Racial Conflict and Healing

An Asian-American Theological Perspective

ANDREW SUNG PARK

WIPF & STOCK· Eugene, Oregon Preface

I asked my ten-year-old son, Amos, "Do you enjoy living this life?" Puzzled, heresponded,"What doyou mean?" I explained, "You weren't here ten years ago. Compared with the time before you were born, do you like this life?" He answered, "I don't remember that time, so 1can't compare it with now." Then he asked, "Where was I before my birth, and why am I here?" I could not answer his questions. .. No one volunteers for his or her present life. Amos did 'not choose his parents, gender, race, or nationality. Even a bird or an insect does notselect its own species.This meansthatthereis nobasis uponwhich to claim superiorityto any other person-or any other creature. We are all here to live the lives that have been given to us. There is nothing to boast oforto feel shameful about concerning ourintrinsic being. There is nothing we can despise or disrespect in the world. All the animals and all the races, all people ofthe two genders, must be respected as they are. Everything has a divine right to behere. The one thing that is required is that we live ourlife faithfully and truthfully. So, why is there so much racism in this society? Recently the Los Angeles eruptions and the O. J. Simpson trial have divided us sharply along racial lines and have raised racial tensions. It seems almost im­ possible to bridge the profound gap between races. WiD racial conflict endlesslyswell, oris racial healingpossible?Who will bring about reconciliation and healing? What is the role of the church in a racially divided society? I believe that the primary task ofthe church in the United States is to elicit racial justice and healing. All other accomplishments of the church (such as growth in church membership, increase inthe church budget. construction of new church buildings, even the zeal of the churchfor Bible study) canbe superficial andhypocritical ifthechurch neglects the pressing issue ofracial justice. I believe it is possible to change the situation of racial conflict by changingourdeep images ofeachotherandbytransformingthestruc­ ture ofracial discrimination. As a Christian, I dare to undertake this dif­ ficult problemfrom a Korean-American perspective. Korean-Americans were victims ofthe Los Angeles eruptions, with over twenty-five hun­ dred Korean-American shops attacked, looted, and burned. We are the "oppressed ofthe oppressed," without political orsocial protection.

ix x PREFACE

I believe that true reconciliation can take place only when an op­ pressed group initiates it; only the oppressed can generate a racially harmonious'socie~Using a Korean and Christianspiritual ethos, I at­ tempt in this bookto bringbasic healingto a raciallywounded societ}T. Introduction In completingthis book, I am deeplyindebtedto the following indi.. viduals. EditorSusan Perry devotedly carried out herworkdespite the fact that she had barely recuperated from her automobile accident. Publisher Robert Gormley ofOrbis Books has strongly supported this projectfrom the beginning. I am also gratefulto Production Coordina~ One sunnyafternoon mysonAmos, then eightyears old, ranto the tor Catherine Costello for her helpful work. NewellWert, former dean house, saying that some children had taken his bicycle. I rushed. out ofUnitedTheological Seminary; read the whole manuscript and made with him, got into my car, drove two blocks andfound about nine boys many valuable comments. Susan Brooks Thistlethwaite of Chicago riding bicycles. One oftheyoungest-aboutfive years old-spedaway Theological Seminary suggested some inspiring titles for the book. from me onAmos's bike. I shouted aloud, (·Stop! Come here." The tall­ Stuart McLean ofPhillips University and Seminaryand Robert McAfee est and oldest bo}7, the ring leader of the group, was shouting, "Run Brown ofPacific SchoolofReligion helpedandencouragedmeinmany away! Run away!" The little boywas scared, however, and came backto ways. My former colleague CornishRogers providedhelpfulresources. me.We gotbackthe bicycle withAmos's wrist watchhangingonit. ·~e Thr9ugh my colleague Marsha Foster.. Boyd, Warren Lee of San Fran­ you goingto report us to the police?" askedoneofthe boys. I replied, "I ciscoTheologicalSeminarysenthis autobiographyto me. Kwang Chung will report the incident, but I will not turn you in to the police." They Kim of Western Illinois University and Sang ViI Kim of Hanshin Uni­ had a girl's bicycle·with them, too. Therefore, I began to moralize with versity suggested useful resources. Young Chan Ro of George Mason themfor a fewminutes, and thenI confrontedthe oldest boy(who said Universitysharedhis insight. My colleaguesatUnitedTheologicalSemi­ he was fourteen years old), demanding that they not do such a thing nary have beenvery supportive ofthis project. BarryGannon, Patricia again. He did not like my reproofand he reviled me. He even threat.. Wagner, Suzanne Smailes, and Ritter Warner were very helpful in im... ened me by showing me part ofsomething metal in his backpocket. I provingthe manuscript. MarthaAndersonassisted mein preparingthe was scared, butI asked,·'What's that, a gun'?" (Ril Beatty, Sr., a civil rights bibliography. leader, was killed by a seventeen-year-old boy two weeks before this Finall}T, I deeply appreciate myspouse, Sun-OkJane Myong, for her incident-September 24, 1994-when he tried to quiet three rowdy steadysupport and love. I also thankmytwo sons, Amos (10) andTho­ youths in front ofhis house. He was the father ofone of our seminar­ mas (7), for their direct and indirect contributions to the book. During ians.) The otherkids said, "No:' In fact, itwas a pairofpliers. Inthe end, the lonelyperiodofthe writing, the time to playwith themwas myjoy: all the boys except the oldest apologized and promised that theywould not do such a thing again. However, I felt humiliated by this fourteen... year-old boyand experienced hurt. I came backhome depressed. My moodlastedfor several long days. During this time my yearning for a just and peaceful society in the United States became real. It gradually dawned on me that the inci­ dent of the bicycle theft brought back memories of the Los Angeles eruptions (I was a resident of the Los Angeles area at that time and. witnessedthe eruptions). Beyondthe problemofracial division, these two incidents revealed the problems ofthe socia-economicand politi­ cal structures that result in class division and racial conflict. When Amos's bikewas stolen, welived neartheseminaryinDayton, in a pre­ dominantly middle... class Mrican...American neighborhood, whereas thes~ children came from west Dayton, a poor neighborhood where, not long ago, one child killed another in order to. steal his expensive jacket.

1 2 INTRODUCTION INTRODUcrIOrJ 3 The United States has faced racial and ethnic strife and economic To change our social problems, cultural diversity and unity are not disparity for a long time. It may not collapse suddenly; as the Soviet enough. Economic and political changes must take place. Simulta­ Union didin 1992, butit can disintegrate slowly: Howthis countrydeals neously; we need to change our religion, which is :the soul ofour cul­ with these matters will determine its final destiny. ture. Without changing the spirit ofthe culture, a deep change is un­ To provide a portrait of a harmonious ethnic America sociologists likely: That is, in order to change our society it is necessary ~o change have come up withdifferent theories. Amalgamationtheoriesenvision our cultural "unconsciousness" and "superconsciousness," as well as a melting-pot America, where all different racial and. ethnic groups in­ the consciousness ofthe society: termingle and integrate together, finding their new American identi-qr. In shifting ourimages ofthe self, others, and society, we move from A$$j~Q~tio;n v:i~~~._~.~ress the consolidation ofdiverse cultures into the the society(Gesellschaft> ofoppression, repression, injustice, violence, dominantculture. Ontheotherhand, cu!!lUJI.lpluralism theoriesproject andmammonism into a community(Gemeinschaft) ofequiqr, fairness, a societywherevarious groupskeep theirculturafidentities, celebrating and consideration for others.1 We need, therefore, some· theological their diversities. The idealj§.unity in diversityand diversity in unit}'. modelsfor ourracial and ethnic relations. The basic motifofthis book In the early part ofthe twentieth cent~meltilIg'-pottheories and isloon Ca Korean term describing the ine~ablepain ofthe unjustly'op­ assimilation theoriespredominated.The policyofthe government, fa­ pressed).Adeephan ofthis societyis its mdlVidualistic ideololDf, which" v~ring Europeanimmigration, made suchtheories possible. Presently, underlies corporateAmerica, its.Jnedia, culture, and Christianity: , WIth more non-European immigrants, the view <;>f cultural pluralism This book suggests a model of transmutation as aililrernative vi­ prevails in OUf social arena. Although racial and ethnic diversity is sian.Thistheological modelsurpassestheviewofthemelting-potcom.. stressed, we have experienced little unity. These sociological models munity (assimilation to the one dominant culture) and the view of a are insufficientto advance oursocietyto a newplane ofracial and eth­ culturally plu:ra1.i~tlc_s()ciety, where eitherunityor diversityis stressed. nic relations. Byfocusing on racial and ethnic relations, these theories Thevisionoftransmutation ~nderscoreseconomic, socia-political, and have endeavored to improve them. This focus, however, is the precise cultural conversion as wellas their diversity and uniqr. This model es.. reason that they have not accomplished their purposes, for they over- pauses the shared enhancement ofvarious racial and ethnic groups. ' \ looked the significance of socia-economic and spiritual factors. The To change-others means recognizing that they have their own bases nineMrican-American children did not steal my son's bicycle because from which they carry out their dialogue and transforming work. he was a Korean-American. The Los Angeles eruptions did not start Throughstrengtheningoneanother, various groupsmovetowardunit}T. from South Central Los Angeles; the poor neighborhood of African­ Through finding their own bases, theycome to find their own unique­ AmericansandHispanic-Americans, withoutreason. Even ifethnicand ness (diversity). r~cial harmonyis achieved todayinLos Angeles, more racial eruptions The impetus ofreciprocal enhancement does notarise from simple will occur tomorrow unless we change the inner-cityeconomyand its theories or models. It emerges from the indispensable and inmostvi­ socio-spiritual structure and ethos. This book is an effort to prevent sions that diverse groups share. These visions draw us near and em­ such destructive events and to improve ethnic relations. power all ofus to become ourselves. I would like to address this issue ofracial and ethnic relations from The methodologies we employ are crucial in our struggle for treat.. all Asian-American perspective. VerY little work has been done in this ing the han and the sin ofour society. The process ofhealing is as im­ area fromeithertheological or Asian-American perspectives. Most portantashealingitself. Suchtransformation does notbeginwithgood churches, except for some ethnic churches, have been relatively silent intentions onl~ First and foremost, we must see each other. Seeing is on the issue. Few theological models have been suggested on this piv­ the powerofmutualtransmutation. Itchanges boththe seeingandthe otal matter. Therewas no map I could depend onto find myway outof seen. Ifwe truly see_ the seeing will guide us into the next steps to re­ .... the mire ofracial and ethnic relations. This project is the result ofmy solve our socialhan.We arehereto see eachother. Seeingpresupposes own struggle to create such a theological andAsian-American modeL being, causes understanding, and elicits·change. We need a strategyto change oursocial conditions. Bychangingthe We can engendera societyin whichwe trulysee each otherand en.. waywe see, I believe that we can turn our societyinto a communityof joy each other's company;. In this seeing, people's han begins to melt. care and equi~To do so, not onlya paradigm shift in our thinkingbut Byseeingeach other's strength, ourcapacitycomesto its full blossom­ a vision shift is needed. When our inmost vision is shifted, action will ing. Byseeingothers' shortcomingswithsupportive eyes, we helpeach come naturally. other to complete ourincompleteness. 4 INTRODUCfION INTRODUCfION 5 Augustine set a theological model for his own time in De Civitate and ethnic conflict. Furthermore; we need some inmost visions that Dei (The City a/God). This workwas his defense ofChristianityagainst transcend the category of indispensability and reach an intrinsic ap­ accusations that neglect of the old Roman gods was the cause ofthe preciation of tCotherness." When these deep..seated visions grasp us, downfall ofRome. Augustine posited two cities, eachfounded onlove. we are bound to change ourworld. Theearthlycityis builtonlove ofself, even to thecontemptofGod; the Chapter5 treats aninnermostvision oftheselfinorderto surmount cityofGod is founded onthe love ofGod. Althoughthese two cities are American rugged individualismthrough suggestingthetrinitarianself intermingled at the present, only the·city of God will last in the end. ofAsian thinking. No selfcanexistbyitself; thetrinitarianselfis formed Built on self.··love, all the powerful earthly kingdoms and cities will from the relationship between a person and his or her parents. This witherandfade awayinspite oftheirtransitoryglories, asBabylonand understanding ofthe trinitarian selfsupports parens, ergo sum ("I am Rome did. Constructed on God's will and salvation, the city ofGod will interconnectedto parents, therefore I a.ni') ratherthancogito, ergo sum stand tall and endure. (eel think, therefore I am'). Chapter 6 deals with a Christian understanding of parousia, an in.. The present work treats the current socio-economic and cultural nermost vision ofthe future Christian society. Many Christians, par... issues against the backdrop ofthe Los Angeles eruptions of1992. Ana­ .ticularlyKorean..AmericanChristians, are preoccupiedwiththewrong lyzing the root causes of the eruptions, I make distinctions between image of the second,. coming of Christ. As most Jewish people have sin and han. Discussing and treating the problem ofsin as traditional waited for the first coming ofa glorious messiah, so many Christians churcheshave done does not fully address certainissuesthatoursoci.. await the second coming ofa magnificent Christ. Here parousia is re­ etyis facing.To makeoursocietysounder,we mustdistinguishsinfrom interpreted as the coming ofthe han... suffering. han and provide some relevant prescriptions for their dissolution. Ko- Part III discusses howto acN~yethe goals ~f the solutions. Chapter . rean..Americans as well as manyother ethnicpeople suffer more from 7 treats major sociological theories for the racial and ethnic relations han than sin.2 Accordingl}', Korean..American churches must adaress ofAmerica: the amalgamation theo~ the assimilation theoI'}', cultural the issue of actual han more, although they should not neglect the pluralism, the triple melting..pot theol)T, and the new ethnic identity matters of'sin. For example, few Korean..Americans kill others; more theol)'. Most dominant sociological theories are lacking in the dimen­ are killed by others. It is perhaps unnecessary to stress not killing to sion ofsocietal reformation in theirstrivingto bring about a harmoni.. the victims ofviolence. We need to keep a balance between han and ous society; they lack socio-economic analyses and solutions. sin, but in the pastwe have unilaterally emphasized the matter ofsin; Chapter Blooks into three Korean-American models: a withdrawal for the oppressed, we needto put more weight onhan for theirhealing model, an assimilation model, and a paradoxical model. On the one and newvisions for social change.,3 hand, inlight ofthe Korean..American models it can be seenthat most Thisprojectconsists ofthree parts. PartI is a diagnosis ofsocialprob­ sociological theories neglect the presence ofnon..European groups in lems from a Korean-American perspective. Chapter 1 describes han, society: On the other, this chapter indicates the need to develop a rel­ sharingtales ofhan as relatedtotheAsian-Americanexperience. Chap.. evant Korean..Arnerican model for a creative society. ter 2 analyzes the han ofthe Korean-American community in the set.. Chapter 9 suggests a transmutation model, a Korean-American ting ofthe 199'2 Los Angeles eruptions.Their root causes are diagnosed model. Instead ofespousingsociological theories; thisviewchallenges as the expansion oftransnational corporations, racial discrimination, the horizontal emphases of racial and ethnic relations and treats the redlining, discriminationagainstentrepreneurs, and classism. Sincethe communalrepentance ofeachethnicgroup aswell asthe healingofits han ofour society is more decisive than its sin in our daily struggle, i~ is han, an approach the three sociological models lack. discussedfirst.We need, however, tobe concernedaboutthe issue ofsin Chapter 10 quests for some insights of Korean thought that might .... as well. Chapter 3 treats the sins ofthe Korean..American communitY, contribute to the wholeness ofsociety: 'Such concepts as hahn (divine such as labor exploitation, racial prejudice, and a sexist culture. greatness and acceptance),jung (affection and endearment), andmut Part II suggests s

Han-Talk

THE PORTRAIT OF HAN

When a person puts up with long suffering or a sharp i~tense pang ofinjustice, heor~he develops a "node" ofpaininside-avisceral, psy­ chological, and pneumatic reactionto the unbearable pain. This phe­ nomenon is called han in Korean. Han is.the inexpres~iblyentangled eJ{perieq.ce ofPlain and bitterness imposed by the injustice ofoppres­ sors. The term han is too intricate to define completel~Korean minjung theologianYoun~-HakHyun, however, describes it as follows:

t;' • Han is a sense of unr~solved resentment against injustice suf- fered, a sense ofhelplessness because ofthe ovelWhelming odds against, a feeling ofacute painofsorrowin one's guts and bowels makingthewhole bodywrithe andwriggle, and anobstinateurge to take~'revenge'-'andto right the wrong all these combined.1

Han is thevoid ofgriefthatthe sufferinginnocentexperiences.. When griefsurpasses its sensibility line, it becomes a void. This void is not a mere hollowness, butanabyss filled with agony. Han is the abyss ofthe dark night ofgrief. As a long orsharp agony turns into a darkvoid, the , void swallows all the other agendas oflife, intensifying its hollowness. , Han is the experience ofthe powerless, the marginalized, thevoiceless ofour society:)\Nomen, particularly, have experienced the long suffer­ ing of dehum~nization.Thus, their han is deeper than men's. Social injustice, politi~al repression, economicexploitation, cultural contempt, and war, all of which affect the downtrodden as a whole, raise the collective han. When the oppressed undergo suffering over several generations without release, they develop coll~ctive uncon... scious han and transmit it to their posterit}T. In Jungian terms, this is something sbnilar to the ('collective unconscious."2 Collective uncon- 9 10 PROBLEMS INTHE KOREAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY HAN..TALK 11 scious han is, however, different from lung's. For Jung, the collective nifies a vengeful mind like the Chinese hen. The popular story ofthe unconscious is '-more like an atmosphere in which we live than some­ forty-seven samurai in the tradition ofthe Bushido spirit epitomizes thing that-is found in US."3 Jung's collective unconscious is universal, the Japanese enkon. The story goes like this: A certain feudal lord was whereas the collective unconscious han is particular to certain per­ trappedintodrawinghisswordintheEdo castleandwasunfairlyforced sons or groups. Furthermore, for lung, "the selfis not only the centre, to commit suicide. His forty-seven samurai vowed vengeance against but also thewhole circumferencewhich embracesboth conscious and the enemy lord. One snowy night when haifthe enemy castle guard unconscious; it is the centre ofthis totali~ justas the ego is the centre wassentaway, theystormedthe castle andcaughttheenemylord.They ofconsciousness."'- Individual unconscious han is not onlyembedded required himto commitsuicide.Whenhe could notdo it, they decapi­ in the substratum ofthe self but also in the bottom of a racial ethos. tated him. After this vengeance, they quietly waited until the govern­ This han deepens and hardens generation after generation inthe his.. ment required the.it suicide. All Japan chanted their prais~s, and ever 12 tory ofthe downtrodden.5 sincethey have been the unrivalled exemplars of Bushido. This real As an inexpressible feeling, han cannot be neatlyanalyzed. Neither~ event took place in 1702 and epitomized the Japanese notion of han can it be bifurcated, but, for purposes ofillustrating its depth, we can and its way ofresolution. distinguish four categories within it. It has two dimensions: personal InVietnamese, han is han. Its meaningis similartothe Korean, prob.. and collective.6 Each dimension has two levels: conscious and uncon.. ably due to their similar geopolitical situations. The han of Koreans scious. coincideswith the han oftheVietnamese. LuatnongTran, aVietnam" At the personal conscious leveV han is expressed as the will..to re­ ese...American pastor, summarized the tragic results ofthe thirty-year venge and resignation.At its personalunconscious level, han is buried war (1945~1975) withtheterm han. Childrenwere bornunderthethun­ in bitterness and helplessness. . ' der ofbombers,"grew up in battle fields, and experienced a life o~ de­ struction.Almost everyVietnamese has experiencedthe loss ofa fam.. I At its collective conscious level, han is demonstrated through the corporate will to revolt a~d corporate despair. At its collective uncon.. ily merrlber, relative, or .friend in the war, which killed two million scious level, it is submerged under racial, sexual, and religious resent­ Vietnamese, injUred fOUf million, and left 57 percentofthe population ment and the ethos ofcomposite lamentation. Nature has global han, homeless}3 No otherwordcanbetter describe their experience ofbit.. expressed through anomalies ofclimate and natural disasters.7 terness than han. ~ Han was originally a shamanistic term used to describe the unre.. KoreanBuddhistKo Eunexploredthe meaningofhan inotherAsian solved entanglement of the dead, the.bereft, and the down-and·out. countries. InMongolian, hanishorosul, anditdenotesmelancholyand Shamanism was the religion ofthe downtrodden, and its goal was to sorrowfulness~InManchurian,han is equivalenttokorsocuka. Its mean­ resolve their han. It was revived by minjungtheologians in the 1970s. ing has two phases: before the fall of the Ching·Dynasty, korsocuka How to resolve han has been a major issue of Korean socioloID7, an­ meant anger and hatred; after its fall, it has changed to mean sadness thropology, history, literature, arts, andparticularlytheologysincethen. and griefover tragedy.14 Theterm hanexists inotherAsian countries. InChinese, hen, which In ancient Hindi, han is expressed as upanaha. It consists of two has the same ideograph as han, means Uta hate" and '~to dislike."8 It words: upa C'near to") andnaha C'sitting orlying down") andoriginally enfolds extreme passion for vengeance, abhorrence, and cursing. Hen meant "being close to me:' Later, it evolved into "being attached to holds a much stronger;;t.nd more negative meaningthanhan. Inspeak­ something," and then into IImalevolence," fCloathing," and "rancor." ingofremorse, Chinesehen contains moreintensivemeaningthanthat While Korean h(J,n features its passive character, Indian upanaha un­ ofKorean han. A story in the Shih Chingor ~'Classic ofSongs" charac­ derscores its active nature.IS terizes the Chinese concept of hen: King Fu...Tzu ofWu swore his ven­ Theseexpressions ofhan indifferentAsian countrieshave different geance against King Kou-Tzu ofYueh, and he slept painfully ontop of emphases.The Koreanl)otionofhan.stre§ses$emore sad, melanchol)T, brushwood in order notto rest his heart ofrevenge. Inturn, King Kou­ andpassive aspectofhaninits meaningandperceptionofhumansuf­ Tzu engraved revenge inhis heartbychewingthe drygall bladderofan feririg~Eachcountry's conceptofhanreflects its owngeopolitical, socio.. animal in order not to forget his original intention ofvengeance.9 cultural, economic, and'historical background. In Japanese, han is pronounced kane Kon means ~'to bear a grudge" The following narratives are'stories of han limited to Asian...Ameri­ and "show resentment:'10 The term kon is not used by itself, however. cans, particularlyto Korean-Americans. Theyare here because ofhan, s~ories People use it in enkon to express a d~ep revengeful mind. Enkon or and their living in a new land is a han-laden life. The will ex- uramicharacterizes the unplacated spirit ofthedeceased.ll It also sig" plaintheir hanful backgrounds. 12 PROBLEMS IN THE KOREAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY HAN-TALK 13 States feared thatStalin might claim a part ofJapan byparticipating in THE HAN OF WAR AND THE DIVIDED KOREA thewinding-downwaragainstJapan.The UnitedStateswantedto force Japan to surrendertoAmericanforces alone.Therefore the UnitedStates When Germany lost the war in 1945, it was divided because of its dropped the first nuclear bomb on Japan on August 6. just two days potentialthreatto future world peace.WhenJapanlostthewarin 1945, before the Soviet Union formally declared war onJapan.19 • Korea was divided, with its south occupied bythe United States and its On August 14, 1945, the United States received the unconditional north by the Soviet Union. Why was Korea divided, when it was Japan surrender ofJapan. Just before the war ended, on August 10-11, 1945, that started the war and was a potential threat to future world peace? the decision to divide Korea was made. During a night session ofthe Let us review briefly the han ofthe division ofKorea. State-War-Navy Coordinating eoriimittee in Washington, D.C., Assis­ In 1882 the United States signed a treat ofamity with Korea, whiCh tant Secretary ofWar John J. McCloy ~sked two young colonels, Dean stipulated mutual protection. After defeating China in 1894, Japan Rusk and Charles Bonesteel, to withdraw to an adjacent room and waited for the right opportunityto annex Korea. In July 1905 Japanese withinthirtyminutesto locate a place to drawa line across Korea. They Prime Minister Taro Katsura and American Secretary of War William chosethethirty-eighthparallel, becauseitincludedSeoul intheUnited Howard Taft secretly met in Tokyo. Their meeting produced the Taft­ States zone.20 Dean Rusk lateracknowledged thatthis line was"further KatsuraAgreement, inwhichtheUnited States sanctionedJapan's an­ north than could be realisticallyreached ... in the event ofSoviet dis­ nexation ofKorea; inreturn, Japan pledged not to object to American agreement," since the Soviets had already engaged theJapanese in Ko­ rule in the Philippines.16 According to Tyler Dennett, President rea.21 WhentheSoviets compliedwiththe proposedpartition, Ruskwas Theodore Roosevelt wrote to Russia that "Korea must be under the "somewhat surprised." This decision on division."has been attributed protectorate of Japan."17 Not knowing of the agreement betwe~n Ja­ both to that confusion and to a simple U.S. desire to find aline to de­ pan and the United States, King Kojong ofKorea sent an emissary to marcate Soviet and U.S. responsibilities inacceptingtheJapanese sur­ President Ro'osevelt to beg for help based on the treaty of amity. render."22 DeanAcheson. thentheSecretaryofState, admittedthat"the Roosevelt refused even to see Homer Herbert. the emissary, anAmeri­ United States was an initiator. planner. and author of the division of can missionary and educator.18 Korea; if it does not bear the whole responsibility, it bears the major In 1905 Japan forced Korea to sign the Protective1'ceaty, which em­ responsibility."23 powered Japan to interfere with Korea's governing. In 1910 Japan an­ .Korea. a non-threatening country, was divided against its will after nexed Korea. Forthenext thirty-sixyears Korea suffered underthe iron thirty-sixye¥sofoppression byJapan.Whatirony! Korea was free from rule ofTapan. Such a disgrace as the loss ofits national sovereigntyhad . Japan onlyto be divided instead ofJapanbeingdivided. Korea became neverhappenedbefore inthefive-thousand-year historyofKorea.The a historical sacrificial lamb in place ofa Japan that had ruthlessly op­ deep pain and disgrace ofthe Koreans were increased when the Japa­ pressed it for thirty-sixyears. Even worse was the fact thatthe division nese imperialists forced them to use Japanese rather than their owri-.j caused the KoreanWar. an outcome ofthe ColdWar betweenthe com­ language and to change their names into Japanese. For Koreans, their munist and capitalist camps. It cost millions oflives and the devasta­ language and the act ofnaming were the core oftheir soul. tion ofa barely liberated country. Duringthe SecondWorldWar, Japan attacked the United States.The . In addition. the division has burdened both North and South Korea United States fought backfuriously. Struckwith nuclear bombs, Japan with heavy militaryspending.Theyhave spent30to 40 percentoftheir unconditionally surrendered to the United States in 1945. Patrick national budgets and6 to 10 percent oftheirGNP for national defense. Blackett, the 1948 Nobel Prize laureate in physics, claimed that the For fifty years both Koreas have lost blood from their own defenses, United States did not need the atomic bombs to win the war against perpetuating military cultures in both states. The year of 1995 is the Japan. The all-out air attack on Japan was already accomplishing this. year of]ubi1ee (the year ofliberty, Lv 25:28), inwhichrest for soil, rever­ Yet the United States devastated Japan with the two nuclear bombs, sion oflandedproperty, andemancipationfrom slaverytake place.The slaughtering numerous, innocent civilians. Although many believed blOOd-drenched soil of Korea ·should rest. separated families (a hun­ that the bombing was necessary to save American lives, Blackett be­ dred thousand) should be reunited. the barbedwire ofa divided land lieved that was only a partial reason. The major reason for dropping shouldberemoved. andrefugees shouldbeallowed tohavetheirhomes the bombswas thatthelong-demandedSoviet offensive was supposed back.The diVision, the rootofmanyevils inKorea, is the main cause of to take its planned course on August 8, 1945. At that time the Soviet han in Korea. and it is partiallyresponsible for the emigration ofKore- armies were moving from theWestern front tothe Eastern.The United . . li?s. A large number of Korean women married to U.S. soldiers, their . 14 PROBLEMS IN THE KOREAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY HAN-TALK 15 families, some students, and many refugees from North Korea have Those who refused were punished with physical violence, torture, immigrated to the United States. and brutal rape. Manywomen suffered from venereal diseases, tuber­ God'sent us to the countrythat liberated Korea and yet had a heavy culosis, andotherphysical ailments, butnomedicalcarewas provided. hand in the division ofKorea. Why are we here?What should we do in Kidnapped at the age of twelve while she was playing with a doll this country? There must be some missions for Korean-Americans in house with friends in her village, Oak Boon Lee testified, "On week­ this country. I believe that one such mission is to be a voice of con­ ends, soldiers waited in a long line of a few hundred meters.... A science over the national interests of the United States so that there womanfrom Bo-Joo contractedvenereal disea~e, was beateneveryday will not beanotherKorea. Influencingthis countryfrom withinto make and died eventually."27 When these women had free time, they were honorable decisions is the bestway for us to contribute to the truena­ compelled to do kitchen work Their conditions were inhuman; they tionalinterests ofthis country. However difficult our task may be, we were used for sex, and some were discarded or killed when they be- should raise a voice for those whose voices are ignored in this country. , came sick. Most "comfort quarters" were quarantined, making escape We are not here just to live comfortably or complacently. God calls us orsuicide almost impossible.When caughttryingto escape, somewere to live justly, responsibly, and truthfully. We should not forget our ex­ broughtbackand ruthlessly beaten or killed. Sung Ja Lee (alias), a sur­ perience in Korea but should use it for converting this nation to make vivor, states, "I remember the Japanese soldiers cutting off one of a foreign policydecisions thatare justandconscientiousbefore God and woman's breasts whentheycaughta group ofus attemptingto escape. before humans. This atrocitywas-rneant to horrify US."28 Many Korean women committed suicide ratherthan be forced to have sex with Japanese soldiers. In Japan there is a cliff from which "COMFORT WOMEN" hundJ:eds ofKorean women plunged into the sea on the way to com­ fort quarters. The Japanese call itTazimazmiski Cliff.29 AbouttWo hundred thousand Korean youngwomen andwives were Since the Japanese government destroyed the documents concern­ tricked, conscripted, forcibly taken from their homes, or kidnapped ing comfort women, it is hard to obtain detailed historical informa­ onthe streets by theJapanese military government from 1941 to 1945. tion. Documents recentlyfound in Korea reveal that the Japanese gov­ Called "comfort women," theywere raped daily byJapanese soldiers.24 ernment conscripted even elementaryschool students.30 Song Ji Kim (alias) recollects, "I was returning home one day when Yoshida Seigi, a former "mobilizer" ofKorean women for the Japa­ Japanese andKorean,men forced me onto a ship headed for Southeast nese, confessed in aninterviewthat most comfort women from Korea Asia. There I spent four unbearable years."25 Even now, fifty years later, were not recruited butwere abducted as slaves. He and his collabora­ she Wakes up every morning with severe pain allover herweary body. tors from the police ormilitarysurroundeda village withmilitarytrucks Besides persistentmigraines, shesuffers from intense stomach cramps and captured young women. By 1943 few single women were avail­ that are the outcome ofa harshbeating by a Japanese soldier during a able, so they tookyoung married women. sexual assault. Compared with her psychological agony, however, her At the end ofthewar most ofthesewomenwere left behindto die in physical sufferings are minor. The memories of her past continue to isolated areas orwere exterminated to conceal evidence ofthese atro­ haunt and torment heL cious crimes.Sl The soldiers had comfortwomen stand infront ofopen Although theJapanese conscriptedwomenfrom severalAsian coun­ graves andthenopenedfire onthem. Sometimes theybombedtrenches tries, 80 percent ofthe comfort women were Koreans. Theywere scat­ and caves holding comfort women. There is even an account ofsome tered around the Asia-Pacific region, whereverJapanese soldiers'were two hundred Korean women forced into a submarine that was later based. Some were sent to live in rundown buildings in Hiroshima and torpedoed.32 Seigi'contends that the act of exterminating comfort Nagasaki, others to remote rural regions of Burma "(Myanmar), Thai­ women was as vicious as the Jewish Holocaust in Germany. land, Malaysia, and Papua New Guinea. There are still survivorsfrom amongthecomfortwomen, andinthe Since the Japanese usually provided these women with only small early 1990s theirstorywas picked up bynews media aroundtheworld. amounts ofrice and radishes twice a day, the women were constantly In 1992, after forty-seven years ofdenial, theJapanese government re­ on the border ofstarvation. Confined to partitioned rooms in stables, luctantlyacknowledgedtheexistence ofcomfortwomen.TheJapanese storage areas, schools, andtemples, thesewomenwere coerced to have government, however, offered no compensation to the survivors. The sex with an average of twenty to thirty and up to seventy soldiers a women suffer shame, nightmares, physical and mental sicknesses, day.26 hopelessness, darkness, and miserable self-esteem. They did not do 16 PROBLEMS IN THE KOREAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY HAN-TALK 17 anything wrong, but they have borne the shame and false guilt ofbe­ were angry and addled: Ronald Ebtms and Michael Nitz blamed ingcomfortwomen.Theywerethevictims ofan atrocity, buttheyhave Japanese carmakers for Detroit's problems, and Chin-Chinese buried ·themselves under history. This is their han, the unspeakable , or Japanese, it made no difference to them-was a convenient agony that continues to reverberate in the remote comfort quarters of target. "It's because ofyou we're out ofwork," screamed Ebens, various parts inAsia. who was in fact employed full time. The pair got a baseball bat What can Korean-Americans do for these women? First, we must andbeat Chinto death. Said he as he lost consciousness:"Itisn't hear their groaning. Second, we must tryto understand the voices of fair." their han. Third, we can be amplifiers oftheir small voices. Fourth, we WhenEbens, 44, and Nitz, 23, were sentenced last Marchafter canworktowardthe resolution oftheirhan through revealingthefacts, confessing to the murder, Chin's dying complaint seemed all the bringing Japan to justice, and'stopping sexual exploitation now hap­ more apt:Wayne CountyCircuitJudge CharlesKaufman gave the pening in the world. killers three years ofprobation and fines of$3,780 each. He said There are 800,000 Koreans in Japan today. Eighty percent ofthem that the men, who had no prior criminal records, were "not the aresecond andthirdgenerationKorean-Japanese, survivors ordescen­ kind ofpeople you sendto prison." dants ofthe 2,400,000 conscripted Koreans inJapan in 1945.33 Theyare Thelight sentencesenragednewspapereditorialists acrossthe severely discriminated against in Japan. Even after losing the unjust country and prompted Asians to mount a protest campaign. "I war, the Japanese have continuedto oppresstheverypeopletheyonce love America," saidChin's motherilly, 63, a naturalized citizen."I criminally conscripted and illegally exploited, now by despising them don't understand how this could happen inAmerica."34 and legally discriminating against them. The morethan one million Korean-Americans are not in the United Facingstrongprotests, theJustice Departmentlaunched aninvesti­ States for personal reasons alone, but also to help'oppressed and mal­ gation into Chin's murder in the summer of1982. Finally, a grand jury treated Koreans and other groups in the world. One possible task of inDetroit indicted Ebens and Nitz onnewfederal charges for conspir­ Korean-Americans is to be in solidaritywith Koreans in Japan and co­ ing to deprive Chin ofhis civil rights and killing him on account ofhis operate with their efforts for liberation from oppression and exploita­ race. The newtrial, however, ended in acquittal.The killers have never tion. spent a single day in prison. No more energy was left to protest the Ourloyalty should not be given to any particular countrybut to the verdict. The silence and tears of Chin's mother and Asian-Americans establishment ofthe society ofGod. I believe that loyalty to God alone turned into han inthis country. is thetruewayofcaringfor this country. God's Kingdom comesthrough This incident was not isolated. The resentment felt in Detroit was building the society of justice in the United States and our ancestral directed against the Japanese. N~ York real-estate tycoon'Donald country.We are here to tell the stories ofour original country and also Trump declared on the Donahue television show: "The Japanese are to tell the stories ofthe United States to our original country. We call taking advantage of us and ripping us off." He was applauded. ",'I'he ourselves kyo-po (bridging people). We build an arch between the Japanese are coming in. While we're trying to deal with things in the, United States and our original country through fairness, peace, and front yard, they're in the back yard taking over the country," Chrysler tr.uth. Chairman Lee Iacocca told a group of House Democrats in 1985. Bennett Bidwell, Chrysler official and former president of the Hertz Corporation, wentfurtherwhenhe remarked that the bestwayto deal VINCENT CHIN with the trade imbalance would be to charter the Enola Gay, the B-29 that dropped the atomic'bomb on Hiroshima.35 Such comments re­ V'mcent Chin's death, an extreme case ofethno-violence, speaks to vealed not only arrogant discrimination against Japanese but also the racism against Asian-Americans. He was a victim ofhis time. In June mood in society to despise all Asians. Bidwell would not dare to sug­ 1982 he was bludgeoned to death with a baseballbatinDetroit, where gest massacring six million Jewish people, even ifhe detested Jews., Orientals and "Toyotas" are often rejected. It happened in a bar: Some unemployed auto workers taking a sledgehaminer to a Japa­ nese auto received media attention. Following the footage oflaid-off The victim, drafter Vincent Chin, 27, a Chinese American, was auto workers, Representative Helen Bentley ofMaryland with nin~ of at his bachelor party; he was to be married in nine days. His her fellow Republicans jointly smashed a Toshiba boom box on the attackers, a father who was a Chrysler foreman andhis stepson, Capitollawnona summerday. The photographersrecorded the smiles 18 PROBLEMS IN THE KOREAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY HAN-TALK 19 of the wrecking party members at the historic moment. Bentley told Because ofthe hardship ofraising two sons byherself, shemoved to reporters that the boom-boxbashingwas not an anti...Asian oreven an a bigcitywhere therewas a Korean-American communityandhad her anti-Japanese gesture, but a simpleway to send a message toToshiba, children learn Tae..Kwon-Do, a Korean martial art. She became ac­ which sold ('highly sensitive technology to the KGB." But none ofthe quaintedwith herchildren's martial... arts master, whowas quite nice to products of Kongsberg, a Norwegian firm whic,h sold a related high­ her at first but later showed his prejudice against her because of the tech system to the Soviet Union, was smashed along with the boom interracial marriage in her background. His rudeness escalated to the 36 box. Such a climate murderedVincent Chin. pointwhere he insulted her before her two sons. One day his abusive­ Chin's last words, "It's not fair." speak for his own death, the unjust nesstowardherwas so extremethatthe police arrestedhim. His church trial, and the widespread animosity againstAsian-Americans. It is im... pastor came to see her in order to vindicate the master, advising her possible to imagine that in Detroit two Asian..Americans could blud­ not to victimize him as a scapegoat and to help him get out of pris~n. geon a white to death with a baseball bat and go free, with only three Latera disgraceful rumoraboutherspread inherown church, andher ,years of probation and fines of $3,780. People and the news media pastor asked her to transferhermembership to another church or not wouldnot downplay the incidentas they didinChin's case. They would to attend church services for a while. .' make sure thatsuch a criminalrulingwould notleave a badprecedent The woman was rejected by her Caucasian husband because ofher for any other case. Korean backgroundandwas maltreatedbythe martial-arts masterbe­ These words must have been the last words ofAbel to his brother cause ofthe stigma ofher interracial marriage.38 Even her own church Cain: "It's not fair." These are the words of han, reverberating in the disdained her as a sinner. She could turn to no one and was despon­ hollow space ofAsian...Americans' hearts. The manyvictims ofracism dent. barelyWhisper these words. This'woman represents many victims ofthe Korean War caused by the division ofthe country; the agony ofunequal interracial marriages, the Korean social stigma against American soldiers' spouses, the patti.. THE ABANDONED WOMAN archy ofthe Korean..American communiqr, and the self-righteous ani.. tude ofsome Korean-American churches. Her existence was full ofhan A Korean-American woman in her thirties walked into the Korean.. from beingbornin Koreaas poor, female, andparentless.Bybearingthe American Community Center in Atlanta about the time of its closing. hanofKorea imposedbytheColdWarofthesuperpowers,whichcaused "It is all over. I want to die. Before my death, however, I'd like to share the Korean War, she carried the sin oftheworld as its sacrificiallarrlb. myhan-ridden storyto fellow Korean-Americans," said thewoman to a counselor.37 She trod the stonyroad ofhan in Korea as well as in this country. A BIASED WRITER FOR FILM PRODUCTION stepmother who had become a widow during the Korean War raised her. In order to escape poverty; she married anAmerican soldier. She The media reflect, and sometimes foster, social racism. The film ttlt yearned for and worked hard to create a warm and happy home. For Could Happen·toYou," for example, characterizes a Korean-American eighteen years she was married to him. They had two sons, currently grocer couple as unfriendly, overch~ging workaholics. seventeen and thirteen years old. Walking into Mr. Sun's store, the extremelyprincipled NewYork cop When they moved to the States, their marriage began to crumble. (Nicholas Cage) sarcastically asks, "How are things in the mysterious Her husband frequently had extramarital affairs and harassed her, re... Far East?" and "You arent artificially inflating prices, are you?" Under peatedly saying that he regretted marrying a Korean woman. Finall)', the countera robber is holding a gunto Mrs. Swishead. Outside, Cage he filed divorcepapers.Incited bytheirfather, herchildrenopenlyper­ figures out that a robbery is going on inside because oftwo clues: Mr. secutedherforherpoorEnglishandherKorean background.Theolder Sun was u~usuallykind and generous to him (giving him free coffee), son said, "Mom, get out ofthis house as soon as possible." and Mr. Sun told him thathis wife missed workbecause ofsickness. Through hard negotiation, however, she and. her husband agreed Bo, Cage'sAfrican-Americanpartner(Wendell Pierce) rejoined,"That that she should stay home until the younger son would become eigh.. bitch would work even if she was dead!" This particular line upset teen.After makingthe agreement, however, herhusband disappeared, MANAA (the Media Action Network for Asian Americans). JMANAA leavingword thathewas goingto Korea onbusiness. Ithas been a year president GuyAoId protested: 4'This line lessens the seriousness ofthe since he deserted them. situation and what real..life Korean..American grocers face on a daily 20 PROBLEMS IN THE I

We are not struggling against a visible adversary but agalnst invis­ ible foes who control the power ofthe air. St. Paul shows us the univer­ sardimension ofthis struggle: "For our struggle is not against enemies ofblood andflesh, butagainstthe rulers, against the authorities, against r· the cosmic powers ofthis presentdarkness, againstthe spiritualforces f ofevil inthe heavenlyplaces" (Eph 6: 1252).The mediacorporations serve only one god. The name oftheir god is Profit, and in its name they do all kinds of malicious acts. They inform and misinform societyi they shape its culture, misguiding its direction. By merely overcoming our sin in society, we cannot complete cos­ mic salvation."The cosmic powers ofthis presentdarkness," theforces ofevil, producethe structure ofhan inwhichwe are caught. Even after the solution ofthesin problem, we need the resolution ofhanto expe­ rience a holistic healing and salvation in our society. Jesus Christ rep­ resents the strengthoftruth, which unmasks the.njustice oftheworld. His voice on the cross was not heard by many, but his voice has pre­ vailed over history, because it is the voice oftruth. The power oftruth, the invincibility ofthe cross, will overcome the cosmic powers ~f the , THE HANOF THE KOREAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY 27 work hardin undesirable jobs for low pay. Yet they were also rejected because they brought a "strange" culture. Euro-Americans disliked Chinese immigrants so much that Samuel Gompers, founder of the 2 American Federation of Labor (AFL), continually objected to ~elping Chinese laborers and rejected a union ofChinese restaurant employ­ ees within theAPI., 1 In 168.2 Congress legislated'the Chinese· ~lusion Act, which prohibited Chinese immigration for ten ye.ars'apd speclti-. cally refused citizenship to Chinese immigrants. In 1886 theStatue of The Han of th~ Korean-American Community Libertywas dedicatedalongwith thepoembyEmmaLazaruswelcom­ ing "the tired, the poor, and the huddled masses." This\Vas a mockery to the Chinese.2 Congress extended the Exclusion Act for another ten years in 1892 and renewed the Act after the turn ofthe century. Two decades laterthe Exclusion Act was extended again, thistime applying While mostoppressedgroupsgrapplemorewiththeproblemofhan, to other groupS.3 The Exclusion Act lasted until 1943. most oppressor groups in society struggle more with the problem of Encouraged by the Exclusion Act, theTheodore Roosevelt adminis­ sin. This does not mean, ofcourse, that the oppressed commit no sin tration confirmed the so-called Gentlemen's Agreement with Japan in orthatthe oppressors suffer no han. Bothofthem experience both sin 1908. According to the agre~ment, Japan would discontinue further and han. immigration to the United States, and the United States would termi­ Inthe UnitedStates most ethnic groups have beenpreoccupiedwith nate its discrimination against Japanese already in this country. The. repenting their sins, following the lead of the dominant theologies. Japanese immigration stopped, but anti-Japanese feelings endured. American Christianity has focused onthe problems ofthe oppressors, Laws on citizenship underlinedthe pervasive anti-Asianism. At first while scarcelytreatingtheissues ofethnic communities.Afew sources non-whites w~re prohibitedbyfederal lawfrom becomingcitizens.This of han in the Korean-American community are racial conflict, was modified to extend citizenship to persons ofAfrican descent in transnational corporations. redlining, the "middle-agent minority" 1868 and to some Native-Americans in 1887. No modifications were phenomenon, classism, and a crisis ofidentity. It is time for all ethnic made for persons ofAsian descent. The Supreme Court repeatedly in­ groups, includingKorean-Americans, to address the issue ofharz theo­ logically. terpretedthissilenceasa constitutionaldirective againstthem. In 1943 federal lawfuially includedthe Chinese, andfirst-generationJapanese ( in 1952. ;. --withJapan's attackon Pearl HarboronDecember7, 1941, anti-Japa­ RACIAL CONFLICT f nese feelings flared. Racism fanned byrumors spreadwidely. On Feb­ The face ofracism inthe United States varies dependingonthe eth­ ruary 13, 1942, PresidentFranklinRoosevelt endorsedExecutive Order nic minority in question. Korean-Americans face two expressions of 9066, which ratified removal ofany people considered menaces from racism. Oneis racial discrimination becauseoftheirbeingAsian-Ameri­ designated strategic military areas. Over a hundred thousand people can.Theotheris because oftheirbeingKorean-American. As economic ofJapanese ancestry (one-eighthwas sufficient) ontheWest Coastwere hardship inthis countryincreases, anti-AsianAmericanismintensifies. taken to concentrationcamps; two-thirds ofthemwere citizens.4 They As theinner-cityeconomyhollows out, anti-Korean-American attitudes were notatlowed totaketheirhousehold belongingsbutonlypersonal snarpen. First, we will look into discrimination against Asian Ameri­ luggage. They had to liquidate their possessions very quickly. For in- cans. Second, we will examine racism directed specifically toward Ko­ .stance, one woman sold a thirty-seven-room hotel for three hundred rean-Americans. dollars. The evacuees lost from 350 to SOO million dollars, averaging nearlytenthousanddollars perfamily.s Inthis country, theyellow peril PrejucOce against Asian-Americans has never disappeared; ithas onlyfluctuated with international situa­ tions. Anti-Asian-Americanism has its rootinthe nineteenthcentury. Chi­ Even now, antagonism againstAsian-Americans hasnotdissipated. nese immigrants were welcomed in this country because. they would In 1993, accordingto the NationalAsian Pacific Advocate Legal Center (NAPALC), crimes against Asian-Americans numbered 335, and there 26 28 PROBLEMS IN THE KOREAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY THE HAN OFTHE KOREAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY 29 were at least thirty murder cases considered hate crimes in the United Caucasian golfers in Milpitas, California, beat Korean-American golf- States. The NAPALC reported that 28 percent ofthe crimes occurred in ers, shouting, "Get lost, Orientals!"12 . homes'and 10 percent at businesses, and most of them were perpe­ trated by Caucasians.6 ( STRUCTURAL PROBLEMS

Prejudice against Korean-Americans For Korean-Americans theracism ofthedominantgroup is onething and ethnic racial tension is another. We feel inter-ethnic tension par­ Korean-Americans suffer their own uniquehan ofracism.Theirim- , ticularlyinthebusinessworld.Thistension does notderive simplyfrom migration to this country started with the recruitment of7,226 Kore­ cultural andsocialdifferences. Some problems Korean-Americans face ans (637 of them women) by the Hawaii Sugar Planters' Association stem from international economic and·political factors. The K

ous kinds of business insurance. Only small mom-and-pop grocery !", by banks or other financial institutions. A good example is the case of stores exist in these areas. Since immigrants can start their businesses Chevy Chase Federal Savings Bank and its subsidiary, B. E Saul Mort­ with relatively small amounts of money, they purchase inexpensive gage Co. The Justice Department's civil-rights division fIled a charge in stores in'these depressed neighborhoods. ' U.S. District Court that from 1976 to 1992 these two institutions un­ Afederal law; designed asa steptoward abolishingredlining, requires derwrote 97 percent oftheirloans in chiefly Eum-American areas.The all lenders toshowthat theyarefollowing affirmative-action programs bank and mortgage company had ninety-two offices but had opened by providing home loans to low-income neighborhoods.16 In spite of no offices in any census tracts that had an African-llfuerica.n majority this law, redlining by banks and mortgage companies is conspicuous in the District ofColumbia or in neighboring Prince Georges County, inAfrican-American ghettos suchas HarleminNew¥orkorSouthCen­ Maryland. The government charged that they engaged in illegal tral Los Angeles. redlining by not opening offices inAfrican-American neighborhoods. In 1988 theDepartmentofHousing and UrbanDevelopment (HUD) OnAugust24, 1994, theyagreedto invest $11 millioninAfrican-Ameri­ conducted a secondnational studyofhousingmarket discrirnination.17 canneighborhoods to resolve theJustice Department'schargesofmort­ This study comprises thirty-eight thousand paired tests completed in gage discrimination.22 "To shun an entire community because of its twenty-five metropolitan areas during the late spring and early sum­ racial makeup is justas wrong as to reject an application becausethey merof1989. HUD data reveal that real-estate agents provide substan­ areAfrican-American," said Attorney General Janet Reno.23 tially different information for minority customers about potential After the investigation began in 1993, the bank opened seven bank sources offinancing and are more likely to provide assistance to Euro­ ormortgage companyoffices inAfrican-American areas. Thebankde­ Americans in obtaining financing. In more than 20 percent ofthe au­ nied anydiscriminatoryintention onits partand did not admit break­ dits, anoffertoassist insecuringfinancingwas providedto Buro-Ameri­ ing the Fair Housing Act, the Equal Credit Opportunity Act or other cansonly. Minoritieswere lesslikelyto beinformedaboutconventional laws. Nevertheless, it agreed toopenoffices in African-Am~ricanneigh­ and adjustable-rate mortgages than were Euro-American home buy­ borhoods,to consider inauguratingothers, to advertise its loans inAf­ i, ers and were more frequently told about FHA and VA financing than rican-American areas, and actively to recruit African-American loan , , were their Euro-American counterparts. These government-based fi­ officers.24 ;1, n~cing'sources cost more, require more processing time, and have Insurance companies practice redlining too. Since a number ofin­ ! fewer financial institutions participating as loan originators. In addi­ ~ surance cQmpanies do notinsure businesses inredlined areas, in1992 tion, there is a ceiling amount that these loans can offer. IS most Korean-American smallbusinesses in Los Angeles had no fusur­ The 1990 Home Mortgage Disclosure Act data inform us that the ance, were underinsured, or held policies with "non-admitted carri­ ! rate of loan denial increases as the proportion of minority residents ers," whose credibilitywas low. Business ownerswho held policieswith increases. And accordiDg to Federal Reserve data on mortgages~low­ non-admitted carriers assumed that they held valid policies. In spite to moderate-income Euro-American applicants had a higher rate of of their claims ofdamages ofover $8 million from the eruptions, Ko­ securing loans in 1990 than high-income African-Americans.19 rean-American shop ownerswere compensatedonlyabout$3 million. / 32 PROBLEMS IN THE KOREAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY THE HAN, OF THE KOREAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY 33 Some owners settled for drastically lower compensation because of U.S.-based transnational corporations, this country, as well as oth~r theirimmediate need offunds; othersare stillwaitingfor promises from countries, is a target, a potential market. their insurance agencies to-be met. Litigation against fourteen non­ In theWall StreetJournalBlant HurtdepictsArkansas at; a third-world admitted insurance carriers is being conducted by the Asian Pacific ~country with aruling oligarchy, a small and powerless middle class, . .J American Legal Center (APALC), Public Counsel's Urban Recovery Le­ and a disenfranchised leaderless people. He believes that thi,s can be " 29 galAssistance, and Brobeck, Phleger & Harrison.25 applied coastto coast. Bernard Sanders in theLosAngeles Times con-/ 1 These practices are common in cities throughout the United States. turswith Hurt by pointingoutthree issues: the United States is rapidly Many small businesses in Boston's inner city are not insured because moving toward an oligarchy; the United States is becoming a third­ most insurance companies refuse to insure stores located in poorer world economy; the United States is fast becoming a non-democratic neighborhoods orputtheir premiums out ofreach.26 Accused ofthese country.30 practices, five insurance companies begana drive to provide more cov­ Transnationalcompanies ravage U.S. cities and countryside as they erage to small business owners in Roxbury, Mattapan, and Dorchester. have third-world countries. Compared with the Japanese economic Despite the redlining occurringin cities across the country, legisla­ model, U.S. capitalism is destructive for inner cities. In Beyond Capi­ tion that contained revised CRA regulations was introduced in both talism, Eisuke Sakakibara, a seniorofficial inJapan's MinistryofFinance, theHouse andSenate onMarch30, 1995, thatwouldrelieve banks with describes Japan as a "noncapitalist market economy," one,.~~_~tri!~s less than$250 million in assets-almost88percentofU.5. banks-from to maximize productionand employment, as opposedto theU.S. capi­ in-depth scrutiny under the Community Reinvestment Act. The origi­ tafisfeoofiomy'that stresses consumptionand returntoinvestors.31 U.S. naltwelve-factorreviewwas replacedwith a streamlinedreview ofonly capitalismshouldlearnto keep the balance betweenprofit-makingand three areas: lending, service, andinvestment.Theseregulations became people's employment. effective January 1,1996.27 Ivan Light and Edna Bonacich explain how U.S. investment stimu­ Redliningis aneconomic, social, moral, and spiritual issue. Regula~ lated Korean immigration ~ the 1960s, bringing forth laborconflict in tions alone are not enough to deter the various ways to practice U.S. inner-Cities. U.S. conglomerates invested in major cities inKorea, redlining. All ethnic groups should cooperate to resist any kind of attracting farmers and laborers into the cities. The more farmers and redlining practices. They should raise their voices against these prac­ laborers concentratedin cities, thecheaperlaborbecame. Meanwhile, tices, stressing the social responsibility of financial institutions. It is farming in Korea declined. The authors contend that the surplus la­ necessaryto have prevention programs as well, such as requiring social borersoftheworkingclasswere absorbed in the United States through ethics courses in MBA degree programs. Meanwhile, churches need to U.S. immigration pOlicy.32 teachmembers, particuIarlyyouth, theanti-Christiannatureofredlining. Immigration is a traumatic experience. Living in a strange land it­ self is stressful. Nevertheless, Koreans immigrate to this country for Transnational Corporations betterliving conditions. As Korean immigrants arrive, theylookfor jobs. Because ofthe language barrier and cultural diffe~ences, thc:y_ find no The looters ofthe Los Angeles eruptions represented various ethnic jobs commensurateWith theirskillsanrl trafnlng;Thus, theyare forced groups. Contrary to common understanding, the issue probably was ff;-'\vork in Korean immigrants' stores where they need only minimal notAfrican-Americans vs. Korean-Americans. It was more likely lower English to survive. Eventually they tend to open their own businesses class vs.lower-middle class. and hire newly arrived Korean immigrants or Hispanic-Americans. In The gap between the rich and the poor has widened over the years. the United States, the basic struggle between employers and employ­ are.iQtiID~!ely The Los Angeles eruptions tell usthatrace matters con­ ees has been over the issue ofcompensation for labor. As new immi­ nected with class matters, inpart through transnational corporations. grants enter the job market, Korean-American immigrant employers Let usexamme the eruptiQns from a global economic perspective. prefer hiring cheaper immigrant workers to local workers. Because The capitalist global economycontrolled bytransnational corpora­ Korean immigrant shopkeepers pay low wages and offer no benefits tions is responsible directlyand indirectlyfor the eruptions. According package to newlyarrived immigrants, theycansurvive ina toughcom­ to Peter Drucker, the world economy has changed from international 28 petitive market, contributing to maintaining cheap labot. Such a hir­ to transnational since the mid-1970s. A transri'ational corporation ing pattern among Korean immigrant shopkeepers elicits a conflict does not have clear loyalty to any nation but onlyto its own profits. For. between immigrants andAfrican-Americans (local workers). The mu- C9~MUNITY 34 PROBLEMS INTHE KOREAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY THE HAN OF THE KOREAN-AMERICAN 35 tual misinformation on customs, culture, and language, aswell as eth­ of its "national" corporations. The U.S. International Trade Com~­ nocentrism, escalates the inter-ethnic conflict. sion estimates thatU.S.-based companieswill collect$61 billiona year The above shows that the conflict betweenMrican-Americans and from third-world countries, providedthatU.S. protectionist measures Korean-American shopkeepers is inherentinthe structureofU.S. capi­ are accepted at GATI.31 , talism. Any immigrant store owners will have some tension and con­ The Labor Advisory Committee, instituted by the nadeAct of 1974 .' •• 1.: (. flict with local groups.Theyare ininnercities andghettos to distribute to advise the executive branch on trade agreements, concluded that the goods oftransnational corporations. Immigrants and local work­ NAFfA, an executive agreement onAugust 12, 1992, would be benefi­ !'. \• ers compete over little crumbs of the corporations' wealth. Trans­ cial for investors. but harm workers in the United States and probably national and financial corporations occupy some 40 percent of U.S. inMexico. NAFTA will help U.S. agribusinesses wipe out Mexican corn trade, including international trade. farming and drive farmers from rural to urban areas, depressing al­ Meanwhile, transnationalcorporationsand financial institutions in .ready low labor wages even further. According to economist David the United States have caused real wages to fall to the level ofthe mid- (.: Barkin, labor's share of personal income in Mexico plummeted from 38 1960s. EconomicPolicyInstituteeconomists LawrenceMishel andJared 36 percent in the rnid-1970s to 23 percent by 1992. Senator Ernest Bernstein report that more than seventeen million workers were un­ Hollings argues thatthe direct effect ofNAFTA is to underpin Mexico's employed or underemployed by mid-1992, with an increase of eight one-partystate andthecorrupt oligarchythatregulates its politics and million duringthe Bush administration. About 75 percent ofthose job economy.as In the United States, after twenty-two months of NAFTA, positions are permanently 10st.33 In the 1980s, ofthe limited increase nearly fifty thousand Americans have lost their jobs. This prompted a in total wealth "70% accrued to the top 1% of income earners, while bipartisan group oflawmakers to drive for a renegotiation ofthe free thebottomlostabsolutely," says M.LT. economi,st RudigerDornbusch.34 trade pact}O In the entire globe, approximately 900 million ofthe world's 5.5 bil­ In international trade transnational corporations reap enormous lionpeopleare unemployed. Free-market capitalismcreatedsuchmas­ harvests. Theyunderminethe infrastructures ofthe nationalaswell as sive unemployment through its contemporary servants--automation theforeign economy, shatteringlocalcommunitiesthroughrelocations, and modern communications. While some leaders worry about their creating friction between immigrant workers and local workers, and national unemployment state, business people cash in on the global driving out local industries and businesses through competition. oversupply ofworkers. They spread the corporate culture.3S Furthermore, transnational corporations control international fi­ The "Middle-agent Minority" Phenomenon nancial institutions.The InternationalMonetaryFund (IM,F), theWorld Bank, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GAIT),~e Group There is another factor that contributed to the Los Angeles erup­ of Seven industrial nations are designed to serve the interests of tions and increases the han ofKorean-American business people: the ~eorywas transnationalcorporations andfinancial institutions.These institutiqns "middle-agent minority" phenomenon.This developed by observing minority groups inthe world: Jews ofthe diaspora; the Chi­ reap the harvest of international trade. The World Bank reports that nese in SoutheastAsia; East Indians in Burma, Uganda, and South M­ protectionist practices by' the industrialized countries slim down the rica. Accordmg tothis theory, the middle-agent minority group acts as income ofthird-world countries by nearlytwice the sum ofofficial aid a-buffer between dominant and oppressed groups ofsocie.ty. In times to them. With the help ofthe programs imposed by the International cifSocio-economic stress, the middle-agent minofity provides a target MonetaryFundandtheWorld Bank, these protectionist measureshave (or the anger ofthe exploJtedyet is itself socially isolated.and politi­ doubled the gap between rich and poor countries since 1960. Most of r- f cany unprotected. The buyer-seller relationship is inherently one of the rich countries in the past decade have increased protectionism, ~ct, this situationbecomesworse whenthe buyers are poorer with theReaganiteswagingwarsagainsteconomic liberalism. Resource and than the sellers and the sellers are immigrants or foreigners. Sociolo­ transfers frOIJ1 the poor to the rich countries added up to more than gist Herbert Blalock reasons that middle-agent minorities easily be­ $400 billion from 1982 to 1990. For the savings and loan associations come a target of attack by the angry downtrodden in times of crisis and transnational corporations "free-market;..capitalism" means "risk free."36 because (1) immigrants and foreigners are visible; (2) theyhave eco­ nomic power but no political power, thus no political protection; and GATT andNAFTA (the North American Free Trade Agr~ement) (3) they are the symbolic representatives ofthe dominant group inthe should be undefstood within this frame of self-interest. The primary objective ofthe United States in thes~ treaties is to protectthe interest eyes ofthe oppressed}1 37 36 PROBLEMS IN THE KOREAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY THE HAN OF THE KOREAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY Sociologists Bonacich and Light decided. however, thatthe middle­ tions of 1965. One aftermath oftheWatts event was the exodus o~ the agent minoritytheorywas too restrictive todescribeKorean immigrant Jewish people from that area. Inthe mid 1960s Mrican-American en­ business people inthe United States. Theywidened theirterminology trepreneurs obtained these stores for low prices (around $80,000. or from "middlemanminorities" to"immigrantentrepreneurs."42Thefirst twice monthlygross sales), assisted bytheeasingofgovernment-backed reason theybroadened the termwas that Korean immigrant entrepre· loans. But in the late 1970s and early 1980s the deregulation ofliquor neurship takes place ina developed society. whereas the middle-agent .pricing (in 1978) and subsequent price wars, combinedwith the. hi~­ minority theory arose from third-world contexts. The second reason risk nature ofthe job. elicited a sell-off ofthe stores to Korean Immi- was thatwhile traditional societies disparage commercial roles andthe grants who were looking for such opportunities. Itwas a good time for minorities that fill them, U.S. society treats small business owners as African-American entrepreneursto sell; sellingpriceshadrisento about cultural heroes. The third reason was that while the middle-agent mi­ five times monthly gross sales or $300,000.47 nority theory features sojourning minorities--such as Chinese. Jews, After purchasingthestores, Korean-American ownersworkedto es­ and Gypsies--whose historic status is thatofpariahsinsociety, Korean tablish theirbusinesses. oftenwithout consideringtheirneighborhood entrepreneurs have no tradition of wandering through the world as problems.This contributedto the conflict between Korean-Americans commercial middle-agents.43 andAfrican-Americans. Itwould be ideal for more African-Americans . Despite this newterm developed by Bonacich and Light, I will keep to purchase back businesses from Korean-Americans in their own using the term middle-agentminoritiesbecause thetheoryruns paral­ neighborhoods~ . lel with the situation ofKorean-American business people in the Los .Clearly redlining, the capitalist global economy, and the mlddle- Angeles area. Indeed, the economy of the South Central area of Los agent minority phenomenon lie behind the eruptions that occurred Angeles is turning into that ofa developing country. in Los Angeles on April 29. These are not only immediat_e.causes of Korean-American shops in the Los Angeles area became the targets the eruptions, however, but symptOD1:S ofan ug.j~st social structure. . oflooting and arson during the Los Angeles eruptions in part because To prevent such eruptions, we should collaborate to abolish covert· they represented the face ofthe dominant group. But in addition they and overt redlining policies of financial institutions and insurance were identified as theoppressorswho exploitedAfiican-Americans and companies. Further, small business ownership in South Central Los despised them.The NewYork boycott oftheRed Apple Groceryandthe Angeles and otherethnic enclaves mustshift:l!ntil et~nic group~own Latasha Harlins cases stoked anti-Korean-American feelings in the M­ most ofthe businesses in their own commumtles. racial unrestwill re­ rican-American communities.44 So Korean-American storekeepers ef­ l cur. Korean-American businesses need to move slowly olit from these fectively functioned as a buffer between Euro-Americans and the op­ r communities, with local peop~~.taking over most businesses in their pressed and poorer groups ofsociety. When the verdict ofthe Rodney own areas. King casewas announced. Korean-Americ(j.n store owners became the target ofthe angerofthe outragedMrican-Americans. Located between Classism ., the South Central Los Angeles ofthe suppressed andthe Hollywood of ;- . the dominant group. the Korean-American community was severely The extensive participation ofvarious ethnic groups in the looting ~lass a~ we~ attacked and damaged. followiIig the Los Angeles eruptions indicates that factors Because ofunemployment or underemployment manyhighly edu­ as racial ones played a significant role in the eruptIOns. The verdict of cated Kor~ari immigrants have been driven to open their own busi­ the Rodney King caseignited notonlyracial outragebut also became a nesses(l(oreanimmigrants' self-employment rate is higher than that channel to release the pent-up indignation of the low-income class. 45 The losAngeles eruptions were not an accident but rather the conse­ ofaIt.y other ethnic group in the United States ).With the help ohela­ tives, friends, orkye (a small rotating credit group that allows its mem­ quence of the poverty experienced by the oppressed for the past few bers money on a rotating basis to gain access to even more additional decades. capital). they purchase small mom-apd-pop grocery stores in rather Since the 1965Watts riot politicians have not kept their promises to inexpensive areas. A 1984 Chicago survey sHowed that 34 percent re- improve conditions in the area. Few of the recommendations of the McCone Commission report were carried out, and Caucasians moved lied on a kye for their businesses.46 \ InSouth Central Los Angeles a numberofKorean immigrantsbought to thewestern partofthe cityortothesuburbs. In1976 theEuro-Ameri­ their grocery and liquor stores from African-American owners. Many can middle class succeeded in a tax revolt-Proposition 13-to dump , ofthese stores hadbeenowned byJewish people before theWatts erup- the burden ofthe urban poor whom they left behind. Itwas a bad di- 38 . PROBLEMS IN THE KOREAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY THE HAN OF THE KOREAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY 39

vorce with no alimony for the urban poor.48 For example, no pUblic nior in high school, tall (5'9"), and "thin," she is a beautiful girl and a investment was made in the education ofinner-cityyouths. good student. However, because herfellow students have mocked her . The economic gap betweenCaucasians andMrican-Americans has as a "flat nose," "flat face," and"Chinle" for a longtime, Julie haslosther widened since 1965. In 1992 the poverty rate in South Central Los An­ sense of identity and self-esteem. Indeed, she has become seriously. geleswasmorethantwotimeshigherthanthenationalaverage (30.3%); depressed. Although Julie was born in the l]nited States, she feets e~­ dropoutsfrom thelaborforce madeup closeto half(41.8%) oftheadult tranged from. this country; she does not have a sense()fbelonging. At population; about one-quarter (24.9%) were onwelfare.49 > home she feels not quite Korean; at school she is not fully accepted as It was estimated that in 1993, 39.3 million Americans (15.1%) were an American. caught in between the two cultures, she has been torn below the official government poverty level. In 1983, 32.4 million apart and has even considered committing suicide. Why in the world (13.1%) were poor. Median household income, adjusted for inflation, should sucha fine youngwomanthink ofendingherlife? Itis han that dwindled from $33,585 to$31,241 overthe period.50 Accordingto a 1994 she has to undergo such a struggle of identity because ofher Korean report, about twenty-two million people, 10 percent ofthe total popu­ heritage. Sucha struggleis verycommonamongKorean-American and lation, are hungry or depend on soup kitchens or food stamps. The other ethnic youths. ,. InternalRevenue servicerevealsthattherichest 1percentofU.5. house­ Another yourig woman disclosed the han-ridden life of her immi­ holds possessed 36 percent ofthe nation's wealth in 1989 (up from 31 grant home: percent in 1983).51 The Congressional Budget Office reports that be­ tween 1977 and 1989 the wealthiest 1 percent of American families I am a high school girl. Because my parents always work, I don't hoarded 60 percent ofthe growth in after-tax income, while the poor­ haveenoughtime to share somethingwiththem. Mymomworks. est40 percentoffamiliesexperienced declines inincomewiththe bot­ as janitorduring the dayand as a tailor at night. Myfather works tom 20 percent ofpoor families suffering a 9 percent income loss. In at a gas station during the week and at a hotel on weekends. the same period CEO (chief executive officer) salaries rose from 35 to Frankly speaking, my sister and I are very disappointed that we 120 times the average worker's salary.S2 Economichistoriansdocument don't have enoughtime withour parents. Is there anywayto per­ that the concentration ofwealth at the top, begun in the 1960s, accel­ suade them that we need parents more than money?SS erated in the 1980s. This reflects the national income disparities that markedthe late 1800sand early 1900sandwere haltedonlybythe Great This girl enduredthe emptiness ofimmigrantlife. Inthe absence of Depression.53 The recent phenomenon has a tie with the unbridled her parents, any economic success would be meaningless. Her letter .capitalism and political andbureaucraticcorruption inthe 1980s: cor­ showsthatmanyimmigrantfamilies tendto lose the meaning oflifein porate mergers, junk bonds, and financial mismanagement plagued bu~ess.Forwhatdo theyhave to survive andfor whomdotheybring by deregulation and the multi-billion dollar Savings and Loan crisis. financial··success? A parentless home is no home. Theylive a life with­ Further. in 1994, federal expenditure for national defensewas $279.9 out content. billion, incontrastwith anexpenditure for education of$50.8 billion.54 .A third-generation Japanese-Americanarticulates his identity-con­ In other words, the federal government spent over five times more for fusion in a poem. Hethinks thatheis anAmerican. But peoplewho see nationaldefense thanfor education. Inthe presentsystemmanyyoung his Asian appearance constantlyquestion his nationality. 1 urban dwellers feel deep frustration anddespair. Theyhave little edu­ ~ cation, no jobs, and no future. For them, the only solution they see Who amI? , I sometimes wonder. ~. may be to bring down the present system ofsociety. " Am I Japanese? Identity Crisis Am I American t or just both? First-generation Korean-Americans who have lived in this country for a long time usually undergo an identity crisis, especiallyifthey re­ l' I am me, a human being.56 turn to visit Korea. They realize that they are neither fully Koreans nor . I I fully Americans. And most second-generation Korean-Americans ex­ Erik Erickson pointed out.that a\healthy identity \ncludes "the ac- perience role-confusion at home, in schools, and in society. crued confidence that th~ inner sameness and continuity prepared in ····..; I am well acquainted with the family of a teenage girl named Julie tfie past are matched bythe sameness andcontinuityofone's meaning I (not her real name). Julie is undergoing a serious identitv crisis. A se- for othp.r~."S7 Hp. nointp.cI ontthat adolescents can be stromrlv clannish- 40 PROBLEMS IN THE KOREAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY and cruel in their exclusi~nofthose who are unlike themin skin color, cultural background, tastes, and habits.58 Thus many Korean-Ameri.. can and otherethnicyouths suffer feelings ofexclusion and the loss of self-identity: Theirheart is broken inhan-the feeling ofhelplessness. 3 To Erickson~ itis importantto havethe double requirementfor ego­ identity: a sense of historical and cultural connectedness With one's past, present, and future; and a sense of belonging in a community: When people lack these elements, they feel marginal and may with.. drawinto self.Theloss ofself-identityresults inrole-confusion, a sense The Sin of Korean-American Communities of inauthenticity and feelings of shame and worthlessness. This dis­ connectedness between the past and the present is experienced by many Korean-Americans, particularlythe young.

One ofthe major problems for Korean...Americans is fear. Out ofin­ RESULTS OF STRUCTURAL PROBLEMS \ securi~manyKorean-Americans withdrawintotheirown enclave and tend to be exclusive, losing the opportunityto know'other groups. In.. Korean-Americans and otherethnicpeoplelive as second-class citi­ stead ofenhancing respect for other groups, such isolation produces zens in their own country. The dominant groups in this country often indifference toward other groups or fosters prejudice and misunder­ remind them oftheir·linferiority." Theydo nottreatKorean-Americans standing. Within tpe Korean...American community the tendency to as fully equal with them; something is missing in the Korean..Ameri.. withdraw nurs~s the sins ofracial prejudice, sexism, and the practice canandAsian-Americanface, appearance, speech, behavior, thinking, of!~~Qre)(Jlloitaiio~. . .. and working. . Even though Korean-Am~ricanssucceed in their careers or busi­ nesses, they feel left out ofsociety and thus feel failure. By internaliz.. RAe·ISM ing the negative projection ofthe dominant group toward them, they feel a cenain gap betweentheirown values, behavior, andidentityand Korean-Americans have been discriminated against byEuro-Ameri.. the dominant group's values, behavior, and identit}r. When theyrealize cans sinceKorean immigrationstarted. Racism is originalsin, according that the dominant group will never fully accept them, theyexperience to JimWallis, editor ofSojourners. Racism consists ofprejudice and dis­ marginali~Their marginal situation creates anxiet}r, confusion, and criminatiQn. Discrimination-is an outward act, which is criminal; preju­ insecuri~ dice is an attitude, which is intangible. It is an anti-Christian attitude. We have discussed the han ofKorean-American communities, cen­ Although they may not overtly discriminate against others~ many Ko­ tering on the Los Angeles eruptions in 1992. Some ofthe han results rean-Americans haveprejudiceagainstotherethnicgroups, particularly from racial and ethnic conflict, redlining, the work of transnational African-Americans.Thepejorative depictionofAfrican-Americans inthe corporations, scapegoating, classism, role-confusion, police discrimi.. U.S. news media prevails throughout the world. It is no accident that nation, and media bias. One ofthe deepest causes of han is that the then Japanese prime minister Yasuhiro Nakasone bluntly remarked in world has shaped us, and we are unable to determine ourown destiny: 1986: liThe level of intelligence in the United States is lowered by the We have worked hard to develop our latency~ butoureffortshave been large number ofBlacks,' Puerto Ricans, and Mexicans who live there."1 thwartedbyoutsideforces.We cannotgive up, however, for we arecalled Nakasone did not know that nurture (as well as nature) is the decisive from above to use our han as an opportunityto change the world. factor in human development. I.Q. tests were given to all children over four years ofage in 101 transracial adoptive families when the adopted children were seven years old (on average) and once more When they averagedseventeenyears ofage.Thefindings suggestthatthe influences onintellectualdevelopmentinthesampleofAfrican-American adoptees raised in Caucasian families are similar to those for children inthe rna.. 41