ISSN: 2347-7474

International Journal Advances in Social Science and Humanities Available online at: www.ijassh.com

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Decision Making in the Newsroom – Tell Me Something I Don’t Know

Roslina Abdul Latif*

Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Most journalism is not about facts but about the interpretation of what seem to be facts. In recent years, the interpretation, influence and pervasiveness of the news from different media organization are beyond doubt. Yet there are still disagreements and conflicting views about just how the public is influenced by the media in general by the news written by the journalist particularly and the stories produced by the editors specifically. Journalism is often called the news business – the gathering, the processing and delivery of important and interesting information and further developments or follow-up stories by newspapers and broadcast media or vice versa – is inextricably entangled in that giant, whirling entity often referred to as the media. Story selection is a decision-making and choice-making process but a hurried one. As a result, the considerations must be quickly and easily applicable so that choices can be made without too much deliberation. The objective of the study is to identify the changes that have taken place in the editing policies in the newsrooms, explore the forces that have influenced the decision making process in the newsrooms for the broadcasting system and to study if news programming patterns have changed since Najib’s reign as Prime Minister and which government policies have influenced the network’s programming. Notable editors, chief editors and group editors from Sistem Television Malaysia Berhad (TV3) and Astro Awani gave in-depth interviews on their decision making process and issues of internal and external forces that ‘dampen’ the process of nation building in shaping the trajectory of the news, hence, sustaining a potentially transformative public sphere in tandem with the prime ministers elaborate government policies.

Keywords: Decision making, External forces, Government policies, Internal forces, Transformative public sphere. Introduction Author and news executive Jack Fuller writes: considerably in recent years. This was proven “The central purpose of journalism is to tell the recently during the attacks on Lahad Datu, truth so that people will have the information that Sabah. As we deployed our police and army they need to be sovereign” [1]. This statement is personnel, we also deployed our team of journalist true as we rely on news media especially in times to cover news on the ground. Their influence and of crisis. A good example was during the pervasiveness are beyond doubt. Yet there are September 11, 2001 disaster where journalists still disagreements and conflicting views about responded quickly and professionally. The just how the public is influenced by the media in horrifying details of the attacks on New York’s general by the news written by the journalist and World Trade center and the Pentagon in the stories produced by the editors. Washington D.C. were conveyed rapidly to a global audience in print, the Internet, by radio Journalism is often called the news business – the and by vivid color in television. Virtually the same gathering, the processing and delivery of horrific footages were seen and shocking reports important and interesting information and were heard as in the States. further developments or follow-up stories by newspapers and broadcast media or vice versa – is Although the news media in Malaysia may seem inextricably entangled in that giant, whirling lacking in coercive power as they cannot literally entity often referred to as the media [2]. And draft journalists to war torn nations or do when the gathering process is complete or semi coverage on crisis nations but this has changed complete, the stories goes through a process

Roslina Abdul Latif | May. 2015|Vol.3|Issue 05|01-12 1 Available online at: www.ijassh.com known as story selection done by the editors or timeliness, proximity, unusual nature, celebrities, gatekeepers. human interest, conflict, impact, helpfulness, entertainment, issues or problems in the Often thought to be glamorous and powerful community and trends but not particularly in that individuals, journalists in general are hard- order. The build-up of the line-up has been working, often harried people with little time for described by editors as a train where the main and even less patience with, the glamour of being stories act as the head of the locomotive while the on television (for the broadcast journalists). They other stories hook-up and make the rest of the are dedicated professionals ever conscious of their bulletin. This would generally be the main news, responsibilities to the job and their audience. business, foreign, sports and the closing [4]. They have more power than the rest of us mainly Identifying the News and because they express and often subscribe to, the economic, political and social ideas and values Conceptualizing Decision Making which are dominant to Malaysia. Story selection is a decision-making and choice- This paper looks at the terrains within the making process but a hurried one. As a result, the landscape of the nation’s broadcasting houses considerations must be quickly and easily whose main business is news. This is not an applicable so that choices can be made without too exhaustive study on the selected broadcasting much deliberation [3]. Many theories have been houses used for comparison, namely Sistem put forth about how the selection of stories is Television Malaysia Berhad (henceforth TV3), an routinized. Gans [3] put forward five theories of terrestrial television station and Astro Awani story selection. They are journalist-centered, (henceforth Awani), a pay television station. routinization based on organizational Malaysia has only three broadcasting houses, requirements, event-centered, technological, namely TV3, Astro and Radio Television Malaysia economic and ideological determinants, and (RTM), a government own television station. external factors. Hence, the justification of choosing these two broadcasting houses to get an in-depth Other considerations include either adding stories understanding of the operation innards. or dropping them depending on the latest breaking news. According to Gans [3] this The paper is generally concerned with the consideration must also be easily rationalized so decision making process in the newsroom; taking one story is replaced by another and an acceptable into consideration the internal and external reason for doing so is always at hand. These factors that ‘dampen’ the process of nation considerations are also designed with the building both in shaping the trajectory of the efficiency so as to guarantee the necessary supply news, hence, sustaining a potentially of suitable news with the least amount of time, transformative public sphere. It also takes stock effort and if possible expenditure. Gans [3] further of the current prime minister’s elaborate describes “the news” as the picture of America as government policies and takes peek at how the a nation and society that appears in the national newsrooms work in tandem with those projected news media. The same definition can be used for policies. the current Malaysian scenario of news.

With these policies, also comes the task of Morris [5] although years apart define decision selection the stories that would make up the making as a model or logical structure which is news. Story selection is a decision-making and used to bring some conceptual order out of the choice-making process albeit a hurried one. As a endless variety of observations that steers the result, the considerations must be quickly and course of society and its economic and government easily applicable so that choices can be made organizations – is largely work of making without too much deliberation [3]. Story selection decisions and solving problems. It is work of for broadcast news in Malaysia depends on a few choosing issues that require attention, setting considerations and the suitability of the stories for goals, finding or designing suitable courses of the day’s transmission. It has always been a actions and evaluating and choosing among policy in newsrooms to carry news of the Prime alternative actions. Minister and Deputy Prime Minister in the first block of the news bulletin regardless whether it is Gans [3] description of the decision making a 30 minute or an hour’s bulletin. process is story selection and choice, albeit a hurried one. Gans quotes Edward J. Epstien’s The rest of the news bulletin will follow the line- research at NBC News, that if journalists had to up in terms of importance and news worthiness, treat the hundreds of choices they make every day

Roslina Abdul Latif | May. 2015|Vol.3|Issue 05|01-12 2 Available online at: www.ijassh.com as formal decisions, they would be unable to In 1994 a television broadcast license was issued complete their work. They instead act on the basis to Melewar Corporation and Utusan Melayu (M) of quick, virtually intuitive judgments which some Berhad to operate Metrovision. Tunku Panglima ascribe to ‘feel’ or ‘gut feelings’. Besar Tunku Tan Sri Abdullah ibni Tuanku Abdul Rahman was Melewar’s Industrial Group Zey, On the other hand describes the theory of Chairman at the time. Five years into operations, problem solving and decision making as centrally Metrovision was struggling and was “temporarily” concerned with how people cut problems down to taken off-air by 1st November the same year size: how they apply approximate, heuristic (1999). In 2002, the Ministry of Finance owned 30 techniques to handle complexity that cannot be per cent of the consortium that operated Mega TV handled exactly [6]. while a subsidiary firm, Sri Utara, an investment arm of the Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC), a A group decision then is naturally defined by political party in the coalition government, owned means of preceding definitions as a choice another 5 per cent of Mega TV [8]. They resumed between two or more alternatives made by group broadcasting on Thursday 1st January 2004 as members or by a group leader in consultations 8TV after being bought by Media Prima Berhad. with the membership. If neither of these conditions is satisfied, then even though a group All political parties in the coalition government exists and decision has been made, we will not and their investment companies have also characterize such a choice among alternatives as interest and control in the major mainstream a group decision [7]. newspapers in Malaysia. When TV3 was issued the country’s first and only private television Background of Media Organizations: A broadcasting license in 1983, their major Quick Peek shareholders then included the Fleet Group, The two media organizations that are studied in UMNO’s holding company, the UMNO-controlled this paper are TV3 and Awani. We simply cannot Utusan Malaysia newspaper publishing group, dwell further into this research without taking a MIC’s Maika Holdings, Daim Zainuddin, and the look at the background of these organizations and now bankrupt Syed Kechik group. more importantly the question of ownership as it is obviously an effective way to affirm control over Fleet Group and later Renong, took control over any entity including media establishments. the then Daim-controlled New Straits Times group. In 1993 a management buy-out through Sistem Television Malaysia Berhad (TV 3) the Malaysian Resources Corporation Berhad While privatization is a goal in the business (MRCB) took over of the then lucrative TV3 from sector, a free press without government the other main minority shareholders. This was restrictions is not. The government controls the done with considerable help from the Hong Leong press, broadcasting houses and the publishing group’s Quek Leng Chan which then placed both enterprises throughout Malaysia. Strong political TV3 and the New Straits Times (NST) group and economic ties between the government and firmly in the camp of Finance Minister Anwar the media are relationships that have been in Ibrahim at the time [9]. Ownership is obviously place since the beginning of the reporting era in an effective way to affirm control over any entity Malaysia. One of the initial efforts to transfer including media establishment. media ownership from the government to the private sector was to privatize Sistem Television The Malaysian media is also controlled by the Malaysia Berhad (STMB) or better known as TV3. government through a series of enactments and TV3 received its license in 1983. Fleet Group draconian laws such as the Printing Presses and which was UMNO’s (United Malays National Publication Act (1984), The Broadcasting Act of Organization is Malaysia’s largest political party 1988 and its successor, Multimedia and under the Barisan Nasional coalition) holding Communication Act (CMA) 1998 (amended 2002), company held 40 per cent of stock making it the The Sedition Act (1948), and Official Secret Act only single entity that had control over the station (1972) and the famous abolished Internal Security and that also gave them the right to select the Act (1960). All these media establishments are remaining ownership partners. TV3 in turn controlled through ownership externally and owned MEGA-TV (now a defunct sister company) within the media itself as all media companies and Multichannel Multipoint Distribution practice self-censorship for all news before print Service (MMDS formally known as Business and broadcast. Radio Service (BRS)) or Wireless Cable, a cable ‘provider that came in tandem with the deal.

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Presently, Media Prima Berhad, a company listed product called Astro Awani, the main news center on the Main Board of Bursa Malaysia and is the with bases in Brunei and Indonesia [13]. leader in Malaysia’s integrated media investment group. It currently owns 100 per cent equity Astro Awani may have only been formally interest in TV3, 8TV, NTV7 and TV9. In addition, introduced on 6th September 2007 but it went Media Prima now owns more than 98 per cent under the title Astro News in 2002 and hosted a equity interest in The NSTP Berhad, one of myriad of international and multilingual news Malaysia’s largest publisher which prints the New channels such as BBC World, CCTV-9, Al Straits Times, Berita Harian and Harian Metro, Jazeera, Eurosport news, Australia Network and three highest circulated national newspapers. It DW-TV (Deutsche Welle Television, German also owns three radio networks, Fly FM, Hot FM News) [13]. The news stations were not stored and One FM [10]. under Astro Awani for very long before they each got their own news channel that allowed them to Astro programme their own information. Bernama was Astro is the brand name of the Malaysian direct the co-producer of Astro News alongside Astro, broadcast satellite pay television service. It which provided the news in Malay, Mandarin and transmits digital satellite television and radio to Tamil. This did not last for very long though as on households in Malaysia and Brunei. Astro is also 15th June 2006, a joint venture between NDTV an acronym for All-Asian Satellite Television and (New Delhi Television Limited) and Astro brought Radio Operator.d and operated by MEASAT about the creation of Astro Awani that was first Broadcast Network Systems, Astro is a wholly- debuted on Astro Nusantara in Indonesia [13]. owned subsidiary of Astro All Asia Networks. De- NDTV had never launched a programme out of listed from the Main Market of Bursa Malaysia India of which Astro Awani became the first of its Securities Berhad on 14th June 2010, following a kind. successful take-over offer by Astro Holdings Sdn Theories of Story Selection Bhd, a company owned by Tegas Sdn Bhd and its affiliates and Khazanah Nasional Berhad. It has Gans [3] in his research suggests that that there operations at the All Asia Broadcast Centre are five theories of story selection that can be located in Bukit Jalil, Kuala Lumpur and used to better understand how the news bulletin MEASAT in Cyberjaya [11]. is prepared. The news desk receives more than 200 assignments a day for a 30 minute or an hour Tan Sri Ananda Krishnan was issued a license in news bulletin depending on which television 1995 to operate MEASAT. MEASAT in turn station. Having limited air time, editors must launched ASTRO, Malaysia’s digital direct select a fraction of all these assignments to make broadcast satellite service. Krishnan is a long- up the bulletin. More importantly according to time member of the board of the Bank Negara and Gans, they cannot decide anew every day or week operates Malaysia’s “Sports Toto” (owned by how to select the fraction that will appear on the Berjaya Group currently). Malaysia’s privately news, instead, they must routinize their task in owned FM stations exhibit similar ownership order to make it manageable. patterns as television, and is largely controlled by Krishnan. Five of the seven stations are owned by This paper takes these theories to task with the Airtime Management and Programming Sdn. subjects of the study: Bhd. (AMP). AMP additionally operates four “FM” services that are available only via digital direct Journalist-centered - It argues that it is shaped broadcast satellite (ASTRO). AMP is also a by the professional news judgment of journalist. division of Krishnan’s ASTRO. Krishnan also has Many politicians hold a somewhat similar view. control over the telecommunication company Judging the news by its implications for their Binariang Bhd. that owns two satellites Measat-1 political careers, they blame journalistic bias and Measat-2 [12]. when the news is not favorable or hurts them.

After the launch of the MEASAT-1 satellite as Routine-centered - A theory favored by social- part of Malaysia’s commercialization of space, science studies, locates the routinization in the Astro commenced broadcasting in 1996 with an news organization and shows how story selection initial bouquet of twenty-two television and eight is influenced by organizational requirements. radio channels, which were its own channels [11]. Some organizations theories focus on the news Although established in 1996, Astro only gained a firm and emphasize commercial imperatives; news station in 2002 called Astro News. The others are more concerned with the news evolution of Astro News has brought us the organizations themselves and look at how their

Roslina Abdul Latif | May. 2015|Vol.3|Issue 05|01-12 4 Available online at: www.ijassh.com structures and division of labor affect story Given that the newsrooms often work on daily selection. schedules, decision making is a vital skill. However, the very routine that demands sound Event-centered - The so-called mirror theory decision making also hinders development of that which used to be popular among journalists. This skill. Overby [15] observed that newsroom theory proposes that events determine story personnel often lack time to think and discuss selection with journalists simply holding a mirror basic decisions; the impetus to deliver news to them and reflecting their image to the decreases the chances for pertinent thought and audience. dialogue. For the most part, communication scholars have taken a macroeconomic approach to Technological determinists (the message is decision making effects. They generally view such determined by the technology of the medium), effects as a static entity that can be packaged and economic determinists (view the national economy plugged into any theoretical construct and as molding story selection and ideological measured and described via discussion of market determinists (believe that journalists align the structure alone [16]. In short, decision making news to the political ideology of those holding requires additional perspectives. A greater power in the country). understanding of the process by which editors make decisions needs to take place. External centered - This theory suggests that the news is shaped above all by the sources on Fitzgerald and Desjardins [17] examined the which journalists rely or by those groups in communication of organizational values and their society powerful enough both to create what they relation to employee outcomes in two departments call “public events” and to gain access to within a health care organization. The study journalists. found that organization values congruent with employees’ values tend to increase employees Recent Studies satisfaction, commitment and performance Although there has been an explosion of scholarly outcomes. The results indicate employees in interest in journalistic ethics during recent departments with clearly defined and decades and much of the resulting literature communicated organizational values perceived describes the ethics, values, responsibilities, they are more involved in the organization and stress levels or roles of particular types of more participatory in decision making [17]. For journalists, almost no work has assessed the the most part in this particular field of research, decision making process in the newsrooms with values have been seen as beliefs that underlie regards to ownership and government policies. In attitudes – the application of value/values-and the many literature reviewed, researchers have researchers in general argue that values predict done portions of this study in different research behavior [18]. projects. This paper is an attempt to consolidate those parts to fill the gaps of this research. In terms of production decision making, Mossig [19] and Walle [20], examine two aspects in order Faridah [14] quoting Herbert Simon (1965) on the to obtain a deeper understanding of how localized same aspect argues that organizations can never production networks arise and how they function be perfectly rational because their members have but with different findings. Mossig looks at first, a limited capacity to obtain and process the role of the founding of new firms within information. In her findings, it is clear that localized production network analyzed in detail firstly, the management makes decisions in the and second, the decision structures within the newsroom while the second, the management production network. At the first level of decision- consults journalists but makes the final decision making the TV station is the main authority nevertheless. The ideal state according to the compared to the TV production company. At the researcher is where the journalist has greater second level, the TV production company decides autonomy in decision making but this rarely on the filling of the subsequent key positions, happens in the Malaysian newsroom scenario. while the TV station participates in this However, decisions regarding the length of the procedure in an observatory way. At the third story, news and visual suggestions, editing and level, the TV station is no longer involved in rewriting the news, postponing a story and long decisions. The main decision-making powers lie range news plans involve some consultations by with those in the key positions, and the TV management with the journalists, even though production company merely monitors these the final say are in the hands of the management. procedures.

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Walle [20] on the other hand, sights a newspaper, The Prince of Wales Gazette, in 1806, conventional wisdom which draws attention away the introduction of state-run television, RTM from the need for diversity in programming. (Radio Television Malaysia) in 1963, the Although it is a popular model for globalization emergence of commercial television (TV3) in 1984, market and a paradigm which in recent years has and the launching of Malaysia's first broadcast become the darling of international advertising satellite (Measat 1) in 1996, the state's role in the professionals, its theory of cultural evolution overall scheme of things has been central. They which states (rightly or wrongly) that technology conclude that there are many stark realities of the and mass communications are creating a Malaysian mainstream media and the low level it worldwide cultural of homogeneity. In his has reached in terms of ownership. First, by and research, Walle also discusses ratings. Ratings large and for a long, long time now, the Malaysian were and will always be a major concern of mainstream media have never aspired to be the network executives who had advertisers to satisfy. guardians of freedom of speech. Media executives, however, began to suspect that the low ratings on one show could affect Very few would argue with the observation that, viewership on other programmes on the same thus far, the mainstream Malaysian media have channel or network. been nothing more than government mouthpieces. Second, and in relation to the first point, despite Another aspect of this study is about the all the talk about 'democracy ala Malaysia', ownership and how it effects the decision making 'freedom with responsibility', ad nauseam, we process of the newsrooms. Napoli, Philip and need to remind ourselves that all of the major Zhaoxu Yan [21], takes stock of this issue in their Malaysian media organizations - including TV3, research when they examine the relationship MegaTV, MetroVision, NTV7, Astro, Berita between television station ownership Harian, Utusan Malaysia, New Straits Times and characteristics and local news and public affairs The Star - are owned and controlled by BN parties programming through an expanded analysis of or those closely associated with these parties. To a data from the Federal Communications large extent, this allocative control helps to Commission (FCC's) study of Big Four broadcast explain why these media organizations rarely - if network affiliates. The FCC's conclusion is that ever - break ranks. Third, to reinforce such network-owned and operated stations provide economic controls further, Barisan has a slew of more local news and public affairs programming laws to control the media. than other affiliates, and that stations with newspaper holdings provide more local news and In a more recent study on the public (TV1) and public affairs programming than stations without private pay television (Astro Awani), the newspaper holdings only when these two program researchers also found that while RTM has types are analyzed in combination. When these different influences in terms of decision making, two program types are analyzed independently as from supra-organizational (ownership dictates and when additional explanatory factors are content) to industry level of inter-organization taken into consideration, these ownership relations (competing organizations) to societal characteristics are positively related to news influences (government influences), Astro Awani programming, but not to public affairs has one additional influence, which is community programming. The researcher’s findings reveal or market influence (advertising). As RTM sees that while financial resources and competition itself as an information provider or mouth piece of provided stations with greater incentives to the rakyat (the people), advertising although produce local news programming, several factors important would not be the top priority. Astro on related to station ownership did not. In terms of the other hand is just the opposite since quantity of local news provided, once the decision advertising contributes a substantial amount to to provide any news was reached, none of the the prolonged livelihood of this organization. ownership variables were positively related to the Data Findings quantity of news programming provided. Data for this research was derived from in-depth On the local frontier, Zaharom Nain and Mustafa interviews with the respective key personnel from K. Anuar [22] in their research on ownership and both organizations. Four informants were control of the Malaysian media discusses the interviewed from News & Current Affairs Radio & history of the mainstream press and broadcasting Television Networks, Media Prima Berhad in Malaysia which has been one stringent namely Informant A, Group Managing Editor, political, legal and more recently, economic Informant B, Group Deputy Managing Editor, controlled. From the emergence of the first Informant C, Head of News, and Informant D, Chief News Editor. While from Astro Awani

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Network Sdn Bhd, Informant E, Managing Editor; duration of Berita Terkini is from 10-15 minutes Informant F, Executive Editor of Current Affairs; depending on stories highlighted. Informant G, Executive Editor for Strategy and Informant H, Assistant Director of TV News Although Astro Awani doesn’t have the advantage Section gave valuable time for this research. of regional offices, what they have done is to The in-depth interviews were based on a few deploy their journalists to all states making them research questions: specialized in their respective states, subject experts and contact personnel that can be  How are these decisions formulated in different interviewed on different issues. Awani has brief stages of news production in terms of news bulletins starting from 7 am till 12 am with preproduction, production and post-production? a 15 minute duration. Their main bulletin called  What factors affect the decision-making process Berita Awani is at 7.45 pm (30 minutes) 15 for news? minutes earlier from Buletin Utama.In terms of  How has television and news programming decisions made for the news line-up, both patterns changed since Najib’s reign as prime organizations do it collectively as a group and minister with his government policies? deem the same stages as important which is the  Which government policies influenced the pre-production stage. network’s programming? “At 10am every morning, we have an editorial The data from the in-depth interviews were coded meeting that is chaired by (Informant A). So that for topics on decision making and also for is when we discuss the events on the day. That is frequency of a topic while providing examples when we give suggestions and follow-ups. The based on real events. Topics of discussion covered editors will also brief us on the assignments they a range covering pre-production, production and have for the day. Then the reporters go out and post-production decision making. Before the come back and they report to the desk on what interviews were conducted, there was a need to stories they have. And then 6 o’clock every day we look at the organization structure of each media have another meeting also chaired by (Informant broadcasting house. Both Informant A and B from A) or in his absence one of us and that is when we TV3 and Informant E from Astro Awani were discuss what are the main stories of the day” - tight-lipped as the organization structure in any Informant B. newsroom was considered ‘classified information’. But from the diagrams that these two informants “It is a group decision. Because I will chair the 9 scribbled during the interview, it was clear that o’clock meeting, I will chair the 5 o’clock meeting... TV3 has a traditional hierarchy structure as So it’s like a council of elders. So it’s functional... compared to Astro Awani that practices a flat because Awani is known for political stories, so structure. what do we do now, we want to own a debate space. We want to look at great ideas in different Decisions at Different Stages of News areas” -Informant E. Production

Both media organizations work differently in The decision making process for both terms of the decision making process at different organizations are also ongoing processes till the stages of production. The Group Managing Editor, news goes on air. These decisions will change Group Deputy Managing Editor, Head of News, according to the environment, the issue or what Chief News Editor, Editors and Sub-editors at Informant E categorized as ‘earth shattering’: TV3 determined the first round of selection for the news in terms of local, regional and international. “It depends on what happens on that day. There TV3 has an edge since they have regional offices are days when we decide to use certain stories but everywhere so there would be an abundance of almost all the while it comes from the suggestion news to cover their main Buletin Pagi at 7 am (30 of the (news)desk because they know better. For minutes), Buletin 1.30 (30 minutes) and their example, ‘for story of the day’ they know what is main newsreel Buletin Utama for the Malay news the strongest story so they will suggest the at 8 pm (1 hour) and Nightline for the English headlines in the meeting. At our level we have a News at midnight (30 minutes). This is look and okay the story and proceed” - Informant interspersed with Berita Terkini at 10 am, 11 am, 12 noon, 4 pm with the 5.30 pm slot dedicated to Business News. During the weekend there’s a sight change in the Berita Terkini with the news A.“Most of the time it’s consensus” - Informant B. aired at 11 am, 12 noon, 4 pm and 6 pm. The

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“At 9.30 am, we have our meeting for the day, so “We have to balance up or we will be in a we discuss how to develop all the stories. And then dilemma. Of course we have our KPI and they at 5pm, we will have a meeting to determine what include the editorial part, which is editorial will be the headlines and what will be the content and everything else because is not only planning for the next day. During our pre- about quantity but quality news” - Informant A. production, we would already know how the story External factors in TV3 will develop and how we are going to treat the stories. So the reporter will call only to alert if Guidelines from the Government there is differing angles from what we plan if it’s Although this situation doesn’t happen often but totally, totally different. So far, it’s been okay, it is highlighted as one of the internal factors that except if something earth shattering happens” - causes stress and affects the process of the news Informant E. decision making process. Factors that Affect News Decision-making Process “Yes and no. It doesn’t happen all the time. Sometimes it happens but sometimes it doesn’t. It’s Forces that influenced the decision making not like the political master’s micro manage us. It’s process in the broadcasting system are numerous. just that there are guidelines that we follow” but… There are several factors that have been identified that influences the decision making “(laughs) of course there are some political affects. process in the broadcast newsrooms for these two We have to know who owns us those kinds of stations. These factors can be further broken into thing, goes back to that problem question of who internal and external factors. owns. I think as a journalist we see there’s a Internal factors in TV3 positive morale. I think the Najib’s administration understands the fact that otherwise we will see a Staff performances premature death of tv news and the newspapers” - Staff performance could be looked at something Informant B. minor if the company is young but after 28 years being in the business, there is the need to better “That’s a tricky question. If you’re talking about and stronger in terms of presentation and policy, we have policy. It’s a verbal policy, not a production. written policy. We support the government of the day, so based on that, our stories are generated “After 28 years of being in operation, there accordingly” - Informant A. shouldn’t be mistakes especially minor ones like wrong graphics, wrong spelling of names (during “There will changes with every new PM, there supers), readers that still make mistakes when always seems to be the need to prove ourselves reading or cough while the vt (footages) is rolling). every time. It can sometimes be stressful and They need to take ownership and responsibility for tiring” - Informant D. their job” - Informant D. Advertisements Self-censorship Advertisements are also another factor that Self-censorship has always been practiced in TV3. effects the duration of the news line up but not so This would generally cover sensitive issues like much of the news decision making process per se. religion, race and multicultural sensitivity. In an hours bulletin, only 45 minutes is dedicated to the news as “paid advertorial, leaves us with “Of course we believe in self-censorship. Self- something like 30-40% hard news” (Informant A). censorship means that we know what we are doing Informant C also concurs with this as he laments and what we cannot do. We brief our reporters, “We don’t have enough time. We have one hour but producers and editors (so everybody is on the same the airtime is so limited because of the page). It is company policy” - Informant A. commercial” (Informant C). Company’s KPIs Ratings The company’s KPIs and the newsroom’s KPIs in Ratings are also an important factor in the terms of revenue also need to be factored into the broadcasting business. The higher the ratings, the news process and the overall makeup of the line- better the chances for the programme being ‘sold’. up of the news as it will impact other external It also helps to determine the ‘rates’ of a certain factors such as ratings and advertisements. band. If a programme’s ratings fall, there will also be consequences towards the selling power.

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According to Informant B, “there is a fluctuation. themselves as ‘partners in nation building’ but If it is the school holidays, everybody goes on according to them Putrajaya doesn’t, so their holiday then that’s a problem (because no one is content actually helps out the government in watching the news)”. It also doesn’t help much terms of achieving their programs especially the when “our ratings are accumulative, meaning it Prime Minister’s transformation programmes, as doesn’t depend on one bulletin only but is an they feel that, that is their main role. average of seven days. A.C. Nielsen accumulates, and averages it out, (so it is a weekly ratings and There is “a very thin line. It applies to all the not just one transmission)” (Informant A). issues that is very sensitive and very prejudice. We have to make sure so that we are not caught in the Complaints & legal action middle of the issues discussed” (Informant H). Viewers complaints and legal action, although “Putrajaya and many people say bad things about seems to be the playground of the newsroom. it’s us on Facebook but it doesn’t dampen our spirits. not something ‘fun’ to indulge in as it take up Most of them will be angry if we are bias. If we many man hours, court presence and legal fees. carry government stories without voices that seem not objective, they will be angry because they want Internal factors in Astro Awani a 360 analysis” (Informant E). Staff Unwilling to Adapt to Changes Informant G has a more open take on the When Astro started more than five years ago, situation - “Simple, executive power shifts the many ‘old-timers’ and new blood staff joined the nation and the media institution exists within the work force. Each of these people brought in their nation. I know it’s easier for people to look at how old cultures from their previous organizations, the executive controls you but any executive will hence with the changes in structure that have a form of relation in the media... Because commenced March 2012, many were forced to Astro started near the end of the last millennium, adapt to the news transformation and some I guess in the sense of corporate management, couldn’t, for various reasons. vision, spirit, soul and all those stuff makes for a

more fertile ground for such set up like these and “News has change but they don’t want to change the spirit like this...” because no.1 they are not bilingual, no.2 they just refuse to change, no.3 they just have bad attitude. Stakeholders No.4 you’re in an era where you are competing As per TV3, Astro Awani also has government with online. You cannot wait for things to happen. stakeholders that they need to adhere to. One of it You have go forward, so they don’t like that, you is Khazanah Nasional but they don’t receive know. And they are old and slightly lazy” - directives from this entity. But given the Informant E government ownership certain boundaries also Internal Censorship need to be observed.

Based on a recent incident that was ‘off the “I would say everyone wants us to be successful. record’, there’s now an internal standard But of course there are internal politics but I think operation procedure that ‘dampens’ the ‘live’ that is just common in any organization. But when aspect of the news transmission. it comes to editorial, I think other than internal

politics which I feel has almost no impact. All the “Since then we have a new SOP. Any story from way to the CEO and COO, so they are supportive. Astro Awani will not go live directly. Initially our They also understand why there is pressure from news was only delayed for 5 seconds. Now we have Putrajaya because we are also owned by a new process because of that incident, we have Khazanah, due to share holdings. But then again, one more filter that is called MPO news. MPO as reporters, you just push the boundaries and so works like an internal Astro censor board. So far we have been successful in doing that” - actually all our bulletins are not live direct, in real Informant E time, its (transmission) has been delayed 4 - 5 minutes because we need to filter these news Prominence of Government Policies stories” - Informant F Overall view for TV3 is to cover the policies based External factors in Astro Awani on the events as they unfold. There are a few policies that are given focus depending on the Guidelines from the Government announcements made by the Prime Minister of The unwritten ‘guidelines’ that newsrooms are achievements accomplished from the policies. subjected to makes the decision making process Informant D sees the 1Malaysia campaign as a re- more difficult than it already is. Astro sees branding process “It’s like Wawasan 2020,

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Rukunnegara all in one, it’s all about re-branding. event centered and technological determinants One reason we cover 1Malaysia is because it’s the play a major role in the news outfit as the news is governments KPI. We feel obligated to explain to well integrated with the social network entity via the rakyat so they understand the concepts clearly Facebook and Twitter. The news is also shared and so far I think we have achieved more than between different channels in the organizations, 60%” radio included. TV3 still follows the standard regiment of routine centered news line-up (local, On the other hand, Astro Awani takes the opposite business, foreign, sports). On certain occasions, approach where they don’t go out and specifically event centered news also takes precedent pick up on Najib’s policy. For example, Suara depending on news worthiness. Kami, is very people centric, “so they put our hands out there, literally feel it, than align that to Transformation, in a nutshell, is inevitable and the policies, not just Najib’s policies but also to the demands agility, adaptability and efficiency from opposition policies” says Informant G. He communication professionals. While TV3’s reiterated further, “the transformation, the KPI stakeholders are clear cut and there has been the NKRA, those are bigger model group, bigger much change in terms of decision making and statements. So we go down to the ground and we news presentation with the change of Prime bring that to the people ourselves... It’s not that we Ministers, Awani has a different stand. have to support policies directly per se, it’s about Informant G feels that transformation is “a how that translates into the people’s lives. We come natural progression of information. from that end rather than behind the policy” The amount of knowledge being gathered and Informant H had this to say, “we prefer for the propagated through the mainstream media for so stories not to be too one sided, it needs to be long, gives it a wisdom that you can’t just cut and balanced. Let’s say there is an accusatory issue, we totally restart on a new blank page. So there will will try to call in both sides to comment, so at least be a semblance of old and new where we’re the news will be balanced. That’s our approach. If heading.” you have observed, in the Awani Newsroom, we like it that way and we practice that because we As reported in several newsroom studies are a news channel, not a propaganda channel” internationally and locally, it is a traditional practice within the media organizations that most Fade to Black editorial and other decisions lie in the hands of In conclusion, different newsrooms are run the management and when the management’s differently based on different stakeholders. Both hands are tied by the policies that conceal the TV3 and Awani in general have different practices, pegs and proxies, which in turn dictate influences in terms of decision making, from the decision making process in the newsrooms. industry level of inter-organization relations Most often than not, not adhering to these (competing organizations) to societal influences ‘guidelines’ would mean treading on thin ice. (government influences) and community or market influence (advertising). Both companies see Notwithstanding, this study shows that while themselves as information providers or mouth working in the newsrooms can be eventful with a piece of the rakyat. Advertising is also an lot adrenalin running on days where there is a big important and top priority as it contributes a story, it is also fraught with difficulties and substantial amount to the prolonged livelihood of challenges. As professionals in this industry, these organizations. reporters, editors and management in the position to do so must begin to reliably and systematically Theories of story selection for Awani is very much assess their own performances. journalistic centered as the structure is bottom up and very dynamic. The other theories such as

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3. Gans HJ (1980) Deciding What’s News. A study of 14. Faridah Ibrahim (1995) Role conflict and role CBS Evening News, NBC Nightly News, ambiguity among Malaysian journalists in Newsweek and Time. New York: Vintage Books. newsroom decision-making. PhD dissertation, 4. Roslina Abdul Latif and Faridah Ibrahim (2012) A UPM. study on the decision making process in 15. Overby CL (1995) Needed in newsrooms: Time to newsrooms and government policies under Dato’ think. American Journalism Review, 17 (6): 2. Sri Mohd Najib’s Administration: a Comparison 16. Shoemaker, P.J. and Reese, S.D. Mediating the between RTM and AstroAwani. Jurnal message: Theories of influences on mass media Komunikasi; Malaysian Journal of content. New York: Longman, 1996. Communication, 28 (2):205-226. 17. Fitzgerald, GA, Desjardins NM Organizational 5. Morris WT (1964) The analysis of management values and their relation to organizational decisions. Revised edition. Hometown, Illinois: performance outcomes. Atlantic Journal of Richard D. Irwin, Inc. Communication 12 (3):121-145, 2004. 6. Zey M (1992) Decision Making: Alternatives to 18. Connor PE, Becker BW (2003) Personal Value Rational Choice Models. London: Sage Systems and Decision Making Styles of Public Publications. International Education and Managers. Public Personnel Management Professional Publisher. 32(1):155-18. 7. Group Decision Making. The Center for the Study 19. Mossig I (2004) The networks Producing of Decision Making. London: Sage Publications Television Programmes in the Cologne Media Ltd. 1984. Cluster: New Firm Foundation, Flexible 8. Lee C (2001) Telecommunications Reforms in Specialization and Efficient Decision-making Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Faculty of Economics & Structur es. European Planning Studies, Vol. 12, Administration. University of Malaya. No.2. 9. Gomez ET (2004) The State of Malaysia: 20. Walle AH (2007) Commercial television, Ethnicity, Equity and Reform. London: Routledge globalization and the public interest: the history of Curzon, 2004. voice of firestone. International Journal of 10. Media Prima Berhad. Retrieved from Sociology and Social Policy. Emerald Backfiles. http://www.mediaprima.com.my/ 16th October New York, Ithaca College. 2010 21. Napoli PM, Zhaoxu Yan M (2007) Media 11. Astro. All Asia Networks. (2011). Retrieved from ownership regulations and local news http://www.astro.com.my. 26th January 2011. programming on broadcast television: An empirical analysis. Journal of broadcasting & 12. Shriver R, Malaysian Media: Ownership, Control electronic media. 51:39. and Political content. 2003. Retrieved from 22. Zaharom Nain & Mustafa K. Anuar. Ownership http://www.rickshriver.net.pdf 4thOctober 2010. and control of the Malaysian media. World 13. New Delhi Television Ltd. Retrieved from Association for Christian Communication.html. http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/corporatep 1998. Retrieved from http://waccglobal.org/5th age/index.aspx 2nd April 2013. October 2010.

Appendix

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 Informant A. News & Current Affairs Radio & Television Networks, Media Prima Berhad. 2012. Kuala Lumpur: Sri Pentas. Interview, 26th June.

 Informant B. News & Current Affairs Radio & Television Networks, Media Prima Berhad. 2012. Kuala Lumpur: Sri Pentas. Interview, 26th June.

 Informant C. News & Current Affairs Radio & Television Networks, Media Prima Berhad. 2012. Kuala Lumpur: Sri Pentas. Interview, 26th June.

 Informant D. News & Current Affairs Radio & Television Networks, Media Prima Berhad. 2012. Kuala Lumpur: Sri Pentas. Interview, 7th April.

 Informant E. Astro Awani Network Sdn Bhd. Interview 23rd June 2012.  Informant F. Astro Awani Network Sdn Bhd. Interview 13th July 2012.  Informant G. Astro Awani Network Sdn Bhd. Interview 13th July 2012.  Informant H. Astro Awani Network Sdn Bhd. Interview 19th July 2012.

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