Masaryk University
Faculty of Education
Department of English Language and Literature
English Bible Terminology
Bachelor thesis Miroslava Mačáková
Brno, April 2014 Supervisor: Mgr. Radek Vogel, PhD.
Declaration:
I declare that I wrote this thesis by myself and that I used only the sources listed in the bibliography section.
Brno, April 2014 Miroslava Mačáková
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Mgr. Radek Vogel, Ph.D. for his guidance and professional advice he provided to me during my work on this bachelor thesis. I would also like to thank my family for their patience and support while the thesis was being born. Special thanks belong to Mr Jiří Hedánek for providing me with some very helpful materials.
Brno, April 2014 Miroslava Mačáková
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Table of contents:
1 Introduction ...... 5
2 Methodology ...... 8
2.1 Description and explanation of research procedure/Justification of chosen tools ...... 8
2.1.1 Selected material for further examination ...... 8
2.1.2 Selected means of research ...... 9
2.1.3 Problems encountered during the research ...... 11
3 The English Bible ...... 12
3.1 Brief history of English Bible translations ...... 12
3.1.1 Anglo-Saxon versions ...... 12
3.1.2 Middle English versions ...... 13
3.1.3 Early Modern English versions ...... 14
3.1.4 Modern English versions ...... 16
3.2 Some difficulties translators of the Bible have to overcome ...... 16
3.2.1 Types of translation ...... 16
3.2.2 Cultural differences, semantic development and different language means and styles ...... 17
4 Examining selected words from the Bible ...... 19
4.1 Analysis of selected texts ...... 19
4.1.1 List of chosen words from the Old Testament book of Isaiah ...... 19
4.1.2 Comparison of the selected English terms ...... 20
4.1.3 New Testament terminology ...... 37
4.1.4 Close examination of selected religious terms from the book of Philemon ...... 40
4.2 Further research in the chosen texts, identifying possible difficulties for present readers of the English Bible and examining their nature ...... 45
4.3 Summary of the findings as a whole concerning the purpose of the thesis ...... 45
5 Conclusions and practical outcomes of the research ...... 46
5.1 Conclusions ...... 46
5.2 Practical outcomes of the research ...... 47
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Résumé ...... 48
List of references ...... 49
Appendix ...... 50
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1 Introduction
Many European states claim to have been founded on Christian principles, Great Britain is also an heir of that cultural heritage . However, it is questionable how many Europeans are acquainted with the content of the Bible, as the only authoritative book for Christians in general (both catholic and protestant believers), reasonably enough. One obstacle preventing some Europeans from even trying to read the ´thick book´ is a concern whether a non-religious person could find such a book intelligible at all. Whether the very words used in the Bible are purely religious, or just have the covering of religiosity when read in a religious context, is the subject of observance and study of the thesis focused on English Bible and its terminology . Therefore, the aim of the thesis is not so much to prove historical and other influences of the English Bibles, though history cannot be quite eliminated when examining the topic. The primary concern of the work is rather the words used in the different versions of English Bible translations, their etymological examination and comparison with the original sources as well as terminology usage contrast of different English translations. The aim then is to answer the following questions:
1. Are the terms used in the Bible (or one selected book of the Bible) purely religious or are they commonly used in everyday language (or used to be commonly used in secular sense in times when they were being written in the original Bible tongues) and only the Bible context makes them quite unique for religious purposes?
2. Is there any difference (concerning answers to the first question) between the original Bible languages (esp. Hebrew and Greek) and English in English Bible versions (old, newer and modern)?
3. What possibilities are there for teachers and learners of English in gaining profit from the different translations as well as audio recordings available (often free of charge on the Internet)?
In order to answer the questions as thoroughly as possible, different available means are used which the author finds of vital importance, having considered the wide spectrum of different information necessary for such a demanding project.
Some necessary tools used in order to complete the purpose of the thesis are listed below:
Online Etymology Dictionary (http://www.etymonline.com )
Oxford Dictionary of English
Strong´s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible
Different English Bible translations with the possibility of parallel comparison
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(http://www.biblegateway.com)
According to Guinness World Records, eHow (an internet magazine)1 and other sources, the Bible is the most read and sold book in the history of the world, besides having been translated the most too. A textbook of History for Czech 6th year learners at the elementary schools named Dějiny pravěku a starověkého orientu (translation into English would be: History of prehistoric times and ancient Orient) (p. 52)2 states that no other book is as much and as often quoted as the Bible, called there the ´primary part of European culture´.
In the history of English literature the Bible and its translations are unique from several points of view:
The amount and frequency of the works as well as special conditions many of the Bibles were translated or printed in (e.g. Tyndale´s work or the Geneva Bible).
English translations similarly to those into Czech and some other languages had a tremendous impact concerning preserving and shaping mother tongue and national self-awareness. Similarities in Czech and English history can be easily spotted when comparing English ―French‖ and Czech ―Austrian‖ times. Tyndale and others had to face much opposition in their efforts to make the Bible accessible in translation directly from the original languages (Hebrew and Greek), in Czech history it can be compared to the birth of Kralice Bible.
We could also compare the earlier Wyclif’s translation and opposition he faced to Constantinus and Methodius´s disputes with the followers of the idea arguing that only three languages were suitable and permitable for liturgy purposes (Hebrew, Greek and Latin).
To one argument, claiming that English was too rude to be used for Bible translation, Tyndale replied: ―It is not so rude as they are false liars. For the Greek tongue agreeth more with the English than with the Latin, a thousand parts better may it be translated into the English than into the Latin‖ (McAfee, 8). McAfee clarifies the braveness of such an attitude in his ´Notes´3:
This will mean the more to us when we realize that the literary men of the day despised the English tongue. Sir Thomas More wrote his Utopia in Latin, because otherwise educated men would not deign to read it. Years later Roger Ascham apologized for writing one of his works in English. Putting the Bible into current English impressed these literary men very much as we
1 See http://www.ehow.co.uk/slideshow_12249316_top-translated-books-history.html#pg=21 2 see the appendix 3 at the end of McAfee´s article 6
would be impressed by putting the Bible into current slang.
Other surprising facts include the fastest changes of political conditions from absolute ban to promotion of Bible reading. The most vivid example of this kind occurred during the reign of king Henry VIII and in Tyndale´s own life.
In 1526 Tyndale´s New Testament was burned at St. Paul´s by the Bishop of London; ten years later, 1536, Tyndale himself was burned with the knowledge and connivance of the English government; and yet, one year later, 1537, two versions of the Bible in English, three-quarters of which were the work of Tyndale, were licensed for public use by the King of England, and were required to be made available for the people! (McAfee, 9)
McAfee states that among other influences there was a very special factor which had a huge impact on the sudden change of attitude toward the Bible and that is the English unique national feature, namely:
... the people of England were never willingly ruled from without, religiously or politically. They were sometimes ruled from without; but they were either indifferent to it at the time or rebellious against it. Those who did think claimed the right to think for themselves. ... There has always been an immense contrast between the two sides of the British Channel. The French people during all those years were deeply loyal to a foreign religious government. The English people were never so, not in the days of the fullest Roman supremacy. They always demanded at least a form of home government. That made England a congenial home for the Protestant spirit, which claimed the right to independent study of the sources of religion and independent judgment regarding them (McAfee, 10).
Giving people the possibility to explore what they believe to be the words of God in their own tongue has the capacity of making their faith personal and uneasily shakeable (see e.g. movements in time of John Wesley). McAfee elevates its meaning as a tool preserving ―that spirit of free inquiry which is the only safeguard of free institutions‖.4 Having in view the strong closeness of the church and state during the most part of the concerned history (reflecting the thesis´ topic), it is no longer difficult to understand the political impact the translations had. No wonder that events of this kind happened:
At Oxford, in the Convocation of 1408, it was solemnly voted: ―We decree and ordain that no man hereafter by his own authority translate any text of the Scripture into English, or any other tongue, by way of a book, pamphlet, or other treatise; but that no man read any such book, pamphlet, or treatise now lately composed in the time of John Wyclif ...5
4 See 2.1.2 Middle English Versions where McAfee is quoted. 5 McAfee quotes in his article 7
2 Methodology 2.1 Description and explanation of research procedure/Justification of chosen tools
2.1.1 Selected material for further examination
The most necessary tool is the Bible, which is itself a library of 66 books, written by different authors in Hebrew, Chaldee (only a small part) and Greek during about 15 centuries. The books of the Bible were divided into chapters and verses (not originally but centuries later) in order that different passages of it could be easily referred to, this attribute is widely used by concordances, Bible dictionaries and history books and textbooks.
The author of the thesis decided to choose one book of the 39 Old Testament books, namely the Book of Isaiah to provide space for investigation of some terms denoting religious concept for contemporary people. The choice was not done at random, this particular book contains 66 chapters (the same number as the number of all the books of the Bible) and seems to lead the reader from the Old Testament perspective to New Testament perspective, prophesies the coming of the Messiah and together with the Psalms is the most cited Old Testament book in the New Testament.
Because one of the other vital means for the research purposes is Strong´s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible (further referred to as SEC) which chose the King James Version as the translation providing terms for its work, it will be the King James Version´s (further abbreviated to KJV) terms that will be compared with other translations and with the original Bible languages. SEC not only provides the alphabetical list of literally all words of the Bible and to each word every single passage where it is found. Moreover, each word is numbered, each number can be found in a list of numbers representing the original term (Hebrew or Greek) and the term is thoroughly described, including all possible meanings. One example is below for the word ´life´ as it occurs in the Gospel of John, verse 26 of the fifth chapter :
1) Find the word in the alphabetical list and than see the reference wanted (John 5, 26), the books of the Bible (if the term is contained in them) are listed in the order they have in the Bible. Than note the number ascribed to the term, in this case it is 2222 (Altogether there are 8674 numbers/terms for the Hebrew and Chaldee dictionary and 5624 numbers/terms for the Greek dictionary. Terms from the Old Testament are sought in the Hebrew and Chaldee dictionary and words from the New Testament are sought in the Greek dictionary.)
2) Find the number in the proper dictionary, in this case the Greek one.
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3) Find out the Greek term (including pronunciation) and in this case see the reference to another Greek term from which it originated, another term for comparison, and see the interpretation.
4) If interested look up and compare other passages containing the researched term according to the number given (e.g. in this particular case, there are 34 other occurrences of the same Hebrew term in the Gospel of John)
2.1.2 Selected means of research
In order to gain better perspective of the prospected English term in broad time context, each word is examined at first with the usage of Online Etymology Dictionary, this tool not only uncovers the original meaning of the term, but it also helps to identify possible shifts of meanings between old and modern English.
Oxford Dictionary of English (further referred to as to OED) was selected in order to secure nowadays understanding of the word, especially important for comparison are the meanings listed as number one.
Google Web Search is used for the thesis purposes as a means of even closer distinguishing the religious or secular denotations of the specific terms. The words will be searched in context with other terms and the total amounts of found samples at Google can in some instances help to determine the nowadays word meaning. However, this tool can only be considered as a second rank guide, not fully reliable, not only because of technical problem, but also because it is often very hard to choose the proper contextual term.
In order to make it possible to better compare Old Testament Hebrew terms and English terms, only those words were selected, which have more Hebrew terms referred to (i.e. more Hebrew words are translated as one English word, thus in SEC one English word can be found under more numbers in either Hebrew and Chaldee or Greek dictionaries). It will be observed whether this fact will reflect itself when different English translations will be compared and also it will help to make apparent whether the Old Testament Hebrew meanings denoted religious sense of the selected terms or were more secular and thus it will enable comparison with old and modern English meanings too.
To compare the specific words in different English versions, an online parallel Bible comparison provided by Bible Gateway was chosen, which enable us to compare 5 different versions simultaneously (35 versions to choose from, including e.g. the Wycliffe Bible). To compare versions translated in different centuries and for different purposes (e.g. some aiming at
9 accuracy, some at easy understanding) the following versions were chosen:
1599 Geneva Bible (further only GNV)
Bible Gateway informs us about this version in this way:
All but forgotten in our day, the Geneva Bible was the most widely read and influential English Bible of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. A superb translation, it was the product of the best Protestant scholars of the day and became the Bible of choice for many of the greatest writers and thinkers of that time. Men such as William Shakespeare, John Bunyan, and John Milton used the Geneva Bible in their writings. The Geneva Bible is unique among all other Bibles. It was the first Bible to use chapters and numbered verses and became the most popular version of its time because of its extensive marginal notes.
Darby Translation (further just DARBY)
Bible Gateway´s explanation:
First published in 1890 by John Nelson Darby, an Anglo-Irish Bible teacher associated with the early years of the Plymouth Brethren. Darby also published translations of the Bible in French and German.
Douay-Rheims 1899 American Edition (further just DRA)
More information by Bible Gateway:
The Douay Version is the foundation on which nearly all English Catholic versions are still based. It was translated by Gregory Martin, an Oxford-trained scholar, working in the circle of English Catholic exiles on the Continent, under the sponsorship of William (later Cardinal) Allen. The NT appeared at Rheims in 1582; the OT at Douay in 1609.
New Life Version (further just NLV)
Bible Gateway explains:
The NEW LIFE Version, available SINCE 1969 - continues to be the most readable and most understandable Bible without sacrificing accuracy. It is not a paraphrase ... Most words are limited to one meaning - a must for new readers and people learning English as a second language!
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New International Version (further just NIV)
Information on the version by Bible Gateway:
The New International Version (NIV) is a completely original translation of the Bible developed by more than one hundred scholars working from the best available Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek texts... The 2011 update to the NIV is the latest fruit of this process. By working with input from pastors and Bible scholars, by grappling with the latest discoveries about biblical languages and the biblical world, and by using cutting-edge research on English usage, the Committee on Bible Translation has updated the text.
Each term is than evaluated individually and conclusion written for it, after that the whole research is evaluated and outcomes stated.
2.1.3 What problems were encountered during the research
The first problem was the vastness of possibilities gradually uncovering, showing that a thorough research would make a good-size book and cannot be contained in a bachelor thesis in the quality the author would like to secure.
The second problem was the unexpected outcome of the term´s comparison in different English versions. Although each word was compared in context of different verses, each representing example of a different Hebrew word, the translations did not differ as much as it was esteemed and expected. Therefore, the outcome does not seem to have the flavour of an ´exciting finding´.
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3 The English Bible
3.1 Brief history of English Bible translations
3.1.1 Anglo-Saxon Versions
The first 'translations' of some parts of the Bible were, in fact, its paraphrased metrical versions in the Anglo-Saxon tongue. Caedmon is said to be at the beginning of that poetic line in the third quarter of the seventh century. This gifted peasant could not speak Latin, but when the monks translated to him some parts of the Bible, ―he would cast it into the rugged Saxon measures which could be sung by the common people‖. (Kenyon´s article on Anglo-Saxon versions, 1) Bede is believed to be the next one in the line, he was still a child when Caedmon died and he preserved his story. Later, it is claimed, he transferred the Gospel of John into Anglo-Saxon.
Kenyon states:
No further trace of an English Bible appears until the ninth century. To that period is assigned a word-for-word translation of the Psalter, written between the lines of a Latin manuscript (Cotton MS Vespasian A.I., in the British Museum), which was the progenitor of several similar glosses between that date and the twelfth century; and to it certainly belongs the attempt of Alfred to educate his people by English translations of the works which he thought most needful of them. He is said to have undertaken a version of the Psalms, of which no portion survives, ...
Fig. 1 The Venerable Bede Translates John by J. D. Penrose (ca 1902), copied from: https://www.uni- due.de/SHE/SHE_OE_Gallery.htm
Kenyon also mentions an interlinear translation of the Gospels in Northumbrian dialect in the tenth century, repeated in the Rushworth Gospels in the same century, with the difference that the Gospel of Matthew is in Mercian dialect there. Kenyon is also listing a translation of the Gospels in the dialect of Wessex, but says that the version is in question (Kenyon´s article on 12
Anglo-Saxon Versions, 2).
3.1.2 Middle English versions
Let's introduce the Middle English Versions by mentioning the Ormulum, ―the metrical version of the Gospel and the Acts, done near 1250 by an Augustinian monk named Orm‖ (Mc´Afee, 3-4), although some scholars would not neglect to mention the earlier written ―Langland's poem, 'The Vision of Piers Plowman,' which paraphrased so much of the Scripture.‖ (Mc´Afee, 4).
Kenyon declares that until the fourteenth century there was almost no biblical literature in English as French was the language of the main biblical literature then. The French version of the Apocalypse reappeared in the fourteenth century ―in an English dress‖. The Psalter was produced in two English versions about that time too.
The first really significant landmark in the English Bible history was surely done by Wyclif and his co-workers. Kenyon names especially Nicholas Hereford, to whom is assigned the greater part of the Old Testament. (Kenyon´s article on Middle English Versions, 1). The whole Bible was translated by them around 1384 from the Latin Vulgate. McAfee argues that Wyclif as well as Tyndale (to be mentioned in the next section) ―... were chiefly moved to their work by social conditions‖ because they ―... were mightily concerned with the mass of people, and looked ... for a corrective of social evils.‖ Some of Wyclif's contemporaries criticized him for his translation saying: ―... thus the pearl is cast abroad and trodden under the feet of swine‖.
But as McAfee implies (McAfee, 6) :
It would be difficult to exaggerate the influence of this gift to the English people. It constitutes the standard of Middle English. Chaucer and Wyclif stood side by side. ... But the version had far more than literary influence; it had tremendous power in keeping alive in England that spirit of free inquiry which is the only safeguard of free institutions. (The last sentence is mentioned in the introduction too, as the author of the thesis considers it very significant.)
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Fig. 2 In this 19th-century illustration, John Wycliffe is shown giving the Bible translation that bore his name to his Lollard followers. Copied from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/ commons/thumb/4/4f/WycliffeYeamesLollards_01.jpg/220px-WycliffeYeamesLollards_01.jpg
3.1.3 Early Modern English versions
The gruesome conditions in time when Tyndale lived are described by Bellarmine, a cardinal of the Church:
Some Years before the rise of the Lutheran heresy there was almost an entire abandonment of equity in ecclesiastical judgments; in morals, no discipline; in sacred literature, no erudition; in divine things, no reverence; religion was almost extinct.
McAfee is persuaded that William Tyndale felt the same need for a popular version of the Bible, as Wyclif had felt a century ago and supports his belief with the following quotation from Tyndale´s Obedience of a Christian Man:
If you will not let the layman have the word of God in his mother tongue, yet let the priests have it, which for the great part of them do understand no Latin at all, but sing and patter all day with the lips only that which the heart understandeth not...
However, Tyndale discovered the transfer of the Bible into English to have been an impossible mission in his native country and so he was compelled to carry out his work in foreign countries in Europe and flee from place to place. ―The final revision of the Tyndale translations was published in 1534 ... In two years he was put to death by strangling, and his body was burned.‖ (McAfee, 8)
Tyndale is praised for ´fixing the standard English once for all, and bringing it finally to every English home´(McAfee, 8). McAfee supports this claim by examples from King James version, showing sometimes only slight changes from Tyndale´s words,6 he even says: ―About eighty
6 E.g. in the Beatitudes, he says that five are word for word in the two versions (Tyndale´s and King James) and the other three only slightly changed. 14 percent of his Old Testament and ninety percent of his New Testament have been transferred ...‖
One year after Tyndale had been burned in France, an unbelievable twist was made and all of a sudden there were two translations of the Bible to English in 1537, authorized and ready to be used openly: Miles Coverdale and Matthew Bible. McAfee states that: ―Neither was an independent work, but was made largely from the Latin and the German, and much influenced by Tyndale.‖ The Great Bible which appeared in 1539 was according to McAfee (similarly to the Taverner´s Bible also of 1539 – but that was Taverner´s and not Coverdale´s work)‖ ...only another version made by Coverdale on the basis of the Matthew version, but corrected by more accurate knowledge.‖ The Great Bible was published to satisfy a decree demanding each church to have at disposal the largest possible copy of the whole Bible. (McAfee, 11-12)
Under Edward VI nearly fifty editions of the Bible were issued. ―The order for a Great Bible in every church was renewed, and there was to be added to it a copy of Erasmus´s7 paraphrase of the four gospels.‖ (McAfee, 12)
Mary´s rage against Protestantism led to English Protestant scholarship fleeing into exile, where the Geneva Bible came into existence, superseding the Great Bible highly and bringing several changes: e.g. division into verses8 that first appeared in its edition of 1560. It was completed after the accession of Elizabeth. However, she could not approve the version because she disliked John Knox and Calvin who were both involved in its preparation and so Elizabeth´s archbishop Parker made sure that the Bishop´s Bible (as it is known), avoiding all unpleasant notes, was issued in 1568.
The Douai version9 which appeared in 1609 (the Rheims New Testament in 1582) was also a kind of an answer to the Genevan Bible. It was not translated from the original languages, but from the Latin Vulgate by English Roman Catholics living in France.
The King James Bible translation (issued in 1611), according to Michael Marlowe was needed to be done for this reason:
The failure of the Bishops´ Bible to replace the Geneva Bible in popular use left the authorities of the Church of England in an embarrassing position for many years, because everyone knew that the version authorized for use in church services was not as accurate as the Geneva Bible, and this undermined the people´s confidence in the established church as an institution. When this was pointed out to King James I ... he commissioned a new version for use in the churches.
Kenyon adds: ―Not only was it superior to all its predecessors, but its excellence was so marked
7 Erasmus taught at Cambridge and his Greek New Testament appeared probably during Tyndale´s study there (having taken a degree at Oxford before). 8 The chaper division was made three centuries before the Geneva edition. 9 Work of Eglish scholars connected with the University of Douai – see McAfee p. 14. 15 that no further revision was attempted for over 250 years... it was not the work of a single scholar (like Tyndale´s, Coverdale´s, and Matthew´s Bibles), or a small group (like the Geneva and Douai Bibles), or of a large number of men working independently with little supervision (like the Bishops’ Bible), but was produced by the collaboration of a carefully selected band of scholars, working with ample time and with full and repeated revision.‖ (Kenyon´s article on The Authorized Version, 2)
3.1.4 Modern English Versions
Table 1 – Modern English Versions (18th – 21st century)
Century Number of translations
18th about 16 translations or paraphrases, some only of the New Testament
19th about 33 translations, many not of the whole Bible e.g.: Webster’s Revision of the KJV (1833) and The Revised Version (1881-1895) – translated from the original languages
20th almost 100 translations, only some are new translations of the whole Bible from the original languages and not just revision or parts of the Bible ... e.g.: The Revised Standard Version (1952) The New English Bible (1961) – using colloquial and modern English style The New International Version (1978) New King James Version (1982) New Revised Standard Version (1990)
21st about 10 e.g. Today’s New International Version (2005) – gender neutral
3.2 Some difficulties translators of the Bible have to overcome
3.2.1 Types of translations
Wallace in his article outlines the first difficulty, which is the type of translation every translator must choose to prefer in his work.
According to Wallace there are basically two possibilities to select from (1) .
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The first one is a ―word-for-word‖ translation, called ―formal equivalence‖10. The problem with this choice is that the attempted adherence to the form can lead to less natural and understandable or even bad language.
The second option is a ―phrase-for-phrase‖ translation method, also known as a ―dynamic equivalence‖11 or a ―functional equivalence‖. Generally speaking, the meaning of the original text is considered as more important than its grammatical form. However, the understandability can sometimes be redeemed by less accurate interpretation of some parts of the text.
The above stated problems prompted some interpreters to invent yet another form called ―optimal equivalence‖. Using this method means to follow word-for-word translation wherever it is clear in the language into which the text is being translated (English) and switch to phrase- for-phrase translation when it is necessary to convey the meaning with more clarity.
Peter Newmark in his work called A Textbook of Translation uses different classification of translation methods. His term for the above mentioned first kind of translation would probably be ―faithful translation‖ and the second option is close to his classes called ―semantic translation‖ and even ―communicative translation‖.
3.2.2 Cultural differences, semantic development and different language means and styles
Especially when translating some OT passages, translators certainly had to wrestle with translating words describing objects which no longer existed when the translation was being made. In this case archaeological discoveries also play an important part in revealing new facts for modern translators.
Considering the reality of language changes and developments, thus uncovering the fact that also Hebrew and Greek terms have undergone changes of the conveyed information, it is very fitting to mention Saussure´s great contribution to language science by defining synchronic and diachronic linguistics. Moisés Silva claims that although Saussure´s contribution was not accepted immediately as a whole, the situation now is that
most scholars tend to see in it the most fruitful contribution of the whole Saussurean theory. It has rescued descriptive linguistics from the purely practical and ancillary status to which it had been relegated by the rise of the historical method12 in the last century.13
10 Dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence are terms for methods of translation coined by Eugene Nida (1914- 2011), writer of e.g. The Theory and Practice of Translation, he became a founding charter member of Wycliffe Bible Translators. 11 See above 12 Moisés Silva writes about its dangers in his book mentioned below, e.g. p. 17 where he cites from Roland G. Kent´s ―Linguistic Science and the Orientalist― 17
Hedánek in his article points out several peculiarities of the biblical Hebrew, one of them is lack of adjectives and use of genitive in a descriptive function instead, so a strong man would be ―a man of strength‖ and a holy mountain would be a ―mountain of holiness‖. Another difficulty is Hebrew courtesy language, e.g. using plural, and there are many other challenges for translators. Hedánek also explains that about thirty percent of the Old Testament was written in a poetic language which has a special place among other biblical genres, involving poetic vocabulary.
13 Moisés Silva quoting – Ullmann, Principles, p. 143. – in his book Bibilical Words and Their Meaning (an introduction to lexical semantics, p. 37. 18
4 Examining selected words from the Bible
4.1 Analysis of selected texts
4.1.1 List of chosen words from the Old Testament book of Isaiah
In Table 2 are listed words from Isaiah which are suitable for research purposes of the thesis´ topic as they have some religious meaning and thus can be examined whether they denote religious concepts as their core sense or if it is the religious context making them appear so.
Why the book of Isaiah was chosen for further investigation has been partly explained in chapter 2. The reason is that among the other books it possesses some unique qualities, e.g. it is the most cited Old Testament book in the New Testament (together with the Psalms), it consists of 66 chapters, about half of which represent the OT view and the other half the NT perspective.
Table 2 – Selected words from the book of Isaiah from the King James Version
List of the words Number of occurrences References – 1 example for each different Hebrew word (chapter, verse)
doctrine 2 28,9; 29,24
evil 20 1,16; 3,9; 41,23
god 136 2,3; 7,7; 44,8
heaven + heavens 33 (11 x heaven + 22 x heavens) 5,30; 42,5
holy 54 4,3; 6,13; 30;29
idol + idols 16 (2 x idol + 14 x idols) 10,10; 45,16; 46,1; 48,5; 66,3
Lord + Lord´s 482 (475 x Lord + 7 x Lord´s) 3,1; 4,4; 19,12
pray + prayer 12 (7 x pray + 5 x prayer) 5,3; 16,12; 26,16; 38,5
prophet + prophets 8 (6 x prophet + 2 x prophets) 29,10; 30,10
sacrifice + sacrifices 8 (3 x sacrifice + 5 x sacrifices) 29,1; 56,7
salvation 28 12,3; 17,10; 45,17; 63,5
sanctuary 5 8,14; 43,28
sin 8 3,9; 5,18; 31,7; 53,10
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4.1.2 Comparison of the selected English terms
Etymological background of the selected English words evoking some religious meaning is compared to the ´religiosity´ of the Hebrew words from which they were translated with the attempt to see whether there has occurred any shift in understanding the word in contemporary English. Several English translations of the Bible are also compared, focusing on differences in translations of the specific words.14
doctrine Defining: From etymological point of view: (n.) late 14c., from Old French doctrine (12c.) "teaching, doctrine," and directly from Latin doctrina "teaching, body of teachings, learning," from doctor "teacher" In ODE: ―a belief or set of beliefs held and taught by a Church, political party, or other group ..‖ In SEC referred to under numbers 8052 and 3948 8052 - something heard, i.e. an announcement: bruit, doctrine, fame, mentioned, news, report, rumour, tidings. 3948 - prop. something received, i.e. (mentally) instruction (whether on the part of the teacher or hearer); also (in an act. and sinister sense) inveiglement: doctrine, learning, fair speech.
Approximate number of specific references at Google (9 April 2013): Church Doctrine 37 400 000 Political Doctrine 26 300 000
14 All etymological information of the English words is taken from: http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=doctrine&searchmode=none All etymological information of the Hebrew words is taken from: Strong´s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible – shortly SEC 20
Parallel comparison of the selected English translations:
Table 3 – Comparison of KJV´s term ´doctrine´ with 5 other English translations Comparing KJV´s term doctrine
Found in Isaiah (chapter/verse): 28,9 (SEC – 8052) 29,24 (SEC – 3948) GNV the things that he heareth doctrine DARBY the report doctrine DRA the hearing law NLV what he has to say teaching NIV his message instruction
The term in the context of the above mentioned 2 verses (NIV): (28,9) "Who is it he is trying to teach? To whom is he explaining his message? To children weaned from their milk, to those just taken from the breast? (29,24) Those who are wayward in spirit will gain understanding; those who complain will accept instruction."
Conclusion: Neither English historical or present meaning of the word ´doctrine´ is religious only, although its religious evocativeness seems to be slightly prevailing in modern times. Also, the Hebrew meaning does not denote a religious concept as its core sense.
evil Defining: From etymological point of view: (adj.) Old English yfel (Kentish evel) "bad, vicious, ill, wicked" from Proto-Germanic ubilaz "In OE., as in all the other early Teut. langs., exc. Scandinavian, this word is the most comprehensive adjectival expression of disapproval, dislike or disparagement" [OED]. Evil was the word the Anglo-Saxons used where we would use bad, cruel, unskillful, defective (adj.), or harm, crime, misfortune, disease (n.). The meaning "extreme moral wickedness" was in Old English, but did not become the main sense until 18c. In ODE: forces of the devil – harmful or tending to harm 2 (of a smell or sight) extremely unpleasant ... In SEC referred to under numbers 7451, 7455 and 7489 7451 - bad or evil (from 7489) 7455 - badness (also from 7489) 7489 - a prim. root; properly to spoil (lit. by breaking to pieces); fig. to make (or be) be good for nothing, i.e. bad (phys., soc. or mor.): afflict, associate selves, break (down, in pieces), displease,
21
(be, bring, do) evil (doer, entreat, man), show self friendly, do harm, (do) hurt, (behave self, deal) ill, do mischief, punish, still vex, (do) wicked (doer, -ly), be (deal, do) worse.
Approximate number of specific references at Google (3 July 2013): evil forces 75 600 000 evil thing 146 000 000
Parallel comparison of the selected English translations:
Table 4 – Comparison of KJV´s term ´evil´ with 5 other English translations Comparing KJV´s term evil
Found in Isaiah: 1,16a (SEC – 7455) 3,9 (SEC -7451) 41,23 (SEC – 7489) GNV evil evil evil DARBY evil evil evil DRA evil evils evil NLV sinful actions trouble bad NIV evil deeds disaster bad
The term in the context of the above mentioned 3 verses (NIV): (1,16a) ... wash and make yourselves clean. Take your evil deeds out of my sight! ... (3,9) The look on their faces testifies against them; they parade their sin like Sodom; they do not hide it. Woe to them! They have brought disaster upon themselves. (41,23) ... tell us what the future holds, so we may know that you are gods. Do something, whether good or bad, so that we will be dismayed and filled with fear.
Conclusion: The word ―evil‖ shows the marks of prevailing religious meaning in OE and in comparison of different Bible versions too. However, NLV and NIV in some cases prefer other terms, not denoting any religious concept. Old Testament Hebrew term seems to contain both aspects too.
god Defining: From etymological point of view: Old English god "supreme being, deity; the Christian God; image of a god; godlike person Not related to good. Originally a neuter noun in Germanic, the gender shifted to masculine after the coming
22 of Christianity. Old English god probably was closer in sense to Latin numen. A better word to translate deus might have been Proto-Germanic ansuz, but this was used only of the highest deities in the Germanic religion, and not of foreign gods, and it was never used of the Christian God. It survives in English mainly in the personal names beginning in Os-. In ODE: God 1 the creator and ruler of the universe and source of all moral authority; the supreme being. 2 (god) a superhuman being ... – an image, animal, or other object worshipped as divine or symbolising a god ... 3 (god) greatly admired or influential person ... In SEC referred to under numbers 430, 3069 and 6697 430 - gods in the ordinary sense; but spec. used of the supreme God; occasionally applied by way of deference to magistrates; and sometimes as a superlative 3069 - a var. of 3068 – (the) self-Existent or Eternal; Jeho-vah, Jewish national name of God: - Jehovah, the Lord 6697 - prop. a cliff; gen. a rock or boulder; fig. a refuge; also an edge
Approximate number of specific references at Google (3 July 2013): God Creator 382 000 The only God 58 500 000 Supreme God 808 800 gods 160 000 000
Parallel comparison of the selected English translations:
Table 5 – Comparison of KJV´s term ´god´ with 5 other English translations Comparing KJV´s term god
Found in Isaiah: 2,3 (SEC – 430) 7,7 (SEC - 3069) 44,8 (SEC – 433) GNV God God God DARBY God Jehovah God DRA God God God NLV God God God NIV God Lord God
The term in the context of the above mentioned 3 verses (NIV): (2,3) Many peoples will come and say, "Come, let us go up to the mountain of the Lord, to the house of the God of Jacob. He will teach us his ways, so that we may walk in his paths." (7,7) Yet this is what the Sovereign Lord says: " 'It will not take place, it will not happen ... 23
(44,8) Do not tremble, do not be afraid. Did I not proclaim this and foretell it long ago? You are my witnesses. Is there any God besides me? No, there is no other Rock; I know not one."
Conclusion: The prevailing religiosity of the word ―god‖ can be clearly observed in both OE as well as modern English or Old Testament Hebrew.
heaven/heavens Defining: From etymological point of view: Old English heofon "home of God," earlier "sky, firmament" In ODE: 1 (often Heaven) a place regarded in various religions as the abode of God (or the gods) ... a state of being eternally in the presence of God after death. 2 (also the heavens) literary the sky ... In SEC referred to under numbers 6183(1 oc.) and 8064 6183 - the sky (as drooping at the horizon): heaven 8064 - from an unused root mean. to be lofty; the sky (as aloft; the dual perh. alluding to the visible arch in which the clouds move, as well as to the higher ether where the celestial bodies revolve): air
Approximate number of specific references at Google (13 July 2013): God + heaven 278 000 000 planets/heavenly bodies + heaven 2 010 0000
Parallel comparison of the selected English translations:
Table 6 – Comparison of KJV´s terms ´heaven + heavens´ with 5 other English translations Comparing KJV´s term heaven + heavens
Found in Isaiah: 5,30 (SEC – 6183) 42,5 (SEC – 8064) GNV sky heavens DARBY heavens heavens DRA mist heavens NLV clouds heavens NIV clouds heavens
The term in the context of the above mentioned 2 verses (NIV): (5,30) In that day they will roar over it like the roaring of the sea. And if one looks at the land, he will see darkness and distress; even the light will be darkened by the clouds. 24
(42,5) This is what God the Lord says-- he who created the heavens and stretched them out, who spread out the earth and all that comes out of it, who gives breath to its people, and life to those who walk on it:
Conclusion: In old English as well as in the contemporary usage of the word, the connection of the word with God or life after death can be observed as major. On the contrary, in Old Testament Hebrew, the word carries the meaning of description of what can be observed. Even when we explore the word in its context in Isaiah, we still find it referring to something created, often mentioned together with the earth. (e.g. in verses 65:16-18 For, behold, I create new heavens and a new earth: and the former shall not be remembered, nor come into mind.)
holy Defining: From etymological point of view: Old English halig "holy, consecrated, sacred, godly" Primary (pre-Christian) meaning is not possible to determine, but probably it was "that must be preserved whole or intact, that cannot be transgressed or violated," and connected with Old English hal (see health) and Old High German heil "health, happiness, good luck" (source of the German salutation Heil) ... In ODE: 1 dedicated or consecrated to God or a religious purpose, sacred ... (of a person) devoted to the service of God ... 2 used in exclamations of surprise or dismay: holy smoke! In SEC referred to under numbers 6918, 6942 and 6944, 6918 - sacred (ceremonially or morally); (as noun) God (by eminence), an angel, a saint, a sanctuary 6942 - to be (causat. make, pronounce or observe as) clean (ceremonially or morally):-appoint, bid, consecrate, dedicate, defile, hallow, (be, keep) holy (-er, place), keep, prepare, proclaim, purify, sanctify ... 6944 - a sacred place or thing, rarely abstr. sanctity:- consecrated (thing), dedicated (thing), hallowed (thing), holiness ...saint, sanctuary
Approximate number of specific references at Google (14 August 2013): holy + God 179 000 000 holy + time / + occasion 81 500 000 holy smoke 20 700 000
25
Parallel comparison of the selected English translations:
Table 7 Comparing KJV´s holy term
Found in Isaiah: 4,3 (SEC - 6918) 6,13 (SEC - 6944) 30,29 (SEC - 6942) GNV holy holy solemn DARBY holy holy sanctified DRA holy holy sanctified NLV holy holy holy NIV holy holy holy
The term in the context of the above mentioned 3 verses (NIV): (4,3) Those who are left in Zion, who remain in Jerusalem, will be called holy, all who are recorded among the living in Jerusalem. (6,13) And though a tenth remains in the land, it will again be laid waste. But as the terebinth and oak leave stumps when they are cut down, so the holy seed will be the stump in the land." (30,29) And you will sing as on the night you celebrate a holy festival; your hearts will rejoice as when people go up with flutes to the mountain of the Lord, to the Rock of Israel.
Conclusion: The word ´holy´ has the marks of inseparability from religion or spirituality. Although in old English the original ideas of health and intactness can be spotted and in present English can be found some humorous usage of the word (holy smoke). Exclamations like ―Holy smoke!‖ or ―Holy cat!‖ are similarly to ―My gosh!‖ or ―Goodness!‖ just euphemisms to avoid naming something sacred. (Comparable to Czech ―Krucipísek!‖ or ―Jemináčku!‖.)
idol/idols Defining: From etymological point of view: mid-13c., "image of a deity as an object of (pagan) worship" from Old French idole "idol, graven image, pagan god" from Late Latin idolum "image (mental or physical), form," used in Church Latin for "false god," from Greek eidolon "appearance, reflection in water or a mirror," later "mental image, apparition, phantom," also "material image, statue," from eidos "form" (see -oid). Figurative sense of "something idolized" is first recorded 1560s (in Middle English the figurative sense was "someone who is false or untrustworthy"). Meaning "a person so adored" is from 1590s. In ODE: 26 an image or representation of a god used as an object of worship. a person or thing that is greatly admired, loved, or revered ... In SEC referred to under numbers 205, 457, 6090, 6091 and 6736 205 - ... to pant (... to come to naught); strictly nothingness; also trouble, vanity, wickedness; spec. an idol:-affliction, evil, false, idol, iniquity, mischief, mourners (-ing), naught, sorrow, unjust, unrighteous, vain, vanity, wicked (-ness). 457 - good for nothing, by anal. vain or vanity; spec. an idol: idol, no value, thing of nought 6090 - an idol (as fashioned); also pain (bodily or mental): idol, sorrow 6091 - an (idolatrous) image: idol, image. 6736 - a form (of beauty; as if pressed out, i.e. carved); hence an (idolatrous) image: beauty, idol
Approximate number of specific references at Google (16 August 2013): idol + god 127 000 000 idol + singer + actor/actress + football 154 000 000
Parallel comparison of the selected English translations:
Table 8 – Comparison of KJV´s term ´idol/idols´ with 5 other English translations Comparing KJV´s term idol/idols Found in 10,10 45,16 46,1 48,5 66,3 Isaiah (SEC - 457) (SEC - 6736) (SEC - 6091) (SEC - 6090) (SEC - 205) GNV idols images idols idol idol DARBY idols idols idols idol idol DRA idol errors idols idols idol NLV false gods false gods objects of false god false god worship NIV idols idols idols idols idol
The term in the context of the above mentioned 5 verses (NIV): (10,10) As my hand seized the kingdoms of the idols, kingdoms whose images excelled those of Jerusalem and Samaria ... (45,16) All the makers of idols will be put to shame and disgraced; they will go off into disgrace together. (46,1) Bel bows down, Nebo stoops low; their idols are borne by beasts of burden. The images that are carried about are burdensome, a burden for the weary. (48,5) Therefore I told you these things long ago; before they happened I announced them to you so that you could not say, 'My idols did them; my wooden image and metal god ordained them.'
27
(66,3) ... and whoever burns memorial incense, (is) like one who worships an idol.
Conclusion: In both OE as well as OT Hebrew the meaning of the term is prevailingly religious, although some of the Hebrew meanings are also found outside the religious sphere. In modern English the tendency to use the word for an object of admiration (especially of a famous person) is remarkable. However, that kind of usage is only a metaphor with its root in the sphere of religion.
Lord/Lord´s Defining: From etymological point of view: n. - mid-13c., laverd, loverd, from Old English hlaford "master of a household, ruler, superior," also "God" (translating Latin Dominus, though Old English drihten was used more often), earlier hlafweard, literally "one who guards the loaves," from hlaf "bread, loaf" (see loaf (n.)) + weard "keeper, guardian" (see ward (n.)). Cf. lady, and Old English hlafæta "household servant," literally "loaf-eater." Modern monosyllabic form emerged 14c. As an interjection from late 14c. Lord's Prayer is from 1540s. ...To drink like a lord is from 1620s. In ODE: noun – a man of noble rank or high office; a nobleman. a title .... a feudal superior. a master or ruler. a name for God or Christ ... In SEC referred to under numbers 113, 136 and 3068 113 - sovereign, i.e. controller (human or divine): lord, master, owner. 136 - the Lord (used as a prop. name of God only): (my) Lord. 3068 - (the) self-Existent or Eternal; Jeho-vah, Jewish national name of God: Jehovah, the Lord.
Approximate number of specific references at Google (16 August 2013): lord + lords + English 53 200 000 the House of Lords 50 600 000 lord of the house 288 000 000 lord + God 180 000 000
28
Parallel comparison of the selected English translations:
Table 9 – Comparison of KJV´s term ´Lord/Lord´s´ with 5 other English translations Comparing KJV´s term Lord/Lord´s
Found in Isaiah: 3,1a (SEC – 113) 4,4 (SEC - 136) 19,12 (SEC - 3068) GNV Lord Lord Lord DARBY Lord Lord Jehovah DRA the sovereign Lord Lord NLV Lord Lord Lord NIV Lord Lord Lord
The term in the context of the above mentioned 3 verses (NIV): (3,1) See now, the Lord (SEC -113), the Lord Almighty (SEC - 3068) , is about to take from Jerusalem and Judah both supply and support: all supplies of food and all supplies of water, ... (4,4) The Lord will wash away the filth of the women of Zion; he will cleanse the bloodstains from Jerusalem by a spirit of judgment and a spirit of fire. (19,12) Where are your wise men now? Let them show you and make known what the Lord Almighty has planned against Egypt.
Conclusion: The OT term for ´Lord´ can sometimes be very general like in English, simply signifying a person exercising lordship/mastership over others. Nevertheless, the biblical Hebrew for this word is sometimes pointing to God only. In modern English the more general meaning has gained the superior position.
pray/prayer Defining: From etymological point of view: pray (v.) early 13c., "ask earnestly, beg," also (c.1300) "pray to a god or saint" ask, beg;" Old High German frahen, German fragen, Old English fricgan "to ask" a question). prayer (n.) c.1300, from Old French prier "prayer, petition, request" (12c., Modern French prière), from Medieval Latin precaria "petition, prayer," noun use of Latin adjective precaria, fem. of precarius "obtained by prayer, given as a favor," from precari "to ask, beg, pray" 29
In ODE: (v.) address a prayer to God or another deity. wish or hope strongly for a particular outcome or situation. prayer (n.) a solemn request for help or expression of thanks addressed to God or another deity... an earnest hope or wish. In SEC referred to under numbers 4994 and 6419 (for pray), 3908 and 8605 (for prayer) 4994 – a prim. particle of incitement and entreaty, which may usually be rendered ...; added mostly to verbs ...: I beseech (pray) thee (you), go to, now, oh. 6419 – a prim. root; to judge (officially or mentally); by extens. to intercede, pray:-intreat, judge (-ment), (make) pray (-er, -ing.), make supplication. 3908 – prop. a whisper, i.e. by impl. (in a good sense) a private prayer, (in a bad one) an incantation; concr. an amulet: charmed, earring, enchantment, orator, prayer. 8605 – intercession, supplication; by impl. a hymn: prayer
Approximate number of specific references at Google (17 August 2013): pray + prayer + God 98 800 000 pray + prayer + weather + success 21 400 000
Parallel comparison of the selected English translations:
Table 10 – Comparison of KJV´s term ´pray/prayer´ with 5 other English translations Comparing KJV´s term pray/prayer Found in 5,3 16,12 26,16 38,5 Isaiah (SEC – 4994) (SEC - 6419) (SEC - 3908) (SEC - 8605) GNV pray pray prayer prayer DARBY pray pray whispered prayer prayer DRA - pray murmuring prayer NLV - pray quiet prayer prayer NIV - pray whisper a prayer prayer
The term in the context of the above mentioned 4 verses (DARBY used for the first instance – as NIV omits the term in that verse completely): (5,3) And now, inhabitants of Jerusalem and men of Judah, judge, I pray you, between me and my vineyard. (16,12) When Moab appears at her high place, she only wears herself out; when she goes to her shrine to pray, it is to no avail. (26,16) Lord, they came to you in their distress; when you disciplined them, they could barely whisper a prayer. (38,5) "Go and tell Hezekiah, 'This is what the Lord, the God of your father David, says: I have heard your 30
prayer and seen your tears; I will add fifteen years to your life.
Conclusion: In modern English the researched term is almost purely of religious context, the only exception is from the area of wish and hope. While in both OE and bibl. Hebrew, the meaning could be also simply concerning asking (something from a person). However, it is mostly used in the religious sense in the Bible texts.
prophet/prophets Defining: From etymological point of view: prophet (n) - late 12c., "person who speaks for God; one who foretells, inspired preacher" In ODE: (n.) 1 a person regarded as an inspired teacher or proclaimer of the will of God. (the Prophet) (among Muslims) Muhammad. a person who advocates or speaks in a visionary way about a new cause or theory. a person who predicts what will happen in the future. 2 (the Prophets) (in Christian use) the books of Isaiah .... (in Jewish use) one of the three canonical divisions of the Hebrew Bible. In SEC referred to under numbers 2374 and 5030 2374 - a beholder in vision; also a compact (as looked upon with approval):-agreement, prophet, see that, seer, [star-] gazer. 5030 - a prophet or (gen.) inspired man:-prophecy, that prophesy, prophet.
Approximate number of specific references at Google (18 August 2013): prophet + God 90 100 000 ―prophets of new ideas‖ + ―prophet of new ideas‖ 5 640 + 4
Parallel comparison of the selected English translations:
Table 11 – Comparison of KJV´s term ´prophet/prophets´ with 5 other English translations Comparing KJV´s term prophet/prophets
Found in Isaiah: 29,10 (SEC - 5030) 30,10 (SEC - 2374) GNV Prophet Prophets DARBY prophets prophets DRA prophets them that behold NLV heads those who speak for God NIV prophets prophets
31
The term in the context of the above mentioned 2 verses (NIV): (29,10) The LORD has brought over you a deep sleep: He has sealed your eyes (the prophets); he has covered your heads (the seers). (30,10) They say to the seers, "See no more visions!" and to the prophets, "Give us no more visions of what is right! Tell us pleasant things, prophesy illusions.
Conclusion: Modern English has not changed much in usage of the term ´prophet´ from Old English, biblical Hebrew covers a little wider sphere, as the area of vision is also included. The word´s primary meaning is connected with God and religion, although its substitution for other terms, such as ´visionary´ is also possible.
sacrifice / sacrifices Defining: From etymological point of view: sacrifice (n) - late 13c., "offering of something (especially a life) to a deity as an act of propitiation or homage;" mid-14c., "that which is offered in sacrifice" In ODE: noun - 1 an act of slaughtering an animal of person or surrendering a possession as an offering to a deity. an animal, person, or object offered in the act of sacrifice. 2 Christian Church Christ offering of himself ... 3 an act of giving up something valued for the sake of something else regarded as more important of worthy ... In SEC referred to under numbers 2077 and 2282 2077 - a slaughter, i.e. the flesh of an animal (usually in sacrifice): kill, offer, (do) sacrifice, slay. 2282 - a festival, or a victim therefor: (solemn) feast (day), sacrifice, solemnity.
Approximate Number of specific references at Google (18 August 2013): sacrifice + God 78 500 000 sacrifice + hard work 35 300 000
32
Parallel comparison of the selected English translations:
Table 12 – Comparison of KJV´s term ´sacrifice/sacrifices´ with 5 other English translations Comparing KJV´s term sacrifice/sacrifices
Found in Isaiah: 29,1 (SEC - 2282) 56,7 (SEC - 2077) GNV lambs sacrifices DARBY feasts sacrifices DRA solemnities victims NLV special suppers gifts NIV cycle of festivals sacrifices
The term in the context of the above mentioned 2 verses (NIV): (29,1) Woe to you, Ariel, Ariel, the city where David settled! Add year to year and let your cycle of festivals goon. (56,7) these I will bring to my holy mountain and give them joy in my house of prayer. Their burnt offerings and sacrifices will be accepted on my altar; for my house will be called a house of prayer for all nations."
Conclusion: The observed term is of more religious connection in English (OE almost exclusively religious) than in biblical Hebrew, where it could mean just slaughtering or killing in general.
salvation Defining: From etymological point of view: c.1200, originally in the Christian sense, "the saving of the soul". ... In general (non-religious) sense, attested from late 14c. Meaning "source of salvation" is from late 14c. In ODE: (n.) 1 preservation or deliverance from harm, ruin or loss. a source or means of being saved from harm, ruin, or loss 2 deliverance from sin and its consequences... In SEC referred to under numbers 3444, 3467, 3468 and 8668 3444 - something saved, i.e. (abstr.) deliverance; hence aid, victory, prosperity: deliverance, health, help (-ing), salvation, save, saving (health), welfare. 3467 - prop. to be open, wide or free, i.e. (by impl.) to be safe; causat. to free or succor: ... avenging, defend, deliver (-er), help, preserve, rescue, be safe, bring (having) salvation, save (-iour), get victory. 3468 - liberty, deliverance, prosperity: safety, salvation, saving. 8668 - rescue (lit. or fig., pers., national or spir.): deliverance, help, safety, salvation, victory. 33
Approximate number of specific references at Google (18 August 2013): salvation + harm + ruin + loss 43 600 000 salvation + sin 28 900 000
Parallel comparison of the selected English translations:
Table 13 – Comparison of KJV´s term ´salvation´ with 5 other English translations Comparing KJV´s term salvation Found in 12,3 17,10 45,17 63,5 Isaiah (SEC - 3444) (SEC - 3468) (SEC - 8668) (SEC - 3467) GNV salvation salvation salvation helped DARBY salvation salvation salvation salvation DRA saviour´s saviour salvation saved (for me) NLV He saves Who saves you (saved forever) by saving power the Lord NIV salvation Savior salvation salvation
The term in the context of the above mentioned 4 verses (NIV): (12,3) With joy you will draw water from the wells of salvation. (17,10) You have forgotten God your Savior; you have not remembered the Rock, your fortress. Therefore, though you set out the finest plants and plant imported vines, ... (45,17) But Israel will be saved by the Lord with an everlasting salvation; you will never be put to shame or disgraced, to ages everlasting. (63,5) I looked, but there was no one to help, I was appalled that no one gave support; so my own arm worked salvation for me, and my own wrath sustained me.
Conclusion: Although the primary usage of the term ´salvation´ was of religious context in OE, modern English uses the word much more generally, as did OT Hebrew too.
sanctuary Defining: From etymological point of view: early 14c., "building set apart for holy worship"
34
In ODE: (n.) 1 refuge or safety from pursuit, persecution, or other danger. 2 a nature reserve, a place where injured or unwanted animals of special kind are cared for. 3 a holy place; a temple. In SEC referred to under numbers 4720 and 6944 4720 - a consecrated thing or place, espec. a palace, sanctuary (whether of Jehovah or of idols) or asylum:-chapel, hallowed part, holy place, sanctuary. 6944 - a sacred place or thing; rarely abstr. sanctity:-consecrated (thing), dedicated (thing), hallowed (thing), holiness, ... saint, sanctuary.
Approximate number of specific references at Google (18 August 2013): sanctuary + pursuit + persecution + danger 16 300 000 sanctuary + temple + God 10 400 000
Parallel comparison of the selected English translations:
Table 14 – Comparison of KJV´s term ´sanctuary´ with 5 other English translations Comparing KJV´s term sanctuary
Found in Isaiah: 8,14 (SEC - 4720) 43,28 (SEC - 6944) GNV Sanctuary Sanctuary DARBY sanctuary sanctuary DRA sanctification holy princes NLV holy place holy place NIV sanctuary temple
The term in the context of the above mentioned 2 verses (NIV): (8,14) ... and he will be a sanctuary; but for both houses of Israel he will be a stone that causes men to stumble and a rock that makes them fall. And for the people of Jerusalem he will be a trap and a snare. (43,28) So I will disgrace the dignitaries of your temple, and I will consign Jacob to destruction and Israel to scorn.
Conclusion: While both OE and OT Hebrew used the examined term only in the sphere of religion, modern English has built upon its meaning of refuge and uses the term more generally (in its idiomatic sense).
35
sin Defining: From etymological point of view: (n.) Old English synn "moral wrongdoing, offense against God, misdeed" In ODE: (n) an immoral act considered to be a transgression against divine law. an act regarded as a serious regrettable fault, offence, or omission. (v.) commit a sin. offend against (God, a person, or a principle) In SEC referred to under numbers 817, 2399, 2402 and 2403 817 - guilt; by impl. a fault; also a sin-offering: guiltiness, (offering for) sin, trespass (offering). 2399 - a crime or its penalty: fault,... offence, (punishment of) sin. 2402 - an offence, and the penalty or sacrifice for it: sin (offering). 2403 - an offence (sometimes habitual sinfulness), and its penalty, occasion, sacrifice, or expiation, also (concr.) an offender: punishment (of sin), purify (-fication for sin), sin (-ner, offering).
Approximate number of specific references at Google (18 August 2013): sin against God 155 000 000 sin against conscience 17 400 000
Parallel comparison of the selected English translations:
Table 15 – Comparison of KJV´s term ´sin´ with 5 other English translations Comparing KJV´s term sin Found in 3,9 5,18 31,7 53,10 Isaiah (SEC - 2403) (SEC - 2402) (SEC - 2399) (SEC - 817) GNV sins sin sin sin DARBY sin sin sinful (hands) sin DRA sin sin to sin sin NLV sin wrong-doing sinful sin NIV sin wickedness sinful (hands) guilt
The term in the context of the above mentioned 4 verses (NIV): (3,9) The look on their faces testifies against them; they parade their sin like Sodom; they do not hide it. Woe to them! They have brought disaster upon themselves. (5,18) Woe to those who draw sin (here called ´iniquity´ – in KJV) along with cords of deceit, and wickedness as with cart ropes, ... 36
(31,7) For in that day every one of you will reject the idols of silver and gold your sinful hands have made. (53,10) Yet it was the LORD's will to crush him and cause him to suffer, and though the LORD makes his life a guilt offering, he will see his offspring and prolong his days, and the will of the LORD will prosper in his hand.
Conclusion: Neither OE, nor OT Hebrew terms give the impression of religiousness only, while the word´s modern English association has shifted towards religiosity much more.
Summary conclusion of all examined terms in this subchapter: Out of the examined 13 terms, only 3 terms carry the marks of prevailing religious evocative meaning from all three points of view (OE, modern English and OT Hebrew): god, holy, idol and prophet/prophets. In 3 cases there is a shift towards more religious meaning of the word in modern English: doctrine, pray/prayer and sin. In 2 instances a shift towards less religious connotation of the examined term is found in present English: salvation and sanctuary. The terms seem to carry the least religious meaning in OT Hebrew, while OE connotations of the researched words are sometimes less and sometimes more religious than in modern English and in some instances they remained almost unchanged. Concerning the understandability of the terms for a nowadays reader, it can be stated that none of the words (though found as prevailingly religious in its connotations) would be found as very uneasily conveying any meaning, all the examined words are generally known and understood.
4.1.3 New Testament terminology
Before proceeding further it is of importance to understand the following facts concerning the New Testament from the language usage and cultural points of view:
1) The lingua franca in the time when NT was being written was Greek.
2) The Old Testament Greek translation had been available. Encyclopaedia Britannica explains the following:
Septuagint, abbreviation Lxx, the earliest extant Greek translation of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew, presumably made for the use of the Jewish community in Egypt when Greek was the lingua franca throughout the region. Analysis of the language has established that the Torah, or Pentateuch (the first five books of the Old Testament), was translated near the middle of the 3rd
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century bc and that the rest of the Old Testament was translated in the 2nd century bc. ... The language of much of the early Christian church was Greek, and it was in the Septuagint text that many early Christians located the prophecies they claimed were fulfilled by Christ.
3) The Hebrew and Hellenistic (Greek) mind set was significantly different, even opposing each other as Jewish philosopher Leo Strauss states in his Maïmonide it is the difference between ―life based on faith and obedience and life based on free reasoning, upon purely human wisdom‖ (290)15.
Is there any significant difference between OT and NT usage of terms when English versions, OT meaning and NT Greek is compared ?
In order to answer the above question and at the same time having in view the limited space capacity of the work, the author decided to examine a very short New Testament book: Epistle to Philemon. The epistle is a very short letter written by apostle Paul together with his disciple Timothy (his fellow worker in churches) to Philemon and some other people forming a church which used to meet at Philemon´s home. However, Philemon is the most important addressee of the letter. The content of the letter is of a very practical nature, Paul met in prison (from which he wrote the letter) a young slave called Onesimus who previously stole some money from Philemon (who was a slave owner) and ran away from him. Later Onesimus became a Christian through Paul in the prison and now Paul is writing to Onesimus´ master concerning his escaped young slave.
The examination of the above mentioned NT book will concentrate on similar qualities as the part dealing with OT words with the difference of comparison with OT and dealing closely with religious terms first coined in NT.
15 Author of the thesis translated from Czech, from Bouretz´s Svědkové budoucího času, p. 132, where Strauss is cited 38
Table 16 – Commenting the Epistle to Philemon
Text of the Epistle to Philemon (NIV) divided into 3 parts, expressions commented in the 2nd column are Comments - findings of relevance and importance underlined and numbered (in brackets) for any further study (for the thesis´ purposes)
1a,b - titles of Jesus - first appearing in the NT Greetings and introduction 2a,b – what fellow believers called themselves 1 Paul, a prisoner of Christ Jesus(1a) , and Timothy 3 – not a real soldier - metaphor our brother (2a), To Philemon our dear friend and fellow worker, 2 to Apphia our sister (2b), to 4 – new term, first coined in the NT by Jesus in the Archippus our fellow soldier (3) and to the church Gospel of Matthew (16,18 and 18,17)16 (4) that meets in your home: 3 Grace to you and peace from God our Father (5a) and the Lord Jesus 5a – name of God symbolizing closeness of his Christ (1b). relationship with the believers (his children)
1c,d – see above (1a,b) Thanksgiving and prayer 5b – general reference to God 4 I always thank my God (5b) as I remember you in my prayers (6a), 5 because I hear about your faith in 6a,b – religious act of communication with God the Lord Jesus (1c) and your love for all the saints (7). 6 I pray(6b) that you may be active in sharing 7 – this term used in some other epistles signifying your faith (8), so that you will have a full believers (people belonging to God)17 understanding of every good thing we have in Christ (1d). 7 Your love has given me great joy and 8 – meaning especially reliance upon Christ encouragement, because you, brother (2a), have refreshed the hearts of the saints (7). (mentioning Christ at the end of the sentence)
Paul's plea for Onesimus 1a,b,d,e – see above
2a,c – see above 8 Therefore, although in Christ (1d)) I could be bold and order you to do what you ought to do, 9 yet I 6a - see above appeal to you on the basis of love. I then, as Paul--an old man and now also a prisoner of Christ Jesus (1a)- 9 – metaphor - son in faith - 10 I appeal to you for my son (9) Onesimus, who 10 – first coined in the NT – literally meaning ´good became my son (9) while I was in chains. 11 message´18 Formerly he was useless to you, but now he has become useful both to you and to me. 12 I am 11 – soul/inner man (compare epistle to Ephesians sending him--who is my very heart--back to you. 13 3,1619) I would have liked to keep him with me so that he could take your place in helping me while I am in chains for the gospel (10). 14 But I did not want to do anything without your consent, so that any favor you do will be spontaneous and not forced. 15 Perhaps the reason he was separated from you for a little while was that you might have him back for good-- 16 no longer as a slave, but better than a slave, as a dear brother (2a). He is very dear to me but even dearer to you, both as a man and as a brother in the Lord (2c). 17 So if you consider me a
16 This expression is explored more thoroughly separately below the table 17 see the above note 18 see the above note 19 ―... he may strengthen you with power through his Spirit in your inner being, ...― 39 partner, welcome him as you would welcome me. 18 If he has done you any wrong or owes you anything, charge it to me. 19 I, Paul, am writing this with my own hand. I will pay it back--not to mention that you owe me your very self. 20 I do wish, brother (2a), that I may have some benefit from you in the Lord (1e); refresh my heart in Christ (1d). 21 Confident of your obedience, I write to you, knowing that you will do even more than I ask. 22 And one thing more: Prepare a guest room for me, because I hope to be restored to you in answer to your prayers (6a). 23 Epaphras, my fellow prisoner in Christ Jesus (1a), sends you greetings. 24 And so do Mark, Aristarchus, Demas and Luke, my fellow workers. 25 The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ (1b ) be with your spirit (11).
4.1.4 Close examination of selected religious terms from the book of Philemon
Etymological background of the selected English words is examined with the attempt to find any possible shifts in their meanings between OE and modern English, the terms are then compared with the original Greek words and when possible with their OT equivalent. Selected verses are also compared in several English translations of the Bible, all of them from the book of Philemon only (using the same versions which were used for comparison of the examined OT words).
church
Defining:
From etymological point of view: (n.) Old English cirice, circe "church, public place of worship; Christians collectively," from West Germanic *kirika (cf. Old Saxon kirika, Old Norse kirkja, Old Frisian zerke, Middle Dutch kerke, Dutch kerk, Old High German kirihha, German Kirche), probably [see note in OED] from Greek kyriake (oikia), kyriakon doma "Lord's (house)," from kyrios "ruler, lord," from PIE root *keue- "to swell" ("swollen," hence "strong, powerful"). In ODE: - ―a building used for public Christian worship...‖ - ―a particular Christian organization with its own clergy, buildings, and distinctive doctrines‖ - ―the hierarchy of clergy of such an organization‖ - ―institutionalized religion as a political or social force‖ In SEC referred to under number 1577 1577 – a calling out, i.e. (concr.) a popular meeting, espec. a religious congregation (Jewish synagogue, or Chr. community of members on earth or saints in heaven or both): assembly, church.
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Parallel comparison of the selected English translations:
Table 17 – Comparison of KJV´s term ´church´ with 5 other English translations Comparing KJV´s term church Found in Philemon: just one occurrence in verse 2 GNV And to our dear sister Apphia, and to Archippus our fellow soldier, and to the Church that is in thine house: DARBY and to the sister Apphia and to Archippus our fellow-soldier, and to the assembly which [is] in thine house. DRA And to Appia, our dearest sister, and to Archippus, our fellow soldier, and to the church which is in thy house: NLV We are also writing to the church that meets in your home. This letter is also for our Christian sister Apphia and it is for Archippus who is a soldier together with us. NIV also to Apphia our sister and Archippus our fellow soldier—and to the church that meets in your home:
Conclusion: The term ―church‖ has strong religious meaning in old as well in modern English, in New Testament Greek the term could be also used more generally, simply naming a meeting, assembly. The usage of the word in newer translations shows that it is generally understood by people in modern times.
saint(s)
Defining:
From etymological point of view: (n.) early 12c., from Old French saint, seinte "a saint; a holy relic," displacing or altering Old English sanct, both from Latin sanctus "holy, consecrated" (used as a noun in Late Latin; also source of Spanish santo, santa, Italian san, etc.), properly past participle of sancire "consecrate". Adopted into most Germanic languages (cf. Old Frisian sankt, Dutch sint, German Sanct). Originally an adjective prefixed to the name of a canonized person; by c.1300 it came to be regarded as a noun. Meaning "person of extraordinary holiness" is recorded from 1560s. In ODE: - ―a person acknowledged as holy or virtuous and regarded in Christian faith as being in heaven after death. a
41 person of exalted virtue who is canonized by the Church after death and who may be the object of veneration and prayers for intercession. ... a Mormon. (in biblical use) a Christian believer.‖ - ―informal a very virtuous, kind, or patient person.‖ In SEC referred to under numbers 2623, 6918, 6922, 6944 – in Old Testament (Hebrew and Chaldee), and 40 in New Testament (Greek) 2623 - kind, i.e. (religiously) pious (a saint): godly (man), good, holy (one), merciful, saint, godly 6918 - sacred (ceremonially or morally); (as noun) God (by eminence), an angel, a saint, a sanctuary: holy (One), saint. 6922 – holy (One), saint. 6944 – a sacred place or thing; rarely abstr. sanctity: consecrated (thing), dedicated (thing), hallowed (thing), holiness, ... saint, sanctuary. 40 – sacred (phys. pure, mor. blameless or religious, cer. consecrated): (most) holy (one, thing), saint.
Parallel comparison of the selected English translations:
Table 18 – Comparison of KJV´s term ´saint(s)´ with 5 other English translations Comparing KJV´s term saint(s) Found in Philemon: verse 5 verse 7 GNV (When I hear of thy love and For we have great joy and faith, which thou hast toward consolation in thy love, because the Lord Jesus, and toward all by thee, brother, the Saints Saints.) bowels are comforted. DARBY hearing of thy love and the faith For we have great thankfulness which thou hast towards the and encouragement through thy Lord Jesus, and towards all the love, because the bowels of the saints, saints are refreshed by thee, brother.
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DRA Hearing of thy charity and faith, For I have had great joy and which thou hast in the Lord consolation in thy charity, Jesus, and towards all the because the bowels of the saints saints: have been refreshed by thee, brother. NLV It is because I hear of your love Your love has given me much and trust in the Lord Jesus and joy and comfort. The hearts of in all the Christians. the Christians have been made happy by you, Christian brother. NIV because I hear about your love Your love has given me great for all his holy people and your joy and encouragement, because faith in the Lord Jesus. you, brother, have refreshed the hearts of the Lord’s people.
Conclusion: The term shows all the marks of religious concept in OE as well as in OT Hebrew or NT Greek (only OT Hebrew could sometimes use the word in a little more general sense like merciful or good). In modern English the meaning seems to denote a religious person of a higher rank and that is probably why the NLV as well as the NIV version omits the term and replaces it with words denoting less religious exclusivity.
gospel
Defining:
From etymological point of view: Old English godspel "gospel, glad tidings announced by Jesus; one of the four gospels," from god "good" + spel "story, message"; translation of Latin bona adnuntiatio, itself a translation of Greek euangelion "reward for bringing good news." The first element of the Old English word had a long "o," but it shifted under mistaken association with God. In ODE: - ―the teaching or revelation of Christ‖ - ―a thing that is absolutely true‖ - ―a set of principles or beliefs‖ - ―the record of Christ´s life and teaching in the first four books of the New Testament. each of these books. a portion from one of these read at a church service.
In SEC referred to under numbers 2097, 2098 and 4283 43
2097 – to announce good news (―evangelize‖) espec. the gospel: declare, bring (declare, show) glad (good) tidings, preach (the gospel). 2098 – a good message, i.e. the gospel: gospel. 4283 – to announce glad news in advance: preach before the gospel.
Parallel comparison of the selected English translations:
Table 19 – Comparison of KJV´s term ´gospel´ with 5 other English translations Comparing KJV´s term gospel Found in Philemon: just one occurrence in verse 13 GNV Whom I would have received with me, that in thy stead he might have ministered unto me in the bonds of the Gospel.
DARBY whom I was desirous of keeping with myself, that for thee he might minister to me in the bonds of the glad tidings; DRA Whom I would have retained with me, that in thy stead he might have ministered to me in the bands of the gospel: NLV I would like to keep him with me. He could have helped me in your place while I am in prison for preaching the Good News. NIV I would have liked to keep him with me so that he could take your place in helping me while I am in chains for the gospel.
Conclusion: The term ―gospel‖ (similarly) to the previous term is also carrying all marks of religiosity in OE as well as in modern English. In new testament Greek the meaning could sometimes be quite religiously neutral, simply meaning good message. Some versions use other words to translate the term in order to make the word more understandable for the readers (see DARBY and NLV).
Conclusion of the research in the epistle of Philemon:
All the terms in the epistle are of such a nature that even the terms identified as ´religious only´ are generally understood. However, some English versions of the epistle tend to be more ´present-day reader friendly´ than other.
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4.2 Further research in the chosen texts, identifying possible difficulties for present readers of the English Bible and examining their nature
The previous subchapters give the conclusion that the terms used in the Bible are not themselves the primary reason why the Bible texts would be uneasily understood. The problem may lay in other aspects of the Bible texts. The following points try to briefly identify some of them:
a) Idiomatic and poetic language – much of the Bible text written in a poetic way
b) Metaphorical language and idioms – some need to be understood within the historical context, e.g. what the term ―dog(s)‖ meant for the people
c) Cultural and geographical background of the original texts – many nations mentioned e.g. in Isaiah are not generally known today and similarly their influence and position towards Israel, etc.
d) Choice of the translation of the given text – some passages may be extremely difficult in old translations and this may be confused as the only ―Bible language‖.
4.3 Summary of the findings as a whole concerning the purpose of the thesis
Having considered all outcomes of the single subchapters and their findings, the author of the thesis can state that the terms themselves are not an obstacle for a modern reader of the Bible. However, problems may be caused when a present reader tries to comprehend especially poetically and metaphorically written passages in the Old Testament with the attempt to understand them literally or if the reader chooses a version using language which is not generally understood by the reader.
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5 Conclusions and practical outcomes of the research
5.1 Conclusions
The thesis defines its main goals in the introduction. The primary aim of the thesis is to answer the question whether the selected terms used in the Bible are purely religious as such, i.e. on the basis of their exclusively religious meaning (denotation) and such use in all contexts (reference and distribution) or whether it is just the specific Bible context in which they appear to be religious (i.e. are used so).
In order to find a satisfactory answer to the above question, the author of the thesis had to consider which strategies and tools would be appropriate for a successful fulfilment of the task. The research procedure, together with description and justification of the selected materials and means of analysis, is covered in the second chapter called Methodology. A Brief history of translations of the English Bible follows in the third chapter in which readers are also introduced to some specific difficulties the translators of the Bible have to face. Chapter four is the largest and covers the whole practical analysis of the selected English terms from the Bible. Only words denoting some religious meaning were selected for detailed analysis from the Old Testament book of Isaiah and the shortest New Testament book named Epistle to Philemon.
The following can be concluded after careful consideration of all partial outcomes:
Only few terms (4 out of 13) selected from the book of Isaiah carry the marks of prevailing religious meaning. Concerning shifts of meanings of the analysed words, the outcome shows that in just two cases the shift is from more religious old English or original Bible languages to less religious meaning in modern English, while in three cases the shift was to more religious meaning in modern English. The chosen terms are found to carry the least religious meaning in OT Hebrew. In most cases (9 out of 13) some shifts of meaning occurred, only in few cases (4 out of 13) no real shift of meanings of the terms can be observed.
From the New Testament book Epistle to Philemon were examined two terms denoting strong religious concept which do not appear in the Old Testament and one which occurs in the Old Testament too, all of them were found strongly religious in old as well as modern English and prevailingly religious in the original Bible languages. However, similarly to the research concerning the OT terms, the words carry weaker religious meaning in the original Bible languages. In one case the shift of meaning is towards religious exclusivity in English and therefore some modern translations prefer other terms denoting more general concepts.
Concerning the above outcomes and the shifts of meanings, it seems appropriate to state that while for the original writers of the Bible the terms used were already generally well understood 46 and used (at least partially) in everyday life, for translators of the Bible the term came already ―wrapped‖ in religious concept and sometimes became even more exclusively religious throughout centuries, but in some cases the term became more religiously neutral as it started to be used in a more secular sense.
However, it must not be forgotten that for the purpose of the thesis only the terms carrying the strongest religious denotations were selected and even these terms are well known to the present public. Therefore, it can be stated that reading of the Bible texts should be possible for the present readers especially if modern versions preferring semantic or communicative translations are chosen.
5.2 Practical outcomes and suggestions for further examination
English teachers sometimes work in countries with little possibilities for the students of English to have access to expensive textbooks and CDs. Experience shows that variety of materials available is profitable for the learners.
Many English versions of the Bible are available free of charge on the Internet, often with the audio form possibility (British English as well as American) and therefore ready to use as a supplementary material. It could be used in classes teaching phonetics and differences between British and American pronunciation.
While there are many translations using simpler English and then other using elaborated and sophisticated English and more advanced vocabulary, the translations could be of help in classes teaching translation and in word-building (finding different terms in different parallel translations available). Different versions are also a great discussion possibility even in practical language classes. Other possibilities of usage are in classes teaching cultural differences and also history.
Suggestions for further examination (especially in countries where English is the main language, perhaps an opportunity for Erasmus students):
It would be very interesting to make a survey among native English speakers concerning the Bible terms and see whether there are any differences in findings when surveying e.g. older and younger generations. Another possibility for further study would be a comparison between conception of the biblical terms in different countries. Of course, there are innumerous other possibilities for students studying original Bible languages or for students of psychology or sociology and other disciplines.
If a teacher uses the materials suggested in the practical outcome of the thesis, he should always do so in a manner supporting the ´spirit of free inquiry´, never imposing his own beliefs on his students or putting their own opinions down. 47
Résumé:
The theme of this thesis is research in the English Bible terminology. The aim is to prove that the terms used in the Bible are commonly used in everyday language and only the Bible context makes them quite unique for religious purposes.
The thesis starts with introducing tools and methodology necessary for completion of the thesis´ aim. It proceeds with an overview of history of English Bible translations and consideration of difficulties in the process of translation. List of terms used in the Bible is then subject for further analysis from the point of view of lexicology, ethymology, and semantics. The meanings of the words from the list are compared in the Bible context and also outside the Bible context. Usage of these words in different translations of the Bible and changes of the terms in the language in some modern English translations are also investigated. Some practical outcomes of the work and suggestions for further research conclude the thesis.
Résumé:
Tématem bakalářské práce je zkoumání anglické biblické terminologie. Cílem práce je dokázat, že výrazy vyskytující se v bibli jsou výrazy užívané v každodenním životě, a pouze kontext bible je činí zcela specifickými pro náboženské účely. Bakalářská práce začíná seznámením s nezbytnými nástroji a metodologií zvolenou pro dosažení cíle práce. Dále pokračuje přehledem historie překladů anglické bible and zvažuje těžkosti v průběhu procesu překládání. Následuje seznamu výrazů z anglické bible a analýza těchto výrazů z hlediska lexikologického, etymologického a sémantického. Tyto výrazy jsou pak srovnávány podle jejich významů v kontextu bible a mimo tento kontext. Zkoumáno je i užití těchto termínů v různých překladech Bible a jejich změny v moderních anglických překladech. Práce je zakončena některými praktickými vývody a návrhy pro další výzkum.
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List of References:
Bouretz, Pierre. Svědkové budoucího času III. Praha: OIKOYMENH, 2009. Print.
Kenyon, Frederic. ―English Versions.‖ Bible Researcher. U of Bible Research, 2011. Web. 29 May 2011.
Lockyer, Herbert et al. Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1986. Print.
McAfee, Cleland Boyd. ―The English Bible before King James.‖ Bible Researcher. U of Bible Research, 2011. Web. 29 May 2011.
Silva, Moisés. God, Language and Scripture. v. 4. Michigan: Zondervan, 1990. Print.
Smitterberg, Erik. (2011). ―Review of Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade, An introduction to Late Modern English‖ English Language and Linguistics, 15. 2011: 173-183. Print.
Strong, James. Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible. 45th ed. Iowa Falls: World Bible Publishers, 1989. Print.
Thiselton, Anthony C. ―Semantics as New Testament interpretation‖ In: Marshall, I. Howard (Ed.), New Testament Interpretation. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans Publishing, 1977: 82. Print.
Vine, William E. Vine's Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words. Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1997. Print.
---. Biblical Words and Their Meaning. Rev. and expanded ed. Michigan: Zondervan, 1994. Print.
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Appendix
List of the words which correspond to more Hebrew words for one translation into English in the Old Testament book of Isaiah. The expressions which can be applied religiously (at least in some sense of religiosity or liturgy) are in bold letters: abroad, abominable, abomination, about, above, abundance, abundantly, acknowledge, add, adversaries, afflict, afflicted, affliction, afraid, afterwards, again, against, age, agreement, all, alone, aloud, also, ambassadors, among, ancient, anger, another, answer, any, appointed, arise, armour, arms, army, ashamed, assemble, asses, at, awake, away, back, backwards, balance, bands, bare, battle, bear (verb), beast, beasts, beat, beaten, beautiful, beauty, because, become, bed, before, beginning, behind, behold, beseech, beside, besieged, bind, bird, bitter, bitterly, bitterness, blasphemed, blessed, blood, blossom, boast, body, border, borne, bound, bowed, branch, branches, brass, breach, break, breaking, breath, bring, bringeth, broken, brought, bruise, bruised, burden, burn, burned, burning, burnings, call, called, came, camest, camp (but diff. form for verb and for noun), can, captain, captive, captives, captivity, carcases, carried, carry, cast, cattle, cause, cease, ceaseth, chains, chariots, chased, chief, child, children, chosen, city, clay, clean, closed, clothing, cloths, coal, coals, come, cometh, coming, commandment, commit, compare, compass, conceive, concerning, confidence, confounded, confusion, consider, consume, consumed, consumption, contrite, cords, corn, cottage, counsel, counseller, counted, cover, covering, cow, crieth, crooked, crown, cruel, cry, crying, curse, cut, dark, darkened, darkness, day, dead, deal, death, deceived, declare, deep, defence, delight, delighted, delighteth, deliver, delivered, depart, departed, desert, desire, desired, desolate, desolation, despised, destroy, destroyed, destroying, destruction, determined, devour, diadem, did, didst, digged, dismayed, dissolved, distress, divide, divided, do, doctrine, dominion, double, down, draw, drawn, dried, drink, driven, drop, drunk, drunken, dry, dumb, dust, dwell, dwelleth, dwelt, ear, early, ears, earth, ease, east, eaten, eateth, emptied, empty, end, ends, enemies, enemy, err, erred, escape, establish, established, even, ever, everlasting, every, evil, exalted, excellency, excellent, face, fail, faint, fainteth, fair, fall, fallen, falleth, fanners, fast, fat, fatness, favour, fear, feared, fearfulness, feasts, feed, feel, fenced, few, fields, fierce, fight, fill, filled, fine, fire, fish, flame, flax, fled, flee, flock, flocks, flood, flow, flower, fly, fold, fools, foot, forgotten, forsaken, forth, forts, foundation, foundations, framed, fruit, fruitful, full, furnace, garden, garment, garments, gates, gather, gathered, gathereth, get, gird, girdle, give, given, glad, glorified, glorify, glorious, glory, go, god, goeth, gold, golden, gone, good, grapes, grass, grave, graven, great, green, grief, grieved, grievous, grievousness, ground, guide,
50 habitation, hair, hand, hands, haughtiness, haughty, have, having, hear, heard, hearken, heart, heat, heaven, heed, height, helmet, henceforth, here, heweth, hid, hidden, hide, high, highway, highways, hill, hold, holden, hole, holes, holy, honourable, hope, houses, how, hurt, idol, idols, if, incense, increase, increased, indignation, inhabitant, inherit, iniquity, instucted, into, issue, joined, joy, judge, judgment, justice, keep, kill, kindle, kindled, kingdom, knew, know, labour, laid, lamb, lambs, lament, land, large, last, lay, layeth, lead, learned, leave, led, left, let, lie, lies, life, lift, lifted, light, like, line, lion, little, live, lo, lodge, lofty, loins, long, look, looked, loosed, Lord, Lord’s, lords, lost, love, low, lying, made, majesty, make, maker, maketh, man, manna, many, measure, meat, meet, men, merchandise, mercies, mercy, midst, might, mighty, milk, mind, mire, mischief, molten, moon, more, morning, mount, mourn, mourning, moved, much, multiplied, multitude, nation, nations, near, neck, needy, neither, nest, night, no, nobles, noise, none, nor, nothing, nought, nourish, now, number, numbered, nursing, oak, oaks, oblation, obscurity, old, on, once, one, only, open, opened, opening, oppressed, oppression, oppressor, oppressors, order, ornaments, over, owneth, oxen, pain, palace, palaces, pangs, part, pass, path, paths, peace, people, perfect, perform, perverseness, pit, pitch, pity, place, plain, plant, plants, plead, pleasant, please, pleasure, poor, possess, posts, pour, poured, power, praise, pray, prayer, precept, precious, prepare, prepared, presence, preserve, prevail, prey, pride, princes, principal, prison, prisoners, proceed, prophets, proud, prudent, purged, purposed, put, quarter, quiet, raiment, rain, raise, raised, ransomed, ravenous, reach, ready, rebelled, rebellious, rebuke, recover, recovered, red, redeemed, refined, refrain, refuse, regard, rejoice, remain, remembrance, remnant, remove, removed, rent, report, reproach, residue, rest, restore, reward, riches, right, righteousness, rise, river, rivers, roar, roaring, robbed, robe, rock, rocks, rod, root, round, ruin, ruinous, rule, ruler, rulers, run, rush, rushing, sacrifices, saith, sake, salvation, sanctuary, saw, say, scatter, scattered, scourge, secret, see, seek, seers, servants, serve, set, shadow, shake, shaketh, shaking, shame, sharp, sheep, shew, shewed, shine, shoulder, shoulders, shout, shouting, shut, sick, sides, sight, silence, sin, since, sing, singing, sins, sit, slain, slaughter, slay, sleep, small, smite, smitten, smoking, smote, snare, so, son, song, songs, sore, sorrow, sorrows, sought, south, sown, spake, spare, speak, speech, speed, speed, spoil, spoiled, spoiler, spoken, spread, spreadeth, springs, staff, stammering, stand, standard, standeth, stature, stay, stink, stock, stones, storm, straight, strange, strangers, straw, streams, street, streets, strength, strengthen, stretch, stricken, stroke, strong, stumble, such, summer, sun, sure, surely, swallow, swear, sweet, swift, tabernacle, table, take, taken, taketh, taught, teachers, teacheth, tell, tempest, tender, tent, terrible, terror, themselves, therein, these, this, thorns, those, though, three, through, thrust, time, times, together, told, took, tops, toward, towers, transgressed, travail, tread, treasures, trees, tremble, trodden, trouble, trust, truth, turn, turned, turneth, uncovered,
51 understand, understanding, uphold, uprightness, usury, utter, uttermost, vain, valiant, valley, valleys, vanity, very, vessel, vex, vexation, vine, virgin, vision, wait, walk, wall, walls, war, waste, wasted, watch, watchman, watchmen, watchtower, water, way, wayfaring, ways, weak, wearied, weary, weep, weigh, well, went, wentest, west, what, wheel, when, whence, where, whereas, wherefore, wherein, wherewith, which, while, whirlwind, who, whom, whosoever, wicked, wickedness, widowhood, wild, wilderness, will, windows, wine, winepress, wings, within, without, woe, womb, wonder, wonderful, wood, word, words, work, worketh, world, worm, wrath, wroth, wrought, yea, yet, yoke, young, youth
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