Quaternary International 347 (2014) 148e162

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Quaternary International

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A macroscopic technological perspective on lithic production from the Early to Late Pleistocene in the Hanshui River Valley, central China

* Yinghua Li a, b, , Xuefeng Sun c, Erika Bodin b a School of History, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China b C.N.R.S.-UMR7041, Anthropologie des Techniques des Espaces et des Territoires aux Plio-Pleistocene, Maison de l'Archeologie et de l'Ethnologie, Nanterre Cedex 92023, France c School of Geographic and Oceanographic Sciences, The MOE Key Lab of Coast and Island Development, Nanjing University, No. 22, Hankou Road, Nanjing 210093, China article info abstract

Article history: The nature and variability of Chinese Paleolithic culture remain unclear because the method of studying Available online 23 June 2014 lithic industries has been essentially typological, and few regions have been intensively researched. A technological and techno-functional methodology provides a new perspective for exploring the cognitive Keywords: modes of hominids and interpreting the intra and inter-regional homogeneity and variability of Paleo- Lithic technological and techno-functional lithic cultures. Over the last few decades, numerous Paleolithic sites with stone artifacts were excavated method in the Hanshui River Valley. Based on a new methodology and recent discoveries, this paper reviews the Techno-cognitive mode Paleolithic sites of the Hanshui River Valley and studies representative industries to investigate regional Hanshui River Valley ç East Asia lithic production and human behaviors. In terms of operative schemes, debitage and fa onnage coexisted Pleistocene at nearly all sites and showed continuity and stability throughout the Pleistocene. For debitage, the Type Lithic variability C was present in nearly all sites. For façonnage, operative scheme 1 (unifacially-knapped on matrix of simple bevel) was predominant. The operative schemes of both debitage and façonnage were extremely similar in that great emphasis was placed on the selection of natural technical characters rather than on intentional preparation. For inter-regional variability, the percentage of bifaces was much lower (<5%) than in Acheulean Complex and the operative schemes for producing these tools were different from those of Acheulean bifaces, which suggested a clear distinction of techno-cognitive modes between hominids of the Hanshui River Valley and those of the West. Regarding intra-regional variability, the technological and techno-functional method provides a new perspective for interpreting the variability of hominids' techno-cognitive modes during lithic production. More extensive dating analysis would enable the construction of a more detailed chronological sequence of the Hanshui River Valley. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction human and other mammalian fossils, and especially stone artifacts throughout China, making it a key area for the study of human Although there are debates about the earliest dispersals of evolution in East Asia during the Pleistocene. hominids from Africa to East Asia (Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen, Since the discovery of the Zhoukoudian site in the 1920s (Pei, 2001; Mithen and Reed, 2002; Anton et al., 2002; Anton and 1929; Black et al., 1933), the nature and characteristics of Chinese Swisher, 2004; Norton and Braun, 2010; but see Dennell and Paleolithic cultures have received much attention. Based on Hallam Roebroeks, 2005 for a different view), several discoveries have Movius' observation that “the most salient feature characterizing the clearly confirmed that hominids could have occupied East Asia Lower Paleolithic culture complex of eastern Asia was the absence of during an early part of the Early Pleistocene (Zhang et al., 2000; Zhu handaxes and Levallois industries and a low degree of standardization et al., 2004; Boeda€ and Hou, 2011). The past few decades have seen of stone artifacts, as much as it is the presence of choppers and a great increase in the amount of Paleolithic evidence including chopping-tools” (Movius, 1949, p.72), a technological and geographic division between East and West was later summarized as the “Movius Line” (Swartz, 1980). There are two contrasting * Corresponding author. School of History, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, opinions on this technological dichotomy: on one hand, some China. E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Li). maintain that Chinese Paleolithic cultures were remarkably http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.05.044 1040-6182/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. Y. Li et al. / Quaternary International 347 (2014) 148e162 149 different from those of the western Old World and did not develop of the Hanshui River and its branch the Danjiang River (Li, 1998; during the Lower and Middle Paleolithic (Schick and Dong, 1993; Li et al., 2009a, 2011a). From 2006, most of these Paleolithic sites Gao and Norton, 2002; Boeda,€ 2004; Norton et al., 2006; Norton were excavated and yielded a wealth of archaeological remains, and Bae, 2008; Lycett and Bae, 2010; Lycett and Norton, 2010, mainly stone artifacts from unambiguous stratigraphic contexts. among many others), which to some extent confirms the validity of These sites include Shuangshu (Li et al., 2007), Jiantanping (Hou “Movius Line” sensu lato (Norton et al., 2006). On the other hand, and Li, 2007), Pengjiahe (Pei et al., 2008a), Dudian (He, 2009), others dispute the validity of the “Movius Line” sensu stricto and Beitaishanmiao (Zhou et al., 2009), Longkou (Wang, 2011), focus on three aspects: firstly, some researchers have explored the Huangjiawan (Fang et al., 2011), Boshan (Song, 2011), Waibiangou environmental rather than cognitive reasons why such differences and Datubaozi (Li et al., 2011a), Liuwan (Feng et al., 2012), occurred (Bordes, 1978; Schick, 1994; Clark, 1998; Leng and Beitaishanmiao-2 (Fang et al., 2012), Songwan (Niu et al., 2012a), Shannon, 2000; Keates, 2002; Dennell, 2003, among many Baidutan (Niu et al., 2012b), Houfang (Li and Sun, 2013), others); secondly, on the basis of the discovery of bifaces in East Guochachang-II (Li et al., 2013), Dishuiyan (Liu and Feng, 2014), Asia, a few researchers have questioned the validity of “Movius Yuzui-2 (Chen et al., 2014b), Shuiniuwa (Chen et al., 2014a), Line” sensu stricto and suggested that there was cultural uniformity Hongshikan-I (Li et al., 2014a, 2014b)(Fig. 1). In the upper reaches between East and West (Huang, 1989; Huang et al., 2009); and of the Danjiang River, regional surveys were also conducted from thirdly, some researchers have criticized the “Movius Line” for the 1990s and more than ten localities contained about 900 stone ignoring the variability of Asian Paleolithic industries (Ikawa- artifacts on Terraces 2 and 3 (Wang and Hu, 2000; Pei and Song, Smith, 1978; Leng and Shannon, 2000; Keates, 2002). As a result 2006). At the same time, the local museum of Shiyan City made of heated controversy, the “Movius Line sensu stricto” has been some surveys to find Paleolithic localities (Li et al., 1987; Li, 1991; largely discarded (Schick, 1994; Leng, 1998; Norton and Bae, 2008; Zhu, 2005, 2007; Wu et al., 2008b). From 2000, an important Lycett and Norton, 2010). In China, much attention has also been breakthrough was made in research of the Yunxian Man site attached to the variability within Paleolithic cultures, which was through the collaboration of Chinese and French researchers, who summarized as “two traditions in the North” (i.e. “Kehe-Dingcun” undertook multi-disciplinary analyses with new techniques in represented by choppers on large flake and big trihedral picks, and archaeology, paleoanthropology, sedimentology, micro- “Zhoukoudian locality 1-Shiyu” represented by bilge-formed morphology, geochemistry, and palynology (De Lumley and Li, scrapers and burins) (Jia et al., 1972) and “two traditions in the 2008). Overall, about 130 Paleolithic sites that often contain large whole China” (i.e. a Flake Tool tradition in North China and a Pebble lithic assemblages and are sometimes associated with hominid Tool tradition in South China) (Wang, 1998; Zhang, 2002). remains and other fossils have been discovered in the Hanshui In term of methodology, the “two traditions in North China” and River valley, making it one of the most intensively investigated “two traditions in the whole of China” were both summarized on areas of Paleolithic sites in China and East Asia. the basis of typological criteria including size, weight, morphology, thickness, or the type of retouch. Technological and techno- 3. Geographical and geological background functional method, which has been shown as efficient in revealing the homogeneity and variability of lithic industries from a The Hanshui River, 1577 km in length and the largest tributary of techno-cognitive perspective (Inizan et al., 1995; Boeda,€ 2001, the Yangtze, takes its source at Zhongshan, Ningqiang County, in 2013; Li, 2011; Li et al., 2009b, 2011b; Li and Bodin, 2013; Bodin, the southeast of Shaanxi Province, which is situated between the 2011, among many others), has not been applied to Chinese ma- Qinling Mountains and Micangshan Mountain. It flows through the terials in a systematic way, but has considerable potential in future center of China from northwest to southeast, with a drainage area studies of the Chinese Paleolithic. To date, few regions have been of 159,000 km2, covering mainly the provinces of Shaanxi, Henan, intensively researched apart from Zhoukoudian, the Nihewan and and Hubei and joining the Yangtze at Wuhan (Han, 2003). Located Bose basins and the Three Gorges region, which makes it difficult to in central China and characterized by a humid subtropical investigate large-scale lithic variability. Fortunately, in the past few monsoonal environment, the Hanshui River valley represents an years numerous stone artifacts and fossils attributed to the Pleis- important transitional zone between north and south China (Fig. 1). tocene have been found in the Hanshui River Valley, and these It is composed of deposits belonging to different periods, among provide sufficient materials for exploring the intra and inter- which the most extensive are Paleozoic metamorphic series, fol- regional homogeneity and variability of lithic industries. This pa- lowed by Neogene red clay and Quaternary sediments (Shen, 1956). per reviews the Paleolithic sites in the Hanshui River Valley and The river itself was mainly formed at the end of the Neogene. In the studies several lithic assemblages by applying a lithic technological Quaternary, fluvial erosion and intermittent tectonic movements and techno-functional methodology. associated with the uplift of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau formed four terraces from bottom to top in the upper reaches of the river: 2. History of discovery of and research into Paleolithic the modern flood plain less than 10 m above the river bed; an al- remains in the Hanshui River Valley luvial terrace at 10e15 m; a red clay terrace at 30e40 m; and a compound terrace at 70e80 m (Shen, 1956). The majority of From the 1950se1980s, many human and other mammalian Paleolithic sites were discovered in the upper reaches of the Han- fossils and stone artifacts were discovered in caves and open-air shui River and Danjiangkou Reservoir Region, in deposits of Ter- sites, including Meipu Longgu Cave (Li, 1980; Wu and Dong, races 2e4 of the Hanshui and its branch the Danjiang River. 1980), Xinghuashan (Qiu et al., 1982), Bailong Cave (Li, 1980), Although the height of terraces varies in different parts of these Xiaokongshan lower and upper caves (Xu, 1980; Zhang, 1982; Wang valleys, the deposits of each terrace were mostly consistent and et al., 1988), Zhangnao Cave (Huang et al., 1987), the Liangshan comparable, which helps determine the age of sediments yielding Longgangsi site (Yan, 1980; Yan and Wei, 1983; Huang and Qi, 1987; archaeological evidence. Tang et al., 1987) and Xuetangliangzi, a.k.a. the Yunxian Man site (Li and Etler, 1992; Yan, 1993; Chen et al., 1997; Li et al., 1998; Li and 4. Geochronology, taphonomy and sedimentology Feng, 2001). In the 1990s and due to the construction of the South-North Water Diversion Project of the Chinese government, Geochronology is a difficult issue for Paleolithic sites in the more than 100 Paleolithic sites were discovered on Terraces 2 and 3 Hanshui River Valley. For cave sites and the Yunxian Man site, the Table 1 150 Paleolithic sites' chronology in the Hanshui River Valley.

Sites Type Water system Terrace Stratigraphy Deposits Quantity of stone/bone Quantity of Quantity Age (ka BP) or Dating method References artifacts, other vestiges faunal fossils of human period fossils

Zhangnao Cave Cave Zhangnaohe T2 2 Isabelline sand >2000 stone artifacts 12 species None Late Late Stratigraphic Huang et al., 1987 River (fluvial deposits) in total in total Pleistocene comparison 14 3 Greenish yellow and red None 13.49 ± 0.15 C cemented deposits 4 Dark reddish-brown clay None Late Late Stratigraphic Pleistocene comparison Xiaokongshan Cave Kongshanhe 1 Cinereous clay (disturbed) 23 stone artifacts 3 None Later period lithostratigraphic Wang et al., 1988 upper cave River of late comparison Pleistocene 2 Tawny sandy clay 3 stone artifacts 6 None Later period Biostratigraphic of late comparison Pleistocene 3 Grayish brown sandy clay 135 stone artifacts none None Last glacial U-series on fossil maximum teeth Xiaokongshan Cave Kongshanhe 2 Grayish brown sandy clay >170 stone artifacts none None Later period of Stratigraphic Zhou, 1988; 148 (2014) 347 International Quaternary / al. et Li Y. lower cave River late Pleistocene correlation Wang et al., 1988 Dishuiyan Open-air Hanshui River T2 3,4 / >600 stone artifacts A few None 100e50 TT-OSL Liu and Feng, 2014 Houfang Open-air Hanshui River T2 2 Yellow-brown clay 89 stone artifacts none None Early Late Stratigraphic Li and Sun, 2013 (eolian soil) Pleistocene correlation 3 Red brown-maroon clay None Late Pleistocene Huanglong Cave Cave Dashuihe River 3 Red silty clay 38 stone artifacts, 50 species 7 teeth 94 U-series on fossil Wu et al., 2006; 6 bone artifacts, patches teeth Pei et al., 2008b; of burned materials Liu et al., 2010a 103e79 U-series on Wu et al., 2006; stalagmite Liu et al., 2010a 44e34 ESR on fossil teeth Wu et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2010a 100e77 U-series on Tu et al., 2011 calcareous plate Houfang Open-air Hanshui River T2 3 bluish grey clay 73 stone artifacts None None Late Middle Stratigraphic Li and Sun, 2013 (aqueous deposits inlaid Pleistocene correlation e

in eolian soil) 162 Xinghuashan Open-air Jihe River T2 5 Brown yellow sandy clay None 22 species 1 tooth Middle Biostratigraphic Qiu et al., 1982 Pleistocene comparison Meipu Longgu Cave Taohe River 2 Red sandy clay 1 stone artifact >20 species 4 teeth Early Middle Biostratigraphic Wu and Dong, 1980; Cave Pleistocene comparison Li, 1980 Bailong Cave Cave Laohe River 2 Red brown clay 38 stone artifacts, 29 species 7 teeth Early Middle Biostratigraphic Li, 1980; Wu et al., 2009 2 bone artifacts, Pleistocene comparison probable vestiges of Open-air Hanshui River T3 2 or 3 grayish yellow or >2000 stone artifacts 9 species None 600 TT-OSL Yan, 1980; Hanshui fire-use Longgangsi yellow-maroon sandy clay archaeological team Liangshan in Institute of Archaeology of Shaanxi Province (1985); Tang et al., 1987; Huang and Qi, 1987; Sun et al., 2012 Shuangshu Open-air Hanshui River T3 / / >900 stone artifacts None None 700 ESR Li et al., 2007, 2011a Open-air Hanshui River T4 C2 Red clay (fluvial deposits) 83 stone artifacts Few None / / Feng et al., 2011 Y. Li et al. / Quaternary International 347 (2014) 148e162 151

chronology was determined on the basis of biostratigraphic methods in conjunction with different dating techniques, including U-series and ESR dating, and magnetic stratigraphy. However, because fossils and other materials suitable for dating were rarely preserved in fluvial deposits, the dates of most open-air sites were based on geomorphologic and stratigraphic comparisons of the terraces, occasionally with references to mammalian fossils discovered in the same stratigraphic sequence. It was therefore on Li and Etler, 1992; Li et al., 1998; De Lumley and Li, 2008 Yan, 1993 De Lumley and Li, 2008; Feng et al., 2011 De Lumley and Li, 2008; Feng et al., 2011 Chen et al., 1997 Feng et al., 2011 the basis of dated cave sites and dated open-air localities that a macroscopic chronological framework of Paleolithic sites in the Hanshui River Valley was constructed (see Table 1). With respect to taphonomy, the Paleolithic sites of the Hanshui River Valley were dominated by open-air sites that yielded only stone artifacts and were buried on alluvial terraces. In contrast, Biochronology stratigraphy stratigraphy on mammalian fossil teeth nearly all hominin fossils associated with faunas were found in caves, except in the Yunxian Man site, which yielded two hominin crania and numerous mammalian fossils in fluvial deposits. As for 160 ESR, U-series 93 ESR ± 870 Magnetic the sedimentology, uncertainty remains about the nature and ± e genesis of deposits in some sites (especially open-air ones) which Pleistocene 830 936 Magnetic 1100 581 were reported as having been systematically excavated. The essential criteria for differentiating strata were the texture and color of sediments by macroscopic observation. Recent sedimen- tological analysis has indicated that in the upper reaches of the Hanshui River valley, the fluvial gravel bed and coarse fluvial sands usually underlie eolian soils which vary in thickness on Terraces 2e4. These eolian deposits containing loess-paleosol sequences yielded many stone artifacts and were suitable for OSL dating. This method was applied to Liangshan Longgangsi, Yaochangwan (Sun et al., 2012), Dishuiyan (Liu and Feng, 2014) and Houfang site (Li Yinghua et al., submitted for publication) and the dating results laid a basis for construction of a Paleolithic cultural sequence in this region.

5. Analytical method 218 stone artifacts 24 species 2 cranium Late Early 16 stone artifacts None None / / It was confirmed by experiments and archaeological evidence

means that the remains were analyzed as a whole in the previous report. that two basic modes of knapping were involved in lithic produc- ” tion, and these should first be differentiated (Boeda,€ 1991). The first is debitage, which consists in fracturing a raw material in order to In total

“ produce blanks and produces two categories of complementary

ne sand fl fi objects: cores and debitage products (e.g. akes, blades) (Inizan et al., 1995). In a technical system of lithic production based on fi uvial deposits) uvial deposits) debitage, cores are of premier importance because their con gu- fl fl ( ( ration and production exert a direct influence on the characteristics of desired blanks. In this sense a new perspective based on the structures of cores was proposed, thus enabling the definition of different systems of debitage (Boeda,€ 2013). Generally the core C3 Tawny sandy clay C4 Offwhite structures followed an evolutionary trajectory from additional (or abstract) structures to integrated (or concrete) ones. The additional structures are comprised of four types (A, B, C, D), which all consist in exploiting part(s) of blocks to produce suitable blanks (i.e. on a single block the useful volume of the core sensu stricto is inde- pendent of the volume that is not useful). The integrated structures include two types (E, F), which demand the integrity of a block to obtain desired products (i.e. the useful volume or the core sensu stricto is equal to the block in hand) (Boeda,€ 2013). Because Types A and B represent the most primitive modes and are difficult to observe in archaeological investigation except in exceptional con- dition of conservation, we will consider only Types C, D, E, F (Fig. 2) (Boeda,€ 2013). The useful volume of Type C (i.e. part of a block) possesses a natural surface of debitage with predetermined technical characters means that the information was not precise in the previous report or article. ”

/ such as lateral and distal convexity. The initialization consists in “ site : selecting a natural surface of debitage which is favorable for Yunxian Man fl

Note immediately removing the desired akes without intentional 152 Y. Li et al. / Quaternary International 347 (2014) 148e162

Fig. 1. Geographic location of major paleoanthropological and Paleolithic sites in the Hanshui River Valley (re-edited according to the base map supplied by National Geographic). A. Study area; 1. Liangshan Longgangsi; 2. Huanglong Cave; 3. Bailong Cave; 4. Yunxian Man site; 5. Houfang; 6. Zhangnao Cave; 7. Dishuiyan; 8. Liuwan; 9. Meipu Longgu Cave; 10. Yuzui-2; 11. Jiantanping; 12. Huangjiawan; 13. Hongshikan-Ⅰ; 14. Beitaishanmiao-2; 15. Shuiniuwa; 16. Dudian; 17. Shuangshu; 18. Waibiangou and Datubaozi; 19. Beitaishanmiao; 20. Guochachang-Ⅱ; 21. Longkou; 22. Pengjiahe; 23. Songwan; 24. Baidutan; 25. Boshan; 26. Xiaokongshan (Lower and Upper Cave); 27. Xinghuashan.

preparation. Once the platform, which may be a natural surface or The second mode of knapping is façonnage, which indicates a negative of previous removal, is suitable for knapping, it is possible sequence of knapping operation carried out for the purpose of to obtain one flake or a series of flakes (3 in most cases) in a manufacturing a single artifact by sculpting the raw material in recurrent way. accordance with the desired form. It can be fitted into any phase of The useful volume of Type D (i.e. part of a block) is intentionally a chaîne operatoire, aiming at creating a specific morphology (Inizan prepared on the surface of debitage and/or on a platform, yet the et al., 1995). The main operative schemes used to produce tools of part that is not useful remains natural. façonnage are exhibited in Fig. 3. The useful volume of Type E (i.e. the total block) is an integrated entity which will be knapped in an organized recurrent way to create a convexity favorable for successive removals. During 6. Representative sites debitage several categories of flakes, each bearing the same char- acter will be removed recurrently so as to maintain the operational The assemblages from all the sites considered here have several volumetric structure. Typical examples are discoid debitage (Type features in common (see Table 2). First, the knapping technique is E1) and pyramidal debitage (Type E2). always direct percussion by hard hammer. Second, quartz was the The useful volume of Type F (i.e. the total block) is an integrated dominant raw material, which was exclusively used in Bailong entity which will be intentionally initialized in advance in order to Cave and Xiaokongshan Cave. In other sites e.g. Huanglong Cave, confer particular technical characters upon the predetermined flakes Zhangnao Cave, Yunxian Man site, Longgangsi and Houfang site, a to be removed. In other words, the initialization of the core is small quantity of pieces were also made on quartzite, silicilith, separated from the production of predetermined flakes. The typical sandstone, black slate, metamorphic schist, sand-quartzite or example is Levallois debitage (Type F1) and several modes of debitage siltstone. Third, the basic modes of knapping, both debitage and ç for blades and micro-blades (Type F2). In addition, there is a fa onnage were always used, except for Bailong Cave, where only particular debitage of Type F, namely bipolar debitage,whichconsists debitage was indicated. Fourth, the only types of debitage were of selecting a cobble presenting all necessary technical characters types C and F-bipolar, apart from Liangshan Longgangsi, at which and dividing it into two identical hemi-cobbles by splitting, or Type E1 (discoid) was also present and except for Xiaokongshan, several irregular pieces such as “orange segments”, “chips”, “flakes” Yunxian Man site, Liangshan Longgangsi where the Type F-bipolar fi fi and fragments. For this type of debitage, the selection of cobbles is was not de nitely indicated; and fthly, the operative scheme 1 of ç fundamental because they must possess all the necessary natural fa onnage was the most popular, except for Bailong Cave at which ç technique characters in order to obtain desired blanks (Fig. 2). no products of fa onnage were present. Y. Li et al. / Quaternary International 347 (2014) 148e162 153

6.1. Cave sites 7 ç 6.1.1. Bailong Cave Bailong Cave is located in Shenwuling village, Anjia Town in 6Fa 0 00 0 00 ç Yunxi County, Hubei Province (32 59 40.0 N, 110 31 33.6 E). In three excavations in 1977,1982 and 2007, seven human fossil teeth,

5Fa many mammalian fossils, some stone and bone artifacts and ç probable vestiges of fire-use were found in situ (Xiang, 1977; Li, 1980; Qun, 1983; Wu et al., 2009). Eight stratigraphic layers more fi 4Fa than 2.4 m thick were identi ed and the archaeological remains ç were mainly in layer 2 that comprised red clay (Wu et al., 2009). The mammalian fossils comprised 29 species attributed to the . 3Fa southern Ailuropoda-Stegodon faunal complex of the Early and ç Middle Pleistocene, including Ailuropoda wulingshanensis, Stegodon onnage

ç sp., Megantereon sp., Leptobos brevicornis, Cervus yunnanensis, fa 2Fa Capricornis sumatraensis, Nemorhaedus sp., and Bubalus sp. Some ç surface modification marks were also identified on fossil bones, means

” revealing human activities such as the manufacture and use of bone ç 1Fa Fa

ç tools, hunting and food sharing (Wu et al., 2008a; Wang et al., “

xxxxxx 2009). In addition, two bone tools similar to points were identi- and fied (Wu et al., 2009). Thirty-eight stone artifacts were unearthed in Layer 2. These ebitage fl d included cores, akes, fragments, chunks, and formal retouched tools, such as scrapers, burins and choppers (Wu et al., 2009). From

means a technological perspective, debitage was the only mode of knap- ” ping. Two operative schemes were present; one was a small

Deb “ quantity of bipolar debitage which belonged to Type F, and the other was attributed to “Type C” (Boeda,€ 2013)(Fig. 4).

6.1.2. Huanglong Cave Huanglong Cave (Huanglongdong) is located in Lishiguan Village, Xiangkou Town, Yunxi County of Hubei Province (3307062.800N, 11013004.300E), 598 m above sea level with a northeast facing opening. The site was discovered in 2004 and in

Deb C Deb D Deb E1 Deb F-bipolar Fa three seasons of excavations from 2004 to 2006, seven human fossil teeth, a large quantity of animal fossils, some stone and bone ar- tifacts and evidence of fire use were discovered. The deposits were divided into five layers and the archaeological remains were HHx xxxx technique unearthed in Layer 3 which comprised a red silt clay (Wu et al., 2006, 2007a,b; Wang et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2009a, 2009b). The human fossil teeth were attributed to modern Chinese, but a few characters may link them to more archaic hominids. On some teeth, activity-induced abrasion and other tooth use-marks were identified, which indicates that the Late Pleistocene humans of the Huanglong Cave used their anterior teeth for gnawing, holding, peeling or maybe used them for tools (Liu et al., 2008, 2010a, 2010b). Some evidence of fire use was also identified (Liu et al., means the knapping technique is direct percussion by hard hammer.

” 2009a). HH

“ The mammalian fauna represents a mixed fauna from different environments and comprised of 50 species (Wu et al., 2006, 2007b;

metamorphic schist, sandstone, sand-quartzite, gneiss and rhyolite Liu et al., 2010a). These include some extinct ones (e.g., Macaca robustus, Cricetinus varians, Crocuta ultima, Ailuropoda melanoleuca baconi, Ursus thibetanus kokeni, Stegodon orientalis, Rhinoceros sinensis, Megatapirus augustus) but also extant ones (e.g., Neofelis 170 Quartz HH x x x 120 Quartz, quartzite and volcanic rocks HH xnebulosa, Cuon x alpinus, Canis lupus, Arctonyx collaris, Paguma lar- > > vata, Sus scrofa, Rusa unicolor, Cervus nippon). Because ca. 20% of the species are extinct, the cave deposits were probably formed in the 4 c. 2000 Quartz, silicilith, sandstone HH x x x

e Late Pleistocene. Several dating techniques were used, including U- 232 3 135 Quartz Quartz HH HH x x C2-4 453 Quartz, quartzite, black slate, 2, 3 3 73 Quartz, quartz sandstone, siltstone HH x x x series on rhinoceros teeth and on pure and dense stalagmite samples and ESR on rhinoceros teeth, yielding an age range of 103e34 ka (Wu et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2010a; Tu et al., 2011). In layer 3, 38 stone artifacts were found, including cores, flakes, means presence of such a mode of knapping. ”

x hammers, retouched tools, fragments and chunks that were mostly “ upper Cave lower Cave Longgangsi : medium and small-sized. The quartz and quartzite used for making Bailong CaveHuanglong CaveXiaokongshan 3 2 38 38 Quartz, quartzite Quartz HH HH x x x x x x Xiaokongshan Zhangnao Cave 2 Yunxian Man Liangshan Houfang 2 89 Quartz, quartz sandstone, siltstone HH x x x x x x Site Layer N artifacts Raw material Knapping Note Table 2 Summary of the main features of the lithic assemblages from the Hanshui River Valley. tools came from the rock adjoining the cave, but some cobbles from 154 Y. Li et al. / Quaternary International 347 (2014) 148e162

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of debitage system classified on the basis of cores structures (Boeda,€ 2013). Type C and D belong to additional structure and Type E and F to integrated structure. For additional structure, the block to be knapped is always comprised of two independent parts: one is useful volume (i.e. core sensu stricto), the other is unuseful volume, yet it is not excluded that the unuseful volume would be flaked if it possesses appropriate technique characters and meets requirements of knappers. For in- tegrated structure, the block to be knapped is an integral entity. As to Type E1-discoid debitage, the initialization and production of flakes are interdependent in successive way. Yet for Type F1 and F2, the initialization and production of flakes are clearly separated and the initialization is realized either by preparation plus selection or by total selection. For Type F-bipolar debitage, all technique characters are naturally present on selected cobbles and the production of blanks is simple. the nearby riverbed were also exploited. Scrapers were the domi- commonest types of formal tools. The source of the quartz used for nant formal tool type, but choppers, picks, a burin and an awl were tool making was principally pebbles from the nearby riverbed also present (Pei et al., 2008b). (Wang et al., 1988). As at Bailong Cave, there was a small quantity of Type F-bipolar In the lower cave, stone artifacts and mammalian fossils were debitage, with the rest attributed to “Type C” (Boeda,€ 2013). With found in Layer 2, which comprised a gray-brown sandy clay, but the the Type C cores, the platform was usually natural, but sometimes fossils were very few and difficult to identify. The sediments of the the negative surface from previous removals. The lateral and distal lower cave were probably contemporaneous with those of the convexity was usually natural or formed by negatives intersecting upper cave (Zhou, 1988). More than 170 stone artifacts were found, on debitage surface. As for façonnage, the artifacts were mostly including cores, flakes, chunks, scrapers, choppers, and spheroids unifacially-worked. Two operative schemes were applied: one was that were mostly made from quartz pebbles from the local riverbed scheme 1 (on a matrix of simple bevel), and the other was scheme 3 (Wang et al., 1988). Cores were the commonest artifact type, and (unifacially-knapped and with a convergent cutting-edge on the classified into five groups: these were mostly double-platformed, distal part). funnel-formed, or cone-shaped, but a few were oval and irregular (Zhou, 1992). 6.1.3. Xiaokongshan Cave and Zhangnao Cave Zhangnao Cave in Longtan Town, Fangxian County of Hubei Xiaokongshan Cave is located in Xiaodian Town, Nanzhao Province was discovered and excavated in 1986. It is located on County of Henan Province. It lies 265 m above sea level and 52 m Terrace 2 of Zhangnaohe River, which is a secondary branch of the above the river bed of the Kongshanhe River, a secondary branch of Hanshui River. The cave was formed by erosion by the Zhangnaohe the Hanshui, and comprised an upper and lower cave, with a ver- River. The deposits were divided into five layers and the stone ar- tical height of 7 m (Xu, 1980; Zhang, 1982; Wang et al., 1988). tifacts and mammalian fossils were found in Layers 2e4. Most of The deposits of the upper cave were divided into three layers. the mammalian fossils belonged to the southern Ailuropoda-Steg- The mammalian fossils were mostly from Layers 1 and 2, and the odon faunal complex. 14C dating yielded an age of 13,490 ± 150 stone artifacts were mainly from Layer 3, which comprised a gray- years for Layer 3 (Huang et al., 1987). brown sandy clay. The mammalian fossils included some species More than 2000 stone artifacts were found and some were representative of the Late Pleistocene, such as Ursus arctos, Equus analyzed in previous reports. The lithic assemblage was dominated przewalskyi, C. ultima, and Myospalax fontanier. U-series dating on by flakes and scrapers; cores, choppers and points were also pre- teeth of Cervus fossils from Layer 3 indicated that the sediments sent but in lower proportions. Cores were classified as single-, were deposited during the last glacial maximum (Wang et al., double- or multi-platformed (Huang et al., 1987). 1988). Layers 2 and 3 yielded respectively three and 135 stone ar- From a technological perspective, the lithic assemblages from tifacts, including cores, flakes, choppers, scrapers, points, and bu- the lower and upper caves of Xiaokongshan and Zhangnao Cave are rins. Of these, scrapers, choppers and small points were the comparable. As at Bailong Cave, there was some Type F-bipolar .L ta./Qaenr nentoa 4 21)148 (2014) 347 International Quaternary / al. et Li Y. e 162

Fig. 3. Schematic representation of main operative schemes of façonnage used to produce tools (matrix of simple/double bevels was edited after Boeda€ and Hou, 2011; polyhedron, spheroid and bola was edited after Inizan et al., 1995). The arrows indicate the direction of knapping and the red line indicates the position and outline of cutting-edge on front/sagittal face. This figure shows a principal way for observing and orienting tools of façonnage from technological perspective and there certainly exists some more variability in some technique characters such as outline on front face and transversal section on the mesial/distal part of tools. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) 155 156 Y. Li et al. / Quaternary International 347 (2014) 148e162

Fig. 4. Representative types of debitage from major Paleolithic sites of the Hanshui River Valley (re-edited after Pei et al., 2008b; Wang et al., 1988; Wu et al., 2009; Feng, 2004; Li and Sun, 2013; Lu et al., 2006; Leng, 2001). 1. Core of Type C (Huanglong Cave Ⅱ③:6); 2. Core of Type C (Xiaokongshan Lower Cave); 3. Core of Type C (Bailong Cave BLD2007-008); 4,6. Cores of Type C (Yunxian Man site EP176, EP181); 5. Core of Type F-bipolar debitage (Houfang 2010YHAT2③:151); 7. Core of Type C (Houfang 2010YHAT1②:28); 8. Core of Type E1-Discoid debitage (Liangshan Longgangsi P6218); 9. Core of Type C (Liangshan Longgangsi P6232). debitage, and the rest was Type C, which consisted in selecting a 200 m above sea level and 50 m above river bed (Huang and Li, platform of either flat cortex or the negative of a previous removal, 1995). The sediments yielding Paleolithic remains consist of (from on the periphery of which a series of flakes were removed in a top to bottom) red clay (C2), tawny sandy clay (C3), and off-white unidirectional way. There were usually less than five flakes in a fine sand (C4) (Li et al., 1998; De Lumley and Li, 2008). Two cra- single debitage series. For façonnage, the tools were mostly pro- nia, found in layer C3 showed a mixed feature of Homo erectus and duced by operative scheme 1 (on a matrix of simple bevel). “archaic Homo sapiens” and were attributed to H. erectus (Li and Etler, 1992; Li et al., 1996)orH. sapiens (Zhang, 1998). Twenty- 6.2. Open-air sites four species of mammalian fossils, mostly collected in layer C3 represented a mixed faunal complex of different geographic zones, 6.2.1. Yunxian Man site which comprised Neogene residual species such as Homotherium Yunxian Man site is so far the only site definitely dated to the sp. and common members of Early Quaternary faunas in China, Early Pleistocene in the Hanshui River valley. It is located on a hill including C. yunnanensis Lin, Pan et Lu, Cervus (Rusa) elegans Teil- named “Xuetangliangzi” (32490500 N, 110350500 E) near Qingqu hard et Piveteau, Hyaena licenti Pei and typical species of Early Late town, Mituosi village at the confluence of the Quyuanhe and Quaternary faunas Ailuropoda melanoleuca wulingshanensis Wang Hanshui Rivers. The site was buried on the fourth fluvial terrace on et Lin, indicating that this faunal complex and hominids could be the left bank of the Hanshui River. The top of this terrace is about attributed to the late Early Pleistocene (Li et al., 1998; Feng et al., Y. Li et al. / Quaternary International 347 (2014) 148e162 157

2011). Several methods were used to date the site, including yielded more than 120 stone artifacts which have been studied magnetic stratigraphy, ESR, and U-series (Table 1). On the basis of typologically. The raw materials were dominated by cobbles of biostratigraphic analysis and recent dating results, the Yunxian Man quartz, followed by quartzite and volcanic rocks which were all site was dated to 936 ka (Feng et al., 2011). available on the riverbed located on the bottom of Terrace 3 (Huang To date, a total of 453 lithic artifacts have been discovered, and Qi, 1987; Tang et al., 1987). The lithic assemblage comprised including 317 from a stratigraphic context (83 from Layer C2, 218 cores (26.45%), flakes (19.83%), tools (53.72%) and stone hammers from Layer C3, and 16 from Layer C4) and 136 collected from the (1.65%). The cores were classified as single-platformed, multi- surface. Quartz is the dominant raw material (50%), along with platformed, and discoid. The tools include choppers and chopping- quartzite, black slate, metamorphic schist and a very small quantity tools, spheroids, picks, scrapers, notches, borers and bifaces, among of sandstone, sand-quartzite, gneiss, and rhyolite. The lithic which heavy-duty tools are predominant (~44%, calculated after Lu assemblage was dominated by large pebble tools involving façon- et al., 2006). nage (26.3%), including choppers (13.7%), chopping-tools (2%), and Two types of debitage systems were applied to obtain flakes. The bifaces (2%). Four cleavers and several picks were also found. The first type, sometimes called “unipolar flaking” included two oper- products of debitage are also present in relatively low proportions, ative schemes. Operative scheme 1 consisted of removing flakes including cores (4.8%), whole flakes (27.4%) and debris (14.8%). The from ovoid cobbles (6e10 cm in diameter) along the periphery of a cores were classified into several types, including centripetal, uni- flat natural surface, mostly cortical, but sometimes the fissuring of facial or bifacial cores, pyramidal, prismatic, orthogonal and non- cobbles, which served as a platform. When this natural platform standardized cores (De Lumley and Li, 2008; Feng, 2008). was absent, the block was usually fractured into two parts, pro- Twenty-seven small tools (5.9%) were identified, including notches, ducing a unique large negative removal as a platform. The con- denticulates, scrapers, and burins. Some unworked pebbles or vexity was formed mainly by natural surfaces on cobbles and by fractured pebbles with isolated negatives (20.7%) were also recurrent removals intersecting on the debitage surface. Operative discovered (De Lumley and Li, 2008; some data calculated after; scheme 2 consisted in producing flakes from a flatter cobble and Feng, 2008). Two stone hammers were identified in Layer C3 (Li changing direction of flaking more frequently than in operative et al., 1998). scheme 1. The convexity was less prominent and usually formed by For debitage, the platform of each series was usually cortical and two surfaces or recurrent negatives intersecting on debitage sur- sometimes the negative surface of previous removals. Generally, on face. For the two operative schemes, the debitage series on a single a single core three debitage series were usually obtained, and in a core were no more than seven (usually three) and the flakes ob- single debitage series three flakes were removed on average. The tained in a single debitage series were usually fewer than three convexity suitable for debitage was formed by cortex of cobbles and (Fig. 4). The first type of debitage system was attributed to Type C by negatives of previous flakes (Fig. 4). In terms of operative (Boeda,€ 2013). The second type of debitage system refers to discoid schemes, the debitage can be attributed to “Type C” (Boeda,€ 2013). cores characterized by an intersecting plan between two surfaces As for façonnage, several operative schemes were applied to pro- and the flakes were recurrently removed in an oblique, secant, and duce different tools, including operative scheme 1 (on matrix of centripetal direction so as to maintain the operational volumetric simple bevel), operative scheme 2 (on matrix of double bevels), structure (Fig. 4). It was thus attributed to Type E1 (Boeda,€ 2013). operative scheme 3 (unifacially-knapped and with convergent As for façonnage, several operative schemes were used to make cutting-edge on the distal part). For operative scheme 4 (bifacially- heavy-duty tools, including operative scheme 1 (on matrix of knapped and with convergent cutting-edge on the distal part), a simple bevel), operative scheme 2 (on matrix of double bevels), few tools were collected on the surface near the site, which operative scheme 3 (unifacially-knapped and with a convergent possessed biplan/biplan but apparently asymmetric transversal cutting-edge on the distal part), operative scheme 4 (bifacially- section and a slender point on the distal part. The retouch was very knapped and with a convergent cutting-edge on the distal part), simple because the cutting-edge was suitable for use as soon as the operative scheme 5 (tools with a longitudinal cutting-edge), and process of façonnage was finished (Fig. 5). operative scheme 6 (spheroids) (Figs. 3 and 5). For operative scheme 4 (evidenced by only one typical biface), the blank was a 6.2.2. Liangshan Longgangsi site flake with a natural convex dorsal face. From the ventral face of the Liangshan Mountain, in Nanzheng County, Shaanxi Province, is flake a series of unipolar flakes were removed in a direction located in the south of Hanzhong Basin, on the upper reaches of the perpendicular to the morphological axe of the flake and then three Hanshui River valley. The Hanzhong Basin, located between Qinling smaller removals were produced to create a convergent outline on and Dabashan Mountains contains a site complex of dozens of the distal part. As a result, the transversal sections on the mesial Paleolithic localities (Hanshui archaeological team in Institute of and distal parts were respectively biplan/convex (S1) and biplan/ Archaeology of Shaanxi Province, 1985; Tang et al., 1987). Long- biplan (S2) (Figs. 3 and 5). Retouch was absent because the cutting- gangsi is the best known site in this region, with an elevation of edge was suitable for using as soon as the process of façonnage was about 540 m above sea level (Yan, 1980; Huang and Qi, 1987). Five finished. terraces were developed near Liangshan Mountain along the Hanshui River valley and the stone artifacts were mainly found in 6.2.3. Houfang site layer 2 and 3 on Terrace 3 consisting of grayish yellow or yellow- The Houfang site (32480 3200 N, 110350 400 E) is located in maroon sandy clay, intermingled with calcareous concretions and Wangjiashan Village, Qingqu Town, 20 km west of Yunxian County underlain occasionally by sand and gravels (Huang and Qi, 1987; of Hubei Province, 1.5 km south of Yunxian Man site, and 184 m Tang et al., 1987). At the locality of Dabagou, some mammalian above sea level. It was discovered in 1994 during surveys under- fossils attributed to the Middle Pleistocene southern Ailuropoda- taken by IVPP (Li, 1998). A rescue excavation was carried out by a Stegodon faunal complex were discovered in the same layer as the team comprised of Wuhan University, Nanjing University and stone artifacts (Tang et al., 1987). TT-OSL dating results suggest that Yunxian Museum of Hubei Province from October to November in the Longgangsi site was occupied by hominids approximately 2010, exposing an area of 400 m2 (Li and Sun, 2013). 600 ka (Sun et al., 2012). The Houfang site is situated in Yunxian Basin, on the left bank of To date, more than 2000 stone artifacts were found in the upper reaches of Hanshui River (Fig. 1). Along the valley near the Hanzhong Basin along the Hanshui River valley. Longgangsi site site four Pleistocene terraces were developed, respectively situated 158 Y. Li et al. / Quaternary International 347 (2014) 148e162

Fig. 5. Representative operative schemes of façonnage from major Paleolithic sites of the Hanshui River Valley (re-edited after Lu et al., 2006; Pei et al., 2008b; Feng, 2008; Wu et al., 2009; Li and Sun, 2013). S1. transversal section on mesial part; S2, transversal section on distal part; 1. Operative scheme 1 (Huanglong Cave S1E2③: 52); 2. Operative scheme 1 (Bailong Cave BZS001); 3. Operative scheme 3 (Liangshan Longgangsi P6294); 4. Operative scheme 4 (Liangshan Longgangsi P6211); 5. Operative scheme 1 (Houfang 2010YHAT1②:16); 6. Operative scheme 4 (Houfang 2010YHAT1②:15); 7. Operative scheme 4 (Yunxian Man site EP304); 8. Operative scheme 3 (Houfang 2010YHAT1②:14); 9. Operative scheme 3 (Yunxian Man site EP194). at 50 m, 40 m, 25 m and 10 m above the old river level. Except on Layer 2 was eolian soil and Layer 3 was a water-lain deposit in Terrace 1, the fluvial gravel bed and coarse fluvial sands underlie eolian sediments (Li and Sun, 2013). eolian soils, which vary in thickness: 2e10 m on Terrace 2, 1e5m The date of 936 ka for the Yunxian Man site on Terrace 4 (Feng on Terrace 3 and 20 m on Terrace 4. The stone artifacts were buried et al., 2011) can be used to constrain the age of the Houfang site in Layer 2 and Layer 3 that respectively comprised yellow-brown in view of short distance between the two sites. Geomorphologic clay and bluish grey clay. Sedimentological analysis indicated that and stratigraphic comparisons associated with TT-OSL dating Y. Li et al. / Quaternary International 347 (2014) 148e162 159 suggested that the Houfang site on Terrace 2 could be attributed to 7. Discussion and conclusion a period from the late Middle Pleistocene to early Late Pleistocene. Because the Houfang site was excavated by the first author and Macroscopic technological and techno-functional analysis the technological and techno-functional analysis of this assemblage indicated that three types of debitage (i.e. Type C, E1, and F-bipolar) was completed, the operative schemes of lithic production of this and at least seven operative schemes of façonnage were used in site will be described in detail to discuss the homogeneity and lithic production from the Early to Late Pleistocene in the Hanshui variability of lithic industries of the Hanshui River Valley in tech- River Valley. The lithic industries are highly homogeneous. The raw nological perspective. materials were mostly water-rounded cobbles available from the The archaeological remains found in this site were exclusively gravel beds of the nearby river, in which quartz and quartzite were lithic artifacts, including 73 from Layer 3 and 89 from Layer 2. The predominant. The technique was mainly direct percussion with raw materials were exclusively water-rounded cobbles, locally hard hammer. In terms of cognitive modes manifested by operative available from the ancient riverbed on the bottom of Terrace 2 of schemes, debitage and façonnage coexisted at nearly all sites and Hanshui River. The majority of raw materials were quartz (>70% showed continuity and stability. For debitage, the Type C was the of the whole assemblage), followed by quartz sandstone (9.26%) most widely used system and identified at almost every site. The and siltstone (7.41%). From a technological perspective, both Type F-bipolar debitage was less widely used and identified at only debitage and façonnage coexisted in Layers 2 and 3. In Layer 3, two some sites. Liangshan Longgangsi was the only site with Type E1 types of debitage were identified; one was Type F-bipolar debitage, debitage (discoid). For façonnage, the operative scheme 1 (on matrix and the other was Type C (Boeda,€ 2013). For Type F-bipolar of simple bevel) was the most popular. For operative scheme 4, the debitage, the operative scheme consisted in selecting ovoid quartz bifaces also showed some similarity in technical characters (e.g. a cobbles as cores and then resting them on an anvil and striking transversal section on the mesial part and distal parts). The oper- them with a hammer stone. It would produce some regular “or- ative schemes of both debitage (especially Type C and F-bipolar) ange segments” under ideal conditions, but in most cases it would and façonnage systems were extremely similar in that the initiali- produce several irregular pieces such as orange segments, chips, zation consisted essentially in selecting raw materials that could be flakes or other fragments. Some products thus obtained could be knapped without any platform preparation. This emphasis on se- retouched or immediately used. A few orange segments were lection of natural technical characters rather than on intentional selected as cores of Type C. Once the striking platform was formed preparation is one of the most salient features of lithic production on one end of orange segments (i.e. a flat surface created occa- in Pleistocene of the Hanshui River Valley. sionally or intentionally), the debitage of Type C would be un- Two aspects of the variability of lithic production have been dertaken along the morphological axe of the core, in a considered. One was inter-regional variability (between the lithic unidirectional way and by taking advantage of lateral convexity industries of the Hanshui River Valley and those of the West), and formed by prominent crests, which were created by flat surfaces the other was intra-regional (between the lithic industries of the intersecting on debitage surface. After removing the first debitage Hanshui River Valley and those from other regions in China). series (including three/four unipolar flakes), another part of this Regarding inter-regional variability, the focal issue is the rela- core was exploited, corresponding to the second debitage series. tionship between lithic assemblages containing bifaces in the As to façonnage, only one untypical unifacially-knapped imple- Hanshui River Valley and those of Europe, Southwest Asia and Af- ment was identified but the knapping operation finally failed due rica. As reported, bifaces were found in situ in 13 open-air sites in to the presence of fissuring. the Hanshui River Valley, including Shuangshu (Li et al., 2007, In Layer 2, two types of debitage were identified; one was Type 2011a), Beitaishanmiao locality 2 (Fang et al., 2012), Dudian (He, F-bipolar debitage, and the other was Type C (Boeda,€ 2013). For 2009), Shuiniuwa (Chen et al., 2014a), Waibiangou and Datubaozi Type F-bipolar debitage, the operative scheme consisted in select- (Li et al., 2011a), Longkou (Wang, 2011), Jiantanping (Hou and Li, ing a long and relatively oblate cobble as a core, then resting it on an 2007), Yunxian Quyuanhekou (Lu, 2007), Liuwan (Feng et al., anvil and knapping it with a hammer stone. Nearly all products 2012), Yuzui-2 (Chen et al., 2014b), Houfang (Li and Sun, 2013), thus obtained were hemi-cobbles. For Type C, the operative scheme Guochachang-Ⅱ (Li et al., 2013) and Dishuiyan (Liu and Feng, 2014). consisted of selecting cobbles with an approximately quadrangular These discoveries have received much attention. For example, some transversal section which provided natural lateral convexity for biface-bearing assemblages discovered in the Danjiangkou Reser- subsequent debitage series. Firstly, one or two flakes were removed voir Region and attributed to the Lower Paleolithic were recently from a natural platform, creating relatively flat negatives which analyzed from a typological perspective, leading to rethinking served as a platform for the second series. In the second series, about the relationship between lithic industries of East Asia and several flakes were removed in a unipolar direction. The third or Acheulean complex (Li et al., 2014b). In contrast, our materials were fourth series were then produced in a unipolar direction, either all from the upstream parts of the Danjiangkou Reservoir Region from the negative of the second series or from a natural flat surface. (e.g. Liangshan Longgangsi, Yunxian Man site, and Houfang) and it Each series comprised fewer than four useful flakes and each core was the first time that the lithic technological and techno- contained no more than four debitage series. As for façonnage,a functional method was applied to materials of this region in a total of eight tools were unearthed and four operative schemes systematic way. On the basis of our detailed analysis two charac- were identified, including operative scheme 1 (N ¼ 4, on matrix of teristics concerning these lithic assemblages with bifaces in situ simple bevel), operative scheme 3 (N ¼ 1, bifacially knapped, with a were clearly revealed: first, the percentage of bifaces is much lower convergent cutting-edge on the distal part and an approximately (<5%) than in Acheulean Complex; second and from a technological inverted triangular transversal section on the mesial part), opera- perspective, the operative scheme for producing typical bifaces is tive scheme 4 (N ¼ 2, bifacially knapped, with a convergent cutting- totally different from those of Acheulean implements. In addition to edge on the distal part and a biplan/biplan transversal section on façonnage, the debitage systems used in lithic production of the the mesial and distal parts) (Figs. 3 and 5), operative scheme 7 Hanshui River Valley were also distinct from those of Europe, South (N ¼ 1, bifacially knapped, with an irregularly trapezoidal- West Asia and Africa in that the types of debitage in this region were transversal section on the mesial part, an oblique triangular comprised of Type C, E1 and F-bipolar debitage but the Type F1- transversal section on the distal part and an irregularly long- Levallois debitage was not identified. According to these operative triangular profile on the sagittal face). schemes a clear distinction can be made between the Hanshui River 160 Y. Li et al. / Quaternary International 347 (2014) 148e162

Valley and large parts of the West, suggesting that the Paleolithic Boeda,€ E., 2001. Determination des unites techno-fonctionnelles de pieces bifaciales ' cultures of the Hanshui River Valley seemed to follow a different provenant de la couche acheuleenne C 3 base du site de Barbas I. In: Cliquet, D. (Ed.), Les industries a outils bifaciaux du Paleolithique moyen d'Europe occi- and independent trajectory. dentale, Actes de la table-ronde internationale organisee a Caen (Basse-Nor- As for intra-regional variability, the lithic industries of Han- mandie, France), 14e15 Octobre 1999, vol. 98. ERAUL, pp. 51e75. “ Boeda,€ E., 2004. Relationship between east and west Asia in Paleolithic age. Qua- shui River Valley were usually attributed to the Pebble Tool e ” “ ternary Sciences 24 (3), 255 264 (in Chinese with English abstract). Tradition of southern China , which is different from the Flake Boeda,€ E., 2013. Techno-logique & Technologie: Une paleo-histoire des objets lith- Tool Tradition in northern China” (Wang, 1998; Feng, 2001; iques tranchants. @rcheo-editions.com, France, p. 264. € Zhang, 2002). However, our technological analysis suggested Boeda, E., Hou, Y.M., 2011. Analyses des artefacts lithiques du site de Longgupo. L'Anthropologie 115, 78e175. that the lithic assemblages of this region were comprised of Bordes, F., 1978. Foreword. In: Ikawa-Smith, T. (Ed.), Early Paleolithic in South and both “Pebble Tools” and “Flake Tools” and that the “Pebble East Asia. Mouton, the Hague, pp. IXeX. Tools” sensu stricto were not predominant products in some Chen, Q.J., Chen, X.Y., Fang, Q., 2014a. A preliminary report on the excavation of the fl Shuiniuwa Paleolithic site in the Danjiangkou Reservoir Region. Acta Anthro- lithic assemblages. In addition, akes would be selected as pologica Sinica 33 (1), 25e38 (in Chinese with English abstract). blanks to produce large heavy-duty tools, as shown by the Chen, S.Q., Chen, H., Dong, Z., Yang, K., 2014b. A preliminary report on the exca- typical biface of the Longgangsi site, indicating the correlation of vation of Yuzui Paleolithic locality 2, Yunxian County, Hubei Province (in Chi- e “two traditions” in lithic production. Therefore, the “two tradi- nese). Acta Anthropologica Sinica 33 (1), 39 50 (in Chinese with English abstract). tions in the whole China” oversimplify the enormous diversity of Chen, T.M., Yang, Q., Hu, Y.Q., Bao, W.B., Li, T.Y., 1997. ESR dating of tooth enamel the lithic industries of China and are not effective indicators of from Yunxian Homo erectus site, China. Quaternary Science Reviews (Quater- e their variability. By contrast, our analysis has enabled the nary Geochronology) 16, 455 458. Clark, J.D., 1998. The early Palaeolithic of the eastern region of the Old World in proposition of new criteria for defining and comparing lithic comparison to the west. In: Korisettar, R., Petraglia, M.D. (Eds.), Early Human industries. These criteria are based on operative schemes of Behavior in Global Context: the Rise and Diversity of the Lower Palaeolithic e lithic production and thus provide a systematic framework for Record. Routledge, London, pp. 437 450. De Lumley, H., Li, T.Y., 2008. Le site de l'Homme de Yunxian: Quyuanhekou, interpreting variability of hominin techno-cognitive modes and Quingqu, Yunxian, Province Du Hubei. CNRS, Paris. related technical behaviors. Dennell, R., 2003. Dispersal and colonisation, long and short chronologies : how To date, and despite the abundance of Paleolithic sites in the continuous is the Early Pleistocene record for hominids outside East Africa ? Journal of Human Evolution 45, 421e440. 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