable of different idea and use of the term. Certain Wiccan producing evidence to support conjectures, practitioners and other Pagans, such as Witches and religion appeared inferior in contrast. , add the extra letter “k” to distinguish Pagan Nonetheless, religious traditions and beliefs still magic from the social majority take on magic.15 The preceded scientific values and yielded different extra letter accomplishes three things: first, it suggests results to religious practitioners as opposed to science. In the case of magic, however, the word of ancient sources" in Classical Studies. Furthermore, he served as an umbrella term for subcategories postulates that the removal of the category of magic may even that do not fit into religious and scientific benefit the due to the extensive discourse on scholarship. This use of the magic category magic that has resulted in "the 'collapse of the category'." Most scholars, he stresses, assume that magic is defined loosely as a set limited the conceptual perspective between of supernatural circumstances. Bernd-Christian Otto. “Towards magic and religion. As exemplified in Fraser’s Historicizing ‘Magic’ in Antiquity.” Brill 60 (2013): 308-347, and Smith’s argument, recent scholarship accessed 19 Oct, 2014. doi: 10.1164/15685276-12341267: 308 attempted to erase the barrier between magic 14 Not every Pagan religion incorporates the word “magic” into and religion. Proposals to substitute the term their religion. Since American Paganism deals mostly with the individual and the individual feeling, majority of the practices “magic” illustrated such attempts. Yet, center around the individual’s likings and choosing. For instance, avoidance of the word does not yield the certain practices refer to rituals just as rituals. In Wicca, analytic freedom for other religions, such as some Wiccans may refer to their rituals as “magic” while others Paganism.13 With the development and spread simply call them rituals. Likewise, not every Wiccan refers to themselves as “Witch,” yet a Wiccan may be a Witch. In contrast, a “Witch,” depending on the individual’s perspective, may not be 12 Patti Wigington, a Wiccan, debunks myths regarding associated with Wicca, particularly Gardnerian Wicca. Wicca and Paganism in her article, “Is Magic Real?” The Differences in the types of Wicca is illustrated in the type of article specifically addresses popular notions of magic membership in Wiccan groups and religious practices. Highly associated with Harry Potter, My Little Pony, and of female-oriented groups, consisting of all women, are categorized course, fears of the “Devil” commonly associated with as Dianic Wicca. Gardnerian Wicca is categorized based on the several Christian groups. Her explanation of how magic nature-themed practices associated with Gerald Gardner’s works describes that magic is an individual effort and publications. For this paper, however, subcategories in Wiccan practice, suggesting that it is akin to religious rituals than practices are generalized in order to demonstrate a broader fictional displays of supernatural abilities. Patti sociocultural context of Wiccan culture. Gerald Gardner, Wigington. “Is Magic Real?” About religion. Witchcraft Today (Secaucus NJ: The Citadel Press, 1974). Paganwicca.about.com, accessed 23 Feb 2016. Cynthia Eller, Living in the Lap of the : The Feminist 13 In "Towards Historicizing 'Magic' in Antiquity," Bernd- Movement in America (New York: Crossroad Christian Otto advocates the abandonment of the term Publishing Company, 1993), 115. "magic" due to its obscure and indefinite definitions. By 15 Kristy S. Coleman, Re-riting Woman: Dianic Wicca and the doing so, he argues that this will lead to a "proper analysis Feminine Divine (Plymouth: AltaMira Press, 2009), 34. UC Davis | EXPLORATIONS: THE UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL Vol. 18 (2016) D. Wang p.4 5 a revival and reinvention of old traditions; instance, Constance Wise, a Wiccan and second, it distinguishes Pagan magick from the Professor, applied philosophical and metaphysical cultural mainstream view of magic; lastly, it theories to explain the function and reality of magick integrates a new notion and value of magic into and Wiccan rituals. the local culture. Aside from the value of In this reconstruction of magick, Wise and magick, the Pagan religion of Wicca also holds other Wiccans also seek to invent and apply a new similar reconstructions and new social meaning to their religious practices. I do not attempt to definitions. The word Wicca itself refers to an argue whether the practice of magick is valid or Old English word wicce, which means invalid; for a highly varied and mostly minor religious "practitioners of magic” or "witch."16 The group, Wiccans and other Pagans often battle against purposeful adoption of Medieval terminology the larger social norm on theological concepts that are suggests an embracement of ancient traditions, a otherwise given little importance. On this theological reinvention of ancient magically classified basis, Wiccans transformed and brought the word practices by academic literature, and a magick into a higher order, onto a practical and purposeful distinction from mainstream notions. functional level. Eric Hobsbawm and Terrence Ranger Distinctions in Wiccan terminology from provided a theoretical understanding of the value of mainstream definitions separated Wiccan ideals inventing and re-inventing a tradition. In Invention of from dominant cultural perspectives of magic. Tradition, Hobsbawm defined “invented tradition” as a However, redefining and reshaping of magical “set of practices, normally governed by…rules and of a elements did not fully legitimize Wiccan ritual…which seek to inculcate certain values…by practices. Liberal categorized old repetition, which automatically implies continuity in religious rituals and traditions as magic while the past.”19 The phrase “invented tradition” suggested secular society dictates the supernatural quality that a pre-existing tradition gained new meanings that of magic as superstition. For Wiccans, the integrates into a culture or society through repeated use popular notion of magic in the 1960s and 1980s throughout a period of time. In relation to this threatened the core of Wiccan practices as definition, Wiccans reconstructed magick with values fake.17 The Wiccan attempt to counter secular separate from pre-existing ones. These pre-existing notions of magick revolved around the idea of values of magick, as previously discussed, referred to universal energy and metaphysics.18 For the lack of functionality and validity of magic as a real practice. While the Wiccan invention of magick

16 Established by Gerald Gardner, the father of Wicca, highlights a transformation from old values, it “wicce” is first mentioned in Witchcraft Today. The simultaneously illuminated a salvaging mentality adoption spread shortly after the publication. However, toward ancient traditions. Particularly in more political the term Wicca may or may not be associated with the motives, such as the Pagan feminist movement in the word “Witch,” depending on the individual. While 1970s, the idea of salvaging and recovering old values Wiccans may refer to themselves as Witches, other became a social and political symbol and identity. Witches may separate themselves from the category of Wicca. This separation mostly arises out of different A clearer picture of the Wiccan re-invention perceptions of Gardnerian Wicca, which emphasizes and use of magick began from the single most nature and spirit. important Wiccan rule, "An it harm none, do what ye 17 Referring to magick. Coleman, Re-riting Woman, 34. will." The Wiccan Rede discourages ill-intentioned 18 Universal energy refers to cosmic energy, a religious practices, incorporating the invented notion foundational part of what most Wiccans believe as either fate or whatever runs the universe. Common uses and references to “energy” deal with the idea that energy is positive and negative. Positive energy, incidentally, ideas of nervous energies to associate the mental state of the mind associates with positive frames of the mind toward a with the body. Christopher G. White, Unsettled Minds: certain event. Negative energy, likewise, refers to Psychology and the American Search for Spiritual Assurance, negative thoughts. This idea of energy suggests clear 1830-1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009). Protestant Christian influences in American Wicca, 19 Hobsbawm, D.J. and T. O. Ranger. “Introduction: Inventing particularly in the use of “nervous energies.” American Traditions.” The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge Protestantism, according to Christopher White, developed UP (1983): 1-14. UC Davis | EXPLORATIONS: THE UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL Vol. 18 (2016) D. Wang p.5 6 that magick yields organic results.20 Based on a culture defined mainly by men.22 Adoption of these new traditions, Wiccan magick served as a commonly negative labels, such as Witch and Crone, tool and mediator between Wiccans and their empowered the feminist and spiritual cause in two social environment. Underlying the use of ways. First, self-primitivization, or labeling the self magick labels, feminism and an inherent, with socially fearful , instilled public awareness historically based desire for gender equality of Wiccan groups and allows Wiccans to redefine these American female spirituality movements and labels.23 Second, rebellion against social attitudes feminist thought in the late 1900s began to allowed opportunities to salvage identities and propel the adoption and deliberate meanings from the prevailing social context. Through misconstruction of religious Christian taboos.21 these methods, Wiccans rejected the social negativities In reaction to the long-standing patriarchy, associated with Witches and magic. Feminist Wiccan perceived as the primary cause of female rebelled against social norms to salvage and maintain subordination, Wiccan feminism reacted against their beliefs against defining mainstream attitudes between the 1960s to late 1980s. Reconstructed ancient 20 Organic refers to the social unit as a whole, as practices, as demonstrated with abracadabra, illustrated by Constance Wise in Hidden Circles in the illustrated how Wiccans both salvage and invent new Web. practices from centuries of socially negative 21 Historical witch burnings in the Medieval period stemmed from a and fears of demonic categorizations. practices. Rumors of slaying infants and cannibalism instilled fear in many people throughout Western Europe. 3. History of Definitions: Abracadabra Most of the witch-trials prosecuted women, particularly practicing medical women or women who stood out in society (i.e. attractive women). An estimated ninety- In popular culture, the most famous magic percent of the executed were women; in other witchcraft word abracadabra appears to only be a word spoken trials, outlined in Narratives of Witchcraft Trials, mostly by stage illusionists as a verbal prop. While the word depict the executions of women in England. Majority of permeated the entertainment sphere as a seemingly the accusations were founded on a fear propagated by the nonsensical word, Pagan religions embraced the word Reformation. Women were accused of consorting with Satan, on the basis of seen supernatural occurrences. from both a new and old ritualistic approach. By Witness accounts mostly exaggerate the degree of the tracing the historical record of the word and its current supernatural occurrence, such as the random flight of uses, abracadabra exemplifies the idea of an chairs and burlap bags which had proceeded to beat the interactive kind and a reconstructed tradition. owner and his family. Other accounts, however, reveal Firstly, the earliest appearance of abracadabra personal vendettas against the accused Witch. Following the reformation in the early 1600s, Denmark’s Witch in history appeared in a second century Roman medical 24 Trials increased. Two hundred years later, witchcraft text, the Liber medicinalis. Written by Quintus emerged as a persisting trend despite the scientific attitudes propagating since the Enlightenment. Despite the 22 secular and religious claims of superstition and Eller, Living in the Lap of the Goddess, 90. That is to say, falsehoods, witchcraft was still practiced. “Witch-belief” certain Wiccan groups interact with feminism against the tradition describes the seemingly psychological phenomenon for of patriarchal religions seen in the . 23 the flourishing of backwoods witchcraft in the secular era. Self-primitivization, coined by Gananath Obeyesekere, refers to Generally attributed as a method to deal with “common the self labeling of a social , such as cannibalism. However, problems,” witch belief entails a metaphysical framework, in Wicca, the social taboo is the figure of “witch.” While “witch” similar to Wiccan discussions of magic. Connotation of instills a social fear, the Wiccan application attempts to reform witches in Denmark, however, is highly negative, often this social identity of the witch symbol into a more spiritual sense. associating with terrifying green-faced hags and evil yet Gananath Obeyesekere. Cannibal Talk: The Man-Eating Myth powerful women. In relation to Wiccan feminism, the and Human in the South Seas (Berkeley: University of same connotation is adopted to empower the Witch and to California Press, 2005). instill fear in certain cases (W.I.T.C.H. groups). ed. 24 The use of abracadabra as a magical formula were found on George Lincoln Burr, Narratives of the Witchcraft Cases abraxas stones, worn as . The Gnostics were perceived to 1648-1706 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1914). have used this formula, invoking “beneficent spirits against Gustav Henningsen, “Witchcraft in Denmark,” disease and misfortune.” The spread from Gnostic use to 93. 2 (1992): 131-137. Eller, Living in the Lap of the eventual pagan practices, resulting in a change of amulet Goddess, 55. mediums. Rather than using stones, the word abracadabra was UC Davis | EXPLORATIONS: THE UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL Vol. 18 (2016) D. Wang p.6 7 Serenus (Sammonicus), a Roman physician and destructive qualities, capable of destroying disease medical scholar, abracadabra was a cure for a and even demonic spirits. Thus, the amulet also served malady called hemitritaeos.25 Sammonicus’s as a protection against undesirable ailments. prescription for hemitritaeos consisted of Early religious rituals hold similar practical inscribing the word abracadabra on a triangular uses. For instance, ancient Aramaic scorpion spells tablet.26 The word was repeated eleven times referred to a set of instructions and rituals invoking the with each subsequent line missing a letter so that protection of to heal the scorpion sting. The the word “disappears.”27 instructions involved a ritual chanting and cleaning out the wound with saliva. Later Aramaic , A B R A C A D A B R A however, exchanged the deities for one , seen in the transformation of words. The Baal, for A B R A C A D A B R instance, is interchanged with "lord" and "master."30 The action of cleaning the wound, however, remains A B R A C A D A B unchanged, suggesting the consistency of certain meanings. The word abracadabra similarly reflects a A B R A C A D A consistency in old traditions despite additions and reconstructions over the course of time. A B R A C A D Practice of the abracadabra amulet persisted even after the fall of the . Textual A B R A C A appearance of abracadabra in sixteenth century literature, such as the Troublesome Voyage of Captain A B R A C Edward Fenton, indicates its continued practice among European peasantry and local traditions.31 However, A B R A with the advent of Enlightenment values, the local practice of abracadabra dropped due to a lack of clear A B R physical results. For instance, Daniel Defoe, author of Robinson Crusoe, criticized the practice of A B abracadabra by the peasantry, shown in “how the poor People found the Insufficiency of those things, and A how many of them were afterwards carried away in the Dead-Carts.”32 With the revelation that the The decreasing format results in an abracadabra amulet provided little medical aid, the inverted triangular form, worn around the neck amulet fell into disuse and was discarded as as an amulet. The disease was thought to escape superstition. through the last letter “A,” disappearing as the 28 Despite being categorized as superstition, word disappears. From its appearance in a abracadabra grew popular as a stage illusion phrase in medical text written as a guide for physicians, abracadabra may have been widely practiced 29 by the Romans, from royalty to peasantry. The 30 Richard C. Steiner, "The scorpion spell from Wadi Hammamat: amulet was also thought to have great another Aramaic text in Demotic script," Journal of Near Eastern Studies 60. 4 (2001): 259-268. 31 written on paper instead, primarily due to technological Eva Germaine Rimington Taylor, The Troublesome Voyage of and financial accessibility. ed. Hugh Chisholm, Captain Edward Fenton (1959): 171. 32 “Abracadabra,” Encyclopedia Britannica 11th ed. (1911). Daniel Defoe. A Journal of the Plague Year (1722): 38-39. 25 Plinio Prioreschi. “Medicine after Galen,” A History of Defoe also outlines a form of the abracadabra amulet as a cross. Medicine: Roman medicine (1998): 508-509. During the Great Plague of London, referred to as “a national 26 infection,” Defoe laments and scorns the reaction of victims to the “Abracadabra,” Encyclopedia Britannica 11th ed. 27 plague, describing them as victims to con artists as well. He Ibid. highlights the desperation of plague victims, describing the use of 28 “Abracadabra,” Encyclopedia Britannica 11th ed. the amulet as a remnant of old and as a desperate 29 Ibid. resort against death. UC Davis | EXPLORATIONS: THE UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL Vol. 18 (2016) D. Wang p.7 8 the 1800s, due to its catchy syllabic abracadabra of the stage.37 The reinterpretation also pronunciation.33 Increasingly secular attitudes connected ancient Egyptian deities such as , God firmly associated the word with stage of the Sun to the term. This deific connection elevates illusionists. Furthermore, current media and into the ultimate of power, the entertainment use abracadabra primarily from “key of rituals.” The “key of rituals,” according to its association with stage tricks. For instance, Crowley, was a symbol of power and a magical DC comic book villain, Abra Kadabra, was a formula.38 As a symbol, universal power was thought “sorcerer” whose real identity is a time traveler to manifest as the word was spoken. However, from the future, using future technology to Crowley provided a numerical explanation for create “magical” effects.34 Additionally, the abrahadabra, relating it to represent the microcosm, creator of the popular Harry Potter series, J. K. the male phallus, to the macrocosm, the pillar of the Rowling, transformed abracadabra into a universe, all which equals the number 418.39 The Killing , Avada Kedavra.35 These various numerical value served as the “key” as represented by current instances of the use of abracadabra abrahadabra; the “key” could be used to unlock the demonstrated the transience of definitions and “,” which can be interpreted as universal reconstructions that each institution – from stage creation.40 Crowley’s reconstruction represented yet tricks to time-traveling villains to international another take on abracadabra. popular franchises – added to pre-existing In contrast to Crowley’s stylization, traditions. abracadabra in Wiccan practice resembled the ancient While current social attitudes used Roman tradition of creating a healing amulet. Wiccan abracadabra as part of the entertainment field, rituals required the phrase to be written in the form of contemporary Pagans adapted the phrase into an inverted triangle on a piece of paper and worn religious meanings. For instance, Aleister around the neck. The purpose of wearing of the amulet Crowley restyled and added symbolism in the is similar: abracadabra was also regarded as a healing word abracadabra. Replacing the “c” in device.41 In the context of Wiccan reconstructions, abracadabra with “h,” Crowley fashioned the abracadabra became less of a religious symbol as seen new word abrahadabra as the ultimate in Crowley’s theology and more of a religious practice. invocation for rituals.36 The “h” served as a Abracadabra fell under the category of a magick spell. reference to Crowley’s cult, the Hermetic Order Additionally, the use of the word as an amulet of the Golden Dawn, distinct from the remained mostly consistent with its earlier Roman practices. In this example, the intention to heal echoed the pre-existing Roman tradition but incorporated into a new category as a religious ritual over its original 33 Susan L. Schwartz, ed. Lawrence Hass, Francesca medical uses. In this reconstruction of abracadabra as Coppa, and James Peck. “Through a Glass Darkly: Magic a spell to cure colds, Wiccans depicted both another and Religion in Western Thought,” in Performing Magic on the Western Stage (2008): 197-199. invention of a pre-existing tradition and an 34 J.E. Bright, Gregg Schigiel, Lee Loughridge, Deadly

Dream Machine (2010). 37 35 Regardie, The Golden Dawn, 16 J.K. Rowling, “JK Rowling at the Edinburgh Book 38 Festival: August 15, 2004,” J.K. Rowling Official Site. Crowley, Magick, 178. 39 36 . The Golden Dawn (St. Paul: Llewellyn Ibid., 179. Incidentally, Crowley incorporates numerology with Publications, 1982). Additionally, in revising the spell of other magical formulas, generally derived from Hebrew spellings. abracadabra, Aleister Crowley also changed the spelling The number 418 is produced via a Jewish-adopted numerology of magic to magick, due to the significance in the letter system, referred to as Gematria. Standard methods assign a “k.” According to Crowley, the letter “k” has magical numerical values to corresponding Hebrew letters. Generally, implications, corresponding to the Egyptian khu, or Kabbalistic practices use this system to calculate the value of magical power. His emphasis on sex magick more individual words, phrases, and sentences. John J. Davis, Biblical specifically designates that “k” to stand for kteis, or Numerology (1968). 40 vagina, which complements the , or phallus. Aleister Ibid., 177. Crowley indicates that the key to unlocking the Crowley, ed. John Symonds and , “Editors’ truths of the universe is through the number 418. Introduction,” Magick (1973), xvi. 41 "Healing Spells," FreeWitchcraftSpells.com, 2012. UC Davis | EXPLORATIONS: THE UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL Vol. 18 (2016) D. Wang p.8 9 embracement of older meanings. that might ultimately influence a future event in the individual’s life or a situation in a larger social group. 4. Wiccan Philosophy and Feminist Processing the thought through a series of steps Ideals encouraged the temporal movement of an event. Magick fitted into the metaphysical pattern of events The problem of using spells and magick by establishing the basis for potentially setting off a as religious ritual, however, stemmed from the chain of events, which might result in the desired permeating mainstream notions of magic. As purpose. By connecting the philosophy of process demonstrated by the phrase abracadabra, thought with Wiccan magick, Wise created a magic, religion, and entertainment both blended philosophical and theological basis for magick and created new meanings and values in order to efficacy. Contrary to other scholarship on magic, Wise fulfill some kind of purpose. The same process did not define magic explicitly nor historicized the occurred in Wiccan magick. According to development and practice of Wiccan magick. Instead, Zsuzsanna Budapest, a famous Wiccan priestess she established a theological explanation for magic and founder of a feminist subgroup of Wicca, efficacy, in order to provide a legitimacy in the magick was effective based on symbolic practice of magick as a physical reality. visualization of ritual. Regardless of belief, the Much of the discourse on Wiccan religion and action and intent behind magick practice magick served to explain Wicca in relatively practical determined the efficacy of magick ritual as and functional terms as seen in Wise’s discourse. As a valid. Success of the ritual depended on the result, much of Wiccan literature focused on Wicca as strength of the visualization, or thought, the a female social movement. Wiccan scholarship timing of the thought, and fulfillment of the attempted to negate social images through sociological ritual procedure.42 or theological fields. For instance, Cynthia Eller, an In an attempt to reconstruct and attach a Associate Professor in Philosophy and Religion, function to magick, Wiccan Priestess and approached Wicca from a cultural-political theologist Constance Wise integrated Arthur perspective. Eller appropriated and traced a feminist Whitehead’s mathematical theory of process foundation of Wiccan religion. As Eller described, thought into the practice and workings of since Gerald Gardner’s publication of Witchcraft magick. Process thought, Wise described, is a Today in 1954, feminist spirituality quickly spread across America in the late 1960s, establishing a firm "philosophical description of the structure of 46 reality," a combination of empiricism and stance against gender inequalities in society. The role metaphysics.43 Each empirical unit was of women in religion, prior to the late 1800s, was described as "organic," referring to humans and mostly limited to the household. While women may 44 have held respective religious roles, Wiccan feminists their immediate surroundings. For humans, 47 this immediate surrounding referred to society. focused on the male dominance in religious practices. Therefore, empirically measured events in time Emphasis on the women’s role in religion aimed to moved from place to place and created a equalize the uneven social positions between men and recognizable pattern known as "society."45 In women. In Feminist Wicca, feminism is combined with other words, process thought described a pattern non-Christian religious orientation. Spiritual of events that later create or cause social states. movements, embracing the feminine divine, The thought stemmed from an individual, which subsequently attached a recognition of power to female moved through a higher and undefinable force spiritualists. For instance, monthly rites celebrated the course of the female body and emphasize the sanctity

42 of women, particularly the spirituality of the female Ibid., 38 body and mind. Feminist Wiccans may conducted 43 Constance Wise, Hidden Circles in the Web: Feminist Wicca, Knowledge, and Process Thought (Plymouth: AltaMira Press, 2008) 46 Sarah M. Pike, and Neopagan Religions in America 44 Wise, Hidden Circles in the Web, 30 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), 68. 45 Ibid., 32 47 Pike, New Age and Neopagan Religions, 10. UC Davis | EXPLORATIONS: THE UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL Vol. 18 (2016) D. Wang p.9 10 magick rituals on the full moon in respect to the authority, such as historic witch-burnings, and menstrual cycle.48 These celebrations of the traditional stereotypes of women as homemakers, female body counters dominating patriarchal subordinate to man generated a subconscious reminder views and religious condemnations of women.49 for female Wiccans.81 Particularly with the adoption of In the world of Feminist Wicca, women replace the label "witch" and the term magick, certain Wiccan men in authority and attention. groups and individuals resisted against the societal and Feminist Wicca embraced and historical connotations created by the more powerful propagated the notion of power through ritual. gender in society. Yet rather than outright resisting Reactions against the entirety of society also against societal powers, Wiccans sought a passive- presented a multitude of problems because aggressive form of resistance: they rebelled within Wiccans still lived and interacted with their their social surroundings by both embracing social surroundings. By providing the mainstream definitions and then reconstructing them to instructions and the idea of influencing higher fulfill different purposes. For instance, Wiccan groups powers to generate a physical event, social focus on redefining female archetypes to combat social misgivings and stresses led to the practice of issues in the patriarchal society, such as W.I.T.C.H magick rituals and spells and vice versa. Internet (Women's International Terrorist Conspiracy from sites and witchcraft books provided spells for Hell), in the late 1960s.50 W.I.T.C.H groups aimed to the day to day fortunes of obtaining a parking counteract the patriarchy through magick in public spot on a busy street and extended to a simple protests and guerrilla theater. Simultaneously, they contemporary hex of targeting the individual asserted their power as female spiritualists in public with an IRS form.1 Rites performed by large demonstrations. Politically, W.I.T.C.H. groups groups emphasized the protection of each established themselves as advocators of independence individual, praying for fortune and good , from male domination, labelled as the “Imperialist or reinforcing and exerting their presences Phallic Society.” More importantly, W.I.T.C.H. groups before a higher being as a way of spiritual chose the symbol of “witch” to represent their cause. connection with each other. These spiritual By identifying as a witch, women voluntarily connections translated into an idea of energy embraced counter notions of female gender that could be channeled through Earthly objects, stereotypes: aggression, independence, malice. Rather such as gemstones, or visualized in local than propagating this image, however, feminists surroundings as an outcome of magick. 1 molded the image of the witch into a symbol of Through these actions, Wiccans had a tool to “female power, knowledge, independence, and mediate themselves as both individuals and martyrdom.”51 Associations with martyrdom create a groups with the social stresses in their public culture of historical oppression and a justification of lives. Additionally, magick served an outlet to reacting against the oppressors, the patriarch. deal with opposing social and individual obstacles. Magick, then, became a tool and mediator between Wiccans and their social environments. Additionally, certain Feminist Wiccan groups, such as Dianic Wicca, limited their membership to only women. The history of female subjugation and victimization to male

48 Ann-Marie Gallagher, The Wicca Bible (London: Bounty Books, 2011), 44. 49 Catherine Wessinger, “Going Beyond and Retaining Charisma: Women’s Leadership in Marginal Religions,” in Process Philosophy and Social Thought, ed. John B. 50 Cobb, Jr. and W. Widick Schroeder (Chicago: Center for Eller, Living in the Lap of the Goddess, 53. the Scientific Study of Religion, 1981), 1-19. 51 Ibid., 55. UC Davis | EXPLORATIONS: THE UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL Vol. 18 (2016) D. Wang p.10 11 5. Discussion and stance on gender inequality. Ultimately, the reconstructions of Between 1960 to 1980, magick and abracadabra illustrated a history of changing witchcraft served as tools for Feminist Wiccans for definitions and values specific to different both individual satisfaction and a symbol against institutions. The revival of abracadabra in Wicca, the social patriarchy. For Wiccans living in a is an example of social construction in action. society which clearly devalued magick and American Wiccan culture transformed and witchcraft as old superstition or Hollywood combined the categories of magic and religion. blockbusters, the willing adoption of "witch" and Therefore, the Pagan reconstruction of magick magick by educated women poses a strange demonstrated that Smith’s and Fraser’s discrepancy. Yet by transforming the common propositions to cut out the term “magic” entirely assumptions of witches and magic, Wiccans from religious discourse is not entirely viable. Use recreated their culture against the dominant culture. of magic created Wiccan religion and culture, and The significance in creating a culture against the provided a tool and a power against political and patriarchal mainstream stems from the emphasis on societal problems, illustrated in W.I.T.C.H. groups. gender dualism and the sexual dichotomy between In current American society, Feminist Wicca and men and women. Spiritual feminism became the other Pagan groups have started to morph into the central focus of most Pagan groups, particularly dominant culture as opposed to previous counter- Wicca. Furthermore, Wise's integration of process cultural positions in the 1960s and may eventually thought philosophy legitimized magick as a series garner more attention and practitioners. Although of metaphysical events rather than post- published Pagan literature have multiplied Enlightenment categorizations of superstition. In throughout the last fifty years, sociological and this continuous invention and reconstruction of religious research in the field have yet to grow in magick as a practice, Wiccans applied these new response to the increase in Pagan practitioners. values to back different social and political Future research regarding social surveys and motives. In the example of the W.I.T.C.H group, demographic analyses may provide more solid both magick and the word Witch gained symbolic insight regarding the popularity and trends in values that enhance their political and social image Paganism.

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