Ijcrb.Webs.Com 1294 POSTMODERN MARKETING

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POSTMODERN MARKETING: TOWARDS A CONVERGENCE BETWEEN THE INDIVIDUALISTIC APPROACH AND THE TRIBAL APPROACH

Rabeb BLAIECH* (Corresponding author) Faculty of Economic Sciences and Management-Tunis-Tunisia

Abderrazak GHARBI* Faculty of Economic Sciences and Management-Tunis-Tunisia

Manel HAMOUDA* Faculty of Economic Sciences and Management-Tunis-Tunisia

(*Authors Names are sorted by alphabetical order)

Abstract This research focuses on the approaches that structure the postmodern marketing framework: the individualistic approach and the Latin approach. It is a synthesis work elaborated in order to show, firstly, the differences between these two approaches on the theoretical, epistemological and methodological levels. Secondly, we tried to overstep these differences by highlighting the common points. Our goal is to diffuse the understanding of postmodernism and to reduce the postmodern theorization contention by advocating a moderate vision that combines individualistic and Latin approach. Key words: Postmodern Marketing, individualistic approach, tribal approach, epistemology, methodology, convergence.

1. Introduction

Postmodernism was born due to the modernity myth saturation (Maffesoli, 1988 in Basilico, 2003; Venkatesh, Sherry and Firat, 1993). The origin of this paradigm has its first signs in areas such as art and architecture. It is that towards the 90s when Marketing and Management became aware of the postmodernism revolution (Venkatesh, Sherry and Firat, 1993). The growing implications of postmodernism affect, closely, various marketing subjects, as consumer behavior (Venkatesh, Sherry and Firat, 1993; Firat and Venkatesh, 1995; Joy and Venkatesh, 1994), consumption (Elliott, 1998; Cooper et al., 2005, Holt, 1997; Sandikci et al., 2002. Sitz and Amine, 2004; Chantelat et al., 2002), communication (Firat and Christensen, 2005; Patterson, 1998; Noah and Venkatesh, 1999) and industrial marketing (Arias et al., 2001). However, studies which have traced the panorama of the debates dealing with postmodern marketing highlight two main trends: the Latin versus the Anglo-Saxon. Thus, two distinct contributions were identified. The Anglo-Saxon school of thought sees that the fundamental change of postmodern marketing is the individualistic side of the consumer and the consumption (Firat and Venkatesh, 1993). Whereas, the Latin view believes that the tribalism of the consumer and the consumption experiences (Cova and Badot, 1994 in Cova, 2004) is the major feature that characterizes the postmodern marketing. Instead of trying to analyze these two trends and to studying their points of divergence and eventual convergences, the lack of consensus between these two schools of thought, led that contributions emerging from these debates were ignored (El Rigaux-Bricmont and Kamel, 2011) in consumer and consumption researches. So, the main question of this study is: to what extent can we reconcile between the individualistic approach and the tribal approach of the postmodern marketing?

This research aim is, therefore, the study of the convergence points between the two approaches in order to propose a moderate view. This moderate view enables postmodern marketing to be an analytical framework adapted to consumer research either alone or in group. So, a literature review was conducted and which presents, firstly, the research framework through the postmodernism definition and the rise of postmodern

ijcrb.webs.com JANUARY 2013 INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS VOL 4, NO 9 marketing. Secondly, an analysis of the characteristics of each approach will be made by showing its contributions on the theoretical, epistemological and methodological side. Thirdly and finally, a synthesis of the two approaches over the discussed sides will be realized in order to identify the convergence points between the individualistic and tribal approach.

2. Postmodernism and Postmodern Marketing

2.1. Postmodernism Postmodernism can be defined in different ways, but what seems to gather all the authors who addressing this subject; it is what Lyotard suggests that the societies do not meet the requirements defined by the modern thought context. According to him, these societies are defined by a return to the irrational, the subjectivity and the fragmentation. He proposes to use the term of "postmodern" to refer to the new cultural system, in which predominates the disbelief towards "metanarratives" (Lyotard, 1979) legitimizing knowledge and coexistence of multiple "language games" that takes body in the fragmentation of activities, particularly scientific (Lyotard, 1979, 1988). To better understand postmodernism, three approaches have been identified (Firat and Vankatech 1995): Critical postmodernism, Affirmative postmodernism and Liberatory postmodernism. - Critical postmodernism or skeptical postmodernism. Postmodernists, who adopt a critical perspective, consider postmodern conditions as the result of an excess of modernism, or what Jameson (1984) calls a "late capitalism". They stand for a radical break with the culture of late capitalism and a return to some of moral utopianism (Jameson, 1984, Ziegler, 1991). Skeptical postmodernists have adopted positions addressed with more inquisition than tolerance. By doing this, they forget even their basic precepts based on the multiplicity of a text meanings (Cova and al., 2012). So, this postmodern approach is considered as the most extreme postmodernism formulation. It tackles the basis of social science and questions it radically. - Affirmative postmodernism also called celebratory postmodernism. This postmodern approach address a direct criticism to modernism and calls for imminent dissolution of its metanarratives and great projects that seems to be timeless and unshakable (Vattimo, 1988). It encourages redefinitions and more elaborating research questions. - Liberatory postmodernism: This postmodernism approach is advanced by Firat and Venkatesh (1995). They are closer to "Celebratory postmodernism" in its modernism criticism and its belief in a liberating potential of postmodern conditions and postmodern ideas towards discourse and epistemology. Liberatory postmodernists partially agree with Jenks (1987) that postmodern conditions cannot be considered as an interruption and break of modernism, but an extension and maturation of it.

2.2. Postmodern Marketing Marketing field has not explicitly recognized postmodernism as a major descriptor of the current social condition that from the 90s (Lo 'pez-bonilla and Lo' pez-bonilla 2009). Postmodernism was introduced, initially, in marketing thanks to many authors such as Hirschman, Holbrook, Firat and Venkatesh, and it has resulted in considerable contributions (Saren, 2011), including a reflection on the paradigms to understand the postmodern consumption complexity (Hirschman and Holbrook, 1992) and the role of marketing in today's consumer society (Firat and Venkatesh, 1993; Badot and Cova 1992a, 1992b). The most recent postmodernism definition applied in marketing studies was proposed by Gerrit Van Raaij (1998) who defined it as: a cultural episode, characterized by a pluralism of styles (of consumption) and ideologies, a need for hyperreality and self- expression through consumption. The lack of consensus on postmodernism definitions and approaches is also transposed to the marketing discipline as researchers do not agree on marketing approaches applied in postmodernism context. Indeed, these approaches are marked by the duality individualism / tribalism. This duality in the vision of the postmodern marketing transformation is expressed even on a geographical way as individualistic approach is advocated by the North American or Anglo-Saxon view, while the tribal approach is strongly supported by the Latin view. Otherwise, the anglo saxon view or the individualistic approach applied to postmodern marketing fits rather in the liberatory postmodernism thought (Firat and Vankatech, 1995) whereas the latin postmodern marketing view would be integrated into the affirmative postmodernism approach (Cova and Badot, 1994 in Cova, 2004).Table1 summarizes the different approaches of postmodernism and postmodern marketing.

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3. Postmodern Marketing approaches: theoretical, epistemological and methodological contributions

The divergence of postmodernist approaches and visions applied to marketing is appeared in terms of theoretical differences related to consumer and consumption nature. On the epistemological side this divergence is seen by differences in the reality perception as well as in the research methods and evaluation criteria of scientific production as a methodological differences. Hence, in this section, we will try to study the theoretical, epistemological and methodological contributions of the individualistic approach and the tribal approach applied to postmodern marketing research.

3.1. Individualistic approach The individualistic approach is supported by the proponents of the North American view, Anglo-Saxon or also called Nordic view. They advocate that the postmodern era is the era of the individualism, which is the main feature of the postmodern consumption and postmodern consumer behavior.

3.1.1 Theoretical contributions - Postmodern individualism: This approach initiated by Firat (1991), Van Raaij (1993), Firat and Venkatesh (1993), is trying to adapt to the fragmentation and the postmodern individualism. It is looking to the consumer proximity. This approach is also advocated by Lipovetsky (1990), who sees in the postmodern era, an era of individualism resurgence marked by an authority crisis and a social vacuum. According to him, postmodern society has no idol, no taboo, no more glorious image of itself, no more inspiring historical project (Lipovetsky, 1983). The individual is free of all life ideals and societal obligations which he felt bounded in the modern era, the individual is becoming left to himself. He is completely autonomous. This customization process, called "trial personalization" by Lipovetsky (1983), begins to have its impact on social relationship as far the individual triumph group. In today's societies, expertise and authority are as much more situated on the consumer side than the supplier one (Keat et al, 1994). Indeed, it is a consumer with developed skills by the accumulation of daily experiences with a product or service. A consumer with a set of theoretical knowledge acquired through the information technology proliferation, especially Internet. Knowledge and skills that form the basis of the consumers‟ power against suppliers power what drive Hemetsberger (2003) to describe the postmodern consumer as a "prosumer" because consumers are involved in the production process and even seem to be the first producers of consumer experience. This power shift seems to be explained not only by a growing institutional distrust and increasing consumers‟ skills, but also by a change in society legitimation systems. One of the most prominent evidence of this structural change is the heroes of popular culture (Eco, 1978 in Vankatech and Firat, 1993). Nowadays heroes appear more as more simple heroes, not as super heroes with supernatural and incredible powers. On this regard Eco (1978 in Vankatech and Firat, 1993) states that it is television which imposed the everyman against the superman, by offering of the everyday man model with his weaknesses and imperfections: a model in which each one can find himself. -Postmodern individualism reasons: The main purpose of the individualistic approach is to build, develop and maintain a relationship with a clearly identified customer, rather than to fill a market composed of a mass of unknown persons grouped into homogeneous segments (Firat and Venkatesh, 1993). So, this approach recommends the abandon of mass marketing to direct marketing based on a customers and well known prospects database relayed by an industrial organization in order to realize a "mass customization". The principle of marketing practice adapted to the postmodern individual age can then be considered as follows: a highly personalized marketing form which enables to recognize, understand, appreciate and serve the interests and needs of consumers whose personal identities and marketing profiles are known (Firat, 1991; Van Raaij, 1993; Firat and Venkatesh, 1993). The argumentation of this approach is based on the following reasons:

- If we cannot divide the market into homogeneous and stable segments, so, it remains only to track individually the consumer (as technology progress including computing permits it); - If the consumer is fickle, in perpetual movement, it is necessary to try at least to predict its behavior and to be able to react as quickly as possible to its new aspirations through a continuous contact; - If the consumer is individualistic, then, he looks for all which allows him to maintain and develop its freedom, as a trust relationship with a supplier who releases him from the material life aspects by the offered service quality; - If the consumer seeks to differentiate itself, he asks for individualized products and services that only a constant, close and interactive contact, close and interactive enables to provide it.

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- Individualistic postmodern consumption: At the consumption level and in the context of the individualistic approach, postmodern consumer behavior researchers, privileged an experiential vision which emphasize the regret values as well as the individual subjectivity (Addis and Holbrook, 2001) rather than a functional and progressive consumption vision. From a micro-economic and psychological origin, the functional and progressive vision highlights the information search and influence multi-attribute mechanisms processing to optimize a transaction made by a single individual. Whereas, in the experiential perspective of consumption, the individual is considered as no more seeking to maximize a profit but as claiming a hedonistic gratification. The market is, thus, characterized by a " re enchanted " offer and emotions produced by imaginary projections which not only trying to meet needs, but it affecting the consumer's quest for identity (Bud- Renault, 2007; Filser, 1996). Individualistic approach precursors speak of a "reenchantment of consumption" (Firat and Vankatesh, 1995) to report the break with the modern disenchantment consumption which had rationalized consumers‟ lives and made everything measured in terms of utility. Hence, the simple act of “consumption” is a means to enchant consumer daily life, indeed, Firat and Dholakia (1998. p96) argued that: “for the postmodern consumer, consumption is not a mere act of devouring, destroying, or using things. It is also not the end of the (central) economic cycle, but an act of production of experiences and selves or self-images . . . The way to enhance and enchant life is to allow multiple experiences, to be sensed emotionally as well as through reason, utilizing all the aspects of being human . . . Life is to be produced and created, in effect, constructed through the multiple experiences in which the consumer immerses”.

3.1.2. Epistemological and methodological contributions The epistemology is the study of science. It ensures to completely ignore things that are aimed by science, but it considers the science itself as an object. It assigns as the exclusive domain of study what science says, not what science carries about (Blanché, 1972). The use of a research method is based on the choice of a mode among three investigation modes: a quantitative, qualitative and mixed mode (both quantitative and qualitative). This choice is, often, the result of an epistemological choice (positivism / constructivism, ....). The individualistic or Anglo-Saxon approach applied to postmodern marketing slots rather into the liberatory postmodernism which considers that the postmodern conditions can not be in a complete break with modernism, but an extension of it (Firat and Venkatesh, 1995). Therefore, according to this approach, marketing researchers do not reject epistemologies and methodologies of previous research. Indeed, these epistemologies and methodologies remain valid in the context of social science research in general and in marketing research in particular. Moreover, the marketing literature review conducted to study the postmodern consumer as an individual (as advocated by the North American individualistic approach) shows that research within this approach involve several types of study mainly quantitative, qualitative, or both, consequently these research are positioning on more than an epistemology (Firat and Shultz, 2001; Kniazeva and Venkatesh, 2007, Elliott, 1994; Mustonen and Honkanen, 2007). Within the individualistic approach generated by the Anglo-Saxon school of thought, researchers do not advocate the abandonment of the "scientific” procedures which use for example cognitive psychology methods, information processing and mathematical modeling in so far as liberatory postmodernism never suggests a complete rupture in the scientific process (Firat and Venkatesh, 1995). Liberatory postmodernism researchers, simply, argue that "scientific" knowledge is not the only source of knowledge and that science does not have to aim at a universal knowledge. The scientific argument should combine with the narrative discourse to produce a richer scientific texture that enables a better knowledge of the consumer as well as his consumption process. Liberatory postmodernism researchers consider postmodernism as a post-universal science and not as a post-science (Firat and Venkatesh, 1995). Besides, this approach, suggests, the adoption of new epistemological positionings jointly with the existing positionings and consequently the use of new mode of investigation such as the ethnographic investigations (Belk et al., 1988; Kates 2000, 2002; Schouten and Alexander Mc 1995) performed especially when it comes to study the individual behavior in a community or a specific subculture. Phenomenological studies have been initiated by several researchers in studies on possessions and relationship between objects (Belk, 1988; Sherry 1993, 1995) or within the critical hermeneutics context (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988). The individualistic approach proposes to extend these phenomenological studies in the postmodern framework. Venkatech speaks even about the apparition of a new paradigm called the "ethno-consumerism," which refers to other ways of reflection about consumption practices (Venkatesh, 1995).

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3.2. Tribal approach The Latin marketing (meridian or south) is to integrate in the broader approach of “affirmative posmodernism” (Cova and Badot, 1994 in Cova, 2004). This school tries to provide an alternative model to what is called "the American way of life" by promoting a southern thought (Mediterranean) applied to marketing that takes into account the specificities of this geographical area.

3.2.1. Theoretical contributions - Postmodern tribalism: This approach is grounded on the Latin way of life, characterized by consumers who like to live together in tribes, especially in a time marked by individualism. Similarly, their daily practices are made of objects and symbols re appropriation from the market system rather than a simple participation in it (Cova, 1999; 2004). Tribal marketing is more communal than individual and at its center we found tribes or communities. Relations in these groups relies more on social ties than market relationship (Remy, 2001; Badot and Cova, 1995). Tribes are considered as the unit of analysis of the Latin approach. They are defined by Maffesoli (1988, in Roncaglio and Cova, 1999), the spiritual father of this concept, as “crystallized event, societal effervescence, more than socio-economic object clearly defined: it‟s a temporary and highly emotional grouping of dissimilar persons. It is not a closed object, it is an open system.” The use of tribal metaphor seems to be in perfect harmony with postmodern re rooting of individuals and the resurgence of archaic values (local particularities, religiosity, group narcissism …). In fact, emotional communities (Badot and Cova, 1995) or affectual (Maffesoli, 1996 in Cova and Cova, 2002) try to refresh the ideal neighborhood community or village without necessarily being spatially defined. Some use all the resources of new media (computers, tablets ...) to form virtual tribes, where face to face and physical co-presence are not always required (Badot and Cova, 1995; Cova and Cova, 2002).

- Postmodern consumption: The new vision advocated by the Latin school affects two important aspects of marketing: consumption and value. In fact, this approach considers the consumption from a micro social perspective. In other terms, it focuses on the interaction between persons. It is also called "societal level" (Maffesoli, 1996 in Cova and Cova, 2002) or "primary level of sociality" (Godbout and Caille, 1992 in Cova and Cova, 2002), done with daily interactions and emotions. The micro-social level of analysis would then disclose elements imperceptible if we take them one by one, but discerned through collective experience (Cova and Cova, 2002). - The value of goods and points of sales: To characterize the postmodern social dynamics, Maffesoli (1988 in Cova, 2004) focuses on the tribal atmosphere that grows increasingly. Whereas, Certau (1980 in Cova, 2004) considers that the ordinary man invents his daily through the art of turning away objects and codes in order to reclaim at his manner the use and the space. Among the contributions of the Latin school that can be highlighted due to their relevance to the whole theory and practice of marketing, is the concept of product and services "link value" (Cova, 1997) and therefore "tribal marketing" (Cova and Cova, 2002b). The link value is a concept borrowed from recent work in anthropology and sociology. It has been defined by Godbout and Caillé (1992, in Cova, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2002 and 2003) as: "the value of a good or a service in the construction or strengthening of links between persons, past or present, real or imagined." Thus, to satisfy their desire for community, postmodern individuals are more looking for product and services for their linking value than for their use value, whether functional or symbolic (Godbout and Caille, 1992 in Badot and Cova, 1995). Tribalism seems to command a redefinition of products and services value. They play the role of cult product and place supporting link and interdependence between persons. The cult item is a product or a service that acts as a support for the strengthening of neo-tribal relationships (Badot and Cova, 2003; Cova and Cova, 2001). It represents a vector of communion such as the totem for primitive tribes. The cult item serves as a magnet for the postmodern tribes and as a support for their rituals (Badot and Cova, 1995; Cova, 1997). The valorization of social aspects is a relatively new phenomenon. Hence, products that enable to connect and be close are rare. Consequently, postmodern individuals try to found vectors of link out of the market or to turn away vectors in the market from their original purpose (Badot and Cova, 1995). Similarly to the cult objects, places play the role of social ties support. These distribution sites can be perceived and conceived as favorite territory for tribes to practice their rituals. They become both servuction places and ritualization places (Badot and Cova, 1995; Cova, 1997) or "living space" (Remy, 2001). In cult places, consumers can develop social link with sellers or other clients (Badot and Cova, 2003). Thus, to give to the modern places of distribution a hint of link value, some propose to put the emphasis on the funfair…

ijcrb.webs.com JANUARY 2013 INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS VOL 4, NO 9 others propose a set of micro-community-based events. All those initiatives tend to promote intimate contact between customers in a space designed to enable the conduct of ritual activities around an ethic theme (Badot and Cova, 1995). To do this, the Latin school proposes to go beyond the proximity state advocated by the Nordic School, to that of intimacy (Cova, 199; Rémy, 2002). In other words, not just to be close to customers without sharing anything with them.

3.2.2. Epistemological and methodological contributions Tribal marketing belongs to the affirmative postmodern paradigm and joins its epistemological evolution with the shift from positivism to interpretativism. This is called by Sherry (1991, in Merle, 2003) the "interpretativist turn in consumer behavior research." Tribal marketing fits in the interpretative thought (Cova and Roncaglio, 1999) which focuses on the consumer experiences to observe and interpret them through many views as offered by different theories and methods (Arnould and Price, 1993 and Roncaglio in Cova, 1999; Arnould and Thompson, 2005). Thus, most of the research on communities and subcultures, when trying to enroll in a postmodern epistemological position, use ethnographic investigations (Belk et al., 1988; Kates 2000, 2002; Schouten and Mc Alexander, 1995). The researcher becomes at the same time an instrument of collection and of analysis as he has to immerse in the studied phenomenon. Introspection is a methodological approach advocated by Latin postmodernist, as deconstruction and interpretation (Rosenau, 1992). To understand consumer, Cova opts for the ethnosociological view which mitigates the psychological view adopted by the majority of marketing researchers (Cova and Roncaglio, 1999). Psychology focuses on the influence of A on B (A being an individual or a group), the power of A over B, the contamination of B by A or imitation of A by B. however, ethno sociology is interested in what makes the link between A and B or better to the being together AB, to the emotion shared between A and B. (Cova and Roncaglio; Cova, 1999; Cova and Cova, 2002). So, to be included within the Latin postmodern paradigm, researches on group‟s behavior should focus on the how rather than the why. In other terms they should focus on the link rather than on its psychological and social antecedents. Similarly, methods of analysis should focus and even be limited to what is qualitative (Merle, 2003). Thus, some Nordic research like those of Bagozzi et al. (2002, 2006) although they are interested in the study of consumers as members of virtual communities, are not considered by the Latin as falling within the postmodern paradigm (Merle, 2003) insofar they tend to mathematically model the behavior of a postmodern person defined as volatile and unpredictable.

4. Convergence between the individualistic and the tribal approach of postmodern marketing: Towards a temperate (moderate) Vision The characteristics of individualistic and tribal approaches can raise many points of divergence, which supports the lack of consensus between advocates of the two schools. First of all Nordic and Latin school disagree about the unit of analysis. Indeed, while the first focuses on the study of individuals, even if they may be considered in the context of their community membership, the second focuses on the group dimension as an object of study. At this level, it is important to note that the conceptualization of communities or tribes as called by southern school is different from their Anglo-Saxon counterparts. This difference is more salient in the context of virtual communities. In fact, Bernard (2004) was inspired by Rheingold‟s definition (1995) to elicit two conditions necessary in order to qualify a group of “virtual community”. These conditions are: members‟ number and interaction‟s continuity in time. However, Latin researchers are prudent in their use of virtual community nomination and consider that these two criteria are necessary but not sufficient. So, they add the conditions put forward by Muniz and O'Guinn (2001), namely consciousness of communities members to form a group, the existence of rituals and traditions and a sense of moral responsibility. Secondly, Nordic and Latin school differ according to consumption. Whereas the first one focuses on individuals, the second one is based on the study of postmodern consumers‟ grouped around a common passion or ethos. This new sight opens the door to the so called community approaches of consumption (Badot and Cova, 1995; Cova, 1997; Cova and Pace, 2005). On the other hand, the Latin approach is thus distinguished by its holistic vision of consumption (Cova and Cova, 2002). It is interested in the person as a member of a tribe, and not as an independent being trying to gather as much experience as possible. This side is relatively neglected by Nordic approaches (Ostergaard and Jantzen, 2000, in Cova and Cova, 2002). We spend so "the study of consumer behavior" to that of "the study of consumption behavior" (Ostergaard and Jantzen, 2000, in Cova and Cova, 2002). In this context, the meanings and symbols associated to products and services are built within the tribal culture.

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Thus, we observe a significant divergence between the two schools in the overall vision of marketing. The Anglo-Saxons (Firat and Venkatesh, 1993) perceive marketing as a system reducing the lack of community. So, they set in the society representations and meanings to compensate for the individual‟s isolation. Whereas, southern researchers consider marketing as “community link vector” by setting in the society objects and places designed to support multiple tribal affiliations. However, despite the differences between the two schools, many common points could be identified advocating a moderate approach. These points of convergence are analyzed according to three aspects: theoretical, epistemological and methodological.

4.1. The theoretical convergence Anglo-Saxon approach differs from its Latin counterpart by its emphasis on “functionality of the offer” and “customer service”. It also focuses on the establishment of a personal relation between the company and its customers. Latin researchers go beside those aspects by according importance to the sharing link and the reinforcement of relations between the customers themselves (Badot and Cova, 1995). But despite differences between the two approaches, they have on the theoretical level one thing in common: they closely study consumers (Brown, 1993, 1994) that are either alone or in groups. A better understanding of the consumer is, in fact, the ultimate goal of both approaches. According to the unit of analysis (individual versus group), we can also shed the light on a second point of convergence between the two approaches. Indeed, Anglo-Saxons are more flexible and their research on virtual communities include chat rooms, bulletin boards, discussion groups (Dholakia et al., 2004; From Valck et al., 2009; Pentina, 2008) and online forums in general. This perspective opens the opportunity to study a larger number of groups influencing online consumer behavior. It may, however, overestimate their potential by the excessive use under the label "virtual communities". While Latin are very restrictive in their use of the term “virtual communities” as a unit of analysis and its application is only plausible under certain brand communities called "cult" (Badot and Cova, 1995; Cova, 1997). Thus, researches remain limited in this regard to some brand communities as "Harley Davidson" and "Apple". In this research we can bring closer the two perspectives in favor of a moderate position. It considers that a group is described as a community only if: (1) it contains a sufficient number of people (2) interacting for a sufficient and enough time (3) for human relationships to be forged. On the other hand, whether Latin or Nordic, both schools agree on what they call the "re-enchantment of consumption" (Firat and Venkatesh, 1995), indicating the liberation from rationalist (meeting consumer needs) and assert a sensualist claim (Badot and Cova, 2003). Distribution and consumption while leaving their economic function and status would go to replace the religions (Patterson, 1998; Badot and Cova, 2003). In addition, the redefinition of postmodern consumption by the two approaches as "re enchanted" or "experiential" emphasizes the importance of taking into account the affective dimension. A long neglected aspect by modernism in favor of the rational individual acting to maximize his profit. At the end of this observation, the Nordic propose to be close to new experiences essentially created by postmodern people. While Latin try to overstep this state of proximity to that of intimacy through placing in the market products and spaces that support the link between group members. That helps living extraordinary experiences in the terms of Arnould and Price (1993). Therefore, whatever it is proximity value or link value, the two definitions tend in the new conceptualization of consumption to focus on the hedonistic dimension with varied degrees of interventions from companies. 4.2. The epistemological and methodological convergence In theory, postmodern epistemology applied to social sciences is post-positivist and anti-positivist (Rosenau 1992). Linked to the refusal of "metanarratives" (Lyotard 1979), epistemology shows the need for contextualized theories until there is no objective reality, but realities corresponding to the meanings attributed by those who perceive them (Rosenau 1992). On the other hand, the historical reality was that postmodernism had several aspects. One aspect of postmodernism is that it is a state of knowledge and expression of theoretical thought. The thinker who reasons about this aspect of postmodernity will therefore focus on expression of theoretical thought. In other words, they are discourse (theoretical) which constitute the object of his analysis. He expressed them in a metalanguage, that is to say, a language of second degree referred to an object (Bauman, 1992). According to the individualistic approach, although it uses interpretativism and existing epistemologies in order to have a richer scientific production on consumer and consumption. In one hand, it tends to favor positivism in the majority of its work. On the other hand, it uses within a given research either interpretativism and narrative discourse or statistical tools, but not a combination of both.

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Depending on to the tribal approach of postmodern marketing, changes in the nature of knowledge sought for, is naturally accompanied by upheavals in research methodologies: with the passage from social psychology, which focuses on the individual in society, to more ethnographic methods, focusing on groups as the unit of analysis (Cova and Cova, 2001). Various studies under the postmodern marketing clearly show that both individualistic and tribal approaches have used multiple epistemologies (positivism, constructivism and interpretativism). At this level of analysis, we consider that in order to understand the person‟s behavior in all its complexity, it is useful to use multiple methods and modes of investigation: qualitative, quantitative, but also mixed without departing from the scope of postmodern analysis. This research tries to advocate a moderate vision between the Latin school and the Nordic School of postmodernism. It opens the way for the study of individuals with the ethnology tools. It also allows the study of postmodern groups by tools of social psychology. Not to mention the possibility of combining two different analytical methods within the same search. Indeed, in the postmodern perspective, marketing researcher can handle anything that arouses their interest and they can implement with their acquired knowledge. The researcher can deepen areas already studied before. When he adopts a different perspective or if he manages to expose different conclusions or even more detailed than the previous results, it then produces new scientific knowledge. It is a revolutionary interpretation: modernism invited researchers to investigate only what we already knew, while postmodernism does not pay attention to the research field, but only to the theory generated. This implication relative to the field of inquiry is closely related to postmodernism effects on possible methods of investigation adopted. It is not the adoption of a particular method which makes scientific a discipline, but the theory generated. Then, the researcher has the right to use any method. Of course, the quantitative methods are valid, but qualitative methods can be used in conjunction therewith, from ethnography to the narrative and discourse analysis (Addis and Podesta, 2005). Thus we can conclude that, as a methodology of social sciences in general and marketing in particular, the postmodern is not a set of operating rules, but rather a set of innovations whose content remains to be explained (Bourdieu, 1993). The postmodern epistemology seems rather bring the researcher to what Bourdieu (1993) calls a combination of various fragments of epistemology. At this level we agree with Cova (2004) to say “there are as many forms of postmodernism as there are postmodernists” provided that the various attempts bring more into the explanation of the person in all its complexity. 5. Conclusion The table 2 summarizes the different elements that we have just discussed by drawing the points of divergence between the Latin and the Nordic schools of thought. It highlights the convergence which can combine the two individualistic and tribal approaches in a moderate vision. The purpose of this research was to reduce the debate on the differences between the individualistic approach and the tribal approach which tends to prevail the most appropriate approach to better conduct studies and research undertaken within the postmodern marketing framework. Following a study of the contributions of each approach, several points of differences were highlighted. While individualistic approach views postmodernism as an era of individualism resurgence and therefore consider the postmodern consumer as individualistic and suggests to combine several methodologies in order to study him; The tribal approach judges the postmodern marketing as a " community link vector" and consequently sees the postmodern consumer not asking for products and services to be more free (as recommended in the North American vision) but he is looking for objects and services places to connect with others. And this approach recommends the adoption of an interpretivist turn in the research related to this postmodern consumer. However, a synthesis of the contributions of both approaches in the postmodern marketing research has shown that in spite of the differences between the two visions, they have many points in common. On the theoretical level, on one hand, both approaches are looking for better understanding the consumer, on other hand, they agree on the new role of consumption which is facing the postmodern individual (either alone or in a group), a consumption described as "re enchanted." On the epistemological and methodological level, we found, firstly, that in the postmodern perspective, the marketing researcher can get into all subject that attract his interest and, secondly, we noted that in the social sciences methodology in general and marketing methodology in particular, the postmodern researcher is not tied to a set of fixed rules, but rather a set of epistemologies and methodologies which may be used separately or simultaneously. It is in this sense that Goulding (2003 In El Kamel and Rigaux-Bricmont, 2011) argues that postmodernism is "amorphous" as far as the pluralism represents its central feature. So, the reconciliation between both approaches seems imminent because their ultimate goal is to get closer to the consumer. Thus, the postmodern marketing researcher is no longer obliged to have a positioning regarding the approach that he will adopt in his research because, at the end, both approaches converge and may form a single temperate, moderate or even mixed approach.

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Annexure

Tables

Table 1: Postmodernism and Postmodern Marketing approaches (Source : Authors’ Compilation)

Postmodern Postmodernism Position towards Authors Marketing Approach Modernism Approach Baudrillard (1983) Critical Jameson (1984) postmodernism / Ziegler (1991) Break Skeptical postmodernism

Affirmative postmodernism Vattimo (1988) Redefinition Latin /Celebratory postmodernism (Cova and Badot, 1994)

Firat andVenkatesh Liberatory postmodernism Anglo-Saxon/Nordic (1995) Extension

Table 2: Towards the convergence of the tribal and the individualistic approach of Postmodern Marketing (Source: Authors’ Compilation) Individualistic approach / Anglo Tribal approach / saxon(Nordic) school of thought Latin school of thought

Analysis object Analysis unit - Individuals -Affectual tribes - Individuals as a community members Postmodern groups Are considered only as postmodern Are considered as postmodern group and Terminology groups and called “tribes”, the interchangeably called tribes or community, groups which meet the criteria any group of persons overstepping the advanced by Muniz and O'Guinn modern links to a common passions. (2001) Convergence It is important to exceed the individual analysis framework to a wider framework taking into account postmodern groups

Consumption Nature Consumption analysis - Purchase Act (selection and - Consumption Act (experiences) unit decision criteria) - Consumption Act (experiences) Consumption analysis - Individual Level - Micro social level (holistic level) level - Studying consumer behavior - Studying consumption behavior within whether alone or as a part of a groups community belonging Products and places Customer proximity notion: a Intimacy notion or "link value" : a system value notion system which enables to fulfill the which enables to provide the market with lack of community goods and/or places to support community links (cult objects, cult places and passions sellers)

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Convergence Need to adapt the consumption conceptualization in order to reflect its re enchanted, more hedonic and more experiential character, which is unanimously accepted by the two schools of thought.

Epistemology and methodology Epistemological Post-positivist (extension of Anti-positivist (interpretivist turn ) fundaments modern positivist methods by using interpretivist methods)

Adopted Disciplines Social psychology Ethnography, Anthropology, Sociology Or Ethnography, Anthropology,Sociology

Research method statistical tools Field studies, photography, video, Or introspection Field studies, photography, video, introspection Convergence Need to resort to several epistemologies to be able to understand the postmodern consumer, the postmodern consumption, the influence mechanisms as well as the links mechanisms. In conclusion, using all available disciplines in order to capture the multiple facets of the postmodern person and to lead him to his experiential quest.