Management of highland wetlands in central : the importance of community education, awareness and eco-tourism in biodiversity conservation Jane M. Macharia 1*, Thuita Thenya 2 and George G. Ndiritu 1

Abstract. The loss of natural habitats through destructive anthropogenic activities has been identified as one of the major drivers of environmental degradation. This is even more prevalent in developing countries where poverty and ignorance of the value of biodiversity is rampant. A pilot study was conducted in two highland wetlands in central Kenya to compile baseline data through the use of field survey, questionnaire and subsequent seminars. The study showed that wetlands offer ecological, social and economic benefits that are not fully appreciated and hence there is a lack of concerted efforts to advocate for their sustainable use. Initial findings showed that both wetlands were rich in biodiversity, especially birds. However, these ecosystems were experiencing environmental problems such as dumping of solid waste, over abstraction of water, encroachment for commercial and residential use, wetland agriculture, overgrazing, improper land use practices on the watershed and wildlife poaching. A follow-up series of public awareness and education campaigns to sensitize the local communities to the importance of the two ecosystems helped change attitudes and perceptions. As a result, the local community organized themselves, revived a dormant community group, and for the last two years have created an eco-tourism venture that has helped address many of the above threats. Future conservation and management efforts for wetlands and their associated watersheds can achieve more with well informed stakeholders. Public education and awareness of the benefits of biodiversity conservation, adoption of wetland user-friendly alternatives, and income generating enterprises offer a unique opportunity to sustainably manage and conserve wetlands amidst increasing populations, poverty and limited resources. Keywords: Wetlands, landscapes, community conservation, eco-tourism, poverty alleviation

Au t h o r s ’ Ad d r e s s e s : 1 Wetlands and Marine Section, National Museums of Kenya, P.O. Box 1992; Keter 1992; Gichuki et al. 1998; Thenya 2001, Terer et al. 2004). 40658 00100 , Kenya The presence of unique animals and plants such as, water birds, reptiles, 2 Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of amphibians, and fish make them popular tourist attractions (Visser 1992). Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197 00100 Nairobi, Kenya In some communities, selected wetlands sites are used to perform cultural *Corresponding author [email protected] and spiritual rituals such as circumcision and prayers (Kareri 1992; Terer Introduction et al. 2004). There has been significant exploitation of wetlands by local Human activities have been identified as the major drivers of global communities in order to meet some of their basic and economic needs. environmental change on the planet and as a consequence directly Moreover, the level of exploitation varies from one wetland to another according to poverty levels among the local communities. influence biodiversity (Vitousek 1994). Changes in land use/cover are projected to have the largest impact on biodiversity, followed by nitrogen A negative perception of wetlands as ‘wastelands’ coupled with deposition, invasive species and increasing CO2 in the atmosphere (Sala increasing human populations and changing life styles has led to the et al. 2000). The effects of land use changes are expected to be the loss and degradation of wetlands through conversion into other land most severe in the tropics (Myers et al. 2000). Although anthropogenic uses such as agriculture, pastureland, fish farming and residential areas activities and their influences are widespread around the globe, their (Owino and Ryan 2007; Macharia and Thenya 2007a, 2007b), that are intensity and severity are higher in ecosystems rich in biodiversity perceived to be more profitable. and natural resources such as tropical forests and wetlands, some of the most threatened of ecosystems (Mathooko and Kariuki 2000; Since the signing of the Ramsar Convention (the Convention on Wetlands Mathooko 2001; Ndiritu et al. 2006). Fortunately the economic, social, of International Importance) in 1971, significant progress has been made cultural, biodiversity and ecological significance of wetlands are widely to promote conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands (Ramsar acknowledged, and global efforts are being sought to prevent further Convention Bureau 2000). While the implementation and adoption of the degradation and loss (Ramsar Convention Bureau 2000; Mitsch and Convention guidelines has been a success for wetlands of international, Gosselink 2000). regional and national importance, the situation is different for wetlands at subnational and local levels. Generally wetlands at local levels are perceived Wetlands cover less than 9% of the earth’s land surface, but provide as less important because of their small size. Though small-sized wetlands habitat to disproportionately high numbers of species (Zedler and are sometimes seasonal, they can cover large areas during rainy seasons Kercher 2005; Dudgeon et al. 2006), such as water birds, amphibians, as well as be very productive and rich in biodiversity (Ng’weno 1992; fish, invertebrates and variety of flora (Mitsch and Gosselink 2000). Chambers 1999). Small sized and seasonal wetlands are mostly found on Wetlands also offer ecosystem services such as water purification, flood private or community owned land, which make conservation interventions control, nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration (Zedler and Kercher by government agencies difficult to implement. 2005, Daniels and Cumming 2008). Challenges impeding prudent management of wetlands have been In Kenya, wetlands cover approximately 14,000 km2 or (2.5%) of the identified as: political-tribal mediated insecurity; ineffective governance; surface area of the country (Crafter et al. 1992). They are rich in living different use of resources by different ethnic groups; division of labour and non-living natural resources, and are important sources of food, water, along gender and age lines; poverty and inability to diversify resources; medicinal plants, fuelwood, materials for building and handcrafts (Kareri traditions and neglect of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK); and

B I O D I V E R S I T Y 1 1 ( 1 & 2 ) 2 0 1 0 85 ecosystems. The aim was for all the stakeholders to learn from each other and subsequently appreciate the vital role each can play in the conservation of the environment. In this article we describe some of the lessons learned using these education and awareness methods. Physical and ecological description of Ondiri and Manguo wetlands Ondiri wetland is a swamp with bog-like characteristics. It covers an area of approximately 30 ha, is 2 to 3 metres deep with a perimeter of about 3.3 km. The swamp is located in Kikuyu division, district, in the about 200 metres from Kikuyu town. Ondiri swamp lies at 2000 metres above sea level, latitude 1º15’S and longitude 36º40’E. The area has a mean annual temperature of 26ºC, which ranges between 20.4ºC in the upper highlands to 34ºC in the midlands of Karai in Kikuyu division. Low temperatures are experienced in July and August while January, February and March are the hottest months. The rainfall is bimodal, with long rains occurring in April and May and short rains during the months of October and November. The average annual rainfall is 1500 mm. Water quality in the swamp is fairly good with conductivity ranging between 230 to 450 μs, temperature 15 to 19°C and pH from 6.1 to 8.2. The swamp is an important source of water for Nairobi river, which passes through the city of Nairobi (Ndiritu et al. 2006). Locally, the swamp provides water for domestic use, irrigation and livestock as well as fodder for livestock particularly during the dry season (Macharia and Thenya 2007a). Ondiri swamp provides habitat for a significant number of resident and migratory bird species as well as aquatic plants. Common wetland and semi-wetlands plants include individual species of Typha domingensis, Vossia cuspidate, Cyperus brevifolius, and grasses such as Leersia hexandra, Eragrostis exasperate and Eriochloa meyerana. These plants are mainly found growing on Figure 1. A map of Kenya (inset) showing the location of Ondiri and Manguo swamps. Shown on the map of the floating mat, an accumulated large amount of semi- Ondiri swamp are the different land use types. On the Manguo swamp side are the three main ecological units of open water, marshes and floodplains. decomposed organic matter that forms a thick layer of peat (approximately 0.5 m thick) on top of the water. The inadequate formal education (e.g. Terer et al. 2004; Mathooko et al. 2009; Hamerlynck disturbed edges of the swamp are primarily vegetated et al. 2010). by Polygomum pilchrum, Biden pilosa and Oxygonium sinuatum. Sphaeranthus gomphrenoides and Melanthera One of the most popular strategies of managing designated wetlands of importance scandens occur along water canals in the farms. The is to limit human access to these areas in order to minimize destructive activities. swamp water catchment and riparian areas are vegetated Unfortunately this is not applicable for small-sized wetlands that are largely found on with exotic tree species of Grevillea robusta, Lantana private- or community-owned land. This situation is well discussed by Hardin (1968) camara, Eucalyptus sp., Jacaranda minosifolia, as well as in his article the tragedy of the commons. Hardin concluded that the only way humans a number of indigenous species such as Croton spp, Ficus can nurture nature is through education and awareness, which can counteract the natural spp, Acacia melanoxylon, A. mearnsii and Podocarpus, tendency to do the wrong thing and the inexorable succession of generations requires remnants of the indigenous forest cover of the area. that the basis for this knowledge be constantly refreshed. Manguo wetland is a typical tropical swamp, covering In an effort to contribute to the management and conservation of two small highland an area of approximately 50 ha. It is located in Limuru wetlands of Manguo and Ondiri swamps in central Kenya, a series of public education division, Kiambu district central province, at latitude and awareness seminars were conducted to help people understand the relationship 1º06’S and longitude 36º38’E and 2200 metres above between the local communities, researchers, resource managers and the two wetland sea level. The rainfall of the area is bimodal with long

86 TROPICAL CONSERVANCY rains occurring in April and May and the short rains occurring in grazing. The swamp offers a good place where locals relax and watch October and November. The area receives an average annual rainfall of birds. It is also a famous stopover for international birdwatchers who visit 1200 mm. The area has an annual mean temperatures ranging between on transit to other tourist destinations in the Rift Valley. Nature Kenya, 15.2ºC and 17.6ºC during the cold season (mainly between June and an international environmental non governmental organisation (NGO), Augusts) and 20ºC to 24ºC during the hot season (January through regularly organizes outings for birdwatchers. The National Museums of March). Water quality in Manguo swamp is fairly good with neutral pH Kenya has included the swamp on the list of wetlands for annual water values of approximately 7.03, low concentrations of cations, phosphates bird counts and has noted the presence of unique species such as the Grey and nitrates, a situation attributed to presence of fringing macrophytes Crown Crane (Balearica regulorum) and other palearctic migrants. The that limit nutrient flow into the swamp (Macharia and Thenya 2007b). presence of palatable and nutritious fodder plants on Manguo floodplain The swamp is an important source of water for Limuru town and the and swamp, make it important for livestock grazing, particularly during surrounding rural area mostly through two boreholes located in the the dry seasons. Other uses of the swamp include sources of water for northern low flooded area of the swamp. Manguo swamp has three irrigation of the neighbouring farms, washing of cars and skin hides. unique ecological units (i.e. open water, swamp and floodplain) that Similarly, Ondiri swamp is an important resource and provides numerous support substantial populations of bird species and wetlands plants benefits to the local people. The swamp is a source of water for farming (Macharia and Thenya 2007b). Over 30 species of resident bird and activities, horticulture and livestock rearing. Local communities and palearctic bird species have been recorded in the swamp, a feature that schools that obtain water from the Ondiri swamp include Alliance high make it an important site for bird watchers and researchers. Common school, Kikuyu hospital, University of Nairobi (Kikuyu campus), residents plants in the swamp consist of the sedges Cyperus dives, C. dercilema, of Kikuyu Town Council, locations of Karai, Nderi, Maai Hii and Kenya C. rigidifolius, C. exactatus, Typha domingensis and Potamogeton spp. Railways. In addition, the swamp is the source of the Nairobi River, which and the grass Eragrostis esperata. The riparian and catchment areas are courses through the middle of the city of Nairobi. During the dry seasons, mainly covered by exotic eucalyptus trees, a phenomenon characteristic the swamp provides fodder for livestock and macrophytes are used as of much of the central Kenya highlands after the clearing of the original mulching material in horticulture farms and tree nurseries. indigenous trees in the early part of the 20th century. It is apparent that both Manguo and Ondiri peri-urban wetlands are rich Study methods and information gathering in natural resources, features that make them support various socio- This study was carried out in the Ondiri and Manguo swamps in Kiambu economic activities. However, some of the activities in the swamps are district in 2006 and 2007, respectively. The study entailed gathering unsustainable and destructive. data in the field and from published sources on local population, wetland ownership, values, uses and threats, current wetland conservation and Threats and conservation challenges management practices. First, all secondary data were solicited from of Ondiri and Manguo wetlands libraries, individuals and government offices. This was later followed by It was obvious during our study that both Ondiri and Manguo swamps fieldwork which involved collection of data on water quality, vegetation, were experiencing serious environmental problems relating to the birds and the socio-economic status of both swamps (Macharia and dumping of solid waste, over abstraction of water, encroachment Thenya 2007a,b). Water quality parameters (pH, temperatures and of wetland for commercial and residential use, wetland agriculture, conductivity) were manually determined in the field using water overgrazing, improper land use practices on the watershed and wildlife measuring meters. Birds were identified using Zimmermanet al. (1999), poaching. Most of the recorded uses were incompatible with wise use of grasses (Ibrahim and Kabuye 1987), sedges (Haines and Lye 1983) and wetlands such as washing of cars, irrigation, harvesting of macrophytes herbaceous flowering plants (Agnew and Agnew 1994). Socio-economic for fodder and mulching and waste disposal (Fig. 2). Bird poaching and information was obtained using both structured questionnaires and oral collection of their eggs was also common around Manguo swamp. Just discussions. Focus Discussion Groups (FDGs) were organized in the like in the Manguo area, Ondiri swamp was threatened by unsustainable field and later during the education and public awareness seminars. anthropogenic activities in the swamp. The aim was to obtain consensus on the wetlands’ values, uses, threats, Normally, small-sized wetlands such as Manguo and Ondiri are reserved extent of involvement of community members and local environmental as government property under either the local county council or central NGOs and government agencies. Lastly, education and public awareness government. However, due to an inadequate government supervisory role were delivered through seminars in three phases: sensitization of the there is free access to every member of the community and over time this local communities, identification of the environmental problems and has lead to their over-exploitation and degradation. For example around realization of opportunities. Phase One consisted of dissemination of Manguo swamp, 70% of the degradation was attributed to private land the physical, ecological and socio economic information gathered on owners, 10% to the municipal council and 5% to the entire community. wetlands to the local community. Phase Two was identification and Moreover challenges to conservation of the swamps are due to private ownership of the environmental problems and; Phase Three involved land ownership (53%), corruption and illegal land excision within the deliberation of alternative wise use and restoration of wetlands. municipal council (16%), theft of tree seedlings (13%) and lack of funds Socio-economic values and uses to initiate conservation activities (3%). of Ondiri and Manguo swamps The management and conservation of Ondiri and Manguo swamps Eight one percent of the people interviewed in Manguo indicated that presents enormous challenges primarily due to the nature of ownership the swamp had high value for them and that they used it throughout the which allow free access by every member of the community. It was year (Fig. 2). The two most important uses were recreation and livestock apparent both wetlands were experiencing ownership crisis, with

B I O D I V E R S I T Y 1 1 ( 1 & 2 ) 2 0 1 0 87 different stakeholders (i.e. private, local government and central water, while key stakeholders were recognized as land owners, the government) claiming ownership and use, but no conservation and business community, conservationists and research institutions. restoration responsibilities. This scenario resembled Hardin’s “free During the plenary session, all participants acknowledged that the rider” assertion, where degradation and over-use is linked to a common workshops had enlightened them about the value, environmental problems property regime (CPR). For example approximately 70% of the lands and unexploited potential of the Manguo swamp. To move forward, the surrounding both swamps are privately owned, with most of the land participating community members agreed unanimously to revive the owners having less than 2 ha. Due to high human population growth dormant Manguo Land Owners Association which had been formed earlier in the area and the need for more land, a significant portion of the to conserve the wetland under a new name, Manguo Eco-tourism and population is turning to government lands to supplement their economic Conservation group (MECONG). A committee of ten people was selected to needs. Usually communities are unlikely to invest resources and time oversee registration and formulation of bylaws that will guide its operations. conserving land that has no security of tenure or where ownership is not The NMK, KWS, UoN and the local authority agreed to continue working clear. During FDG sessions, most local people reported being unaware with the group and assist with technical support whenever required. of the impacts of their activities on the swamps, though during their lifetime they have observed the size of the two wetlands decrease and In 2008, the NMK, and UoN together with the MECONG management a deterioration in the natural resources. committee secured a small grant from the Ecosystems Grants Programme Public education and awareness (EGP) of the Netherlands embassy. This has helped to boost the group meet some of its set targets. For instance, the group has managed to put The Public Education and Awareness (PEA) campaign provided a unique up a fence around the swamp, build a bird viewing platform, train some platform for all major stakeholders to interact, and exchange ideas and members as local bird guides as well as buy ecotourism accessories such experiences on the best way to restore and conserve the Manguo swamp. as some binoculars and birding guide books. The funding has also helped The PEA process involved seminars, carried out in three phases. During the group develop and produce publicity and education materials, which Phase One and Two, the local communities appreciated the importance have assisted in earning some income from donations and in-kind support of the swamps and identified environmental problems. In Phase Three from visitors and well wishers. Also, the group recently received some alternative sustainable use practices were deliberated upon. Guided by funds from the government under the Economic Stimulus Progamme. relevant government ministries and departments, the local community The funds were used for a fish farming initiative, Two fish ponds were freely discussed the following three themes: (1) opportunities and built with the aim of selling fingerlings to farmers and recreational challenges of developing income generating activities; (2) who should facilities. In the near future there are plans for the members of the group be responsible for conservation and management of the swamp and; (3) to start tree nurseries, to help restore the watershed with its indigenous institutional and community participation in wetland management. tree population. Overall, all the above activities have made the members The community members in the Manguo area identified land ownership of the group united in purpose and most members are willing to assist in as the major impediment to implementation of any conservation activity the conservation of Manguo swamp and its catchment. in the swamp. Though members discussed the issue of compensation, Meanwhile public education and awareness initiatives in Ondiri swamp it was found to be unrealistic and non-viable as the government yielded positive and similar results to those in Manguo swamp. To minimize might not be willing to compensate them with cash or offer them unsustainable wetland use, the local community in collaboration with Athi alternative land. Members identified ecotourism as the most viable and River Water Resources Management Authority and Kikuyu Town Council environmentally friendly programme to undertake for the swamp. The decided to form a Water Resource Users Association (WRUA) to control people acknowledged that the swamp is strategically situated along water abstraction for domestic and irrigation purposes. This community the rich tourist circuit of the Rift Valley lakes and Kikuyu escarpment, association has succeeded in regulating water abstraction from the swamp, famous for their scenic beauty, splendour and richness in biodiversity. by registering active boreholes and putting a limit to the area of land that To resolve the issue of land ownership and use, members agreed that each member can irrigate. The WRUA is in the process of formulating resource utilization in the swamp will fall under wise use guidelines an integrated management plan for the whole ecosystem that is intended and those activities detrimental to the wellbeing of the swamp will be to demarcate and zone the swamp for conservation purposes, increase disallowed. These activities were identified as car washing, dumping of scientific knowledge, control unsustainable practices and organize regular waste and wetland agriculture. The local authority agreed to discourage environmental awareness education sessions for the local community. these activities. The hunting of birds and collection of their eggs will no Recently the Friends of Ondiri Swamp a community based conservation longer be allowed in the swamp in an effort to enhance bird populations group secured a second grant from Rufford Foundation, an international and diversity, with enforcement entrusted to the Kenya Wildlife Service funding organisation to strength and support their conservation and eco- and the local authorities. A grazing fee was introduced to control tourism initiatives in the swamp (Mungai 2010). These were good news overgrazing, with the money collected used to demarcate and fence the and shows that environmental education is one way of empowering a critical area as well as improve supervision by employing a caretaker. society to conserve biodiversity while at the same time alleviating poverty The local people agreed they were unaware of the rich biodiversity among them. and unexploited potential of the swamp and the National Museums of Kenya (NMK), Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), the local authority and Conclusions the University of Nairobi (UoN) were given the task of enlightening the It is evident from these two case studies that future conservation community. Relevant government’s institutions to assist in the management and management efforts of the environment lies with well informed of the swamp were identified as the ministries of environment, land and stakeholders including local communities, natural resource managers,

88 TROPICAL CONSERVANCY 100 Figure 2. Ranks of major uses of 80 Manguo swamp (n=30). Ranks represent (1) very 1 important, (2) important, 60 (3) less important and 2 (4) not important 3 40

Response (%) . 4 20

0 Waste water Grazing Tourism disposal Car wash Domestic Washing Livestock Agriculture Recreation cars/hides watering Irrigation/fodder Major prefered uses

policymakers, law enforcers and researchers. This reinforces Hardin’s This was attributed to serious communication breakdown between all assertion that “the only way humans can nurture nature is through stakeholders, particularly the educators and researchers on one side and education and awareness, which can counteract the natural tendency local communities, natural resource managers, policy makers and law to do the wrong thing and the inexorable succession of generations enforcers on the other. Although environmental education is offered in requires that the basis for this knowledge be constantly refreshed”. schools, colleges and universities in Kenya, its application has not yet Apparently during this study most members of the community were been transferred to the general public, a major reason why environmental unaware of whether their activities had an impact on the environment. problems are widespread (Ndaruga, 2003; 2009).

Photo 1. Grazing cattle near the wetlands.

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