Traditionalism

Chapter V Traditionalism 168

Chapter V

Traditionalism

This chapter, like the chapters before, first discusses the term 'Tradition' and its definition and diary. Then TraditionaHsm in Christianity, Judaism and Islam is examined, and it is shown that the Traditionalism in this research differs from all of them. Following this, the Traditionalists, their biographies and works are introduced briefly. The characteristics of Traditionalists' thoughts are presented in the next part. The last few parts are allotted to highlighting the differences between Traditionalists and fundamentalists; and the similarities between Traditionalists and religious Reformists. Gandhi's viewpoints, as a successful religious Reformist, are also considered in the last section.

Tradition

Mircea Eliade has written about term 'tradition' in The Encyclopedia of Religion, "The word 'tradition' comes from the Latin noun tradition ('handing over'), which drives from the verb tradere ('hand over, deliver'). Traditio corresponds closely to the Greek paradosis, which also comes from a verb (paradidonii) meaning 'hand Traditionalism 169 over'. Traditio and paradosis can be used literally or figuratively, in the later case often to mean 'teaching' or 'instruction'." ^ But different definitions about the concept of tradition have been presented that are not easy to add up together. On the basis of Routledge Encyclopedia, "Tradition is that body of practice and belief which is socially transmitted from the past. It is regarded as having authority in the present simply because it comes from the past, and encapsulates the wisdom and experience of the past."^ Every tradition is created by teaching and learning. The concept of tradition is not separate from culture and different branches of knowledge like education, art, science, literature, religion, and politics. A tradition includes some beliefs or practices that have been received from the past by writings, speeches, behaviors and other kinds of transmission of categories. Often, a tradition is accepted on the basis of the reliability of their authors. It is necessary to distinguish between tradition and fashion or rumor, because these categories are also received from others, but they are not reliable and are not chosen as source of knowledge. For believers, traditions are respected, because their performers and authors were respected people. The category of tradition exists in all religions but with different functions. The function of religious tradition depends on the source of religius belief and practice. The authoritative teachers and are keepers, interpreters and missionaries of religious traditions. In Judaism, the words of masornh and qabhlah mean Traditionalism 170 tradition. These words "come from verbs meaning 'hand down' and 'receive' respectively. The verbs are used at the beginning of the early rabbinic Ethics of the Fathers (Avot 1.1) with reference to the handing down of the Torah from God to Moses, Moses to Joshua, Joshua to the elders, and so on. However, the nouns masornli and qahhalah eventually came to be used not for tradition in the comprehensive sense but for very specialized traditions"^ In Christianity, the tradition that is transmitted by the disciples is Christ's speech, act and affections. But contrary to other religions, the grace of the Holy Spirit does not finish after the death of the messenger. The grace of the Holy Spirit continues and is received by dispels after Christ, then this honesty and 'Apostles Tradition' is transmitted to the church; and then the church undertakes responsibly to decode and paraphrase the secret of the glad tidings.

In Christianity theology, tradition contains three elements of transmitted honesty, teacher and the act of transmission. The Holy book is Divine honesty and the church is a trustee of the concept of message and its living source of teaching. The Holy book is not important without the source of teaching.

+Martin Luther did not accept this view about tradition and knew it similar to human traditions. He believes that the traditions of the church are satanic suggestions and can be reputable only as 'Scripture sole'.

On the other hand, "In early catholic Christianity, for example, the concept of tradition embraced virtually all the formal sources of Traditionalism 171 belief and practice handed down by the church, including the Holy Scriptures. Only much later did 'tradition' come to signify the extrabiblical (ecclesiastical) sources in particular, at which point the 'problem of scripture and tradition' could arise."* In Islam, tradition contains Mohammad's speech, act and assertion (=to confirm an act that was down near him). After the passing away of the Prophet of Islam, Moslems were divided into two main sects, Sunni and Shiite. Both the sects accept this definition for tradition but the Shiites believe that speech, act and assertion of the Imams^ also declare tradition. The speeches {hadiths) and stories of Prophet Mohammad were collected in some books in the third and fourth centuries AH (ninth and tenth centuries CE). There are some equivalent terms of tradition in the holy writ. The word of 'parndosis' is the equivalent of tradition and it has been used thirteen times in the Bible. The word of 'sonnat' is equipollent of tradition in Arabic language. There are also this word and its denominatives, like God's tradition^ and the ancients' tradition", in the Qur'an. But the definition of tradition in view of Traditionalists and this research is different from the above definitions. For Traditionalists, Tradition has not been invented by man but was received from the other world, and its source is the supernatural origin of all things. It is the body of knowledge and invitatory practices that link human beings to God. Tradition is also the standard of their earthly existence, or according to , tradition "means Traditionalism 172 truths or principles of a divine origin revealed or unveiled to mankind and, in fact, a whole cosmic sector through various figures envisaged as messengers, prophets, avataras, the Logos or other transmitting agencies, along with all the ramifications and applications of these principles in different realms including law and social structure, art, symbolism, the science, and embracing of course Supreme Knowledge along with the means for its attainment/'^ On the basis of this definition, first, the origin of Tradition is metaphysical and divine inspiration, not the human mind. Secondly, this truth or principles are transmitted by special individuals and are not inquisitional like other human knowledge. Therefore, if a subject- matter is not transmitted from God and by way of divine revelation, it is not Tradition. For Tradition is not the old ways, a philosophical, conceptual and verifiable system. And the complete tradition necessitates four things: first, it is inspiration resource or a divine revelation. Second, it is a divine blessing, effusion of being that flows from different channels. Third, it is method for becoming. It is a way for arriving at God; and if human travels this way honestly, he is guided to lodgings so that he fulfils the spiritual truth in him. And fourth, the Tradition embodies all human existence. It embodies art, knowledge, techniques and other elements that create particulars of a civilization. recommends that doctrine and method are two important problems in Tradition. Here, doctrine is divine theory, and Traditionalism 173 method is a manner to receive to God. Of course, Tradition is not against or rival of religions but is "inextricably related to revelation and religion, to the sacred, to the notion of the orthodoxy, to the continuity and regularity of transmission of the truth, to the exoteric and the esoteric as well as to the spiritual life, science and the arts."^ Tradition has been called with different names and there is not distinguishable point between tradition and 'Sophia Perennis' in Western tradition, 'Sanatana Dharma' in Hinduism and 'Al-hikmat Al-khalidah' for Moslems. For Schuon, Sophia Perennis is not created by the human mind and it necessitates worship and possesses spiritual truth. In Sophia Perennis, there are some truths that are innate of human spirit and are hidden in depth of "Heart", pure intellect; and only individuals who do self-examination and with cordial presence, can receive the truth. He believes aptness to receive these truths is possible for 'Gnostic', 'pneumatic' or 'theosopher'; and to receive this truth is also possible for 'philosophers', who truly and innocently embody the meaning of this term, for example Pythagoras, Plato and in a large quantity , Aristotle. ^^ For Schoun, Sophia Perennis and metaphysics are the same but metaphysics is different from philosophy. Contrary to some views, these two terms are not synonym and metaphysics is not a branch of various branches of philosophy, like , philosophy of language, philosophy of history etc. The main difference between metaphysics and philosophy is in their origins. The origin of philosophy is logic and origin of metaphysics is Traditionalism 174 inspiration. Philosophy is founded on reasoning but metaphysics is founded on intellectual . So metaphysics neither is the same as philosophy, nor branch of philosophy.^' Philosophy only needs mental potentials, while metaphysics uses special competency of ethical and spiritual. "Excellence ... is necessary, because the light does not pass tarnished store and does not clear up dark wall very well, therefore man must become like crystal and snow, but does not claim that snow is light.''^^ xhe understanding of philosophy and thinking are possible without truthfulness, but intellectual intuition is result of a great purification of the animal soul. After purification of the heart and behaviors, man receives real knowledge towards the world and better than past. In other words, asceticism influences man's ontology and epistemology.

Various kinds of metaphysics are seen in the history of humanity's thought, but there is a spatial unity in the nature of all of them and a feeling of congeniality among their followers. Schoun's states that the Western world is created by four metaphysical approaches. These approaches are: Plato's school that New Plutonian also is inserted it, Aristotle's school, scholastic's school and Gregory Palmas's (Greeks theologician (1296-1359) school. The Oriental approach also has been created metaphysical approach, like metaphysical system of pantheism that is founded on Hindu Vedas and the metaphysical system of Buddhism. The main cause of unity and eternity of Sophia Perennis, or same metaphysics, is not from the Traditionalism 175 categories that they have been created by the mind, while philosophy is often mental." Although Tradition has various names in the West and East and their apparent forms are different, its nature "is unique, since Truth is one. In both senses Tradition is closely related to the pilosophia perennis if this term is understood as the Sophia which has alwavs been and will always be and which is perpetuated by means of both transmission horizontally and renewal vertically through contact with that reality that was ' at the beginning' and his here and now." '4

The relationship between tradition and the Sacred is very deep because the Sacred is the source of tradition and to understand tradition is impossible without acquiring knowledge about the Sacred. Indeed the human knowledge about the Sacred is his knowledge toward the Immutable and the Eternal. According to Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "the sacred is more like the blood which flows in the arteries and veins of tradition, an aroma which pervades the whole of a traditional civilization. Tradition extends the presence of the sacred into a whole world, creating a civilization in which the sense of the sacred is ubiquitous.^^

Kinds of Traditionalism

There are many sorts of "Traditionalism" and many

"traditionalism" movements; and it is a w^ord w^hich one could Traditionalism 176 associate with different types of movements, e.g. Roman Catholic Traditionalism. In the widest sense of the word, a "Traditionalist" may be no more than a conservative, possibly a nostalgic person who hankers after the customs of his or her youth. A "Traditionalist" may also be someone who prefers a specific established practice over something that has replaced it. The views also are different about traditionalism. In Christianity culture. Catholics emphasize the role of teachers but for Protestants only the sola Scriptiim is important. So "Traditionalism is hard to define. It is right and proper to revere tradition, since God has risen up many teachers for his church over the years who, through their writings, continue to speak to us. A teacher in the church does not lose his authority after he dies. So God does intend for us to learn from teachers of the past, or, in other words, from tradition. On the other hand, the Protestant doctrine of sola Scriptura teaches us to emulate the Reformers in testing every human tradition, even the teachings of the church's most respected teachers, by the Word of God."^^

The Catholic Encyclopedia introduces traditionalism as a philosophical system, which makes tradition the supreme criterion and rule of certitude. As is written there, "According to traditionalism, human reason is of itself radically unable to know with certainty any truth or, at least, the fundamental truths of the metaphysical, moral, and religious order. Hence our first act of knowledge must be an act of faith, based on the authority of Traditionalism 177 revelation. This revelation is transmitted to us.through society, and its truth is guaranteed by tradition or the general consent of mankind."^"

In this research Traditionalism differs from what exists in the culture of Christianitv and is alike to the matters of Catholic Encyclopedia.

Traditionalism- The Traditionalist movement has no formal structure, and since the late 1940s has had no central command. It is made up of a number of groups and individuals, united by their common obligation to the work of the French metaphysician Rene Guenon. He was the founder of the Traditionalist School, and the movement is sometimes called 'Guenonian. Although its precepts are considered to be timeless and to be found in all authentic traditions, it is also known as Perennialism, the , or Sophia Perennis, and as a philosophy, it is known by Aristasians as Essentialism. The term Philosophia Perennis goes back to the Renaissance, while the Hindu expression Sanatana Dharma - Eternal Doctrine - has precisely the same signification. Traditionalism 178

Rene Guenon Rene Guenon was a man who did not like biography, he had contempt for the cult of personality and believed that the age-old wisdom should stand or fall by itself. He was born in Blois, France into a Catholic household on November 15,1886. Guenon excelled as a youth in mathematics and philosophy. He moved to Paris in 1907 and became deeply involved in a series of underground cultural movements, including occultism. , and an unorthodox sect of Hinduism. At the same time, he exposed himself to Islam, Christianity, and Buddhism.

Guenon began writing in the 1920s, after World War I, the war which was believed to end all wars. Western civilization was overwhelmed with a sense of relief and euphoria. Guenon, seeing this as delusion, criticized the society of his day as being disorganized and reckless. He preserved to represent truths by Christianity terms that it does not useful for people who rejected their religion. He "believed in a universal objective spiritual truth or religio perennis, of a supreme God and a hierarchy of spirits, which could be expressed in the terms of any religion. Guenon also believed that if this truth was presented properly, even the anti-religious intellectuals of his day would accept it."^^ So he wrote Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines in 1921 in an attempt to begin expressing this truth and then wrote Man and His Becoming according to the Vedanta in 1925. Guenon's main criticism of spiritualized Traditionalism 179

Western culture was its egoistic lack of recognition of a greater power which maintained a higher order than that of man. He manifested his sentiments about new conditions by The Crisis of the Modern World in 1927. "His works on the modern world are the most astringent, critical and biting critiques of our modern way of life that have ever been written. Crisis of the Modern World and the Reign of Quantity demolish the false structures that we have created in the name of progress and "supposed evolution" and show just how far modern man has moved away from the perennial tradition."^^

Guenon left Paris in 1930 and moved to Cairo, Egypt, where he would remain for the rest of his life (January 7, 1951), having chosen the name Abd al-Wahid Yahya, and living as a Sufi. Having offended the Paris intellectuals, whom he considered his peers, especially with two books denouncing occultism, he feared being attacked by his enemies through magic or spiritual energy, and lived primarily incognito. The Reign of Quantity & the Signs of the Times is one other influential book of Geunon that was written in 1945. It is an extremely dense book that has resulted from years of planning, it is as though every word had been carefully chosen and every page refined time and time again. Its central focus is Guenon's re­ instatement of the traditional view of history. "In this view history is a record of decline. Guenon's uses as a foundation the age-old Vedic tradition of the Yugas or four ages. This tradition is based on periods Traditionalism 180 known as Gold, Silver, Copper and Iron is are also found in many other traditions ranging from Buddhism to Greek Philosophy."^° For the first time in the modern world it was Guenon who spoke about Tradition. For Guenon, tradition is recourse to the relevance and spiritual message that is found in all religions. He had observed the lamentable condition of Western people after World Wars I, II, and knew that man in a rational civilization is similar to a body without a head which wants to continue a passionate and active life, whilst actually it is chaotic. He believes this atheistic civilization will not continue for long. Therefore, he opposed Western culture in a manner, whereas in some way, he attempted to renovate actual tradition or religio perennis, by betaking Eastern culture and religion.

Guenon knew European, Sanskrit, Arabic language and has written lot of books and essays. He promulgated the magazine of 'Etudes Traditionnelles' and its publication continues to date. Some of the his books are: Theosophy: History of a Pseudo-Religion (1921), The Spiritist Fallacy (1923), East and West (1924), Man and His Becoming according to the Vedanta (1925), The Esoterism of Dante (1925), The King of the World (1927), Spiritual Authority and Temporal Power (1929), Perspectives on Initiation (1946), The Metaphysical Principles of the Infinitesimal Calculus (1946). Traditionalism 181

Ananda Coomaraswamy

Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy was born to a Hindu Tamil father and an English Catholic mother in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) on 22nd August 1877. His mother left with him for England when he was only two, and his father. Sir Mutu Coomaraswamy, a barrister and legislative council member, unexpectedly passed away on the eve of joining his son in England on 4 May 1879. Coomaraswamy lived in symbiosis with his mother, aunt and grandmother, the only remaining members of a wealthy aristocratic English family in Kent, until he graduated from University College, London, in Mineralogy and Botany in 1900, and then he left for Ceylon. By 1903, he was researcher of University College, and his research into Mineralogy earned him an enduring place in the colony, in the same year, as the first director of the Mineralogical Survey of Ceylon.

Coomaraswamy returned to Sri Lanka in his early 20s. In 1910- 11, he was placed in charge of the art section of the great United Provinces Exhibition in Allahabad, India. Six years later, when the Dennison W. Ross Collection was donated to the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, he was appointed the museum's fellow for research in Indian, Persian, and Muslim art, a post that he held until his death (1947 at the age of 70). He enhanced the museum's Indian collections but was primarily concerned with scholarship and contributed extensively to learned journals throughout the world. Traditionalism 182

His first major work. Mediaeval Sinhalese Art (1908), expressed ideas upon which he would elaborate in other writings throughout his life. He stressed the spiritual nature of Indian art and furthered the view that art was produced through meditative yogic practice. In his book, Am I My Brother's Keeper? (1947), he expressed some of his perceptions concerning the disparities between Western institutions and Asian thought. He promoted the role of the art object as transmitter of philosophical and religious content.

Both Eastern and Western culture was harmoniously blended in Coomaraswamy and whether he wrote on politics or poetry, on myths or on metaphysics, he wrote with erudition. Whether it was Plato or the Upanishads, the Bible or the Baghavad Gita, the Koran or the Tripitaka, he was imbibed with the true spirit of their noble teachings. Taken in the broadest sense, he was a truly cultured man. "Coomaraswamy's writings have a vital message for men who are interested in preserving their moral and cultural integrity in nations everywhere. He placed a high value both on his dignity and freedom as well as on the dignity and freedom of others and his independence of spirit and thought continues to inspire us even today. He is very much alive today as he was in the past and his spirit continues to speak to all those who believe that their future rests on the preservation of the individual regardless of race, religion, nationality or social status.''^' Traditionalism 183

Coomaraswamy knew the idea of tradition after the study Guenon's works in about 1930. He believes that religion is an unveiling of the sacred for man and tradition protects subjects that are the kernel of religion and presents materials for us to experiment with the absolute truth. He also says that there are two 'self 'in man, individual self that is annihilated, divine self that is constant and eternal. Tradition manifests that man forgets 'who is human'. We must immolate our individual self in order to receive the divine self. This immolation must be done in all our thought and acts, if it has to be done essentially.^

His interest in the study of traditional art was in the truth which it conveyed. Art is a kind of worship and an artist imitates the artist God. His studies about traditional art oppose modern view^s and were of an intellectual order, and in such works as the Transformation of Nature in Art and Oriental Philosophy of Art he explained a metaphysical of art, which presents traditional art as a vehicle for the exposition of knowledge of a sacred order. Besides several of his works on the Hindu and Buddhist traditions of which Hinduism and Buddhism is an intellectual synthesis, Coomaraswamy also wrote such purely metaphysical works as Recollection, Indian and Platonic, On the One and Only Transmigrant, and Time and Eternity. "In fact his works, as those of Guenon, were themselves the product of an intellect which breathed and functioned Traditionalism 184 in a world of sacred character, a world which reflects the very substance of intelligence itself. "23

Frith j of Schuon

Schuon was a leading exponent of the philosophia perennis, poet, painter and an outstanding figure of traditional metaphysics. He, along with Rene Guenon and , is regarded as one of the three founders of the Traditionalist School. He has written more than 20 books on metaphysical, spiritual and ethnic themes as well as having been a regular contributor to journals on in both Europe and America. Schuon's writings have been consistently featured and reviewed in a wide range of scholarly and philosophical publications around the world, respected by both scholars and spiritual authorities. , the leading American historian of religion, says concerning him, "The man is a living Wonder; intellectually a propos religion, equally in depth and breadth, the paragon of our time. 1 know of no living thinker who begins to rival him."^*

Frithjof Schuon was born in Basle, Switzerland, in a German family on 18 June 1907. His father was a musician, and the household was one in which not only music but literary and spiritual culture was present. He attended school in Basle and was his classmate. They started to learn designing and painting together. Traditionalism 185

After his father's death, his mother returned with her two young sons to her family in Mulhouse, France, where Schuon was obliged to become a French citizen. Having received his earliest training in German, he received his later education in French and thus mastered both languages early in life.

Schuon left the school when was sixteen years old. After sometime he journeyed to Paris and served for a year and a half in the French army. Then he stayed in Paris and began to study Arabic in the school of the mosque. Living in Paris also brought the opportunity to be exposed to a much greater degree than before to various forms of traditional art, especially those of Asia, with which he had had a deep affinity since his youth. While still living in France, he read the works of Rene Guenon, which served to confirm his intellectual and which provided support for the metaphysical principles he had begun to discover. This period of a growing intellectual and artistic familiarity with the traditional worlds was followed by Schuon's first visit to Algeria in 1932. It was then that he met the celebrated Shaykh Ahmad al-'Alawi. On a second trip to North Africa, in 1935, he visited Algeria and Morocco; and during 1938 and 1939, he traveled to Egypt, where he met Guenon, with whom he had been in correspondence for 20 years; and in 1939, shortly after his arrival in India, he contacted spiritual authorities and witness traditional cultures. The Second World War broke out, forcing him to return to Europe. After having served in the Traditionalism 186

French army, and after having been made prisoner by the Germans, he sought asylum in Switzerland, which gave him nationality and was to be his home for forty years.

He married in Lausanne to a Swiss-German lady who was interested metaphysics, religion and painting in 1949. They traveled widely in Europe, making trips to France, Germany, Belgium, Holland England, Italy, Spain, Turkey, and Morocco, and visited the United States several times. During the 1950's, the Schuon had contact with North American natives who visited Paris and Brussels, and thev traveled to the Lakota tribe of the Sioux nation in 1959, where they were officially adopted into the Red Cloud family. Later he was also adopted into the Crow tribe.

Frithjof Schuon became Moslem and also known as Shaykh Tsa Nur al-Din Ahmad. In 1980, Schuon and his wife migrated to the United States, where he continued to write until his death in 1998. ^

Schuon has written all his major works in French. He also wrote Key Views about Spiritualism, and two long lyrical poems. Day and Night (1947) and Sulamith (1947), in German. Some of his major publications are The Transcendent Unity of Religions, Esoterism as Principle and as Way, In the Tracks of Buddhism, Stations of Wisdom, Logic and Transcendence, Spiritual Perspectives and Human Facts, Light on the Ancient Worlds, Survey of Metaphysics Traditionalism 187 and Esoterism (1986), The Feathered Sun: Plains Indians in Art and Philosophy (1990) and Understanding Islam (1994).

Titus Burckhardt A German Swiss was born in Florence in 1908 and died in Lausanne in 1984. He devoted all his life to the study and exposition of the different aspects of Wisdom and Tradition. He was one of the "Traditionalist" or "perennialist" of the 20* century schools of thought, devoting his life to the study of wisdom and tradition. A major voice of philosophin perennis, he was highly articulate in the realms of existentialism, psychoanalysis and sociolog}^ and an exponent of universal truth in metaphysics, cosmology and traditional art. He wrote in German and in French, with a profound simplicity of expression.

Titus Burckhardt was born into a patrician family of Basle (though his birthplace was in Florence). Frithjof Schuon grew up in Basle at the same time, and Titus and Frithjof spent their early schooldays together, closely aligned in intellect and spirit. Burckhardt attended several art schools in Switzerland and Italy. He thereafter went to Morocco "to seek what the West had lost". In his years there, he learned Arabic, and studied Sufi classics in their original. (Later, he translated Ibn 'Arabi, Jili, and Shaikh Mulay al- ^Arabi al-Darqawi.) Burckhardt developed a deep and vast knowledge of Islamic art and civilization. Traditionalism 188

He was the artistic director of the Urs Graf Publishing House of Lausanne and Olten. Here he produced exceptional enlightened and illuminated manuscripts for publication, and directed a series of volumes entitled Sfdtten des Geistes (Homesteads of the Spirit). His book, Fez, City of Islam, was part of this series. In 1972, Burckhardt was commissioned by UNESCO make an inventory of the architectural heritage of Fez, which had been placed on UNESCO's World Heritage List. To conserve the old city, he recommended a master plan to safeguard and rehabilitate Fez. In the following three years he was the cultural consultant of an interdisciplinary, multinational team of city planners, architects, restorers, and other specialists, to implement an overall master plan for the city of Fez. Burckhardt actively participated in the two Festivals of the World of Islam held in London in the 1970's, and directed the major exhibitions of Islamic Art at the Hayward Gallery in 1976. His monumental efforts and numerous published works were instrumental in the establishment of graduate programs in Islamic art and architecture as distinct academic fields in universities around the world, and no less contributed to the establishment of the major galleries of Islamic art in many museums throughout the world. He died in Lausanne in 1984. In all of his writings, Titus Burckhardt intimately touched on science and art, piety and tradition, beauty and truth. His quest for the Beautiful was a defining of the science of beauty, a spiritual quest, and a search for Truth.^^ Traditionalism 189

Martin Lings

Martin Lings (1909 - 2005) was a British scholar of . He was born in England, Lancashire in a Protestant family. Lings completed his studies at Clifton College, and then studied at Oxford University. At Oxford, he was a student of CS Lewis, who would become a close friend of his. After studying at Oxford, Lings went to Lithuania where he taught in Kaunas.

For Lings himself, however, the most important event that occurred while he was at Oxford was his discovery of the writings of Rene Guenon and Frithjof Schuon. In 1938, Lings went to Basle to make Schuon's acquaintance, and he remained Frithjof Schuon's disciple and expositor for the rest of his life. Having found an authentic and orthodox spiritual path was for him the most important event of his life and he devoted the rest of his life to the spiritual path and serving God.

In 1939, Lings went to Cairo, Egypt in order to visit a friend of his, who was an assistant of the Traditionalist philosopher Rene Guenon. It was in Cairo that Lings studied Sufism, maintaining Guenon's views of all religions being different manifestation of the divine truth. Cairo would become his home for over a decade, he would become an English teacher at the University of Cairo and would produce Shakespearean plays annually. Traditionalism 190

Upon returning to the United Kingdom, he continued his education, earning a PhD in Arab literature. His thesis would become a well-received book on Algerian Sufi Ahmad al-Alawi. A writer throughout this period. Lings output would increase in the last quarter of his life. His most famous work was a biography about Prophet Muhammad, written in 1983, that earned him acclaim in the Muslim world, and prizes from the governments of Pakistan and Egypt. He also continued traveling extensively, although he made his home in Kent. His books are: And Illumination, Thames & Hudson, A Return to the Spirit: Questions and Answers, Sufi Poems : A Mediaeval Anthology, Mecca: From Before Genesis Until Now, Sacred Art of Shakespeare : To Take Upon Us the Mystery of Things, Symbol & Archetype : A Study of the Meaning of Existence, The Eleventh Hour : the Spiritual Crisis of the Modern World in the Light of Tradition and Prophecy, The Quranic Art of Calligraphy and Illumination, What is Sufism?, The Elements, and Other Poems^^.

Hossein Nasr

Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr, one of the world's leading experts on Islamic science and spirituality, is a University Professor of Islamic Studies at George Washington University; Author of over fifty books and five hundred articles which have been translated into several major Islamic, European and Asian languages. He is one of Traditionalism 191 the most important thinkers and authors among the Traditionalists. He has trained different generations of students over the years since 1958 when he was a professor at Tehran University and then, in America since the Iranian Revolution in 1979, specifically at Temple University in Philadelphia from 1979 to 1984 and at the George Washington University since 1984 to the present day- For Professor Nasr, the quest for knowledge, specifically knowledge that enables man to understand the true nature of things and which furthermore, "liberates and delivers him from the fetters and limitations of earthly existence," has been and continues to be the central concern and determinant of his intellectual life.

Seyyed Hossein Nasr was born on April 7, 1933 (19 Farvadin 1312 A.H. solar) in Tehran into a family of distinguished scholars and physicians. His father, Seyyed Valiallah, was a man of great learning and piety. As a young boy, Nasr attended one of the schools near his home. Then he went to America at the young age of twelve and this marked the beginning of a new period in his life which was totally different and therefore, discontinuous from his early life in Iran. He attended The Peddie School in Highstown, New Jersey and in 1950 graduated as the valedictorian of his class and also winner of the Wyclifte Award which was the school's highest honor given to the most outstanding all-round student.

Nasr chose to go to M.I.T. for college, in the Physics Department with some of the most gifted students in the country and Traditionalism 192 outstanding professors of physics. He discovered that many of the metaphysical questions which he had been concerned with were not being asked, much less answered. Thus, he began to have serious doubts as to whether physics would lead him to an understanding of the nature of physical reality. His doubt was confirmed when the leading British philosopher, Bertrand Russell, in a small group discussion with the students following a lecture he had given at M.I.T, stated that physics does not concern itself with the nature of physical reality per se but with mathematical structures related to pointer readings. Nasr decided to look at other fields of study for his answers. He started to read extensively and to take many courses in humanities, especially those taught by Professor Giorgio Di Santillana, the famous Italian philosopher and historian of science. Guenon's writings played a decisive role in laying the intellectual foundation of Nasr's Traditionalist perspective. He also had the great fortune of having access to the library of the late Ananda K. Coomaraswamy. The library had an incredible collection of works on traditional philosophy and art from all over the world.

According to Nasr, it was the discovery of traditional metaphysics and the philosophia perennis through the works of these figures, which settled the crisis he had experienced and gained an intellectual certitude, which has never left him since. From then on, he was certain that there was such a thing as the Truth and that it could be attained through knowledge by means of the intellect, which is guided and illuminated by divine revelation. His childhood Traditionalism 193 love for the attainment of knowledge returned to him but on a higher and deeper plane. The traditional writings of Schuon with their singular emphasis on the need for the practice of a spiritual discipline as well as theoretical knowledge were especially instrumental in determining the course of Nasr's intellectual and spiritual life from that tin\e onward.

Upon his graduation from M.I.T., Nasr enrolled himself in a graduate program in geology and geophysics at Harvard University. After obtaining his Master's degree in 1956, he went on to pursue his Ph.D. degree in the history of science and learning at Harvard. During his Harvard years, Nasr also traveled to Europe, especially to France, Switzerland, Britain, Italy and Spain, widening his intellectual horizon and establishing important and fruitful contacts. It was during these travels to Europe that Nasr met with the foremost Traditionalist writers and exponents of the philosophia perennis, Frithjof Schuon and Titus Burckhardt, who made a tremendous impact and decisive contribution to his intellectual and spiritual life. He also traveled to Morocco in North Africa, which had great spiritual significance for Nasr who embraced Sufism in the form taught and practiced by the great Sufi saint of the Maghrib, Shaykh Ahmad al-Alawi. Thus, the years at Harvard witnessed the crystallization of the major intellectual and spiritual elements of Nasr's mature worldview, elements which have since dominated and determined the course and pattern of his scholarship and academic. Traditionalism 194

At twenty-five, Nasr graduated with a Ph.D. degree from Harvard and on the way to completing his first book. Science and Civilization in Islam. His doctoral dissertation entitled "Conceptions of Nature in Islamic Thought" was published in 1964 by Harvard University Press as An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Although he was offered a position as assistant professor at M.I.T., he decided to return permanently to Iran. From 1968 to 1972, Nasr was made Dean of the Faculty and for a while. Academic Vice-Chancellor of Tehran University. Through these positions, he introduced many important changes which all aimed at strengthening the university programs in the humanities generally and in philosophy, specifically. Another very important dimension to Nasr's intellectual activities after his return to Iran in 1958, was his program in re-educating himself in by learning it at the feet of the masters through the traditional method of oral transmission. He studied hikmah for twenty years under some of the greatest teachers in Iran at the time, reading traditional texts of Islamic philosophy and gnosis. He read and studied several of the major texts of Islamic philosophy. He had the best educational training both from the modern West and the traditional East, a rare combination which put him in a very special position to speak and write with authority on the numerous issues involved in the encounter between East and West, and tradition and modernity, as demonstrated very clearly by his writings and lectures. Traditionalism 195

He also created greater awareness and interest in the study of Oriental philosophies among the students and faculty members.

In 1979 at the time of the Islamic Revolution in Iran, Nasr moved with his family to the United States.

Nasr had the honor of being the first non-Westerner to be invited to deliver the most famous lecture series in the fields of natural theology and philosophy of religion in the West. Thus, Knowledge and the Sacred, one of Nasr's most important philosophical works, one which had a great impact on scholars and students of religious studies, came to be prepared amidst the strain of trying times and the strenuous commute between Boston and Philadelphia. However, Nasr discloses that the actual writing of the text of Knowledge and the Sacred came as a gift from heaven. He was able to write the texts of the lectures with great ease and speed and they were completed within a period of less than three months,. Nasr says that it was as though he was writing from a text he had previously memorized.

Nasr was soon recognized in American academic circles as a Traditionalist and a major expositor and advocate of the perennials perspective. Being in exile in America, much of his intellectual activities and writing are related to this function and also in the fields of comparative religion, philosophy and religious dialogue. He has participated in many debates and discussions with eminent Christian and Jewish theologians and philosophers such as Hans Kung, John Traditionalism 196

Hick and Rabbi Izmar Schorch. In 1986, Nasr edited TJie Essential Writings of Frithjof Schuon and in 1990, he was selected as a patron of the Center for the Study of Islam and Christian-Muslim relations of the Sally Oaks College in Birmingham. In addition, he has played an active role in the creation and activities of the Center for Muslim- Christian Understanding at Georgetown University in Washington D.C. He has also attended many conferences on this subject including the famous 1993 Parliament of World Religions. At seventy-two, Seyyed Hossein Nasr leads an extremely active intellectual life with a very busy schedule of teaching at the university and lecturing at many institutions in America and around the world, writing scholarly works, being involved in several intellectual projects simultaneously and meeting individuals who are interested in traditional thought. At the same time, he leads a verv intense spiritual life spent in prayer, meditation and contemplation and also providing spiritual counsel for those who seek his advice and guidance. Exiled from his homeland, Seyyed Hossein Nasr has found his home in the inviolable and sacred Center, which is neither in the East nor the West. Some of the his works are: Three Muslim Sages (A work which is dedicated to Frithjof Schuon), An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, Science and Civilization in Islam, Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study, Man and Nature, Religion and the Order of Nature, The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity, Ideals and Realities of Islam.28 Traditionalism 197

Other Traditionalists

There are some other thinkers and writers who are interested and advocated this approach. They are from America and European different countries and have written lot of books towards the various aspects of Traditionalism. So the following learned people have been added to the list of Traditionalists.

Marco Pallis (1895-1989) , Whitall N. Perry (1920), Michel Valsan, , Charles le Gai Eaton (1941), Huston Smith (1919), Fillip Sherrard (1922-1995). Other major figures of the twentieth century have been profoundly influenced by the school, including Rama Coomaraswamy (1932), Schaya (1916-1986), American Anthropologist Josef Brown, T.S. Eliot, the Romanian historian of religions, and the Italian esotericist, political thinker , William Stoddardt and Jean Michon (1924), etc.

Characteristics of Traditionalism

Traditionalists have thought and written in different areas but it is not easy to examine all of them. Some of their more significant characteristics are:

Quarrelsomeness against Western world- The quarrel against Western thought is one of the outstanding characteristics of all Traditionalism 198

Traditionalists. The criticism of modernism started immediately after the appearance of results of modernism in the second half of the nineteenth century. Nietzsche, Marx and then Freud were the first important critics whose deep criticisms established various approaches. Some approaches have critiqued modernism on the basis of their belief and reiormed it, like the thinkers of Frankfort school. But others thinkers have attacked principles of modernism. The postmodern thinkers are in this group. Traditionalists also, have combated with modernism in the light of so many critiques of other antagonists of modernity. But there are agreeable points and differences of opinion with postmodernists in their viewpoints. For instance, traditionalists attack Western thought especially rationalism and scientism but have accepted a kind of grand narrative. The viewpoints of a majority of postmodernists are toward architect, art, literature, sociology and philosophy, whilst Traditionalists with religious tendencies protest against modernism.

Contrary to some critical views, the quarrel of this movement is very deep and conscious against Western world, because their critiques are knowledgeable and on the basis of complete researches. They are educated men. Their protest is about the principles of modernism and it is reasonable and analytical. The Western thought is important and serious for them and they do not attack all fruits of modernity, like different technologies and inventions. They have accepted deep thought and huge presents of modernism and are Traditionalism 199 aware that the modern thought has not developed by force. It has a lot of much potential.

The first Traditionalist who protested against the West was Rene Guenon. He wrote three books about the new condition of Western world. East and West (1924), The Crisis of Modern World (1927) and Tlie Reign of Quantity and tJie Signs of tlie Times (1945). He says, Hinduism teaches us that West is in the fourth era from humanlike age. It is a 'Kali Yuga' or era of darkness. On the basis of Hinduism, man's life is divided into four eras. These eras are the symbols of stages of gradual loss of first spirituality. Six thousand years have since expired from that fourth era^^. According to Guenon, the crisis of started in medieval age. The Renaissance was the death of many things. The West civilization lacks transcendental and celestial principles. To attach importance to quantity is one of the other deficiencies of modern world. He believes that all injustices and disorganizations are results of quantitative approach and scientism.

For Guenon, individualism is the main cause of contemporary degeneration in the West, because this individualism has created the development of abject capabilities of humankind. The other results of individualism are Naturalism, the cancellation of metaphysics and destruction of spiritual inspiration.

In the Traditionalists' view, modern man has gone into a deep sleep and cannot understand his position. On this subject, Schoun Traditionalism 200 writes, "Imagine a radiant summer sky and imagine simple folk who gaze at it, projecting into it their dream of the hereafter; now suppose that it were possible to transport these simple folk into the dark and freezing abyss of the galaxies and nebulae with its overwhelming silence. In this abyss all too many of them would lose their faith, and this is precisely what happens as a result of modern science, both to the learned and to the victims of popularization. What most men do not know - and if they could know it, why should we have to ask them to believe it? is that this blue sky, though illusory as an optical error and belied by the vision of interplanetary space, is nonetheless an adequate e reflection of the Heaven of Angels and the Blessed and that therefore, despite everything, it is this blue mirage, flecked with silver clouds, which is right and will have the final say; to be astonished at this amounts to admitting that it is by chance that we are here on earth and see the sky as we do.''^^

The Traditionalist's challenge against modernism is completely different because "the opposition of tradition to modernism' which is total and complete as far as principles are concerned, is not derived from the observation of facts and phenomena or the diagnosis of the symptoms of the malady. It is based upon a study of the causes which have brought about the illness. Tradition is opposed to modernism because it considers the premises upon which modernism is based to be wrong and false in principle."3i They do not accept principles and world view of modern world, because Traditionalism 201

Traditionalists believe that they are false and any good which appear in this world is accidental rather than essential." One could say that the traditional world were essentially good and accidentally evil, and the modern world essentially evil and accidentally good. Tradition is therefore opposed in principle to modernism. It wished to slay the modern world."^2 Tradition is not opposed to all phenomena that appeared in the Western world. It is in agreement with the useful aspects of the contemporary world.

To deny Modem Rationalism- For Traditionalists, the modern philosophy has gone in an erroneous way the in new world. The tendency of Greek philosophers was towards pure reasoning. This tendency increased after Enlightenment and the spiritual aspects were denied in modern rationalism. For modern man, the revelation and contemplation are meaningless, because their examination is impossible in the frame of reasonable reason and quantities methods.

According to Guenon, philosophy has replaced theosophy in the modern world. Pure human philosophy has been established only by essence and rationality; while the righteous theosophy was established on the base of spiritual traditions that are not reasonable and are inhuman. He opposes self of philosophy in addition to rationality. From Guenon's view, philosophy cannot resort to term of 'Tradition', even though he does not deny the objects that are higher are in the domain of philosophy; because philosophy is created by human thought. There is not much relationship between inspirations Traditionalism 202 and brilliance and philosophy is essentially unspiritual. Bookish knowledge is not enough for the purification of the carnal soul of people. This aim needs another object apart from philosophical discourses. In conformity with situation, philosophy is completely an exoterical knowledge and is literally natural. But Nasr does not agree with this Guenon's view and writes, "Guenon, who had studied European philosophy, was severely critical of all that is called modern philosophy, and in fact of 'philosophy' as such, which he tried to refute completely as a legitimate manner of knowledge principles. His criticism was extreme and uncompromising because he wanted to prevent any confusion between what modern man understands as philosophy and traditional metaphysics. ... In his exaggeration, he overlooked the positive aspects of traditional philosophy, and even the term philosophy, to which Schoun was to point later."^^

The Traditionalist's view about reason is different from the Rationalists. Philosophers have defined human as rational being" but the rational faculty which is at once an extension and reflection of the Intellect can become a luciferian force and instrument if divorced from the Intellect and revelation which alone bestow upon knowledge its numinous quality and sacred content."^^ Frithjof Shoun also distinguishes reason and intellect and believes that reason is as instrument for intellect. He says "Intelligence, by which we comprehend the Doctrine, is either the intellect or reason; reason is Traditionalism 203 the instrument of the intellect, it is through reason that man comprehends the natural phenomena around him and within himself, and it is through it that he is able to describe supernatural things - parallel to the means of expression offered by symbolism - by transposing intuitive knowledge into the order of language. Then function of the rational faculty can be to provoke - by means of a given concept - a spiritual intuition; reason is then the flint which makes the spark spring forth. The limit of the Inexpressible varies according to mental structure: what is beyond all expression for some may be easily expressible for others."^5

The Traditional approach is religious and spiritual just as the past. They say that the main problem of rationalism is about limitation of reason and denegation of intellect. According to Nasr, "The reduction of the Intellect to reason and the limitation of intelligence to cunning and cleverness in the modern world not only caused knowledge to become inaccessible and to some even meaningless ..."^^ for Nasr, there are two kinds of reason in the nature of humans. One of them is 'reason' that arises from Latinate word Ratio and means examining, reasoning and discussing. The second is 'Intellect' or Nous that arises from Intelkctus and means intuition of truth.^^ These reasons are not antithetical and also are not equivalent, but they are along the each other, and the difference between them is about deficiency and entelechy. The reason is reflection of Intellect and is defective without Intellect. " but the Traditionalism 204 rational faculty which it is at once an extension and reflection of the Intellect can become a luciferian force and instrument if divorced from the Intellect and revelation which alone bestow upon knowledge its numinous quality and sacred content."^^

Nasr believes that Descartes limited human knowledge in individual reason by the statement of "I think, therefore I am". He also, savs reason is the reflection of Intellect in man's soul and is the instrument of attaining the Divine and religious metaphysical truths. Although these truths are not recognized with reason, they are not irrational. They could be based on revelation. Sometimes, reason is an obstructive element and covered Divine truth. Man revolts against God and Divine law with help of this kind of reason which has separated from revelation. ^9

The tendency toward East- The land of the West, especially Europe, was the place where modernism first appeared, and the roots of modernity came into existence; which were critics of Christianity and European culture. Protestantism, Reformism movement and Calvinism appeared inside the and their views were ver}' important in the criticism and rejection of the religious culture of Western world. So modernism was born and developed in the West itself, and it was not an imposed or imported thought.

In spite of the fact that the birthplace of Traditionalism is in the West and Traditionalists have grown up and have been educated in Traditionalism 205

Europe and America, they were still interested in the East. For these thinkers, Christianity had lost its abilities and did not enough potential to present suitable answers in the modern condition. Though they had long familiarity with Western culture and Christianity, they paid attention to Oriental civilizations and religions. Of course, the Traditionalists' purpose is not geographical East or West. They stress on Eastern spirituality and civilization that is attacked by the new thought of the Western world. All groups are neither acceptable nor rejectable in the East and West. In the East too, there are so many people who have lost their divine identity in relation with modern culture. Contrary to this, there are some individuals in the Western world who do not agree with foundation of modernism. They are opposed to West civilization mostly because it does not possess any transcendental and heavenly principles. Indeed, it has been established on the destruction of these principles.4o They interested in the East because they believe that the East has remained faithful towards the soul of spiritual traditions.

For Rune Guenon, spiritual traditions are common in all Eastern civilization and he divides them into three parts. The civilization of China is the introducer of the Far East and Hindu civilization is the introducer of the Near East. The Islamic civilization also exists in the Middle East, and it is intermediate between East and West civilization, because it shares some of the characteristics of both these civilizations. He believed that contact with the soul of lively Traditionalism 206 traditions is necessary for vivification of tradition that is lost. Today, only the East is the real representative of spiritual traditions.

On the other hand, the attraction for God is very important for Traditionalists and for them, it is supplement of man's theory emd activity in. All of them are necessary for those who are traveling the road to God. The East defends the priority of the mystic state as compared with external action, while the modern Western agrees with the priority of external action.

Guenon advocated the potential of attraction which was prevalent in the East and has developed more than other areas. Probably, no other country except India enjoys this potential. Therefore India is the complete representative of the eastern moral. Traditionalists are desolate about the rediscovery tradition in the West world and according to Nasr, "The sapiential which lies at the heart of tradition had become too weakened in the West to enable tradition to become revived during this century.""*^

The study of the Traditionalists' works shows that the majority of them are leaning towards eastern religions, art and civilization. They attempted several times to deeply introduce the East to the West. Their attempts completely differ from the works of the Orientlists, because the main aim of many Orientalists was political or scientific and they did not have any tendency towards tradition. But Traditionalists considered and presented the spiritual and Traditionalism 207 mystical aspect of eastern civilizations. For example, Guenon, as father of traditional approach; was most responsible for presenting the fullness of the traditional doctrines of the Orient in the modern West. His inclination was shown in books Instruction General on Study of Doctrine Hindus (1921), Man and His Becoming according to the Vedanta (1925) and Oriental Metaphysics. He also "was particularly critical of theosophy in the sense of the Theosophical Society of Mme. Blavatsky and Annie Besant, spiritualism of various kinds, and the modernistic movements in India affected by the West such as the Arya Samaj and Brahma Samaj."42

Coomaraswamy was the connoisseur scholar of Oriental art who began his exposition of metaphysics through recourse to the language of artistic forms. He has presented his interest to oriental tradition by the introduction of oriental art, especially art of India, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia to the West. In England and especially during the last thirty years of life in America, he played a major role in bringing a vital aspect of oriental civilization, namely, their art, to the attention of the Western public. The tendency to Eastern religions also is presented in Shoun's works like Language of the Self concerned mostly with Hinduism; In the Tracks of Buddhism, which also includes a section on Shintoism; Understanding Islam, Dimensions of Islam and Islam and the perennial philosophy, dealing with different facts of Islam including both Shiism and Sufism. Marco Pallis was the person who discussed about Tibetan Buddhism in an authentic manner to the Traditionalism 208

West and is the author of the famous Peak and Lamas, which was one of the very few serious works on the Oriental traditions in European languages before the Second World War. Martin Lings also has been making available treasures of Islamic from the traditional point of view combined with the applying of his intimate knowledge of spirituality.

The unity of religions - It is a fact that many different religions exist in the world. These religions appeared in numerous centuries in the past and have been followed by their followers. The followers of different religions usually think that just their religion is right, complete and the best religion in the world. So they do not need know other religions. The religious authorities have chosen one of the three kinds of claims about rightfulness of religion and problem of deliverance. First, an exclusivist who believes that only one religion is right and his followers are delivered. Second, exclusivists who say that in spite of one religion being right, the followers of other religion are saved. Although they are unaware, they believe in true religion. Three, pluralists who believe that all religions are right and followers of any religion will be saved.

On the other hand, in the history of religions, religious people have exchanged their culture and have influenced each other. These mutual influences are seen in religious mysticism, art, architecture and some rites. For example, Islamic mysticism has accepted some views from Christianity and Hinduism. Also, many religious leaders Traditionalism 209 have examined other religions and written many books after their observations. At times, there were also enmity and quarrel among faithful people about their creed. But they have lived together with friendship and peace in the different eras for an indefinite time.

After the new events in modern world, some thinkers, politicians and sociologists groups attacked religion and Divine values. Although the main opposition was against Christianity, the partisons of modernity denied and attacked all religions equally. Modern man, without much thought to the difference in religions and varied situations, opposed religions and metaphysical relations. For man, who was completely inebriated with science, God and moral values were meaningless and the differences amongst Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and other religions did not seem important. He also could get a hold as religious faith had weakened the followers of religions.

In spite of the majority of Traditionalists being Moslem (or has became Moslem later), they believe in the unity of religions. These thinkers say, that the exoteric aspects of religion are different but the nature and message of religions is same. Frithjof Schuon has written two books for affirmation of inner unity of religions, the Transcendental Unity of Religion (1948) and Forms and Substance in Religions (1975). He has shown that 'Sophia Perennis' is the key cause of inner unit}' of religions. For Schoun, the core of all religions is in Traditionalism 210 philosophia perennis and it is absolutely essential for our age to recognize this phenomenon.

Nasr also defends the unity of religions and reasons that there is only one Primordial Tradition and it is origin of all religions. He writes, "The multiplicity of religious forms implies the multiplicity of traditions, while one also speaks of or Tradition as such in the same way that there is one Sophia perennis but many religions in which it is to be found in different forms. One is thus confronted of necessity with the basic question of Tradition and traditions; ...From a certain point of view there is but one Tradition, the Primordial Tradition, which always is. It is the single truth which is at once the heart and origin of all truths. All traditions are earthly manifestations of celestial archetypes related ultimately to the immutable archetype of the Primordial Tradition in the same way that all revelations are related to the Logos or the Word which was at the beginning and which is at once an aspect of the Universal Logos and Universal Logos as such.''^^

Some people have said that the variety of religions shows the incredibility of all religions. If the religions were creditable, they must be the same completely, without any difference. Traditionalists say that it is the duty of traditional pious directors to show fundamental unity, all-comprehensiveness and the formal variety of ^^traditions. For this movement, the affirmation of all- comprehensiveness of religion is the most effective way for the Traditionalism 211 vindication of religion. They believe that God addresses man repeatedly and talks to them in their language. According to Quran, God has sent different prophets and each one of them speaks by the same language to his followers.

Each religion has a form and meaning (=substance). The meaning and nature of all religions is the same, because the main source of all inspirations and therefore all religions is God who is Unique. The difference of religious forms concerns time, place and culture of people. But according to Nasr, the meaning is more important than form, and the nature of form is understood through the substance. The form of religion (rituals and teaching), as rational symbols, is only understood with the help of understanding of the nature of religion.*^5

Science in the view of traditionalists Traditionalists too criticize new science strongly. They declare that there are two kinds of science or knowledge and there are numerous differences between modern science and traditional knowledge. For Rune Guenon, the scientific theories are divided into tw^o types that are completely different and opposed. He calls one of them, theory based on spiritual traditions and the second, modern theory. Seyyed Hossein Nasr uses the term 'Sacred science' in comparison with new science and advocated numerous aspects of Traditionalism 212 science but rejects the manner of historicity of science. He says, today the researches toward history of science often focused on eulogizing modern science. Lots of historians of science believe that modern science is the only possible form of science about nature. Traditionalists usually look at and study modern thought from outside and like their analysis is free from the framework of modernism. Their criticism towards new science is different from other criticism and some of them are:

A- Characteristics of new science To become empty from Sacred- All Traditionalists claim that the biggest premise of new science; which is empty of the Sacred, is the cause of all man's problems. To be empty from elements of the Sacred is the main factor that distinguishes the two kinds of knowledge. In Traditionalists' view, the very stuff of the Universe has sacred aspect. In this world, everything contains meaning and is symbol for a transcendental truth. The structure of cosmos indicates a message for man and nature itself is a part of the spiritual universal where human beings live and die. "In order for the modern science of nature to come into being, the substance of the cosmos had first to be emptied of its sacred character and become profane. The world view of modern science, especially as propagated through its vulgarization, itself contributed to this secularization of nature and of natural substances."'^'' Traditionalism 213

Therefore, different kinds of knowledge about self of root of existence are denied and man avoids knowing the substance that underlies all things, but then only recognizes the accidents of things. Rune Guenon says the new views; under the pretext of securing their independence, separated science from principle and origin. The followers of positivism removed the last few metaphysical points from new science. For this school, it is not the duty of science to discover nature of things. After science got separated from sacred, it emptied itself of ethics too, because ethical values lost their metaphysical supporter. The frame of new science does not find any standard for examining of good and evil acts anti the ethical acts that dominated on relationship of men and woman, family, society and countries, crashed, "there are two ethical questions to be dealt with which, although outwardly quite distinct, are profoundly interrelated: firstly, the ethical implications of the use of some of the sciences and many forms of technology directly for military purpose and indirectly in ever increasing degree for what is called peacetime goals: and secondly, the ethical behavior of man and woman in a society whose spiritual foundations have been eroded by the secularism and materialism implied by the 'scientists' worldview.''^^ It is possible to see the domination of science that it is devoid of ethics in the situation of sex, killing and stealing in modern world, the wars that they happened in the 20* and 21st century, to use developed arms and atomic bomb, to plunder sources of weak countries etc. Traditionalism 214

According to some views, there is no relation between ethical standard and western science and its application. "Norms of ethical behavior are inseparable from the view held by men concerning the Ultimate Reality, or metaphysics in its universal sense. . . . The modern sciences themselves are of course innocent of any claims about the ultimate nature of Reality and therefore of any possibility of providing the necessary basis for an applicable and meaningful ethics."48 Humanistic science- in the past parts, it was shown that for medievalists, the Earth was in the center of the world and man was the best creation on the world. On the other hand, man was at the lowest level of the world, and he could try for receiving God who was at the end of all levels of the world. This approach was destroyed as the new cosmology became successful and man toppled from his situation. But in these changes, man lost his spiritual and divine aspects and shook his existential level. The Copernican revolution gave man a new role in the world. In this new condition, man's will and thought became the center of everything but without his celestial aspects. "With the destruction of an immutable set of principle which are the judge of both knowledge and virtue, and the appearance of a purely terrestrial man who became the measure of all things, a trend from objectivism to subjectivism began in Western civilization which continue to this day.""*^ Then new science did not become a ladder for getting near God, but an instrument for controlling nature. Man's reason and Traditionalism 215 human tendency became the standard of truth and untruth of everything. The destruction of environment- New science initiated different technology and in this manner, dominated on nature and became powerful. During one century, establishing a lot of factories (arsenal, automobile manufacture, shipbuilding and etc) plundered the resources of nature and jungles for securing raw materials and fuel. Plentv of sources and fossil fuels that had been created in millions of years were used in about hundred years. In addition, with the excess use of fossil fuels, nobody actually gave a thought to the harmful result of toxic wastes of factories and pollution of cars on environment. In the modern world, man claimed that he is not subdued by the nature and he will dominate over nature. Then nature became the topic of his researches. From the viewpoint of scientists, the material world is inanimate and without any reflexes, which makes all tests authorized and rational. Man has sat on a branch that he cut himself from stump two centuries ago. Professor Nasr was one of the first thinkers to show the risks of destruction of environment in decade of 1960. He, as a traditionalist, appropriated so many of his speeches and works about nature and environment. "But modern technology, which is the direct application of modern science, is of quite another order. It has sought until quit recently to manipulate nature with the maximum use of energy and total indifference to the qualitative aspect of nature and what is done consequently to the environment, both human and Traditionalism 216 natural. That is why it has caused the profound crisis which has now brought its own future into serious question/'^o The specialization of science- no doubt, the specialization of science increased so much precision and development in science and also established new different sciences. But on the other hand/' One of the most notable effects, especially from the point of view of traditional cultures, is the compartmentalization of knowledge and finally the destruction of the ultimate science of Reality, the scientin sacra or gnosis which lies at the heart of every integral tradition, as well as the eclipse of sacred science of the cosmic and natural orders."5i

In Guenon's view, the specialization is a fruit of the analytical mentality of new science, and this development does not necessarily make it possible to propose knowledge about the whole of nature. Knowledge about particulars cannot create universal knowledge. Therefore man has deprived himself of the relation of special science to the exalted source.

Modern society is devoid of wise men or sages who are knowledgeable about the whole of Reality. Nasr writes, "It took several centuries from the beginning of the Scientific Revolution for the most outstanding thinkers of the West to realize what a terrible loss this plunge into sheer multiplicity, and this loss of a knowledge of the principal order, involves for human society as a whole. For now there is almost no one in the modern world to whom one could turn in order to confide in him with one's whole being, a person who Traditionalism 217 would induce certainty in his followers and companions because he not only thinks but also lives and embodies the sapiential doctrines which he expounds."^2 Quantitative thought- Quantitative thought was the natural fruit of mathematicism and empiricism. Thinkers like Descartes used mathematic for exact examination of everything and for mathematical method values only numbers and quantitative categories. Researchers too, in observation and experimental studies must focus on quantitative aspects. In this connection Nasr writes, "In order to reach certainty in knowledge through his famous method, Descartes had to reduce the rich diversity of external reality to pure quantity and philosophy to mathematics .... But mathematicism, the attempt to reduce reality to pour quantity with which one could then deal in a purely mathematical way, has become the background of mathematical physics and unconsciously of many other sciences which desperately seek to find quantitative relationship between things by overlooking their qualitative aspect."53

Therefore universal truths and abstract concepts were deleted from domain of scientific studies. Quantitative thought harassed new science in the analysis of blessedness and lucklessness, metaphysical phenomena and everything that it cannot change to quantitative. Darwinism- Darwin's theory denied all forms of the final aim of nature and chose to ignore the symptoms of God's Wisdom. Nature itself has endowed a good condition for man and various Traditionalism 218 beings to determine life without the creative power of God. Darwin, as he basically believes, continued this mechanical approach about nature that life, like material, is blind and barren without final and aim. His followers too use the term life as a mechanical and physical term. Loss of the meaning of order and levels of the world in the system of nature was one of the other harmful results of this progressive theory. Spenser and Hksly, defenders of Darwinism, expressed all biological activity is established on material and movement. The processes of man's mind were included as completely material and are the result of progressive movements.

B-Characteristics of Sacred science Essence of Sacred Science- Traditionalists' definition and understanding about traditional science is not the same and the new viewpoints. For these thinkers, traditional sciences are not a background for the rise of the modern quantitative sciences or superstitious old wives' tales. The Nasr's interpretation toward nature of sacred science is: "there is first of all the Supreme Science or metaphysics, as understood traditionally, which deals with the Divine Principle. It is what one might call scientis sacra in the highest meaning of the term. It is the science which lies at the very center of man's being as well as at the heart of all orthodox and authentic religion and which is attainable by the intellect. ... it is a knowledge which is also being, a unitive knowledge which transcends ultimately Traditionalism 219 the dichotomy between the object and subject in that unity which is the source of all that is sacred"5-* Although in Knowledge and Sacred, Nasr has written "What we have designated as Scientia sacra is none other metaphysics if this term is understood correctly as the ultimate science of the Real/'^s He writes in introduction of The Need for a Sacred Science, "It is used in this and certain other works not as metaphysical knowledge itself but as the application of metaphysical principles to the macrocosm as well as the microcosm, to the natural as well as the human worlds/'^^ But he acknowledges that "Sacred science is science as the term I used today to the extent that is too deals with various domains of nature in addition to the psyche of man, his art and thought and human society, "s"

The union with the sacred- If the obvious indication of new science is separation from metaphysics, the obvious indication of traditional science is union with the sacred. For Traditionalists, this union manifests in different sciences, like cosmology, astronomy, alchemy, mathematics, medicine and traditional pharmacology: whereas the new science only recommends empiricism and rationalism. Nasr writes, sacred science "differs drastic from science as currently understood in that it has its roots and principles in metaphysics or scientia sacra and never leaves the world of the sacred in contrast to modern science whose very premises, immersed in empiricism and rationalism, have their nexus severed from any knowledge of a higher order."^^ It is impossible to know each object Traditionalism 220 without paying attention to its relation with the World of the Sprit, because this knowledge is always limited and uni-dimensional. All particulars are coordinated with whole system in the nature, and "as in nature itself where the functioning of every living organism is based upon the harmony within the world of the manifold as well as between the manifold and the One, the One which is the principle and source of all multiplicity. The vision of the whole was always related to the sense of the holy, of the sacred which nature displays at every turn. To lose the sense of the whole is also to become blind to the sense of the sacred and ultimately to forget the total order.^^ The creation world has arisen from Divinity; who is the unlimited and infinite. The attributes of the Divinity exist in the Universe. For instance "Infinitude is reflected in the world in diverse modes in space which is indefinite extension, in time which is potentially endless duration, in form which display unending diversity, in number which is marked by endless multiplicity, and in matter, a substance which partakes potentially of endless forms and divisions."<'0 Therefore any examination of phenomena is defective without examination of their metaphysical aspects. Traditional sciences, as against new sciences, do not observe any beings as independent things, but as having symbols of the spiritual world in him. "The highest function of the traditional sciences has alwavs been to aid the intellect and the instruments of perception to see the world and in fact all levels of existence not as facts or objects but as symbols, as mirrors in which is reflected the Traditionalism 221 face of the Beloved from Whom all originates and to whom everything returns."^' Therefore, this knowledge differs from new sciences, when is utilitarian and provides only material necessities of man. The Traditional science, in addition to utility, supplies man's material and spiritual needs. Symbolism- In new science, the terms guide exactly and determine meanings and scientific words are not polyhedron, whereas symbolism and mysterious is the characteristic of traditional language. Traditionalists say symbolic language is used in sacred knowledge, holy books of Abrahamian religions and sacred texts of Hinduism and Buddhism. But the nature and language of some of them is mythological. Symbolic language usually has an apparent meaning and one or some inwardly meaning and their apparent forms guide an aware man to inwardly means. In traditional science, according to Nasr "The language involved is a language of symbolism which reveals a truth beyond the domain of the facts of the science in question. Every traditional science is metaphysically significant precisely of its being able to relate a lower domain of reality to the higher planes through the language of symbolic."^2j-je claims to know that traditional sciences are impossible without the consciousness about symbolic language.

Symbolic or mythological language apparently is seen in traditional mathematic and cosmology. For example, in Pythagorean mathematic, the numbers are the key to the understanding of the cosmos. It deals outwardly with quantity and is inwardly the ladder Traditionalism 222 leading to the intelligible world. In traditional cosmology too, the world is regular and beautiful. Traditional science pays attention to both aspects of cosmos, therefore "Traditional science and most of all traditional cosmology is that universal, intelligible scheme, that vast tapestry within which each particular traditional science is woven as a particular form or figure whose meaning is unveiled only with reference to the whole of the tapestry, a whole which one cannot behold save through the light of metaphysics and gnosis."^^

Sacred view about nature- in the traditional approach, man is a stature of the organism of nature, not a powerful existence that is predominate nature. He is a lover of nature and respects nature. For traditionalists, nature contains a spiritual concept and a sacred science of nature necessarily understands the spiritual message of nature. The spiritual significance of nature appears in different ways. Nature has system and harmony, as a seer who is aware; is led to recognize the nonhuman origin of nature by an interrelation of parts and as a complementary of function of nature.

"The life of nature not only displays harmony and order but also laws which make the harmony and order possible. To modern science such laws may appear as being "merely' mechanical or biological, but this reduction does not at all obliterate the spiritual significance of this laws, save for those who have became blinded by the all too pervasive reductionism of today and who have lost their sense of wonder. For what in the source of these laws and why do Traditionalism 223 they exist? . . . The 'laws of nature' are but the laws of God for His creation"^

In the traditional approach, nature and the total universe is a unique and transcendent reality created only by God, operated by him, and one only takes care of it; "and Allah's is the East and the west. Therefore, wither you turn, thither is Allah's purpose."*'^ There is no difference between its apparent and interior, first and end, body and soul. There is a relation among its various parts and to change in one part, influences the other parts. The creation comes from one center and returns to that center^^. There are also such beliefs in Hinduism and other Eastern religions.

The devout people toil to protect nature as the base of their beliefs, besides its philanthropic feeling. For Traditionalists, the world and its creations are vestigial Dei. The Glorious Qur'an says, "Most surelv in the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of the night and the day there are signs for men who understand." ^7 50 man acquires knowledge about the Almighty God by thinking about the vestigial. For the devout, the Sun, Earth and other beings are angels and they act for the continuance of human life. In Hinduism too nature is a being. If man take from nature and not give back to nature, he will suffer. Today, man is not interested in health of beings and he is exploiting the mineral and natural resources of the world, and then is giving back to nature something which he has increasingly destroyed. Bhagavad Gita calls a person Traditionalism 224 who destroys nature a 'thief. According to Swami Ranganathananda "the human being becomes a thief with respect to the environment, and the thief will be punished. And that punishment is already going on; all the rivers and other water sources are polluted, and, in some cases, the pollution is extreme."*'^

Difference between Traditionalism and Fundamentalism The influence of modernity was very strong in different parts of man's life and aroused various reactions in religious authorities. Fundamentalism too is another religious movement that appeared against modernity. Fundamentalism is a term popularly used to describe strict adherence to Christian doctrines based on a literal interpretation of the Bible. This usage is derived from the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The Protestant movement opposed the assimilation of the Christian doctrine to modern scientific theory and philosophy. Until almost 100 years ago. Fundamentalism as we know it was not a separate movement within Protestantism, and the word itself was virtually unknown. In many ways religious fundamentalism is a modern phenomenon, characterized by a sense of embattled alienation in the midst of the surrounding culture, even where the culture may be nominally influenced by the adherents' religion. The term can also refer specifically to the belief that one's religious texts are infallible and historically accurate, despite contradiction of these claims by modern scholarship. Although the term fundamentalism in popular Traditionalism 225 usage sometimes refers derogatorily to any fringe religious group, or to extremist ethnic movements with only nominally religious motivations, the term does have a more precise denotation. "Fundamentalist" describes a movement to return to what is considered the defining or founding principles of the religion. It has especially come to refer to any religious enclave that intentionally resists identification with the larger religious group in which it originally arose, on the basis that fundamental principles upon which the larger religious group is supposedly founded have become corrupt or displaced by alternative principles hostile to its identity.

Fundamentalism also refers to a global religious impulse, particularly evident in the twentieth century that seeks to recover and publicly institutionalize aspects of the past that modern life has obscured. It typically sees the secular state as the primary enemy, for the latter is more interested in education, democratic reforms, and economic progress than in preserving the spiritual dimension of life. Generic fundamentalism takes its cues from a sacred text that stands above criticism. It sees time-honored social distinctions and cultural patterns as rooted in the very nature of things, in the order of creation itself. That means clear-cut and stratified roles for men and women, parents and children, clergy and laymen. On the other hand, generic fundamentalism seeks to minimize the distinction between the state and the church authorities. Traditionalism 226

The fundamentalist "wall of virtue", which protects their identity, is erected against not only alien religions, but also against the modernized, compromised, nominal version of their own religion. In Christianity, fundamentalists are "Bom again" and "Bible- believing" Protestants, as opposed to "Mainline", "liberal", "modernist" Protestants, who represent "Churchianity"; in Islam they are jama'at (Arabic: (religious) enclaves with connotations of close fellowship) self-consciously engageci in jihad (struggle) against Western culture that suppresses authentic Islam {submission) and the God-given (Shari'ah) way of life; in Judaism they are Haredi "Torah-true" Jews; and they have their equivalents in Hinduism and other world religions. These groups insist on a sharp boundary between themselves and the faithful adherents of other religions, and finally between a "sacred" view of life and the "secular" world and "nominal religion". Fundamentalists direct their critiques toward and draw most of their converts from the larger community of their religion, by attempting to convince them that they are not experiencing the authentic version of their professed religion.

Although Fundamentalists are traditional and some of their views are similar to the Traditionalists, thev are not Traditionalists and numerous differences can be seen between them. Some of these differences are:

The manner of confrontation with modernism- both these movements are anti-modernism, but unlike the Traditionalists, the Traditionalism 227 confrontation of Fundamentalists is very superficial as their knowledge about modernism is not deep and they only attacked the outward points of modernity, like ethical and religious deviations. Fundamentalists contend against irreligiosity and immorality that are fruits of modernity while they neglect the philosophical and historical principles of the appearance of modernity. This neglect is the cause of the contradictory behaviors of Fundamentalists. They are verbally antagonistic to modernism but in practice; use modern products in their life. Sometimes, they attempt to advocate religion seeking the help of scientific reasons, improve, or show that no conflict exists between religion and science. For this movement, the solution of the problems of modernism is ethical preaching, political method and sometimes rough reaction. But Traditionalists criticize the foundations that establish modernism, especially Rationalism. They present thoughtfully and in philosophical ways, write books and essays for the deliverance of problems of the modern world.

Denial of the spirituality of religion- all religions contain two aspects, the exoteric and the inner; and both of them are necessary to attain the truth. The exoteric of religion guides prayer and other religious acts that faithful people must do. The core of religion is the heart and spirit of religious acts. If these acts reach fulfillment with inner aspects, the faithful individual will attain the truth. The aspects of exoteric and the core of religion are not separate from each other and make the path of man and the Supreme to come together. Traditionalism 228

Fundamentalists usually persist in the exoteric aspect of religion. For them, quantity, not quality, is important. They do not focus on the mystical and spiritual parts of religion. Often, the Gnostics are rejected by the lovers of exoteric forms of religion. But Traditionalists pay attention to all the faces of religion and believe that the exoteric aspect is a background for the inner levels of religion. The exoteric form of religion without its inner content is meaningless. So the main works that have been written by Traditionalists are about religious spirituality and mysticism.

On the other hand. Gnostics usually speak and write in symbolic language and believe that the religious texts are full of secrets. Traditionalists advocate this view and say that the holy books have exoteric and inner aspects. Often, the language of holy books is symbolic and needs interpretation. Fundamentalists are against this approach and insist on only the verbal aspect of words of holy books. For them, the philosophical or mystical interpretations are only a figment of imagination.

Return to tradition- Fundamentalists, like Traditionalists are interested in tradition, but their viewpoints are completely contradictory. They are very fanatic and externalist towards the understanding of tradition, and want to return to the core of old religious disciplines without any heed to the condition of the modern world. For this movement, tradition is only the external forms of rules of Law and a collective of lifeless fundamentals. They also Traditionalism 229 believe that only their religion is right and other religions are falsified. Traditionalists, however, have very deep concepts about tradition and believe that modernity is against all religions and civilizations that they have appeared in the West and the East.

Doubtlessly, the objective of the revival of religion is an important aim of returning to tradition for both of the movements. But Traditionalists do not advocate this revival on the basis of antagonism to all the fruits of modernity,. They believe that the revival of religion is impossible without the spread of knowledge about the foundation and specification of the modern world. Every reaction against modernism will be defeated, when it does not rely on recognizing the nature of modernity. All unsteady anti-modernism actions will be caught in the circle of modernism and will strike a blow on the vivification of religion and tradition.

Exclusivity- .. , . js fai'c • • . The followers of others religions are misled and according to authorities of church 'There is not any salvation out of the church'. So they simply excommunicate others. But Traditionalists have accepted numerous ways of reviving the truth. The exterior forms and multiplicities of religions are corresponding to the condition of the temporal and location of religions. These conditions are necessary and natural. The truth of different religions is the same and according to Schoun, there is also a transcendental unity among religions. Therefore names are Traditionalism 230 not important and to attain the Divine truth is possible and similar for Moslem, Hindu, and Christian, Jewish etc.

Ideological religion- For Fundamentalists, religious teachings are an instrument of struggles and faithful people are members of a political party. The obedience of rules of Law is necessary for followers as a party activity. For them, the struggle against external enemy is more important than the fight with one's own self, and simulation, the religiosity become necessary for people. Religion is usually imposed on members of society and anyone who does not follow the rule of Law is punished. But, Traditionalists value the love of God, religion and people. They believe that man can revive goodness by fighting with one's own self and with free will, without any force.

Traditionalists and Religious reformists

There are other thinkers who have not figured in the group of Traditionalists but there are some similarities between them. Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) from India, Mohammad Iqbal (1877- 1938) from Pakistan and Ali Sharyati (1929-1978) from Iran were religious reformists who strongly challenged against the manifestations of modernism. They were educated thinkers whose knowledge about the western world was extensive. Religious reformists, like Traditionalists, were researchers and writers, but in Traditionalism 231 addition to these activities, they created huge political - cultural reforms in their countries. They sacrificed their life for political lightings on the basis of religious views.

In this part, some of Gandhi's viewpoints that are very similar to the Traditionalists' thoughts are examined.

Mahahna Gandhi

In spite of Gandhi not being in the list of Traditionalists, he has a lot of thoughtful unity with them:

Denial of modern civilization- Gandhi, like other Traditionalists, criticizes modern civilization, because he believed it is immoral and unreligious. "This civilization takes note neither of morality nor of religion. Its votaries calmly state that their business is not to teach religion. Some even consider it to be a superstitious growth. Others put on the cloak of religion, and prate about morality. But, after twenty years' experience, I have come to the conclusion that immorality is often taught in the name of morality. Even a child can understand that in all 1 have described above there can be no inducement to morality. Civilization seeks to increase bodily comforts, and it fails miserably even in doing so."^^ He had recognized the fact that the results of irreligious civilization are very harmful for Western people. "This civilization is irreligious, and it Traditionalism 232 has taken such a hold on the people in Europe that those who are in it appear to be half mad. They lack real physical strength or courage. They keep up their energy by intoxication. They can hardly be happy in solitude."7o

The mechanization and the industrialization were other results of modern civilization that Gandhi critiqued them. He recognized the crisis and harmful fruits of technological and industrial world very soon. "Machinery' has begun to desolate Europe. Ruination is now knocking at the English gates. Machinery is the chief symbol of modern civilization; it represents a great sin" 7^ But contrary to the widely accepted view, he is not against machinery per se. he considers the body to be a machine. He is certainty against the replacement of body-labors by machine-work, but not against making physical work more joyful with the help of the machines. He is not against use of machines within the scope of ethics. For Gandhi some of the main problems of industrial culture in our life are: competition and exploitation, the problem of unemployment, centralization and concentration, urbanization and value crises. "Industrial culture made religion less important. Modern science compartmentalized knowledge with its acute specializations. Compartmentalization and specialization in science influenced the moral and religious pursuits of learning also. Finally, moral and religious values were considered to be the concern of those who were Traditionalism 233 specialization on those subjects only. Others remained indifferent to them."72

For Gandhi, civilization is valuable when based on duty, morality and good conduct. "Civilization is that mode of conduct that points out to of man the path of duty. Performance of duty and observance of morality are convertible terms. To observe morality is to attain mastery over our mind and our passion. So doing, we know ourselves. The Gujarati equivalent for civilization means 'good conduct'."^3 He also claims that Indian civilization is one of the most important Eastern traditions, which we should return to. Gandhi writes that: "The tendency of the Indian civilization is to elevate the moral being that of the Western civilization is to propagate immorality. The latter is godless; the former is based on a belief in god. So understanding and so believing, it behaves every lover of India to cling to the old Indian civilization even as a child clings to the mother's breast."^"*

He also was against secularism that was one of the results of modernity and "arguing from an avowedly traditional point of view, rejected secularism as a preferred way of life if it stood for the divorce of politics from religion"^^

Support to the East- Gandhi's personality was completely religious and he was a defender of Oriental religions and civilizations. Gandhi was born in Hindu family, lived in Hinduism Traditionalism 234 and left the world with this faith. Being born in a Hindu family however was not the main cause for him following his religion. He wrote, "Believing as 1 do in the influence of heredity, being born in a Hindu family, I have remained a Hindu. I should reject it if I found it inconsistent with my moral sense or my spiritual growth."76

The unity of religions- The variety of religions is one of the external reality in the history of man and Gandhiji had lived in country where the multiplicity of religions is unique, in comparison to other countries, and lot of religious and sectarian struggles have existed constantly in this area. But he had studied and knew other religions and respected them; and had advocated the unity of religions learnedly and actively. "For me the different religions are beautiful flowers from the same garden, or they are branches of the same being received and interpreted through human instruments equally imperfect.'^For Gandhi, all religions are fundamentally similar and true. He said at a public meeting "I believe in the fundamental truth of all great religions of the world. I believe that they are all God-given, and I believe that they were necessary for the people to whom these religions were revealed. And I believe that, if only we could all of us read the scriptures of different faiths from the standpoint of the followers of those faiths we should find that they were at bottom all one and were helpful to one another."78

He was devoutly interested Hinduism, but was also a defender of the unity of religions. "I do believe in harmony between all Traditionalism 235 religions. I have myself worked at it in my humble way.... Belief in one God is the corner-stone of all religions. But I do not foresee a time when there would be only one religion on earth in practice. In theory, since there is one God, there can be only one religion. But in practice, no two persons I have known have had the same and identical conception of God. Therefore, there will, perhaps, always be different religions answering to different temperaments and climatic condition. But 1 can clearly see the time coming when people belonging to different faiths will have the same regard for other faiths that they have for their own. I think that we have to find unity in diversity .... We are all children of one and the same God and, therefore, absolutely equal."^^

In spite of the opposition of fanatic Hindu groups, Gandhi was never an exclusivist in his religion. T. N. Madan says, "He rejected the notion of a single, once-for-ever, act of divine revelation to a chosen people, whether in the form found in the Abrahamic religions or in Dayananda's reinterpretation of the Vedic corpus."^° Gandhi declares "I do not believe in the exclusive divinity of the Vedas"; and "I decline to be bound by any interpretation, however learned it may be, if it is repugnant to reason or moral sense."^i Being dogmatic is the main characteristic of all religious fundamentalists, but in judgement about Hinduism, he was not enchained from dogmas and wrote "I have found [Hinduism] to be the most tolerant of all religion know to me. Its freedom from dogma makes a forcible appeal to me Traditionalism 236 inasmuch as it gives the the largest scope for self-expression. Not being an exclusive religion, it enables the followers of [the] faith not merely to respect all the other religions, but it also enables them to admire and assimilate whatever may be good in the other faiths."^^

Ethics- Gandhi has represented numerous points about ethics and it is possible to recognize different aspects from his view. First, right and wrong ethical acts are understood by man's mind, " a certain act is good or bad does not depend upon whether it is beneficial or harmful to us. In judgment of it, we adopt quite a different standard. We have in our minds certain ideas and on the basis of those we judge the acts of others."^^ Second, moral laws are not relative and do not change in different situations. "We see also that moral laws are immutable. Opinions change, but not morality.''^* Third, the ethical principles which were presented by Socrates are eternal and are inviolable, "Many men were opposed to the morality which Socrates observed in his day. Even so the world admits that the morality he observed has remained, and shall remain for ever morality."^5 Fourth, the ethical approach is not separate from religious approach and the observation of morality is impossible without religion. "It will be seen that true or ideal morality ought to include true religion. To put the same thought differently, morality cannot be observed without religion. That is to say, morality should be observed as a religion." For Gandhi, "to lead a religious life" and "to lead a spiritual life" essentially mean the same as to lead a selfless Traditionalism 237 ethical life of love and "to realize God", "to realize Truth", "to realize self" essentially mean the same as to realize a perfect enlightened selfless ethical life of love". He considers a spiritual life to be an intrinsically happy life.^^ Traditionalism 238

Notes

1. Mircea, Eliade, The Encyclopedia of Religion, Volume 15, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1986, p. 1. 2. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Version 1.0, London: Rutledge 3. The Encyclopedia of Religion, Volume 15, p. 2. 4. Ibid., p. 2. 5. In view of Shiite, twelve determined people are Imam Shiite who was true replacements of Mohammad. 6. The Glorious Qiir'an, sorah 33,61. ^. The Glorious Qur'an, Sorah, 4, 27. 8. Seyyed Hossein, Nasr, Knowledge and The Sacred, Pakistan, Suhail Academy Lahore,1988, P. 68. 9. Ibid., p. 68. 10. Seyyed Hossein, Nasr, Tlie Essential Writings Of Frithjof Schuon, translate, W. Stoddart, Sshaftesbury, Dorest; Element, 1991, p. 534. 11. Mostafa Malekiyan and ..., kherade javidan. University of Teheran, 2002, p. 36. 12. Schoun Fritjof, Spiritual Perspective and Human Fact, London,Perennial Books, 1969, p. 178. 13. Schoun Fritjof, Sophia Perennis: Translation, W. Stoddart; in The Essential Writings of Fritjof Shoun, Nasr, seyyed Hossein (ed) op. cit: p. 534. 14. Ibid., p. 71. 15. Ibid., p. 76. Traditionalism 239

^6. John M.Frame, Traditionalism, Part 1 of 2: Traditionalism and Sola Scriptura; and Evangelical Traditionalism, web site http:/ / www.tradition,org.

17. The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XV, Copyright © 1912 by Robert Appleton Company, Online Edition Copyright © 2003 by K. Knight. 18. Rene, Guenon, Web site http://en.Wikipedia,org/ the free encyclopedia. •9. Rene Guenon, Web site http://pages.zoom .co.uk /thuban /html /guenon /htm.

20. Ibid.

21. Andrew Scott, Ananda Coomaraswamy, Web site http: / /WMTW. Virtual Library .Sri Lanka. 22. Hossein Khandaghabadi, Hekmate Javidan, institute of development of knowledge and research of Iran, 2000, p. 19.

23. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Knowledge and The Sacred, p. 106. 24. Ibid, p. 107. this statement has printed on the back of the English translation of Schuon;s Logic and Transcendence

25. Sophia, Journal of Traditional Studies, vol. 4, no. 2, Winter 1998, Web site http://www.salaam.co.uk 26. Titus Burckhardt, Web site http://www.cis-ca.org. 27. Martin Lings, Web site http://www Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. And 28. Web site http:// www.Dr. syyed Hosain Nasr/hat Traditionalism 240

29. Rune Guenon, Tlie Crisis of Modern World, trans. By A. Osborne, London,!975, p. 1.

30. Frituf Shoun, understanding Islam, trans. By D.M. Matheson, London, 1981, chapter 2, p. 137.

31. Nasr, Knowledge and The Sacred, p. 84. 32. Ibid., p. ^5.

33. Ibid., pp. 102-103.

34. Ibid., pp. 3-4.

35. Frituf Shoun, Norms and Paradoxes in Spiritual Alchemy" in Sophia, vol.l,no. 1, 1995.

36. Nasr, Knowledge and The Sacred, p. 4. 37. Seyyed Hossein, Nasr, Living Siifism, Ghasidehsara, Teheran, 2002, p. 93.

38. Nasr,Knowledge and The Sacred, pp. 3-4.

39. Nasr, Living Sufism, p. 94.

40. Rune Guenon, The Crisis of Modern World, p. 10.

41. Nasr, Knowledge and Vie Sacred, p. 94. 42. Ibid., p.l02.

43. Nasr, Knowledge and The Sacred, p. 74.

44. The Glorious Qur'an, sorhe ebrahim, 4.

45. Nasr, Living Sufism, p. 200.

4*^. Seyyed Hossein, Nasr, Man and Nature, The Spiritual Crisis in Modern Man, Published ABC International Group, Inc, Chicago, 1997, p.21. Traditionalism 241

47. Syyd Hossein, Nasr, The Need for a Sacred Science, U. K, Curzon Press, 1993, p. 82. 48. Ibid., p. 86.

49. Nasr, Man and Nature, The Spiritual Crisis in Modern Man, p. 68. 50. Nasr, The Need for a Sacred Science, p. 77. 51. Ibid., p. 80. 52. Ibid., p. 81.

53. Nasr, Man and Nature, The Spiritual Crisis in Modern Man, p. 69. 54. Ibid., pp. 1-2. 55 . Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Man and Nature, Tlie Spiritual Crisis in Modern Man, p. 132. 56. Nasr, The Need for a Sacred Science, p. 77.

57. Ibid., p. 2.

58. Ibid, p. 2. 59. Ibid., p. 81. 60. Nasr, The Need for a Sacred Science, p. 135. ".Ibid., p. 111. 62. Ibid., p. 98. 63 .Ibid, p. 99. 64 .Ibid, p. 120. 65 .The Glorious Qur'an, sura:2,115 66. Ibid, sura 35, 4. 67. Ibid, sura: 3,190-191. Traditionalism 242

68. Swami Ranganathananda, Universal Message of The Bhagavad Gita, Calcutta, 2000, Volume, 1, P. 273. <'9. Gandhi, M, K, Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule, Navajivan Publishing House, Ahmedabad, 1995, p. 33. 70. Ibid., p. 33. 71. Ibid., P. 83. 72. George Joseph M, Towards A Critique of Modern Culture, PH.D thesis. Department of philosophy. University of Pune, 2000, P. 146. 73. Ibid., p. 55. 74. Ibid., p. 57. 75. Madan, T. N., Modern Myths, Locked Minds, Secularism and Fundamentalism in India, Oxford, Fourth Impression 2003, pp. 188-189. 76. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Tlie Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol. 35. New Delhi: Publications Divisions, Government Of India[ PD, GOI], p. 166. ^^. Mohandas Karamchand, Gandhi, In Search Of The Supreme, Volume III, Navajivan Publishing House, Ahmedabad, reprint 2002, p. 4. 78. Ibid., Vol, III, p. 3. 79. Madan, T. N. Modern Myths, Locked Minds, p.l6. 80. Ibid., p. 229. 8^ Mohandas Karamchand, Gandhi, The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Volume, 21, p. 246. 82. Ibid, Volume 35, pp. 166-167. Traditionalism 243

83. Mohandas Karamchand, Gandhi, The Selected Works Of Mahatma

Gandhi, Volume. Ill, The Basic Works, navalivan Publishing House,

1968, p. 13.

84. Ibid., p. 14.

85. Ibid., P. 15.

86. See K C. R auta. An integrated Study in Philosophy, Vol I, part II-c.