Durham E-Theses
The geography of the swamp rice region of coastal Sierra Leone
Hewapathirane, Daya U.
How to cite: Hewapathirane, Daya U. (1966) The geography of the swamp rice region of coastal Sierra Leone, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/9695/
Use policy
The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-pro t purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source
• a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses
• the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders.
Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details.
Academic Support O ce, Durham University, University O ce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 'BSE GeBOGRAlOr Cff SHE
SWAHP BIGB RSCSCON OP COf&TO, Simtk Wm
Dl8QUttati«n oubiBlttcd in Uoxch 1966
to tho Unlvorsity •£ Durham, England,
fw? tho ckigxxjo liostur ef Arts
by
The copyright of this thesis rests with the author.
No quotation from it should be published without
his prior written consent and information derived
from it should be acknowledged. PREFACE
Tids sttK^ vroQ m0» ppsoilijUi by a S&txsoroh Fbllefv70hip
gtont off ysor 196^3^ uncler th® CoBnonowclth SohslArship md TttUmaiAp Plcoi. Bda&curoh was ottntzvd ot Pourah Bay CoiUese* tho Univer• sity ColX@se 6if Sierra Iicem) undor thi sia^rviBim of Professor J eli03>>rtati@n incQziporat&s the z^ssaroh work unclurtakm chuins a period of mm mpnths. The diotzibutionol ospsets of thn study n^oessltatcd th^ ^yatoinatio iDcqpping ^ mm^B, snronp xle@ londs end otfa^r nuleited frnturoo* Tfai» 1:50,000 aocHM nspa (First edition in 1961) prdduasd by the Dirootorat© ef Overseas aurvssys w»re us«d as bas« mpBf which ars the loost up»to 9ov«ring th& mai»xn half ef thu country worn available at thu tiins of censtidtation. fx&a thuso, svranp rio^, nangreva, grass• land swanks, cJotL other swanip lends plottod. Timat traeings w«»r@ XN0duo«d to 1:260,000 using th^ Grant Pro>etor, end 181 anq^a w«ir9 siado shewing ettparatoly tho four dlstxibvttion pottoma. Haterlol frqn thsso na^s was uaod to ooiqpilo four ntaps (en tho BcnB scsalo) to de^et tho f^ distribution patterns in th@ me^m half of ths Muntiy QB a whole« Subsequently these four tBcqio w^ro phatographicoUy n^duoed to th^ scale of 1:500,000» li onl QP8 incajr^rat^d in this dissertation* At all stages of th@ cGBidl&tion« o. dstenoinkl effork woo Bjoda to ochLdve noxi- mm meaxsteg ond perfection. Aerial photogrc^hs of Siorm iLsQi^ taken by tfau Foirsy Air SiirvoyG Liodtud, in 1958 and In 1962 xf&ni oenQt£UDt3y referred te, to ocquiro dutoilcd infonnation. A xasSi&r ef eth»r eriginal aeyps ox& inoludwl in thia Otuciiy, A f@v7 un^oublishBd m^a of 7ref«os@r J« I. Clark, Dr« S. Gregexy, (Senior Ziectunir« IMvor^ty ef LiTezpool) and Mr« F.E. Hitc|i»ll, (s«nier Lisotuziir, Poured 6c^ GoUofv) an (Bi&odiod in tha dissertation for trhieh t &m midi timnks to tfaom, Fi^ld rSQdansh was sRicc&ae£\3ll^ UQdsrtaloQn nostly bocaxustt vf tho coKjporation and holp trillingly givim by wcuny individuals too ntanarauii to nuntion hure, Thu cuthor Tbeing a foreigjaQr, loss acquainted with local conditions, perhaps v/ouid not havu boen oelo to ccnduct propor field T7ork, if not for the oesiatonoo of aoTOral local school toochttrs and Gevernnent Officicls v/h© patitsntly intciprettsd in the local languQgds - l&ancks and Tissm, t sz^atly f^iprociato ths hospitality and help tho chiefs ejad farmara and also ©f a wunibsr of private individoals both local and foreign* Dr* H.p^ Jordan, th» Director ef thcs Rioe Bcisoaroh i^totion at IU>k£pr, and strVwral othttr effio^ro of Gowmnsnt iii I)&|«txts»nts ~ AgiieuLture end Natural Besouro@o; Rio@; Co• operative; Lalido and Surveys *• have given th^r tisu generously to oftower ny ^etions and to prevlcte m vfith valuablo infieiro- ation, TQ oil thsoe iniivlduQlo and institutions £ coUeotively comey qy sinosre thanks. Tim writing of th& dissertation was oenluoted under the thoughtful guidanse ef ProiVssser J* t. dax^ke, whose c^reach to the stuc^y of Geogztph^ to a considsroble ext ?t3Ddily soy, to ©xoeptianal critical ability. His scholarly wisdoiB woo generously j^ven to further isy 9m geographical ^nderstanEliJ|1lS# I esg^ss iqy deep grEititucle and thanks to him, vitmo oQsooiation thou^ unfortunateljr limited to a cpm of nine nx^nths, would be always gratefully resMnnbered by me. Messrs. P. K. Uitohell, G.J. WiUlans, S.J.A, Neloon and other odleagues of the Dopartnent of Geography of Fourah Bay College, have tkx>ugh9ut oontzibuted suggestieno and oritiolSDs for v/hioh t m thankful to them. JSy grateful thoughts and ros^pects to the Govumnents of both Ceylon and Sierm Leono, for tha opporfcutAty afforded to this stu^. 1^ parents who have alwi^ inspired and encouraged jjB partictdarly In ny academic work, are rDsgectfully zoBuncber^d hexu. September, 1966. DAXA. WSlit HEJVAPiflJHrRAHE. TjmE OP CX3NTERTS PREPACE i IJST TABLES • LIST OP MAES AMD DTAGBAIB Chester t. nmJODTJCKOH 2 It. SWAMES OP SIERRA lECKE 26 m. MfilffiROVE SWAMES 42 I?. GRASSI^ CR KTVERAU* SWAMPS 86 V. OTHER SffAMES OR mLAHD VAL££I SVAMES 118 VI. SWAMP RICS IN THE COASTAL REGICW .; , 152 Vn. PHESICAL FACTORS AFFECTING DTSTRtBlTOCK OP SWAMP RICE. 154 Vm. TB(2iNIQCES AHD METHODS OP SWAMP RICE CUUTIVATIOR 188 IX. PRODIJCTION AHD YIELDS 216 X. PROCESSING OP KTCE 227 XI. SOKE EOONOMrC AHD SOCIAL FACTORS 242 » SEUBCTED mMSKXSUiPSX 269 LIST OP TABtfiS Poeu TdSlo 1. ESTIMATES OP POPULATION OP SIERRA LBCfllB 19 2. RICE I1SX)RIS , 22 3. MECHANICAL HiOUGBCNG THE DEPARTMENT Cff* AGRICULTURE ... US 4. SWAMP RICE AiCSlEAlS OP TEE SCARdES AREA - 1930 140 5. DOUBLE CROPPING (Muan Yiold in lbs. ppr aoru) 191 6. liSmNICAL CULTtVATION IN THE COASTAL REGION - 1964 200 7. RICE PiaODUCTION 1987/58 - 198^63 216 8. PSQDnCTTON - 196^63 217 9. MTLLING IN QOVEENMEin RICE MELI£ - 1963 230 10. PETGBS OP LOCALLY PARBOILED AND KCLLED RICE, IKaUSIVE OP TRANSPORT COSTS - 196V65 246 LIST OP MAPS m> miJ3sm ' Pagu Piguro 1 AMCNISTRATtVE DTVTSIONS - SIERRA LEONE , 1 2 KrCE REGION - TROPICAL TOST APRIGA 8 3 NATURAL VEGETATION 11 4 DBtaiAJM) SECONDARI FOBEST AND SAVANNA 13 5 SWAMPS 29 6 SWAMPS - WEST SAMU CHtEFDOM 52 7 SWAMPS - LOWER BOMPE 54 8 msroVE SPECIES - DISTHIBOriON (HXPOTHETICAL) 44 9 RTBI AND LOWER BDMPB - MANCSDVE LAND 48 10 MANGSJDVE 60 U ETBI IXJBEK BDMEE - ELEVATION 56 12 MEAN m^Mj RAINFALL; WET SEASON RAINFALL FERC0ITA(£; »EAN DAILJT U&XtMDM TElffERATURES 62 13 EJHSTTNG AND POTEIHIAL BICE LAND - 1938 70 14 SWAMP GRASSLAND , 88 15 RIVER GATCHJm AREAS 92 16 PRECAIOTAN ROKEL RIVER SERIES ((2!0L0(SrCAL) 101 17 OTHER SWAMPS , 120 Til Fifuxv Betfo 3d SWAMP EtCB 139 29 SWAMP RIQB (COASTAL RBGtON) 135 20 SCAROm RIVERS WEST SAMU (SiXSFDGM RICE RBGZQR .... 142 21 mA ^ WAANJE > KZTTAli - HALS? RTVESS RICE RECKON ... 140 22 SOARGISS RIVERS AREA - BELIEP 155 29 TEHPESAXORB - RQiaiFRi TElflPERATQES BQ9)THB; MEAN HELATIVB BUMIDm; MEAN DAILI SUiSBCNB 158 24 lElAN ANNUAL RAINFALL 162 25 RAIHPAIL 165 26 WET SEASON RAINFALL 107 2? RAINFALL FBRCBNTAGE IN WET SEASGH (MAI -MOV.) ...... 169 $8 DOT SEASON RAHPALL (JM!. - AHtIL) 171 29 MECHANICAL CaLTTVATlOlf 197 90 IffiCmNICAL OULnVATKm SCARGXES RIVERS > FORT USED (SEEK. REGIGH; SEWA ^ WAANJIE KITIAM - MAmi RIVERS RBGICK 199 91 RICE MXI2S AND ROADS - SGARCIES RIVEBS AREA 254 32 00>OPERATIV£ RICE MARKETING SOCIETIES 269 1 ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS ^jgRRA LEONE KOINADUGU DT. BOMBALI \ O R T HIB V I N R/^T L 0 K vt K O N O TONKO LIL I /^*ErS)T E R N . B O \ PROV/NCE M O Y A M B A V or 11 / SOUTH'ERN KAILAHUN , \ DT BOUNDARIES INTERNATIONAL PROVINCIAL DISTRICT r^r] MILES 40 Fig. !• CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Soiw kspcata of Rjoo Cultuiy In tho Tropjos Rico oulturu in tho tr^oal ^Torld wll uaui^if ius nan* s diffUrunt ruaotiona to simllor physical conc^tions. This is vsoll brought out in a dos^arativo study of tropiool Asia and tropical Africa. In the fexnur, ziou ovdtuzu has been, from tiiu imnuBioriol, thu domliiant human ootivityf so sajch so that this rugion has far surpassed oil other rice griBring regions of thu world in both area ond production. Thu tropical Asian ncoi has only obeyed the naturol environinent and developed his fields in places T7fauru natural ocnditions mire found fovouroblo) but also in mazyr other places he has modified thu enviromaent coiusiderttbly. The various techniques evolvod by his oiviliaation such as irrigation and water control, manuring, and artificial torraoins made it posoiblo for him to bring under thu floi^gh a givat es^anse of land. Today almost all land otdtcble for rice has boon broiaght under its doeaain. This has resulted in tr^cal Asia, though comprising only 21^ ef thu total area of the tropical world, possessing about 61^ of the total world Zloe lands and accounting for about 4C^ of the total world production of rice. In contrast to trepical Asia, in treplcal Africa as awholti xlcu Is ef limited imiportcnco. Thu total rioo arua in troploal Africa accounts for only about 2^ of thu world's total, ond thu production is caily about 1^ ef total world production. Vast areas o£ potantial rlcu lands liu unuti• lized. A substoBtial portiiai of thu arua unclor culti^rct-^ tion conotitutos vgslcnd farms whuru rlcu cuLtivatien is conduct• ed on thp basis of shifting cultivation or '^bush fellew" flyoti»n. Man' a obodienou to physical unnrlr^nount is explicitly disple^rud hero. Thu bookwardauss of his agrloiiltural tochniquDs has resulted in the quolity of this land uou being very locr* Tho lands wheru this of agricultuxu is practised are not theso most suitable for rlcu, Howuvur, oireumserlbud by his tcehniqtios, the trepical African famur has had to Unit hlmoelf to those lands whuru soils were light and poor but were best aclaptud to his uztunsivu teohnlguus. Hu has nogluctcd the SWCB^ and huayy soils ef the lowlands and valley bottoms which are onctewod with tho greater agrl- oulturol potuntialitles, but are less easily utillsable by means of the bush fallow oystem. It is only recently that the potentialities of the physical env-lronment for rice pre- duotion have been ruallzed in most parts of tropical Africa. Its real utilisation has been attongpted only slnoe tho turn ef thu present oentuxy. ThLa is usped-olly so in rutrpeet sf the OxtOQsivo moa^ lands ef tropical West Africa, which have been acdLaiaud as idunl3y suited for the cultivation ef rioe. "It ensures g»od yields, at^ds the need for falletr, prevents soil ersBl^ ani ensures the future," observes P. Goureu in regard to swoE?> rioe cultivation. The different reactiens ef man in thu two regions to odmilar physical unvirenmunts can be thuxvfore accounted for mostly by reference to cultural faotors, though micro-physical faqtoro have had their effects too, to a certain extent. Thu part that <^^i2sation pltgrs in respect ef lend use has already been hinted at. Long established civilization and political stability hanre a great bearing en thu dovdepBcnt ef QgriciilttaD. Tropical Asia reveals ozplicai^ the gzvat impact ef the flourishing civilizations which cxvrgod in the region, and thu evelution ef new techniques of oultivatien. Natural emirennunt dees net ofisgqpel nan to adept such axKl such teohniquuis. It is nan who evolves or invents tht^. They are givm to man by civilization. Civilization is net thu product ef physical envirennunto. P. Geursu es^plains thu limited develepnent ef rice culture in tropical Africa as "a mark of baolJWQrd civilization . . The backwardness ef agrLculturol teohnlquuo ond thu 5 little ergoAization of space through social and political institutions have inhibited the control by the troplGal African, for a long duration of lor^ and esq^onding areas. The relatively ^pojrso population of the region and its unevunneso in distribution hove been mostly a result of this. Suah follow system foils to provide inoruaolQg Qinounts of food that a grvTing p^^ulation requizus. Not only is its Ott^nzt per acre Jm, but also its produoti- vity per man-hour and the total mass of food delivered to laahkind ezjianiling in nui^rs, is very low. Thus the sparse population that resulted in tropiool Africa, hod the counter effect of keeping man ca^ay froa activities which duRtaockid moru hands. Therefore it follows that low.- land persEunent rice cultivation which dc^nondo much labour even without ocsntroUed irrigation, did not get an lB(petus Or incentive. This fact is clearly brought out when ©no considers tropical Asia, where its dense population mode it possible to bring mere and more land un3er rice culti• vation. Dense population, moreover, mcessltates the produotion of greater ^^titleo of food. This leads not only to tho extension of land that Is readily cultivable, but else to the adoption of teohr4.ques ond methods to nodiiy physical oonditioie} of the area which do net ofTer 6 cencplete favour with xx^gard to agriouLture. Eetddes, it leads to the intensification of agrioultuxu. AH these duvelerj^nte havu been noticed in tropical Asia. In tropical Africa, the coastal Iwrlando and the riverain areas pcppoially have boon very sparsely populated from vtixy early times. This is attributable to slave trading. As the sea and the rivers were the main routes of slave trading, native poeple fearfully avoided the coastal and riverain areas and found refuge in the interior upland forests. This led to thu neglect of rich potential rice lands, particularly tlut deltas, river banks, flood plains and coastal scrospi. Analysing thu physical enviroMcunt in tropical Asia and trepicoi Africa, onu is inclined to thick* that local differoncos in the physical environment of the two regions have also had their effects on the neglect ef thu potential ilce lands in tropical Africa. A noteworthy featiiru in tropical Africa, is the absence of extensive fertile flood plains and river deltas c«H^ardblc to these of tho Ganges, Bod River or Irowaddy. These river basins and deltas have had on inviting effect and greatly fa<^itated rice cultivation in tropical Asia.. Moreover, the fact that the rivers of tropical Africa, having their wotorahudo within the tr^os has resulted in their relatively light load of nutrient beoring silt. The great rivers of tropical Asia on the other hand have the physical a£hrantage by receiving a good deol of their water ond alluvivra frem their « heod-atreoma outside the tropics. The unheolthsr coid uninvitins nature of the mong lands of trppicai Vest Africa * the most inportont potential rice lands of the region - coid the difficulty ef dearing the dtmoG vegetation omor of mangrove ond sedge in them have also hscl an inhibitivu effect In regard to their develop• ment for pezTDonent rice cultivation. ISereover, thu availa« billty of vast stretches of xipland forested land which could be easily cleared by burning and cultivated, would have perkq?s led the people away from swoss>s. Seasonal deep flooding in the latter areas also would hove perhaps dis- oourof^ peeple from settling (ieaii in river valleys. Tradi• tion, si^rstition and beliefs also wovild have had a part to ploy in lox^ng the people steadfastly engoged in shifting cultivation in the uplands. 'Rice Region* of Western TrotAcal Aftjoa In the western coastal zone of tropical Africa, rice aasumus a dominant position. Here thu ' rice region' stretches frraa tho Gambia south to the Bandoma river in the 8 C4 9 mntm tfaet tvmcy Cooist. Witlain this wgLm, rioe shi^o a lae&ipvoS^ieoam in euLtlvcttion in fitt) estatxleis - Bdrtupuau GQiiiea« &uiaua, Siarxtsi Lusttu» LiKJZlft end Imey Oocuit. (fif • 2) tn oU them? eoimtzlds rles is th& Sieiittx h&9m owrsti as tbu aost iaopeztent zico produoura.^^^ tn Wlh G^sx>a as& Siurm I^emu thuz^ lias ^oua a jpirofiZtJdsiTo dt^oXin^ in tbo aroa lus^r riou sttXtiYatiea in th) rt^&Mt fast* Bm»miT, t9teX prtetoDtion in Wth ewinbsios bas sb«?n en t^eroc^ txmi&t OO^&^BJJ^ Am to iaexuaae in jrlelA aoxo. tn Sieira Luono, tliu inentaau in pcvicution tf xieo in tile momt i^aat is attriVi^aSbXu to tfae> vtili- Aaticoi 6>f thQ awro pmdustivu asraiii^ If^Ss )C<»r rie^ oulti> vation. The xoanont^bly gMd jitiada (aeosx^ns t» Xoeal stan^asis) wMeh thuse s^roupa prsvidod ^tm^ olbout a ^&e<»£rasins infloenas en the tx^a^itional u^tLand fonsj which tspe^iasSJ^ IM to a OueliaB in tfau UQ^IOB^ *>ttah TrqiatianaX ^Xaad f aratoE in Siegm h^mo tn Sierra Loosm^ aBraift rioo eultivatian (gmrn in atanOins watur at Icaat daring a part of thu gz^ving soason, t^ith natural llaodins) is «f ruecnt orisin. 10 Xn contrast ricu cultivation on u^pland toxm is ef oensiclcr> dblu on^quLty, olldioush ux&ot infonaatiOD m its initiation Qna (krvvlsfprnnt coco mt avtdlablu. TfBlnal f onulxig Id cktpuncluttt aelvH^ em. suaaenal xtdn- foll and thi SovtiXity tho oell. Until xvoontly this typo of foznlns ®nly satioficd oil thu rioc nuuds of thu pudplu of Slurra Luonu, but also was dblo to produce a auxpliis for OTspsxt, In 1953 ohu u^rtud aa rauoh 00 663 tons. Toilcff production hoa duclincd notioudbljr, olthough a 0Ub0tantiQl poztion ef tin riou produoid in Siuz^ Luonu - alxQpst half " amvz from t^>land farmQ. in 1951 it woo oatlmatod that thury wru 700,000 aoxua of tgOond fains. (7) In 1957 this ^inaiod to 390,000 aorus.'' ' In moru rooont yuoro this has boon rtiduoud still ftjrthur. It Quuns liluly that vg>land rlcu was onu of thu oorliust cultivated crops of Slurra hoow. This fact is QUggjustud xihin ow oonsldurs thu othur ndnor food oreps ef Siurra Luonu, mioh as cassava, struct potatoes, grsundmts, noiau and sdlluts, oil of v^oh OTaas^SSs^iDg on introduced origin. Tho first rices gresm in Sierra Leone ugplond farais hawe boon nost probdbli^ the red sMn rlcco - Oryaa glc3x?rrlina Ctnd Oiygg stpff 11 •> These ore the Indegeneous cultivated rice 11 NATURAL VEGETATION (GENERALISED) / / . li PRIMARY FOREST [^SECONDARY FOREST ^SAVANNA a GRASS MILES • SWAMP VEGETATION I I L- Pig. 3. 12 of Africa, grown far oanw 36CX) yuoro. Lator, Oiygn aativa tfpland forndng in Siunra Luene is carried en mestXy in aucondazy fozusts which dethu a gruatcr psrti^ ef the area «f the oountzy. (Fig. 3) Shifting cultivation in priiBary t&eosta haa ployed a dondnant role in the degradatien of theae fereota te oecondazy fozxists* So raash ao that net? priioazy forests oocount for only a bare three per cent ef thu area of thu ocunfery* The effects ef shifting cultivation vmxo seen in savanna lands too* Thoui^ natural causes toe have ployed their part in the degradation ef land in Sierra Leone, shifting cultivation hoa to be held laore responsible. (Pig. 4) The niBthod ef v^lcaaii rice farming in Sierra Leone is stn^e^ thaugh its effects are cemplex. Rice is grecrn \indur the bush fallen cQTstem s® well knoim in ether parts ef the tropics. In the diy season a plot ef secondary forest is selected ond fulled. A fetr oil palms and larger trues may be left stonding. These have prsved useful in fisdi^ thu soil anl protecting it from excessive erosion. True stunps ore also guierally not cleared* After the leaves and branofaus ef the felled fbrest have dried, they are sot on fire. 13 DEGRADED SECONDARY FOREST,*. SAVANNA ( .iiiiiiili •j o MILES 4o Pi«. 4. 14 This helps the fanner to oleor thu plot quickly and easily. Fire, tThlle loallng the ibrust soil mvo frioble, endbleo the land to be cultivated vdthout turning up the soil. Moruoever, it leaves fertile ashes on the soil for the naurishnent ef thu forthcotslng orep. ScKTover, these odvontq^ of * firing' cannot ©verwht^ tho losses that it causes. •Firing' leads to the dustruotion of a great aaiount of ergonic natter which could be profitably used. Tzenundoua quantities ef nitrogen go 19 in sDQoku. "Petoah is reduced to a wzy soluble fom of CQxbonate trhich is leached csray by the first shocirers and tho humus and bacteria ore dostreored."^®^ But In spite ef these dnSTbocks, one Is faced vdth thu qpiestlon of thu alter• native that is available to these prlndtlve foriDero, considur- ing the level of their (Avilization, thu naturu of the forest, and the hoe and thu Inadequate osm - the oiiLy liqxLununts that oiu usual3^ asralloble to them. On this 'firu' depends the success or ©theiwlse of the season* o faradns* If thu *burplng' is dulayed or rains come early9 pxepaztxtlon of thu field for cultivation would be node difficult. In the rucent past; earl^ ndnfoll ond the ias>ossibility or inconfileteness ef bum in txiny yxplopilo have led the fonaur to look to the inland vollej sGronips. An inoomplete bum necessitates conoiduroble extra loibeur in IS gathering the unbumt material into heaps ond rubunaii\g it. Urtburnt sticks are used ao fijxifro&d as well as to biiild pyraaidol fraiajwerfcs at various altos in the fana, to s»;^ppert creepers oaoh as yams and beans. With the onset ©f the rains totyords the middle of the year, pcddy is broadcast on tho deoztxl plet and is lightly hood into the surface. Seed rates ore usually about sixty poujads per aoru. Other crops arc also scsro mixed with rioe, but usually in small quantities. The ooiDaoneat crops ore sorshums) bulrush millet^ benniseed, cassava, cc^slcuas, molze, vegetables and In some areas cotton may also be inoludod. But where soli is found less fertile, ugpland noe is gratm CWJ a pure crop. 16.»3d cultivation helps in avoid• ing major trouble from pests and diseases. The grotvth of rice is entirely dependent vepea the roinfoll. While the oxop is gr«wing» weeding is conducted. Bird soorlnB io a coBraon practice when rice comes into flower. The crop matures relatively quickly, in ninety t® a hundred doys, Tho cjrop is harvested usually about four months after sowing. Harvesting is normally done with the help ef a small knife, individual panicles are cut and coLleoted and tho bundles of panicles are often inverted en otui^s to dry for a few d£^o, before being removed from tho 16 fprm. The subsidiary crops ore harvested as they ripen, and this is imially after the rice crop has been collected. Very oocasionally two rice creps are tc^^n froiH the Sninu plot of land in successive years. Hcwever, in atsaa areas a second crop ef groundnuts (in the north) or fundi or cassava (in the south) is grsvm. But thu usual prcctlcu is to abandon the land after one crop. in the past the ransi of the f allots period was usually twelve to fifteen years. In savanna lands whero this typn ©f cTiltivation is practised, the fallow period usually rongos between six and ten years, and betwojn f ollawa two years Therefore it would bo seen that ualer the bush fallow aystom of rice cultivation, the felling of the ouoendaiy forest or savanna grassland, and tho cropping of oeil are cozTled out in a regular rotation, a varying nun4)er of years elapsing beforu cultivation returns to tho sane land. Tho Icoig fallow period leads to the ru-estcibliahiBunt of thu naturol vegetation and of thu fertility of thu soil. Hooce, one is inclined to think that providud suffldont land is avoHablu, and the faUo^"' period is of sufficient duration and the slope of the land is not too excessive as te lead to heavy soil 17 erosion, the system works well, though in fact it is waste• ful ef land and ef ICOJOUT. This oystem ef bush fallotr agriculture has been able te previde practically all the rice zequlreaents of Sierra Leone tintil the latter part ef the last century, when isrosB^ rice ouQltivation began to be takun i^. HoTever, even tedfi^ this tSOpe ef fanning io iaiiertant, fer it still forms the baaio «f all upland farming. Scenepde Seoial and gelitioal Changes and the Consequept Rise in Demand for R^oe Significant devel^mmts in Sierra Leone - econonlo, social and political * tewords the end of thu nineteenth amtuiy end e^eially after the second decade of the present century, hod rumorkoblo effoeto on all aspects of the country's life. Sierra Leone acay revolutionary changes dtnring this period, IJfiond forming did not escape these devel0|«aent8. These not only led to a decline In u|JLand biish fallev7 cultivation, but also resulted in a dionge in ea^shaaio from upland rice to jasracsp rice cultivation. The pacification of the territory and a period ef general political stability were gcdning ground with the establishment 9€ thu Protectorate of Sierra Leraiu in 1896. 13 Quolth ond ooeial aervioe aotivities inaugurated by the Qavemmunt wuze iBpnevlng thu general conditions ef the people* Along with It j tho country started to open up with the duvelop- mxt of the zrdlW in 1896. This facilitated not only thu stiiaiLation and Intenalfloatlon ef trade, but oXm the eaergenoe of a nusiber ef t&sna and settleiDunts along it. F]X2et0(m, the main ocoitxv ef Intercourse and trodu began a period ef XYidd e^ansion. This grawth was accelerated with thi inoruosed everaeaa trc^ whi^ thu pert ef FruetoEm was mode to handle. All these factors in ooi!i)inaticn elevated Freotetm to a centre of both econaroio and oulturol significance. MuanwWle, coninerclal agricultiHu - coffee, cocoa, palm oil and gingur - was undurgeing an era of prosperity ond espanslOT. This agriouOLture ond its allied ootlvities providud opporttBilties ef ungployiaont for a large nui*er of people. An increase in the p^jxilation ef the planting areas and a rise in the stondarcla ef living were the inevitable outcozQU. Toons began to grotr as collecting ond dlatxibuting centros, catering to the plantatlCBi areas, (Kallahun, GegbweiQaj Boxicla. Juina, Pu^hun, lele, CRjongbona and almost all the raili7c^ tomna*) Boad dewlopnunt furthur helped thu ooorfsoncc of now towns ond the o^onsion ©f tho oliwtaaly caloting onuB. Thus a notable rise in the urban population 29 and the pepuilatien imsoBfid in comnurcdal agricvlturu, was witnessed in tha interior of the country. Thu onset ef the era of diamond and iren ore mining in the early 1930's further stimulated the developmait of roads and tocms. A steacjy movement of a large nunaaer of peeplo from the farms to tho mining areas. In search of better incomes, took Eloce during this period.^^^^ By 1936, about 14,000 farmers with their families had ndgrated to mining areas. Thu new incomes generated in the diamond mining areas led to the ElJse of the standard of living ef tho peojie of the area. These areas also saw the influx of a large nuaber of foreigners. Thu outcorae of all these develouanents was thecnergence of a lar^e, rising non-agriculturcl population in thu area. Thus it is evident that, with the turn of thu century and e^peoiolly after its first two decades, a rumerkablo inorease in the population of Sierra Leone and a notable rise in the (pwrcX stondord of living of the people were observed. TABtE I ESTIMftlES OP PCgmrtCW OP SIERRA LEXWE^'''^^ 1901 - 1,024,278 1947 ^ 1,858,273 1911 - 1,400,149 1957 - 2,120,000 1921 - 1,540,554 1060 - 2,450,000 1931 - 1,768,480 1963 - 2,180,000 1937 - 1,800,000 (oonaus) 20 in thu 1930* a ripe cultivation eaperlenoud a setback duo to the flew ef a laz^ nuzrflser of young fomears te odning, plantation (cash crep) and uzbon oruaa, in auaroh ef better incemus. But there wao a streng counter influence toe, whioh gunexnted a boost to oubsiatenoe agricolturu and eppeelolly to rioe production. This was the ropidly e^oncling dunond for food. The demand for zice was intensified with the eutbrook ef thu World War in 1939. A lorgu nutd^^r ef fonsers was listed for JBHitazy and cenatzuctlooal work in Sierra Iiuone. By 1942, war lobeur and ether zuoruitinent connected with war octivitleo totalled about 73,000.^^^ Decline of Oiplond Famdng and the Bnphasie on Swoap FaTHdng. With the turn of thu cdtitury the demand for food, partieulorly riee, began to inaroaso steadily as a result ef thu eoonooio, political and social ciuaigus that weitj taking I^.ou in thu eeuntiy. IJpland farms atten^jted to rise to tho ocoasion. Felling ef aecondlaiy forest was Intensified. The cleared plots became larijer. PaitBS penetrated even to the fairly inaccessible ports of the forests. But thu most slgnl- flcont adjustment was the ohoortenlng ef the fallotr period due to the groat presmire on tho land. The twelve to fifteen 3?eoro fallow that was prevalent during the early days was reduced to as low as three or four years in SOPOU areas. Later, this had great repercussions on the system of agriculture. It led to the alawing ddprn of forest regeneration, which directly affected soil fertility. Thu insufficient build-tq? of nutrients in the soil that resulted, led to the deterioration of the productivity of the land, Sh©rt fallosr mecflxt little growth of vegetation which meant little quaotity of ash to enrich tho soil. The crops that were cultivated an such land inevitdJly shooed a decline in yields to as low as 400 lbs. €f (14) rice per acre.'' ' The e3^an3ion of dLenied plots, the afaortening of thu follow period, and the resultant small grovrth ctf vegetative cover enablod rainfall to beat hard at the ground and to rape the land of its friable ourfaoo soils. This was moru greatly felt in the sloping lands. Thus, thu upland form degenerated considerably. The result t/os that this system of agrlcultvuw could not keep pace vdth the rising demand for rice, and tiie country as a whole was fast falling behind in its race betiTccn peqpulation increase and food production. To ameliorate the grave situation. Sierra Luone started Iniporting rice from foreign countries in increasing quantities. A ateody rise in inports was noticed particiilarly after 1354. 22 TABias 2. (16) BICE IlffiGBIS Year tona Value £ 1954 4,586 289,858 1953 21,065 968,018 1956 36,800 1,650,442 19S7 31,052 1,492,270 1958 21,784 1,027,346 1959 43,305 1,991,755 1980 28,542 1,237,279 1961 4,108 209,626 1962 26,827 1,358,981 1963 20,818 941,000 (£1 « Le2.00) Tfau inoreaidng amounts ef monqy flcKTlng out ef the oountzy duo to thu liqpertation of rice, alarmed the Govern^ nunt ond attention was laid on seeking ways ond auana ef iiqpreving tho situation, Thu oxtenslati ef ssroap xioe cultivation thua received a strong oniphaaia. The groat potuntlolitieo ef swamp lands, both oooatol and inland, as rioe produoing lands weru noted by the GovemDunt as for bat^ as 1920, which led to the aetting vcp 23 Of domonotztition foxms first In tho tidol swaizps ef Southern Fr^noe and later in Inlaiid smia^a almoat all ever thu oeuntzy. it was found that mei^ rice fandng net only gpve a rulativuly hii^ ylt^d per acre (dotMe that ef iQilarkd fonn), but olao doea not cause degenemtlon ef londa as deea t^^md faesdng. Moruover, swamp fama could be cultivated annually tmlligu the vs>laail faroa. Therefore, the Gevenanunt started an extcnaivu pregramne ef providing encourogununt, incentlvua and aaaistonce to those fonnurs who weru willing to ooanu dcRm from the t;^)land3 to the a^oiqps. Demonstration fonns oboBed to thu farmers, the greater superierity ef acroa^s ever the uiJ-oikla as rice producers. The Government started a lean achume in 1939 to help faimers to fell oongiove and for mtxap clearanoe. in 1949 mechoniool cultivation was intzedvtsed ond was gxvatSy oztendod ofter 1952. Ifony ether focilitiea liocltKllng fertilizer ond seed padsiy distribution, maxiiuting, milling and atera@u facilities anci a guaranteed price aohome were provided. The devulepmunt ef (39-operative oecietiea later on, previdud more facilitiea for the foxner. Thus ooru and moru people were attracted to thu mojnpB ond a now em in zloe cultivation in Sierra Luone was inougurated, with a strong un^hoaia on swamp rice. 24 Referenoes (1) P.A.O. Prednotien Yearbook. Vol.mV, 1963, pp* 5^7 & 52.'53 (2) AnnuajL Renett of the Wqst African Rice Hoaoareh StotienT (Ratoror. Sierra Leane) 1958. n.S (3) PIEREE GOUBDU, Tho Trepioal World. Its Seoial and Ecenamlo Cenditiens and Its Paturo Status,, 3rd od. 1961, New l^ctruosiea (Sth printing) 1962, p. 98 (*) p. 9* (5) P.A.O. Agricultural toarbeek. 196^63, The Anaarlo da Gujno' Perfeugoosa. 1948, p. 126 (6) 'The West Afrloan Tertlterloa*, An Eoenonjo Survey ef the Cfolenlal Terrltorjeo^ Vol. HI, 19S1, (Leixlont Sis Uajeoty* a Statienaxy Office, 1952) p. 81 (7) Frofesiser D.T. JACSK, (1958) Soenamio Survey of Sierra Leone ^ (Pruetewni Gevonnnent Printer; p. 14 (8) H.D. 30W^» (Diruotor-Rico Euseoroh Station, Roitupr, Sierra Leone) •infersduction', Prof t Annual Repert ^ the West Afrloon Bice Roaeareh Statien. {Rokupr, Sierra Leene) 1965, p. 1 (9) lOTHB 0013BOU, Op, cjt*, p. 26 (10) Sierra Leenu: Annnal Repert ef the Deportront of Aarlcultugo, 1935* (Proetewn; Qovumaunt Printer) p* I 25 (X2) Sierra Loenp Pretooteratu BonciboQk, (loouod by thy Chlof Conwloaloair's Off loo. Bo, Sierra Luono) 1958, p. 1; md.. 1961, p. Ij An EggnanAQ Stirvoy of Bjoxro. Loeno^ (1940)(Fr«ototm: Clovumaunt Frlntur, 1951) p. 2; H. CHCtipS, A PJjin ef EcQnaBt|,c IXtyoleiggjn^ f^^ Slorrg Loonpy (FzvutoiTtu (kFVt^xnDunt Pzinter, 1949) p* 45 (13) Slcrm Loeno; Atamol Bcpoita Aisclcultiiro. erp« cit,. 1942, p. 1 (14) H,a. JmSESt "Blco Production in Siurm Luom", Mclqyqn Journol of gTOpicol Ggegrcphy, Vol. VlII, Juno 1956, pp. 73-61 (15) ProfoGS«r P.T. JACJK, op. eit.. p. 12j S^arrq l (SSlPSEB. It 8 W AMPS OF 3f£BRA I.E01IS Svroii^ load csnstitutoo a natural xvmvtroi of utmost imgortoiioo to Sierra Lcgno* tts vicOuu ia Incroassinglor roollzod todoy not only ^uo thu gpnuraL Oogonoratlon that has oocurxud in thu xuat thu land zvaeurouo of thu oountz^r* hut else duu to thu oignlf ioant ooomndc end oooiol chongus that havu totun plaou liQ Siorrei Imxio filnou iho turn of thu pruoont ountuzy. Tho oscloultuxt^ petuntiolltlos moB^, OE^oioHy in ruspoot of rlou cultivation cannot ho ovurustljnatcd. Shu rich A^rtiXu soils ond thu soosonal ronu»rol of thu silt eovur- QSP, thu tmtor rutolning ocpaQit3r» and the gunorally friohlu nalauu sT the soils of a loreur port of tho seromps jBsbJ thum produotivu riou lands. Thu flat and eontinuous spruad of a gruator part of thu maac^ maku it fuasihlu to adopt modum nutheds of cultivation auoh OS inuohaniaotiOD, on an oxton^vu ooalu. This aspuot of thu land coiq^d with thu coastal and rivurain location of a gruotor port of tho ssTQag^o maku possihlu uosy txxmcport and comnunLoation* Qliisatioally, straup} aru partici^orly suited for xloo cultivation* duo t® thu ohaip dual seooonal acg?eot, A largo part of the rains oondng in onu suason and tht Oiotinot dry season 27 enable the edeption ©f Judloieua fanning practices. Thu ooasonol river flootling comsed by hujsvy roino end tidal booking, aerwc nat only as a natural Irrigation facility for rice cultivation, but aioo as a s&axw of a xusr ailt Ic^r. In areas dooeot to tiie coast, braeklah water influence caused by tides, esqwcially in the dzy aoason, serous as a useful neans of contxolliDg nnd preventing the iwrooion of weeds ©n the rice f itiLds, ihe t^^oificonoe of s^oaps is obtrusively seen, whun one comidacQ the potentialities df thu ether parts of thi oountiy, espuoiaUy in respect of as^^oultuml developDont. it has been alroody pointed out, in thu pjsxsvious Aapter, haw tnsditionnl t^ipland *bush faraSjag* has led to the pxogjnusoive and steo^y degrodatiexa of land, so Bui?h so that this type of fandng has failed to keep pace with the Increasing food re<3uirx)jaint3 of the couhtxy. The incqrease of population, urbanisation, industrial coid mining dovolopnent ond tbo rising incones, have brought cibout a boost in the demand for food, particuLcirly rioe, the steeple diet of the people. This has necessitated the iaiportatlon of rice. 7hio has resulted in an increasing drtsdn of copltol obrood. in this light, the potentialities of man^ lands of the country ore exceedingly great. Thj s^cgap Ictnds of Sierra Leone ore cc|>able of produoing not only rice but also a variety of pther crops, sudti as ougcsr ceaau, 28 hananaQj vugutciblos and fruits, ^"^^ whose doinand is opt to rioo with thu rise in tbu standard of living and uxisanisation. Sierra Luonu is blessed with such vast e^anses of a^aiap lands, that tlcmir coo^slete utilisation would onahlu thu enurBunce Of a profitable esport trade, uopeoldLiy in ricu« Rapidly inoroojAng world population, particularly in ricu eating countries, not Hntchud hy a parallel incrooae in food production strungthons this posslhility. At proooirt Slurrti Leone is largely dupondent on eadiausti- blo exports - diamoxtds and iron ore •* for a large share of her natlmal income. The relatiwJy ponnanont wealth produelng cc^- oity of si7aisp3 is thureforu of utmost in^ortonce in ruspeot of the future econaido stobtLity of the oouijtry. P. Gouiou oonnents that "Swanp rice fosters eoonomio stoJjility, a dense population, and a high civilization; and it is the only cereal whioh con be cultivated year after year an the oame soil in a tropical land and whioh gives adequate yields from (2) poor soil so long as theru is a svdtable qvKurtity of water. ' VUi also points out that "Wherever the cultivation of tarm^ rice is possible, it is by far the best lauans of produoing carbo• hydrates."^®^ SWAMPS AREA unurrED CONTINUOUS COVERACE DENSE MILES Pig. 5. 30 Extent of Swaigps The exact area of Swoji^ land of Sierra.Leone is net accurately kndtm, D.H, Grist^*^ nnd the British West African Rice msbioh* o report of 1948, observe that theiw are probably a fldllion acres. In 1951 it was estimated that the total area of mOBB^a consists of 1,496,680 acres or 2,537 square olles.^^^ This aawunte to 8.4^ of the total area of the country. Hewuver, an examination of the maps that have Iwen coBspiled in respoot ctf the distribution of mangrove, grassland, other swanps and swamp rice, (Pigs. 10, 14, 17, 18) ch©?B convinoingly that the percent• age ©f mojap land estimated by all those mentioned above are vinder- estimatea. Sistilbutign of Sgnapa Thixv are three cdatlnot typps ©f owajis>3 in Sierra Leone:- Mangrove swnng? Ckraasland or riveitdn GS7an|> Inland valley or other scTQiqp These three are dlffSaront from each other to a conaiclorablo extent in respect of their pl^yslcol chorocteristies and location, Oonsiderizig the diotrlbution of swamps as a whole, a noteworthy feature is their preponcleronce in the western half of 31 thu countzy. The vuxy thdok oencentration along thu coootal troot is strikingly evident. The OTonpdensit y oap clearly shorrs a pattern of throe swcoBp belts. (^1^. 5) Along the coast is a belt about twenty olles wido wiaoh dioos a very high density of spronps. Beyond this, to thfc) interior, is a belt of sparse density. Putthur east of this second belt, lies another belt of dense swoiqp land. Thu latter belt extends soutiiwards from thu Guinoa border haU^^ay through the oountzy. To thu North-east of this belt is found a small t&m of sparse o^anp density* Thu coastal dense o^onip belt indudus patches esun^i- ftlng continuous end coniilote coverogu of 3worq?s. A large pert of them either fxlngo or lie dose to the coast. All three types ^ swoops found in the country are included in the first belt. However, thu most predominant is monerovu. South of thu Jong river for the greater port, grassland awanps hold sway. Throe areas of continuous awaiii> coverage are found inland, en;}eylng isc^ted positions. These are grosslai^ swaaps. The sparse owanp belt wtdoh lies in an intemxliate position, is brolaon for the greater part by areas devoid of swatqso which form mainly fezostod i^plondo. The northern section of this belt eoBpxioes mostly gmsslond scTOcps whereas in the south, inland valley moss^a (other owaBi>o) prudominatu. CO a. W A CO ^5 I I 1 33 The inner belt of dense coverage is a grassland swamp xegioh. This area is ocmiDonly ruferted to as the "Bdilands" region. Thu rmnll area of i^oroe density found to the Horth-east of thu third bult, is an inlahd valley monp region. in apiol oonn^rage grassland swains she? thu largest extent, mangrove swonips coming second ond inland valluy owaaps third. Intereoting patterns are evident in the relative distri*. bution of the three tjpes of swainpa. (Pigs. 6, 7, 10, 14, 17) Considering only the coostol area; one finds that mangrove swamps usually fringe the coast, estuaries, and the banks of thu lower courses of rivers and crooks. Xmmjdiately borduring these osra^s, and extending inland gtaierally along rivers and streams, oru gmsaland iS7aBps. Beyond grassland swanps and asoooiatud with the xtffpor reaches of streams are found inland valluy swairps. This pattern of distzilnition, hOErevur, is not uniform throughout thu coastal troot. South of the Jong river, closer to the coast, and fringing the main rivers are usually grassland {Krauts, with scattered patches ef mangrove cg?pearlng here and thuru. Beyoxkl this zou) are found idend valley swoons. 34 SWAMPS LOWER BUMPE MANGROVE SWAMP H GRASSLAND SWAMP "r;^ INUND VALLEY SWAMP y RICE MILES S5 Paotors ,thct Inhibited the Devulopnent of Swocaps Amoi^ the prliBaiy factors inMbiting the developntait ef swasps has boon the low population of thu country as a whole and OEtpeoiolly that of the scrasp areas. Prsnn early times people lived owE^ from iho cmstal and riverain areas xAAdh. are th) main habitats of osranpo, for fbor of becoming victims to the slave trs^rs who haunted these aruao, and due to thu fear perpetuated by aiperstition and beliefs oonmjoted with swaxcps. Swaaps wore hold as * devils land' whure various sacri• fices were made.^^^ Purther, the trc^tionol bush fallow agri• culture had the offeot ef kueidng the people esray from aata^ lm<3ja, Vast ei^panses o£ forested trjxLonds were available parti- oularly dozing the early dayo^ Tfau farms that were made on these supplied c^Lmost all the food ruquiremunto of thu |)uoplu. Benoe there was no pruosurc on thu land to oca^l the utilisation of srran^ps. Changus weru however noted with the turn of thu present century. Thu degradation of thu v^slands and thu conse• quent losTuring of ^elds have alruody been pointed out in thu previous ohopter. Tlfflugh this ohonge incruased the value of swamps, and led tjto ^mtrnmit to take active stops to promote thu use of SEToopa, still, it was no easy task to get the traditional foroero to abandon the upland and come down to the sarasip. Ignor• ance, laok of initiative, and thu boOkvardneos of thu people were 36 prlmariy reasons which kept people csroy from (sromps. The great majority of people wurv ignorant of the immense potentialities of Qwenpa. Even when their productivity was shown In demonstration farms conduoted by the goveznaent in various parts of the country, otUl a steady change-over from tQ^londs to ovconps was not observed. The backwardness of the culture of the people ocpeoially as they lookud proper logxLements and tools to dear and «»ltlvate dwamps also deterred them from attt^ting this nuw venture. Swosp clearance is a difficult Job. Hangrovre felling for esunple, Is both arduous and dongercus.^^^ It has alwAys be0n done by skilled fullers. The shortage of these men especially after 1950 due to the attraction of a large nuoiier of young men to ndntng activities, retar^d the clearance ef nangrtsnre swniqps. The clearance sedge and grassland mtxa^ has been equally di£Ti- cult, mostly diis to its deep ckmao root system. The adoption of mebhanisatieai lod to the olearanoe of a part of the grassland owanps, after the middle ©f the present century. The, people v/oro not accustomed to the relatively complox (a) cultural priQCtices involved in ssromp cultivation.'' ' People cosgplailied of the ung^asant and luihealthy nature of swamps The lack of proper housing land has been and is still a problem in the coastal awonp lands, ^^^^ The lack of fresh water during the dry season in SKuqy sTosp areas, also prevented people from settliz^ 37 dotm around ociroaps. This problem la still being fult especially in tho Bolllaittls area. Salinity of v/ater du3 to high spring tidal effects, and s^ll problems that have emanated when the uxoliusion of sqline water has heen atteinpted, also have been inhibi-^ve factors.Deep flooding ond the consequent damage of crops have dlseouragud tho people. ^^^^ Tho damagu to crops caused by fish, crabs, morfieys ond a variety of other posts have had the effect of lowering the yields of swanp fazms, and xicuda made yields deollno still furthur.^^^ Tho trBditionol famur cannot practise mixed cultivation in owonps, as hu does in his i^iland form. Even thu sole of sur• plus riou is in many areas restricted due to distonce frctm the nain zloe mariteto, e«3^oially thu big tcwns. Prootocm thu oMuf market for rice, is a long distance away fzt»a thu ma;^r swanp areas. Inaccessibility of swasp oroao and tho lode of proper trtsnsport and communication faculties are other difficulties that are encountered. Storage and milling proW-tans are equally grove. Thu usu of swaiip vegetation as thatching mtuzicl for houses particularly in tiie interior areas, discourages thu cluar- oxiao of fl^onps. In the aouthum coastal swanp areas, rc^ia palm or piosoava which grows in swonps, was a good source of inconu ibr thu people. ^^^^ Thus, ocrcmps v/eru considured valuable ond thuir clearance was xmt attenpted. With tho dodlne In the price of 38 piassava (which is a prskhict of raphla palm) and with the intro• duction of mochonical cultivation, parts of these otTasps were olearod, Piahing is the other activity which inhibited ond still Continues to dlaoouroge people living along the coast from fttt In the early dcyys, the hi^ prices of cosh crops such as coooa, oof fee, palm kernels, gineer anl cola adversely affected the utilisation mojspai, This trend was observed in the south• ern areas in the 1930's. The cpJiok jnaturlng nature of i^pland rices and the rela• tively long duration which swan^ rices take to mature, was a reason that is ocaiKonly glvoa by the ttplond farmer as a disadvantage in ss7aiis> cultivation. ^Jplond xlces usually toke 90 to 100 cl^ys to matauv v/heroaS swamp rices take 200 to 230 days. Mareovur, the uj^Land rice fonnors, ofi^wcioHy those of the Ifonde tribe, have a prejudice ogcinQt styaap rice. The tqaland red rice is considered more tasty. Even today in some areas, mcs^ rice oiiltivation is conduoted mainJy for sale whereas the upland crop la for the consun^tion of the foixnur. In addition to the resistance of sheer inertia, there are other lt®ai and customary rostnotions. Land ownership dioputes, 59 land tenuru problums, and a dislike of strangers settling down to cultivate the helghlDounng owanps, hasro rotatded to a com^duz^ible (16) e2±ent the developmunt of awanpo.^ ' In mcny owacp areas, the poverty ef ,the faimuro ond hio indubtednesQ inhibit not Only the e3g[)ansion of Ms OEramp farm, but also tho utilisation of what hu has already cdeared. Co-^opemtive societies have alleviated this pr^lem to aesao extent. Irrigation oxtd water control oohunes and the application of modem muthods ^ cultivation will make possible the utilisation Of a large extent of the awosps of Sierra Leone. Though physical factors enable thusu warks to be satisfactorily conducted, eOonomlo factors do not, Thu British West African Rice Mission in 1948 stressed the importence of developing irrigation and water control cdiemus in Sierra Leone to utilise the swomps.^^^^ As they have pointed out thu problem which restricts the ttUsing up ef ouch schemes has been the lade of copitol. RoferoiKXJO (1) R.J, HAKirSON CHDRCH, West Afrlea, A Study of the ^Bplirqtm^ and of Man's Pse of fl,t, 4th ed. 1963, p.31S (2) HERBE GODBOU, The Tropjeal World. Its Social ejnd EconoaBlc Oonditions and its Future Status,. 5rd ed, 1961, Now Inpression (8th i^rlnting) 1962, p. 101 (3) Ibid. , p. 98 40 (4) D.H. GSIST, Rico, 3rd ed. 1959, p. S53 (6) An Eeonoialc Survey of the Colonial TerTltorj.cSj VoL.III; 1951, (London: His Majesty's Statienary Office, 1952) p. 76 (6) &.H. B0DDAN, "Sevelopoent of Ticlal Swamp Farming in Sierra Leone", Paraa and Forest^ Vol.11, October 1941, pp. 63-55 (7) . Soil Conservation and LatKl use in Sierra Lewie, Sesaionol Payor 1» 1951, (ProetgEmt Govumaont Printer) p. 39 (8) Sjorrtv Leone: Ajgnual Report of the Departnent of Ajpjlctatu^ 1950, (Freetown; Qovertmunt Printer) p. 18; 1951 - p. 13 (9) g.M. mwm, ep. Pit. (10) Sjen^ ^no: Aramgl BL?port Agrlculturoy op. Qit., 1960, p. 1 (11) P.R. HESSE, "Sisne Differences between the Soils Of Ehlzophora and Avicennia Mangrove Swonps in Sierra Leone", Plant and Soil. Vol. XtV, Ho.4, JtOy 1961, pp. 335 - 346 (12) A.C. PILLAI, "A Report oil Hice Cultivation in Scarcies Area", January 2S22, feat African aa.qo Roooaroh Station^ Eoku^r^ Sierra Lpojae^ Bulletin Ko,4, 1958, pp.2-10; Sierra Leone; Annual &yrfflrt Agriculture^ OP. dt., 1952, p. 19} Soil Conservation end Land tioe op.dt., p.39 (13) a*M. SODDAK, "Rupert on a Survey of the Ezistixv end Potential Rice lends in Certain Swanp Areas in tho Southern Rrevinoe", SeBSienal Paper No.7, 1938 (Preetetmj Govenmjnt Printer); D.R.E. jAOKSCN, "Extracts from a Report on a Visit to Sierra Leone to study the Cultivation of Swoiq? Rice, December 1950 to October 1951", West African Rioe Research Station, Rokupr. Sierra Leone> Bulletin Ho.4, 1958, pp.35 - 52j 41 Slomt Loono; Anriiaol Bo^^ ..... Agrtculturo, ep. Pit.-, 1960, p, 20; Soil Conaorvatlen pad Land tiao ep. cdt.» p. 39 (14) SloiTQ; Loenu; Annual Rupert ..... Agsrtculturo . op. qlt., 1956, pp. 6-7 (15) Md., 19S0, p. 21 (16) pid. , 1960, p. 3 J aWl Cejaaoivatten and Land uoo ..... op. dt., p. 39 (17) W.M. OLAJQC and P.H. IJ0ICB2S0H, Brltloh Woot Afrtean Rice flftasion Roport 1948 42 CHfiPEER WL UAKatOVE SWAMP3 3t76%& tQVBOtL fxitiglnc the coast mH thu isatyeurleQ of rlwro OQEI cxtNika ana pzvteinantlj' tb^ l^itato of QODSE^VV vsgstatlon. filQ{]gr97« gzx^ in 9^01^ ^ partioular pi^jrolcal px^ztitts. Aft«r ooioiHasing, thia Attestation offuoto ti^so pl^ciooX eJuraetoriatics vhioh I'iKsterecl its gxciGrth. This z^oulta in notiosabl® ohonsus (»{qpeoiaUy in soil and wat&r ooncHtions of the airts^t A fl^og- xa^hleal otu^ of thu cllstrilmti^ of nonsrave ecranps would tinablcs one) to oozT^ato the) pl^sieal oharootori^tios vribioh uaderlio tfaoau 0C7QZDPS tTith tbtsm osseoiatod xrlth tbo cuLtivation of rlca* Tha potentialities of msa«pemi meapa for zlou oultivotion will bo zo^;ool9d in such on invustisation. Theiu Qzv fi^ dpooles of mansravu vug^ation in Siorra JMOW: 1. Bhjgophora i-aoajnoat^ 2. RhjzQphora harrjaonil 3. Hfe^gopboro. manalp 4. A»4c^ff>ift njtidg 5. LoguncnJUigia raoomosa Thu last nmoi io of ndnor ii^ortanoot lut tiu othur cfpoeias otv coznnonljr found in tfaci tidal mm^a of Siexra Loono.^'''^ Out of 43 and Avloiainia nltlda ar» of gx^atust ijngportancu dm to thsir woro oxtunsivu aztoal diotzlbutl^ Thim inhabit moxapQ of diff^TOn& pl^ysical chartuxtoxistioo. ax& ocip&cially c^Q&ly ]?@lat<»d to tbu ohar&0t@r of th; soil and ito mSa oe formatien. Whezp conations are favouztiblu RhjzoijtoQm Tooamaei, occurs OS ptm> stands. This, bonovur, I0 not usual of Avjegania nitida ^Jbtldi eaamriXy accurs lalxed with the^ ethor spucios. Bhieophonx horgjoQidl. Rhtaophora aanale and Lagunoularia rooumaaa usually p QSSoeiation with thti Gotv3» Bhiaophoxn ractaaosg. ThLo is nonnolly suen in ewaii^s earlier oeotipiod by Rhjzophora rttoomoaa foixist. Qux^ao^ous plants actjr ha osaeqiatekl with this nix^ woeclland. The IDOot l^ypioal 0f these ar» the oalt-toluront fom Aohroatjchum aurgum arid in mxo open plaoos S^auyjum Portulacastrum and PhilojBBms voncioularis. "Btst^mn mmsf^ lo*^ oxdk th» higher 8n»und, the palm Photaji^K TOelinafeaan d Conocarpua «re»ctus nqy ho found forndns tho ijoidojring vegetation. Thqy my also occur adxed with monsroTOs oiong their bouhdaxy. Along the ftihgos of nor^EW© airts^B which ixco nauoliy sandiet' may bu Aiund Annona Glabra. Batoraptoris loona Olid thPcSLiiiibor Stigoaphyllon oygtum, (Fig, 8) Undar loss saline conditions both on cleared Aviconnia njtida. (sad Rhjaophora raeemosa MANGROVE SPECIES DISTRIBUTION ( HYPOTHETICAL) UPLAND I E STUARY UPLAND RHIZOPHORA RACEMO SA AVICENNIA NITIDA 9k OTHER MINOR SPEUES HERBACEOUS PLANTS, WEEDS, PALMS a GRASS Pig. 8. 45 loud and pnez*ally liotvriion tho raangrovulen d and tho hifihur gttaund, thu salt tolisrant gxtujo Paapolum Yaginatum may bo found. 1* laMaophora raa^maeS^^ Rhigophora TOComoaai o crannon in W&ot African as wuU as in South and Qontral ARsarioan CR7Qm(po. This is the eoiaoonost of W0at Afiloan opociuo of nonfixovios. It is usually knoEm as *rud mangrove.* it is Imocm to thu Tomxs tribe of Siorra Loonu as *E-Kont.* Rhtaophora raqomoag typically foms a orai^dud and gunorally a tall foTDSt* Thuse stout tjcuos, attain heights ranging fxossx 50 to 60 foot in placQs whoru conditions oru favouroblo. ~ This hoigfat dtidndlos as om gous into tin mojnp anay trom tho od^s of xlwrs and ox Im OS 12 ^t and £^ve on cqppooronoo of a Im shrubby foroot. The RhizQphera raoemosg tzxjo trui& is grt^y but tho baz^ is ooxnino \7hpn cut. Tho trm is many branohud and its orocm is mrrcKT ond conical. Thu leavus oru sonKcrhat zoundud, luatlwzy and dark gz@ All Rbjgacaipbbra variotios oro oharactorioed by a tangled mass of prop roots. MLm eztnand lovul th&au roots dividu into innuffiaeroblo ^nu z^d rootloto which becozocd vpzy ciosoly pado^* Bhigophora raopmosg is a viviparous plant. It drops scod> lingo tm^lvu to tvronty inohuo long from trhich truos groi?. 46 2. Ai^cennia ntttda^^^ AvieBnn8,a i^tjda is ooxaaiBsaH^ known as ,*widtu aansrov«*. Tho Tenma trlbo of Sierra Loonu call it 'Ka buro'. It is a tsozo opun and dolicato trtio than. Rhjzophora raoomosa. In places saost favourable for Its gstKrth, especially frln^ang the coast, it is found in pure stan^ of ttdck growth* But in most places it is a low forest soich more apm than Rhjaophora rpoeinosa forest. Avicenn|a tioo seldon czcesds 25 feet in baif^t ond is characterised by a sin^e trunk black in colour. The leaves ar@ light sreyiah green, toicL are Qmall» pointed and narro?. AvjcenDia tro® does not haVo prop roots. It has a (spread• ing lateral root systum iast below ground level. These are ohor&oterisc^ by nuiEurous esparoges like pnsumtrophoros which are oibout six inches long, 3. Other Speojco^^^ Rhizophora harrjaonji, Rhjzophora ctaif^o and Lagunoularia raoeiaosa ore usually ssoll shrubby trees. These are generally found miaed with Avicennia nttida. The lax infloxe sconce with flower buds aoute at the apex distinguish it €xm RhlzophorR raoenosa. Rhigophora mangle is nortaally a vuxy low shrub - less than 16 feet in height. It is distinguished by the inflorescence which contain only two to four flat?ora with acute buds. 47 Habitats of DtfCorunt Specitis of Mangrevv Rhjgophom rafloaoaa is found mostly on margins of rivors and oruok^ and thtdr eotuazlus. (Figs, 8 & 9). It ruachus its optimum sizo ond forms puru stands whsru it gots a good stort in nmly depoaitod soft oUt.^®^ Rhiaophora zttflomosa is tfaaroforo fiqtund to abound thu ini^doo of th«> bonks of riv»rs wfairu water is slack and mtioh silt dqpoidtion takes plucu.^^^ Thu oub'O&zlal root a^otm of Rhi,2ophozti ztvoomosa htdps to ohook thu rate of floor of wator and facilitates Ottdimuntation around thum. This loads to thu oxtonsion of land end silting of thu inttizvening dhamolo and in thu formation of deltas. Rhtzophora rocumosa oi^aiq^s oxo thosQ which tats flushud for a rulativuly longer pozlod with fruah rivor watur during tho wet suoscm and with brooldsh water caused by high spring tides, during the diy season. Somu Sfajgophora raoeinosa Ixsn^ which are on the low-lying edges of zivors and onxsks are oub^'ct to de«p flooding. In some interior areas vrtwro the tidal fzesh water flush ond (Alt d^sition ore mgLigible, stunted Rhjaophozn raQOmosg is foi9)d« The sandier coils found still further owc^ from the influunco of tidal frooh water flooding, do not ovQ^port Bfajgephera rocemaoa. Avioennia mtidn usually has two distinct habitats. It is seon (a) fringing the oooot and (b) in the interior aroos beyond 48 RlBl LOWER BUMPE MANGROVE LAND HADMmt SWAMf RMZOPHORA HACEMOSA HtWIIOn SVAMP AVCEIMA NITIOA HIOmaiA MANGLE SVAKP IICI \DUH Mi Pig. 9. 49 Rhtzophora rooemoaa anosspn, awc^ from the influence df tidal fresh water flooding, or where this flooding is of a short duration. (Jlga. 8 & 9) Thus Avicenaia is found generolly at?jy from rivers and crooks* These areas ore leas waterlog^^^^ and with bad drainage, and ore associated mostly with sanely f im soils, which ore for the gtuator part saline. This salinity is due to the influence ef the high cfpring tidal flushing of salio) water during the dzy season, to which these swcaops are svds^cted. During neap tide periods tlK) surface of the mojopa dries out and deposits of salt are foisxl at places cauoud by evc^ration of salt water. During the wet season, henvy rains help in washing eff some of the salinity of thuse swoiops. In Hmoi same areas Rhizophora harrisonii» Rhizophorg ggpg^ and Lominoularla raoemosa occur mixed with ATioannia njtida. Soinetiinuo the f oniwr opooies are oocondaiy oolcadaers in these swaspo^ in association with the weed Paspalua Vaginatum. Avjcennia nitidg ORramps found fringing the coast are intensely subject to tidal effects. They are thus largely asseciatod with salins* water, whtch floods these m&sa^Q twioe daily. The soils of these areas too are mostly sandy and are fixrs and salinef A substantial part the Rtdzophorti pRoemosa mangrove swamp land has boon utilised for rice cultivation, esspeoially in the Scoixsiea rivers area in the Koxth^wjst of the Couttbry. I'argp 12"%/ * if' ' -JOT' WrfCC ^^^^^ iREA UNMAPPED b V 5^ r-'f J © PUJEHUN A 50 1 51 oa^ahses of Rhiaophorg raceiaosa ore foiuid in the mangrove atroaijs of Moyaniba and Bonthe Districts. Avjcennia swengps ore vezy common in both. Korthom and Southern Provinces. Distribution of IfonggBve Swamps Mangrove swongpa ore olmtost entirely confined to the coastal areas of Sierra I^eoife. (Pig. 10) They are conccntrattsd within 20 miles of the coastline. The thickest concentrations extenl at j^st about six to oev^ miles from the coast. From these continu- wsXy aacsq? oovvred deltas and bainka of the Xanar courses of rivers and creeks, ore aeon pre^ctlng inland f riJf^ng the rivers and cre»«»k8, littbs of mangrove s^aapo* As tbety extend inland thegy contract in tsisse to become very norrow. Thus the areal distri• bution pattorB is moie or l^ss a triaJtigulor one. Relief as well as the extent of tidal flootling have to a great extent brwjght oaioufe this unlfoacr a pattern. The intricately meanclering pattern of the rivers and their associated multiplicity of stBoller streams anid creeks at th® lower courses, help to moisten a large e^>ans« of land, and am tharefore responsible for the continuous concen• trations of s^onps found along the- ooaat. Oonipared to the other types of swcmgDs fovmd in Sienrai licono, mangranro swoops much more compact and continuous. FTOm the mouth of the Bagru an unbroken stretch Q£ mangrove extends along 52 the Ijoft hank of the xlver for a distanocs of about 12 to 13 nlles inland. Fran the same estviary a continuous area of mongreve is iir^^dent runzdng south fringing the coast up to the Jong river oijtuaiy, for a distonoe of roughly 12 miles. !• Shexfero - Bagru • Jong Rivers area The largest eonoentratitti of mosigrefve swasp is oround ShdX^ro, Bogtu end Jong rivuro. Vast expanses betwetsn Jong and Bogru rivers ore entirely under mangrove. Bropches of 0waB|>s vxtond inltsod associated with tte tributaxles of the rivers ond creeks of this r@gicm ma£lng a dendritic pattern of distribution. tiiidn this major region, the Bagru ifivor area stands out oO the thiokost concentration of mangrove awa%. Tfa& great vcXume Of the river, its twisting meanaero and thB large nunfeer of associated tilhutarios help to flood these ostensivo flat deltaic iani. Among the rivers of the Scaithom Province, the Bagru has th© greatest extent of tidal influence. Those factors havu given this area a ccmg?lc5to mangrove clothing. Botwetai Titibul and Moteva creeks is the most well watered, the most low-lying and the constcaitly silt deposited oxva of this rogicsn. This area foims one continuous strcxtoh of mangrove. Along Titibul and Motoya creeks swaog? land is, found projecting inland for almost six to seven nAlOS from the coast. Thu islonds 53 ossoeiatod with this tte^m - Ecimonstono, Rondall end Bobs islands - are ooii^etely saivrsvu covered. From Edmonstom island along the nver for a distance of c^out 20 niles orv found mangrow drronips. B@tw4don lfe>teva. cxvek and the Jong river are a nui^r of tsx^Haks 'x Hbaomaj) Rongotok, Tesq and Mongori boing the acdn ones. Assoeiati£d with these onwks is a region, flat and well watered with a thick mangrevo growth. Along the looseJy meandoring Teso creek this matap extends to a great distaxuc inland narrow• ing at lbs interior edge. Long island and East ioland in hamoi^y with its iieighbcmrhood, are cegEopletiily mangrove covezvd. The Jong river and its aosooiated creeks - Uongeri, Yaigini aai BcndQ - area is another coiBpaot ocmcentration of aongrovo tmap. The Sherbro island forms the other Hojor aongrose habitat of this vast southern mangrove region. The island is nowhere more than 15 feet above sea level and a large part of the southern (xrotx of the island, pacticiilorly the coastal strstch, is covejrwd with very sanc^ soil. ' Creeks and strwomo are mare coanon *n thu northexn ha3f of the island. Thaoe factors have confined the marjgrorvo swoinps of th» island mainly to the northern and north- eastesrn aeotiOTxs, Thick expanses ere euasociated with Bir4»i, Hjrama, Kymsa, Toba cmd Ltibu orcjeks, In the west a long area of mangrove swanp is found extending inland along the Black croek. West of 54 Sheztro are a nuiabur of islands such as Ifut, lele, Baki, Boong, Uaoaul®y, York, Yolibana, Allridge end Barvuttes^ which are for the most part mangroveHslothed. 2. Rotoal River Port Loko Crec^ - Bunce River area The second larBS^st area of mangrove swc2^ is aBsooiatod with th& estuaries and lower courses o£ the Rokel river and Port Zioko creek ond the Bunoe river. The Kumrobai, Petlfti, Kaidbia, Dare, Madina, Konta and Graboi are the other main creeks which drain this area. A dondritio drainage pattern is dominant in the swasp land of this region. A greater port of this swaap consists of narrOK? elongated projections extending in aU din^cticms. These ineozporate the numerous streoms and oreoks of this area. A part of the Qwainp of the lo»er courses of the Port Loko creek ond Rdoel river has been cleared and used for rice cultivation. Relief has played a dominant roLo in the distilbution of mangrove swaiqj in this region. The higher ground has confined the awaups only to the narrow lower stretches bordering the rivers, creeks and atzyams. Ihi numereuo islands that are fouiid in the large egtuaiy «>f this area» ore largely covered with mangrove. The main islands ijiclucle Tasso, Yema, Pepel, Konktjr, Hagboli and Tuafeu. Dense aongrove coveras^i is evident in the coastal area around the mouths of Bunco river, caid the Kumrabai and Kbnta creeks. 56 3> Soaroies Rivers area The third major concentration of mangrove sramp is found in the coastal aregion between the (Jireat ScarOies and Guinea borfler. This is the zunoiant of a fozmsrly extensive region of mangrove owas^ associated \i±th the Great Scoredes and the Little Scaroies rivers. Most of this awang? has been converted to productive rice lands. The existing mangrove area mostly fringe the intri• cately meancbilng cxtieks ouch as Mafaela and Sasiyuk. The sweurp extends inland for about four inlles from the coast. The very low- lying natuzu of this land and the ccmstant effects of tide water have enabled the conversion of this land to mangrove straop. However, the interior tqglanda and especially the san% ridges have restricted the extension of the swanp. The islands in the neigh- boujrtiood, such as Yolibyya and Kortimaw, are almost fully mangrov© covoixid. The northern extromlty of this region consists of rice lands which MOW once mangrove swaug?. 4,4 Ribi - Bus^ Rivers - Kag^ro Thauka Creeks area. Four smaller mangrove swems> regions are found associated rdth the estuaries and the baidcs of the lower courses of the Ribi and Bunpe rivers, Kagboro ond Thauka creeks. These shot? a more or less triangular pattern of di8tributi(m, being brood at the coast and norroiving inland olqng the rivers ond creeks. These swonipo extend inland for about 10 to 12 mUeo fxxim the coast. ss RIBI LOWER BUMPE ELEVATION B OVER 25 FEET Q BELOW 25 FEET MILES J_LL2 -i i Pig. 11. 67 Thick end ^ontlnuoua Gmoragiu nongxovo oro oa&n eccupying th» dOaotoZ aroas tsouth of thi Ribi ilwr, north of the Buni>« rlwr end south of tho Kogboro cruck. Thoao aruos otv aaoodot^d with a lorgo jiui$)or of inucaiclorins Qtxuoiss ond ocuuks laostly fttttdlng tht) loain rivers, fhoy aru all loos than 25 foot cSxpm acjckisLtmjl and fpr thu gpoator port flat laitd, oonvtmiontly covowd by tidal watojTo. (Hga» 9 & U) ihu offoct oi* itjliuf, folt particularly In tho roatriotlon 6f tho infiimoc of tidal flooctt.rig; tho rulatlvuly omoll volwma ©f T/ator qarrluii by tho zlvura and cxuokaj and tho sanely ond sjtoiiy naturo of tho aolls In tho lntor5or are aoao of tho ma^or faotoro which havo cauood tho limitod and caapact naturo of s^aapo aooodatod with tho Eibi and Bungpo rlvors and tho Kosboro orook. Tho Thciika crook is aosodatod with a largo nui*or of crooks and otsuams arunning in all dlrootions. Fringing thoao aro narroer finfsero of isangrovo swango ponotratlng inland shewing a dendritic pattern. 5» S«gpv - Waanja » Kittem - Malon ^ Moa Rivers aroa. Tho GOythom iQoaotal aiuaa of Siorra Loono (aroughly oaat tl5' longituclo) shta? a very dlsporsod pattom of distri• bution in T&i^Gt of oangmvo maS^* Tho assoolated rlvure aro $«97a,tlaan^> Eittoia, Malon and Moa. A nunisor of Idkua also aro fdoxid in this region* Tho rolativoly lindtod tidal Ij^icklsh wator 5& in^lmne&i the laxi^ fztssh water firstling periedf the szeat dopth 9^ this tle^Ajas, ^ sancisr natvqre ef a loinp part ef the oeaatal tinact, ham ^ o@Btrl1»utecl te tiio soattexvS natun> «f ^strllsutlon seen In the GRvonp} ef this r@gien. A charootorlatio f@atur@ In tha dlatrllxitlon mangrov® aRrsiqps in thda zsglan, is that theor do net (^reod f rsm the oeastllns inland sua in the cose ef th@ iB&nglPve Bum^a the rest sf the country. These msjapa are feuncL otartins usual};/ one to tcre odlea inland esr^ from thu ahora in sreapect ef the patohee seen tietneen Lsd^ Hope aod thti Ifea river, and south of the Kittan xiy@r* The ooattezed nongrsve majn^B found nerth of the WoEUV^e end Eittam rivers, ore efeeut four to five D^es moy from the coast* This intezlor leoatien ef nan- grove fsrtxa^ is GIBO a featured in the south of Shix)»ro iaLond. This my "bQ attlilsixted to the sandy nature of the sells of these rsgions m vvell as to the limited tidel effects. Relief has acted as a controlling faster in some limited areas. Paotero ContgeHing the Diotrifeutien ef Mangrsve Swanapa 1. Belief lielief ploys a oentrpUing effect in the distribution ef UEongzevG ss7eiEpo* AH osngxovQ lands are confined to either flat or vpiy flently undulating land of vuzy leer ^jevation« Coastal plcdns, laaor hanks of rivors and oreeks, small ddtas and alluvial m ialandfi oim th^ predenAnont mastBm habitats. All th&os KiUffeem oxuas are found below SO foot olovation, but a greater part sf th&m 0X9 loss than 25 foeit abovi^ ooa lewl. (It63,a60 and 1:62,500 fiimta of Sierra Loono ahsw this cl^arljr). Whon a fiat or g«ntl^ undulating land is tMicoantexed, it is omn that iDangr0V6 sraops ^pr&e^ oontinuooe^ in a Biinglv stand* Tht> omtzel of rolief is evident in the narroar llidks of mas^Eow moB^ whteh strotoh inland narnially occt:^^ng tho low- 2^ng fzln^s of rivero and 07^ka» Thsso aro soon sftn^ehed by high land dn tdther eddos* T^cal excii^jes sf this feature oro the iQangx0vt» swanp liid^o assooiated with Kagbozo crwik, Thauka oroek, Bagru riv&ir and their nunorsus trlbutarlos. Relief dotomdnoa tho cxtoat of flooding and the efinaoqu»nt silt di^sition wMch ar& also Is^iortant contiralling factors en ^mgrovu distribution. 2. Tides, Flooding and Silt d&positlon Tho extent of tide wator flooding dotondnos tho eztont Of sppoad of sangrove stTaops. All nangrovc scoops are found Wloff tho lovel of the high spring tidos and all aro conaequontly flooded to a grootor or lessor oxtont by tidi? water. ^ ' The IcmgEsr duration and rolativ^Oy intonoo aolinlty of tho tide water over• flowing tbo ooaotal oroos havu rooultod in the (^rs@noo of 00 Avjoennia nltida mongrorve awaup, which is aoro rosistant to salinity* Thu short duxtvtion of frush tTater flooding or its absence, and the pr(mtl JstjQuited in saHno conditions in the interior regions of mangrove CBsranips. £Eera aRoin Avicennja h^4a OEToy, oonetiio&s intuznised with othuj? minor man^eove spu Duilhg the rainy agaaon whtm tho rivers and creeks are carxying loi^ vtiluiKJs of water, thu backing of thu tidos results in thu ovorfloK? ^ thoso drednagu linos. This mt only moiot^ia an oxteiiQive. area, but also loads to th@ dx^sltion ef soft silt vmr ^ widfi) os^&wti* Thesu are, inoidently, the domains of Rhiaophera raoemosa mangrove. A primary roaaori for this lypo of mangrove doodnatlng over tho areas fzii^ing the rivers and cn^ks is the fact that tbidou e^os ore stibjeot to seasonol soft silt deposition. Bhjzophora raoamosa grows boat on this type of soil. AvlGonnia is oonfinbd to areas wh@i» silt deposition is negligible or ooiipletely absent^ The controlling effect of flooding and draining the land on tho distribution of maogzDvo awQii|> is well IOQU^ out whon we consider the drsdnag© cyateos ossociatod with roangrorve cocxjos. Aruaa with a doiose notwerk of meaniiering zlv@rs and creeks, cod a multi* plioity of trtbutaxy streams, are always deKsoly mangrove-covered. The fine^ exappXes that can bo cited are the Great and the Iiittlc 61 ^cnirclus riverd (e. grea^x" part of thfta mmg;Emi lend has been noir Oomtjrted to rlco fieade), Bart Loko or^ area^ Bogru river area, and thi^ 3mg rivyr &xm* The relative cibsenoe of aiaeh a dimae net• work ©f trlfcutpjy otjcwnaiD lo mep^ost of the lioa, Unao, faanjo, Unlcm csid the Scsva rivers and tho Moperaed and tspartse m%\m of the tiBcftpgnou gmtaf? they airport, to m»teHarti\ir* 9* Qeoiiegy and 3oila OoQlQSicxiUy aU iBan§r0\«» avassip lands ore oonflnud to the belt ef ^iat^ne oedlaenta (Bu&loa aeries)* Thoso are found to casuist of alternating bajads of <^Laya, aazvls and grgcvelo. The dolla 0vur thie area for tho greater poirt ore alluvial and . . 0Qnstitutii%( Iseem quantitiea of o»;&:u]io notter. Over titi» soil the aamewEik d^aiti(»» ae^ silt takes plaoe. The acdla possess a 0Qnsidere3?)cj oa^voity for conserving «rat<^. Sane ts^s of the innur and coastal axuao of mangcovts sreiap 0^1^ fino aisl oani^jr. fheae oug^iporfc Avleenanda Hpngswu.^*^^^ Vojty e^a% ooUs do not sm^rt apy onnsrove. Such soUo are found QDdnly in the coastal ot«^eh of oou^iem Sierra tmisu. y4t^ dimte lleaigjpov© maa^ are oonf^ned almost entiin^Oy to tho wetter S(i^om qS the mmtsy, a fist^a^ part reoeiving a »oan annual mln- foll of 8)Qre than HO iitf^a. (Vic* ^he Soutixtreetesn mangrovo 62 \ ) i { 1 li:V. X ! O < i z < 2 2 I- 9 11 63 aroa around tho Ka^^zo and Thauka ozoeks and Shox^ro island roooivoo aa much as 140 to 160 inches man annual rainfall. Tho Soareios rivoro oroa osporiencea 110 to 130 indliee. Out of tho main nangzove areas, th^' least rainfall of botween 100 and 110 inohos annually is rocoivt^d by the Rokol river f Port Leko crook area* The effect of high rainfall on tho distribution of non- grove srcuip is thus evid«it. A oorrolatl^ is also brought out in roE^ct of thi voxlability of rainfall* The main xataagrove ORraop areas have a relatively amcai variability of 10 to 12,ejg. Tho variability of rainfall in tho patot^jr ooattored BAngr»vi» s^oip area, (ocuJt of i2®.lS« W longitua©), tho Ribi river area cuad tho Wootom area (foimor colony), io 18*5 to 15^, Tho whole iDongrove jsrasg? area of the countiy gctooinlly eapozicnoes an annual everago tcn5)craturc of around 80*^P, At the height of the wet aoaiaon in July, the region has a nasan dally jaaslBm tor^mttira of 80® to 82^. In Earch during the dry season, the moan doily iwaxirecn tua^raturo risoo to obout 86^ to 92*V. (Fig. 12) During tho wot season and ojjpecicsUy in July, August and S«ptonftxjr, persistent doud cover is rofleeted in a lev Ronthly dumtion of atoishino over tho saon^^nve area. High relative humidity is evident during this period. 64 Ban^royo Swamps as Rico Lands Their Fotonfeial3,tios and HffiitatiQna Mangroi^o jsTaaps have been utilised for IIGO cultivation mcarp than mmpQ which aifla?ort other vegetation types. Appzoxi- iBately 53,000 aorea of coastal swiajp zlce land of the oountzy wore formurly manpove armpsS^^ It has boon eotimatod that there ore still ijbout 250,000 iaares of aru^frove ocranp lying unutilised for ary productive piapooo. A substantial part of this could be oomvrtod to rice fields without much difficulty other than the initial foiling and dearing* The duvi^opiMtt of tho rest w«uld involvio the aderptlon of adoqtiato raoosuros of water control and dralnosB* About two-third of tho total oangzove swamp area aro in the Bonthe and l!oyaift>a Sistzicts, A greater part of the mangrove swonpa roodlly available for clearing and suitable for rice oiAtlvatlon are those regions around Bagru and Shea^ro rivers* In parts of Shur^)ro island nnd in the coastal an^aa of lfoyon4)a District, the ctostade to rice culti-vation is primarily the intense salinity of Avlcennla nltida mangrove aifojsp. The some is true of Soma chi^KlOBi msingzwa swanps and a gruatcr part of the area oroui^ iho estuazy of Bort lieSsa crook and Rokul zlver. From the viowpoint of terrain, no mcngxove siTanp offers Obotacples to their dev)@lo]3mont as rico fields. The flat or gently uncfculating nature of the land not only facilitates the rotontiop 65 of water in tho land which rice Ooltivation demands, but also enablos the convenitait qjplication of modem methods of cuitlvatien, ocpjciolly medianlaatiQni Hongrovu swamps aro mostly assot^atod with tidal rivors, tho tide water being friish d\3ilng the wet aoeaon and saline during tho diy season* This fluctuation in tho natu*u of the tide water whiiph is particularly sujn in the swosrps nelghbourSflg rivers, is voay advantagcCRis for rice cid.tlvatlon. Hbu long fresh water flooding period enablos the growth of the rioo plant, and after harvest tho saline conditions dcuring the dry season rustrict the growth of woods in tho field. This advantage hcwovcr, dupcnds giuatly on tho length of tho peilod of fresh water flootling. The limitation in rospoct of rice cultivation in thy mangrove areas of tho intorior awqy from the rivers and also of those fringing tho ooastlinp, is primarily salinity duo to inadequate flooding of frush water* Even tho high naiJtfall which tho coastal aroas receivv, is inccg?ablo of anoliorating tho sitriation to enable rice cuLtivtvtion in the greater part of the Ayiffonnia swamps. This hocTOvor, should not make one concdtxkj that tho so areas cannot be considered as potential rice lamlG. The oiri)oldaring todmlques that have boon pmotisod in rospect of thoso a^rts^a have been found successful in ovoreondng tho llnAtation. ^^^^ Also, doarlng the existing 0200I03 etnd strooma, drcdning those croas and the 66 oonstmction ^ channels to moisten these areas with fresh rain and river water have helped to a conoidoztiiblo extent in some parts of tho Soarcies rivers area to moderate and ultimately to exdudo sc0.ine oonidti(HiB. EHQsolduring swaiif) land to exclude tho inflow of saline tidal water has - been successful only in respect of Avioonnia swonp.^^^ In tho oaeo of Rhisophera rooemosa land and also in AyjceiBiia lands which were previously inhabited by Rhieophora raeemesa, enspoldexing has zesUlted in cdvorse soli (14^ conditions, preventing tho cultivation of rico,^ ' Deep flooding conditions in tho Rhigophora raoemosa mosp lands inaixidiately fringing rivers and creeks pose difficulties in ruqpoct of tho utilisation of tbo aaoa^ for rice cultivation. A cyatem of water coittrel has been found to be necessazy to surBount this obstacle. In some areas floating vaxieties of rice which with• stand deep flooding oQndit5ons honro been cultivated with iaininity. dimatioally, mangrove swajqt} areas have been found ideal for rice cultivation. The heavy rainfall which is roceivod season• ally, f oUowod by a marked dry season, tho rdativoly long period of daylight and sunshinB, are all Inviting factors in rospoct of rice cultivation. Tho BOilB ©f mangrovo lands are for the greater part alluvial* The areas boraoring rivers and crooks receive a seasonal clothing of a silt layor. Those soila aro ideally suited for 07 rice growth, not cxHj possessing a good water holding oepaoity but ore also csbundant in soil nutzients. Swaa^o oi^jporting Rhigophorg rooomoaa ore ^nontly suited for rice cultivation from the vieispoint of soil. Avlcennia soils are for the ©reator port firm end sondiy, and thu silt cover is either neglii^ble or obsont. But what is more inportant is that they aro oalin»* ^^^^ Howovor, it has boon found possible to in{>rovo the texture and nature of tho ooil to mit riee cultivation with the ofplicatlon of proper droinoge and water Oontzisl muaoures. Aiqple evidence to support this is cvollotole in the Scardes rivers area particularly in the Uambolo oxxl tho Sanu chiofdoms, end HasRrazl of the WOatem area. RhiaoT?hora racemBsa cwfaq^ aro moro fertile due mainly to tto high organic matter content of tho soilo ascooioted with them, Tho deoonpooition of tho dense root cystt^ of tMs veeotation is »3t^pqnQible for tldo condition of tho soil. BsKTOver, as much as it being an advantage, the oane factor has posed a decisive rsistriction to tlm developaunt of these atyai^ja for rice cultivation. To exduao either the inflwr of saline tide water or to control doGp flooding RhipjOphora racemosa st?anp3 were empolclered In the Scorcies rivers areas in early 1950's. The empoldered soils wore ^siccated during the dzy soooon and led to intense acidity of the soils. The value feU from the normal 6 ond 7 to 3. This was dus to chondcol chan£9^o tal^ng place in the soil osoooldted 68 with the fibrous ?tjet system of Rt^zephora raoemosa. ^^^^ E^aopoldering, nereeeer, has the added disadvantagEj of the ze^riotion ^ the deposition of ^It so favourable for zice grvwth. Recent trials in en^dering Rhizoi^hera roceHiOsa g^ascps by the Rice Ibsearoh Station, Rok^, have demonstrated that the foUowing sehoioe.of ctipoldoring enables satisfactory reclamation Of the Qwanp tot rice ciiLtivatlon,^'''^^ 1. Dn^elder 8. Left to dzy to achieve maximLsa oxidation 3« ReintroduotieD of tidal wash to run»ve the add in tho soil 4. Ibmaaeatly ompoldor 5. Additi 6. , Iioaehing with rtdn water until the salt content of the soil is sufficiently low. Estimates of Suitable and Unguitoblo Ssrangas in respect ef Rice Cultivation R. R. ©loiWiUe in his •AgrlcuLttcral survey of the eadsting and potential rice lands of tho Scaroios xlvors aroh* - (1940),^^^ made the foU-o^ng estimates :^ , 1. Seiino swoops unsultablo for rice cultivation (a) Croat Sccrcios ajad Sema chiefdom area - 14,278 aeros. (b) Idttlo Scaroios area - 1,440 acros. Total of tho T/halo area - 15,718 aczvs. 69 2. SwQiqps rucKlily available oncl suitable for zlce cultivation (a) Gzoot Soaroioo ond Soma dilofdom aroo 17,318 aezes. (b) LittlE» Soardes area - 358 aoros. Total of tho wholo area - 17,676 acres. The years that foUotred am the redomatlon of a coni^der- c33le pcaction of these iK/aiqp oroao. By 1950 oil land sultoblo for zlce had boon brouf^t under ctiltivatlcm. A lorse portion of tho oalino oWQinps of Little Soaroies river area wero rodlaimvd. The orea unutilioed toclay is mostly f)ound In the Semu chiofdom* a. H. Roddon in his reports of 1933 olid 1939 woOu the following eistimates i-^*^^ 1. fioOgzovt) swQSip area bolioved odLtoble for thtd cultivation of rice J (a) Bo^the District 69,320 oor^s. (i.e* Shezbro Island 16,210 Qores S&dx^ond 53,110 aoroo) (b) SR^jr^rifea District 67,731 acres. (Fig. 13) (lie. Kibi river oroa 3,597 ecTBs Buttp# " " 10,067 acros Ka^jozo" *• 12,857 acres ThoiM" " - 5,465 acres Bagru « » 25,773 acztjs TitlbiA" " 9,972 aozTso) Thez^f^ze th>p to^al acreage of aangzove affenp oultaWL© for rice oultivation in the two distriets woo eotloatod at - 137,051. 70 71 2. Bangrove gwosp area bolicvod unsuitable for tho ouLtlvation of rio» : (a) BoOthe District *• 6,970 aoz^s. (i*©, Shezbrs island - 6,390 acres Mainland - 580 acres) (b) Mayaaba Diotriot - 44,141 aoroa.(Flg. 13) (i.o^ Ribi river areo - 1,587 aeroo Bw^e ti n ^ 1^,403 acres Ko^io" " •* 5,766 acTBO Th«!iuka " " «. 4,806 acroB Bogru » - 3,381 acres Titlbul" " - 8,198 aoz«s) The total acreage of mangzove af&ap believed unsuitablo for rice oultivation in tho two diotzloto was eatimat«d at 51,111. This aoroa@^ is dmost cenplotoly unutilised to the prosont d£^. Sosslottol Poper 1 of 1951 estimates tho total acroago of mangrovie swoiop suitable for rice cultivation at 137,000 ooroo, m the S^hom iPrOvinco. Mangrove dogranoo for Rico Cultivation The foiling of mangrove vegetation nnd the clearing of the mosap for zlce cultivation, is on arduotts and time consuming task, ft was arCRihd 1880 that Temno faimers at tho mouth of tho Little Soaroleo zlver, first began felling mengzove and cultivating zloe.^^^ Tl^ yields cbriv@d were almost double that got from tipland farms. Quickly this typo of oultivatioa fjproofi ejad by 1920 the oroa of 72 mossxnm felled along the G^ieat and the Little Scorcics rivers was hoticocble. This led the Government to introduce this system of cultivation to the Southern Province.But, till 1839 mangrove oloaronoe for rice cultivation has been more or less speradic in areas other than the Scaroios rivers. In the latter area felling was so steotly that by 1930 almost all mangrsve lands readily available for ride cultivation hove been dleared.^^^ This was loainly the RbjaOfphertt raoemosa mangrove swanip, where soils and water conditions were found satiafactery for rice grvwth. Later on, attention was focussed here on thu dovi»lopnent of saline awaips Avloennia.^^^^ This involvod en?poldoring of awai?? to OKcLudo Saldino tido &£ n^sgrove had been foiled and cultivated in the Scareles rivers area. This was tho largest region ef oloared aangreve owanp.^^^ Uangsovo elooring was soon to increase in tho Southern jProvlnoo particularly after 1939/^^ Tho areas cleared wore mairily those readily avoHaiblo for rloo cultivation. Here, dovelop- ment was primarily duo to GoveriTment initiative end assistance. In 1938, ettirveys and estlmatos were mode of the mangrove lends of the provinpe. In the year that foUcff^ed, tiu^ 'Swaop oloaranco loan BChoido* was starteci. Parmors wore provldud with loans under this {ichuiae to fell mangrove and propare fields.Skilled Tonne mangrove X^llers from the Scordes rivers arucvwere etqployod here to 73 (h thu work of foUing mcsografvtj for tho feccmm. By thi «nd of 1939 a totnl of 573 aortjo of taonspove vrere fcsiLltja end dlmr&dS^^ With tht) ©ufctn^ok of thu wor, the iwod to Incaraose food production was laaro greotXy felt. Tim Gowrranont sponsored a vlaorous ccaigJalgn to inorecioo aGrarg? rioo prBductioai/^^ An osten- 6iw Goed paficly distribution schuroo wcuj oloo started. In 1941, 6,433 bu3ht4.s of soed pcu3dy wery distributed to formjro for planting, ^^^^ In 1943, this was iixjruasod to 21,835 bushelo, ^^'''^ taxi in thb jroar that foUowud, to 83,477 buahuls.^"^^^ This shows thcj rapid extent to whieh mongrow Sffemps weiw mado use of during tMs pozlol. In thti Bump^ cuxia, the Tosmu fanaurs who hod migratexl from tho Sofu:tsic3 riwrs o-rua, cstfibllshud sraup fcartas producing ixjoaonsibly good cixjps.^^^ The productivity of otroaips os rlow iffficlsTOa ixjaliawd by tho f oxjaurs of thu Southom Prowinoe, nony «f wiioia vfittout GQvotnmat assiotonoo of loans, fOllod and oloared inaiQfjibvo for cultivation. in 1940, thcj Protootorat* Mining Board took up the • Swaiq^) oXoaranoo loan ^dmai* and inozuas«d tho asiount allocatod fros S5(X) in tho pjwviotis yoars to £2,000 onnualJy.^^*^ This bemofitod moiu penile and mxu caid leetv aengrBW® was foiled. Sot oxily thti control Govowaasnt, but also Native Actadnlo- trations took intorust in tsminp rico. Thoy cisployud felloro, caoarod plots and lonfcod out to farsooro. Scod distribition olso took place. 74 In i941f a guaranteed ffltrdimffiiprio o for rim of 6 shillings per biishsl xrtxa inotollesd. This hod an enoourogins offoot on anronp faxmta who in tim post had found that lax:go fozmo are gunerolly productivia et lov? prloo/^^ The loon oohosu waa pzlnoxlly wont to aid the faraBrs of th0 Hoyaidsa ond ths> Bonthid Siot^clcto to A»ll inangrove and ouOLtivate iriou. In the ScorciciO zlwro axi^a unaasioted indE»penditnt fanaaro f^ed ond ql&ased nongxovu. Ihs period of rapid nongrav^ doaranoo in ths Southern Pzovinoe whioh stortad in 1959 continued for fift«»«n ^ors till 195S» T?h@n it Qudd*Z)l7 otopp»d. Th@ 573 oonia of mongzow fdllsd in the South&m Province in 2939 rose to 4,360 aor^o in 1944. ^^^^ Moiyoiriba District had a total aoruogc} of 3,302 felled by 1947, of vrtiich 2,475 xmx& unddr cultivation. The oom yuor Bonthe Diotriot had a total area of 2,165 aoros of felled mangrove, of which 813 aoreo w©ro plonted.^^^ In thf^ BoRths District thu gruatust czponoion in nongrsivo olaorahoo wots ootm in Bendu and Iinpurri chiofdms}* Vsjrv ohortags of ugplondo woo m inountivu to mongrovu oluoring and mcaap forndns* Btxt the moot rc^d progreoa woo in Buiopu chiofdom. This was due not only to thu ttnthusiactio T&am fanosra but also to tte foot that Buii|p@ ohit^fdon had coi inmi^tdiatM roil huod for produD(» evacuation. The Initiativo ond Intsraat token by tho Ohi*>f of the chiefdem olso cannot ba ignored^^^^^ 76 By 1948 thia toted. ar»a foiled inoraoaad to. 6,244 acres in f40^ tho two diotricto and tho ar@a planted reott to 4,156 oor^s. ' £!y this ttnd of 1950, 8,206 aor^a w«rt» deorBd in thu two diotrioto of which 5j371 oCTBS w©r8 by unosoiatttd foraers and 97 aoreo by Native Adndtmatrationo.^^^ With a alight inoreaata in 1951, the totol oluarod in 1952 roas to 8,562 oonso. Tho most notices-^ e|}lt> inorQaoQ was in 1953 wfa^n tho total oroa f^llesd aitt»mt@d to 9,121 acres. With this diiiiax, maaigrov© foiling undeiwent a drootio and stxiden fcOl* Thu yoora that f61l03«d scs7 a v»zy small aroa olwarod. Tbo reasons for ths audcl&n doolino ond loss of int@reat in mangz0V8 felling ore varied. Ths ohong^a that wore taking ploctt in thp oountzy aa a wh^lo ^ political, tioonasido ond secdol - parti(»ilar2y after th^ first fgw dDCodt^o of tho pn^sent oentuxy hod i«HnK»tedblo injpoct on mai^rovB foiling. Tho develepment of th» , mSLning inclust^ and tirbon oroas, lesd to tht attraotion of mm and mor@ faxmta to thoso ploctea in auaroh of th£i> worn remunsiratlve ©n^iloyinont they prsvidBd.^*®^ MongrBvis follers as wall oa otTomp foxnprs migrated in largi» numi^ra to theae arE)as. Thus on incnaao- ins a|iortoge of mangXDvtt foll&ra end the rioo in tho coat of mong!:0vo il)lling wezu thu results. Th^so effects wexe f^lt even OS far bode as 1942. Tho population of tho two dlstrlots - Bontho and Mpyaiii>a ^ was locr, OZKL tho ndgratlon of f armors away fr@m tfaoau 76 distxiots tmJQ tha situation worso. DodLine of tho population mioA aibondoning a laz^r part of tfa^ farms Qlr@aQy oloared. Theru was no inoontlvo to oj 3ooond3y, tk) faxiooro WOTO disoouro^i^ duo to tho problum of weeds, particularly «Klri Kixl' or Paspalum Vaginatum. Pannors woro fao@d with tho difficult task of huavy digging to control weeds. Tho famurs of tho Southern Froyinco who wuro not eocuotomed to ttdo t^ of work found' it uuioeafigonial. ^ ' Uonkwys, birds and oxt^ worms woro probloiDs to rico cultivation* Thirdly, mangzov^ foiling and faztidng woro slaoktnttd Qm to tho ohango in emphaisis by tho Govornioont from loangrGrw swanpo to grassland swanips. Sinos 1950, it was ruolizod that largea e^onsos of rivorain grassland and inland mca^a ooiild bo oloarod and brotight f47^ undor cultivation moiu oasily using nuchanical motlKsds.^ ' Yidds in thosu axQos weru found to bo esioouraging^ Thus peoj^ woro XX3XV inolinttd tocirazdo swainp grooslonds and wuru ruluetont to attospt tho difficult task of foiling ond doarlng mangrovo men^. Thuro woro also aouto difflouLtios of transport ond caanuni- oation in tho orros^ oroos of th9 Southom Provinoo. tn tho Sooroios xlvors aroa and in Qom parts of Uoyaznba Distriot mangrovo owossps that vioro rondily availoblo wero doarted. Furthor oxtonsion hod to bo on tho oorE^ sollno Avjconnio maogzovo. Solinity posod a problem horo* In other oroos dsep flooding nodo it difficult to mobB use of thj swoop. 77 Boolamatiem ef Salint) Swomps Roolamation of oalin& o^onips was attesqjtod on an uisgorlmontal basis in llascrori (Wootem aroa), in 1941.^^^^ Lator it was oztendod to tho Soorcioo rivors oroa and Wollington (Wustom area) • Clearing ^vloennja mohgrovo and eiqpoldoring to e:xolud» salino tidu-wator was attoii;>t(sd<> Thu notable Schoof^s in tho Soaroios rivurs az^a indttdod i". (a) Baloipat pro^ot (b) Boaibia " (c) Uopotolon (d) Iiuti-Gosino^Funki^h project Boeidos thoau somo private fanners oloarud and eiqpold^rud seHno isaessqja in tho Samu chiofdom.^^^^ Tho Bchomos started by tho Govommont in tho earlier stages did hot show much preuoiae,^^^^ ond oom of them hod to bu obondaned while in others the teohnlquuo of rocflLomation had to bo changed. Mgngrgve Felling - Temne tfcthqd Ho meohaitloal method has yet been foui|d to fell and dear mangicove. Thou^i chemical methods of erodicating mangrove have been diacovored,^^^ they ore moxe costly and not extensively used, Almost evuxy acpeot of msngraw clearing for rice cultivation, therefore, is done by hcxK!* 78 Tho most serious drcs^baok to a much noro oxtonsivo use of madgroVo ssfm^a has beon thu difficulty and o^nso invalvod in falling mohgrsivo vogotation md oleaiing tho area* The foiling of stout nDngrotro troos is a skUled toak.^^*^ llxm} wore Tomn£^ profossiOnaL mangrove follors in tho Scoroios rivurs area from tho oarly part of this oontuxy. Umially thoao msi wore ozGEvLoyud by farmoro to £oll mangrove. It cost tho Scarolos fonqor q^proximatoly 10 shillings in cash plus 3 shillings in food oto* t to got ono acre of mongrsvu foUod. Sacrifices aro mosto to apiaits before and after foiling ond clearing. Mangro^ is foiled in tho dry season, tcneo are cut through the mangxovo forest parallel to oaoh other tmd at right angles to the prevailing wind from tho west (i.o* aoo). First, the ooriel zboto are cut and tho trunks are loft untouched. Fellins is bogun at the interior oastom end of tho block to be deorod, Tho trunks are cut half•^ay through In tho nozning on the side cs^oy fron tho pzovolling winds. In the oftornoon when the sea broezo rises the out is conploted frcm thu other side, in this W!\7 all mangrove is made to fall in the some dlrootion. After felling, cloaring of the plot is done by tho faxraar. For tho first year tho felled trees are loft untouched. In th) second ^ar dry season the bztuiohjs aro trlnmed off ond oither burnt or collected for firwood. Tto heavier logs are Itsft to rot. 79 whloh wodd toisp a nunfl^er @f years. Generally, by the eig^h year the form is cleor, although otuiqps may zemoin ibr as long as 20 years* A teredo called 'Au bilo ramont* by the Tensne, which is a wons^like mdlusc, have been of great help in deorlng thi foxm of mangrove stumps and trunks. This mdluso boxes in the timber and reduce it to a iaera shell.^^^ Factors that Inhibited the Utilioattcm of Mangrove Swcanps for Rico Gdtivation Naturol as wdl as culturd faotors wexe to a great extent zusponoible for tha poor tztilisatlon of mangrove csronps for rice odtivation. Cdturd factors appear to have offervd tho most inhibitive influence. Msst of ttese factors have olreody been ehuipDeratcd in Chester It. Thu factors that directly concern man- grove sivoicps oze diacuosod ho re. Tho difficdty of felling and clearing mangrove for cdtl- vation hod been a big problem. This was porticdorly so in xespect of Rhlzophora regcCTWsa mangrove with its prop roots and stout trimks. The high coot of foiling, the long time invdved in thu clearing and preparation of the avamp for cdtivatlon, and above all, the dlfflcdtlos encountered after cdtivatlon frcan the weed Pospalum Vaginafauna birdo, fish, orobs, monkeys and anqy worms, weze discouraging factors. 80 Stertnoss of tho fresh water period and soil salini'ty on<»untor©d in Avjconrda mangrove swaap orecuj wstriotod ttoir utilisation. $his was ospeoiolly so in th^ Samu diiofdem, Shur- bro ioland, Rokd ri^r and Port Loko crook ostuariea aroao. Soil acidity oansod by otogpoldoring Rhizophora raooapsa mangravo lond, was inhibiting thoir tztilisation, as cdd deep flooding oosociated with ghjaophorg raeomosa land fringing rivers and crooks. Inaccessibility hindsrod the dsvolopmunt of many nangrovo areas of tho intorior, ocpooially Avlcennia land and tho tsres^a bearing ndnoT mangrove opooios. The unh^'oltt\sr and inqpleasant natuzo of tiio o(iroi&p3 did not encourage their utilisation. The locr population of mangzow areas, o specially in those of tho Southtam Province, did not offer on incontivo to their Oxtonsivo utilisation. Tho i^ands in the noighbourhood or tho Gdready cluarod sc70fli> plots oi^pUod oufficient food for the Oxioting population. Sforeover, faznors did not like stzrtngors intruding into thoir neighbourhood ond making swaBg? forms. This was particularly so in Soni chiofdom. ^^^^ Most mangrove atiroB^ps closer to ugslands especially in the Southern Province Tiore neglectod, as upland fanoljag enabled mixod odtivation and was rolativeJy mxti oaasr* The poople twro not cCGUotcmd to the cultural practioos involvod in maa^ foztning. 81 In Soau cidafdon area, Shuzbro idond and Pu>hun Diatziot, fishing was fownd mox© profitable ond ©aEy by many people, and swongss wez« neglected. Mongzove lond v/as ooxuH-dsred as the dsjdilng of the dssvlls end its utilisation was purposdy avoided in the early days. Bven later on when laangrove felling was storted, oaorlflGes oxJd presents wore Around 1960, GovvrraBsnt* s ofaongs of attlftxto in regard to mojtp forming Ipying more ciiphasis on the utilisation ef riverain grasalond swotEps ond inland E^oaps, doo dockuned cood restricted the olearonoe of mon^ve areas. References (1) H.D. JDBDAB, "The VegBtation of Mangrove Swanps in West Afrleg", CggA/FAO Symposium can Rlee. L'Agroneffld© Tropioole. Vol. XTO, 1663, p. 798 (2) TJB. TOMLIWSCW, "Relationship bestween Mongrovo Vegetation, Soil textiue, end Reaction of S\u:face Soil oftor BinpolflMr» irtg Saline Swo^ in Sierra Leone", Tropicd Agrlodtuie^ Vd. XmV, 1987; p. 41 (3) D*R*E* JMSSSW, "BsdJraoto from a Report on a Visit to Sierra Leone to, StutJy tha Cdtivation of Swj«np Rioe, Deo^ber 1950 to October 1951", West Afrlcon Rjce Researeh Station. Botag>r. Sierra Lueae. Bulletin Wo.4, 1958, pp.36-62j H.D. JOHPfiH. op. Pit., D,R. KSEVEAK, "Mcngrove Swai^a", Farm and Forest. Vd.Vm, Ho.l, 1947, ip.23-30 82 (4) D.R, EOSBVEAB, ibid, t H.D. JOSD0, Qp. cit.i R.R. (2»AWriLLE, "An AgrlouLtural Survey of tho Existing and Potential Rioe Lands of tho Scaroies Rivurs, (July 1940)". West African Rjco Resoaroh Stationt Rekupr. Sierra Loono, Bulletin N0ii4, 19S8» pp.l2*32; D.R«E. JAOBSCW, ibid. (5) H.D. JORDAN, op. oit>i b*R,E, JACEKSON, op. cl,t. (6) H*Di 3OW0f "Tho Relation of Vegataticaii and Soil to L&v^erpmit of Ifcingrofvo Swomps for Rice Gzo^jjag m Sierra Leano", Journal of Applied Ecology 1, May 19S4, p. 209 (7) D.R. EQBE7EAR, pp. cjt. (8) P.R, HESSE, "Somo Diffoxonoes Botnoon the Solid of Rhissophora and Aviciranla Mangrove Swells in Siorra Lsoru^**, Plant and Soil. Vol, XTV*, No,4, July 1961, p. 336 (9) H.D, JOHDAN, "The Relation ©f Vogetation op. cit. (10) H.D. JOiJDJJI, "The VesBtatioii of op. cit. (11) Sail (fons^rvation and Land use in Sj^erra Loona. Sosgjonal Pf^r 1, 1951, (FrBotownt Govomaiait Printer) p. 39 (12) P.B, HESSE ond J.W.O. JEFESRST, *'Sofflss Prbpertios of Siorzn LecsKi Ifangrovo Soils", GCfSA/TAO S.VBPosiua on Rica. L*A<»conomie Trerpieolo, Vol, 3TOI, 1965. p. 805 (13) H. MW2JCBKIE, "Tntzoductlon", West Afzlopn R^ce Reseoroh Station^ Rokapx-^ Siorra LeoneBulletin No,2, 1957, p, 2; H.D* JORDAN, "Some Notes and Observations on tho Jfapotialon Azua of Samu Chiefdairf', West Afrloan Rioe Reseoroh Station, Rokupr, Slorrg LoonOi BuUotin No.2, i967, p. 3; Ht M^CLIBKIE, "Rice Grewing by Engpolderlng", Farm and Fozost, Vol, IV, No,4, Docembor 1943, p. 156 (14) H.D, JORDAN, "Tho Relation of Vegetatiai op. cit. (15) 83 (16) 3510.; P.R. SEBSE and J.W.0, JEHFERT, "Soma Properties ©f . It » OP. Pit.; P.R. BBSSE, "Deeompoaltlon of Orgonio Hatter in Uangrwe Swaaj? Soil", Plant and Soil. Vd, 2IV, Ho.3, May 1961, p, 240 (17) M.G^R. a&ET, A.J. GAEEENTEB, J.W.O. JEBFEHT, "Problems in Bttcloilidng Saline Mangrove Soils in Sierra L^ne", CCTA/FAO S.Ympeaiuro en Rice. L'Agronomie Trepicale. Vd. XtftEI, 1963, p. 800 (18) R«R. MWILIE, OP. Pit. (19) C^.H* BQiCCifiN, "Btport coi Existing end Potentld Sice Lands East of tho Bogru River and Indubding Shearbrp Idond (1939)", West Afrloon Hjee B»Bearoh Statjem. Rokupr, Sierra Leone. Bulletin No.5, 1968, pp.l-16j G.M. WWi^, "A Rs^rt en a Sturvey &£ the Existing and Pptentid Rice Lands in Certain Swomp Azt^as in Southern Previiioe", Sesalond Paper No,7, 1938 (20) H.D. JOEDAN, "DevelormBttt of Rice Reoearoh in Sierra Leono", Tropicd Agrieulturo, Vd. XXJCt, Jonuary 1954, p. fff (21) IMS-J Sierra Leone: Annud Report of tho ^ipartment ef A^cdtur^, (FreetOhTO Governaent trixitor) 1921, pp.7-8; 1924, pp.6-7 (22) Sierra Leonoy Annual R ..... Affllcdture. ibid. 1921. pp. 7-6; S jerra Leone; Annud Report of Lands and Forests Deportnent. (FroetCftTn: Government lilntor) 1925, p.21; 1926, i5).29-50 (23) Sierra Leone: Annud Reioort ..... A/gj.cdturD. Ibid.. 1950, p.3 (24) Ibid. , p. 12 (25) Soi,l Conaervatlon and Land use ofp. cit. » p. 39 (26) Si,erra Leone: Annud Bapprt ..... Agriculture, op. olt.. 1940 to 1953 84 (27) ibidy. 1939, p, 2 (28) Ibid., p, 10 (29) ibid,, pp. 2-4 (30) Ibid,, 3941, p, 1 (31) Ibid., 1943, p. 6 (32) tbld., 1944, p. 2 (33) ibid,. 1947, p. 4 (3*) t^d. . 1942, p. 3 (35) ibid*. 1940, p. 3j 1941, p, 1 (36) ibid.. 1941, p. 2 (37) ibid. , 3944, p, 2 (38) ibid. . 1947, p. 4 (39) ibid" 1947, p. 4 (^) ibid.. 1948, p. 2 (41) ibid., 1950, p. 2 (42) . ibid,, 1952, p. 2 (^) Ibi,d,» 1953, pp. 2-^ (^) IMd.^. 1953, p. 2; 1957, p. 4 (45) ibid., 1953, p. 2 (^) ibid.. 1953, p. 2 (47) Ibid., 1960, p, 3; 1951, p. 1; 1952, pp. 1 A 3, 1953, pp. 14 4j 1964, p. 3; 1955, pp. 2 A 5; 1956, p. 2; 1967, pp. 1 & 4 85 Soil Cgnsorvation and Land use op. ojt,, pp. 40-41 1, (49) Siezyg Leonot Annual'Roport ..... Afflrledture. op. cit.. 1942, p. 10 (50) P, AD&IB, "A Survey of Port of Somu Chiofdom with Particular Refeicnou to Nativo-Molo Enjolders and Vegotation", West Afrjoon Rice Rosearoh Station, Roktgig,^ Sierra Leone, Bulletin N04 2, 1957, pp. 9*13j H.Dt JORDAN, "Some Notes and Observations ....•", op. cit.,p.8 (61) Sierra IfOona: Annqal. Bopert Agriculture, op. cit. 1 1945, p. 12 (52) ibjd., 1951, p, 2j 1952, p, 2; 1955, p. 4; 1957, pp.20-21; 1959, p. 17; 1960, p. 14 (63) fi.D* JORDAN, "Dovelopment of Mongrovo Swong? Areas in Sierra Lcono", CCTA/FAO Symposium m Rice. L'Aflronomlo Tropjcale. Vol, XVIII, 1963, p. 798; Annual Report of the West Afrioon Rice Reseoroh Station. (Rolafl?r, Siozra Loono) 1954, pp. 7-8; 1955, pp. 11*12; 1956, pp. 9-14 (64) H.D. JORDAN, ibid..; R.R. (MIVILEE, "An AfizloUltiff-ol Survoy Scarolos Rivers", op. Pit;, (65) D.R.E. JACIBON, "Extracts from a Roport " op. eit. (56) R.R, GLftKVILEE, op. Pit. (57) T.S. JONES, "A Survey of Part of Somu OhiOfdoni (Mohola - Sasiy^k Gre<& Area) with Special Refbzonoe to the Mangroive Swcugjs'', West African Rlqe Research Station. Rokupr. Siecra Ltione. Bullotj^n No,2. 1957, pp. 14-20 (58) 0*M* ROBIJAN, "Report on Existing Shorbro Island", R.R. &Mmm» OP. dt.i 5^czYe.;Iiaone: Annuel Report ..... Lands ond Pezestsa, 1927. p. 25 86 CHAPTER IV CRA3SLAHD OR RIVERAIH SWAMPS M$8t grosdand or riverain mojogo are fwind above the tdgh spring tide levd, generally ad^nlng the imer margins of mangrofvu o^omps. Thmigh mainly associated with rivers and streams, thcgr ore dso found a considerable distoxic») mo^ from drainage llius, oootQiying low-lying oreoa and duprusslQno, which are found in the interior, adjoining t^plonda. The latter owoops are coninoiily evident in the North-centrd port ef Sierra Leone po|idarly referred to aa thu '^lilondo' region, ond dao in the Scarclea rivers area. Rivuroin QWQI^ posseas physicd characteristics peedior to themselves. Their indlvidudity is esipllcit not ody In their gross or sedge vegetatim cover, but dso in their submission to either seasond prdonged frush-water-flooding or to briefer pezleds of rt^dd and deep aibmergonce. TJdlku in the case of mangrove awofipa, here tidd bztioklsh-water-floodlng is lorgely abaent. This factor coupled vdth the highly fertile soils ef a greater part ef theoe owasps, have been odvontogeous from the vieerpolnt of utilising those swoops for rice production. In foot, grasdond scroaips ore held today as some ef the richest petentid rice lands ef Sierra XA9ona. 87 Swong) Yegotatlen Vegetation of riverain asonpa varies from thick high grasses and sedges to short grasses of many different ^^oieo. The latter ore prIiKirily associated with the groadand sEtraops of the Bdilonds region. It cppearo that vegetation does not ploy so dominant a part OS in the case of mongrove, in affecting soil and water condi- tions of the a^oss^a. HsKTOVur, the dense root oystcH& ef the grasses and sed^s of the cwoxipo of the Soaroics rivers area and Seuthem I^rovlnoe area, has contributed substantially to the enrlotmunt of tho soils by sugjplylng organic matter. A corrdation is evident between the thick grasses of the Soutboro Provinoe, the Scarcies rivers and other rdatlvely ceaatd riverain swonp areoa and their great fertlllly, awl between the abort groaaos of the North-oentrd graodand mojcpti ond their Im fertility. Thu dearlng ef thu vegetation haa been found to be a fairly difficdt task, porticulorly whun thiok toll grass ond sedge weru encountered. The oonmon weed found in the «5?taBp is Paspdun voglnatum. Vegetation gzewth is luxurious in the swonps during the wet season. In the dry season to a large extent these swaxaps dry out. Tho common vegetation typos of the Jong, Sewa and Waanje rivers mtasq? areas are Rettboellia-exdtqta (Golel in Munde), Oryza barthij. (wild rice), oM Penniaettgn purrnirlimi ore dso found here N c t t 1 MAKENI mil It • (/A'' *\.LOKC 'In, 8** Juiif. U fc^*^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^l 1 ' H nil S JO 40 -—^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 89 ond thuro. ' In thu Soorolua rlvura oxotx gmoalancl tsefoxp wisatation is mostly ffllxod. Soino oomnon spccios inaLudu, PoiilQum rumns. Paspalum osmmuraonnil (hungiy ilco), Berrula pankum, PorvlforttaPt Tholla aonlGulfttal, Onrzts. borthlt and ^cJ^^oxamS^'^ Dlstrlfeutlcm of ftraaoland Svrompo GrasaLond or xiirumin avonpo ozv conf inud olmost uxcliisivuljr to tho wuQtuzn half of Slorrtv Luonu. Unliku In thu oaao of Bongrovu, gras£3lond atrnnps for tho groator part aim a diopuroud pattoin of diotrihution. Thlo lo partlcularay ouon In thu North-woatom quadrant of thu countxy. (Fig, 14) Escupt in Dcm parto of Loko Uasama) Nongoba Bullom and Ktraaubal Krln ohiufdoniQ, oil graaslazid ayai^Q aru found boyond thu inaor narglns of monsrovu onjopo* (Hgs. 6 & 7) Tho othor marglna of graoolQi^ mta^a aro oithcr hlg^r ground covuzvd with foxvot or savannah ocnib or othor mtaapa (inland valley a7aiii>3). A larger part of grassland mosapa thurufoxu ecov^ pxvdoodnantly inland leoationa. Tho mop ohocTlng thu distribution of grassland s^oa^a ruvoala two distinct regions, (Plg. 14) Tho arva narth of latitudo 8° N. shotTs a moru or loss dispuraod pattern of distribution. Horo, thu 01^ oonpaot Qjid contiinuous owamp aruas arc tho loft bank of thu Littlo Scarolos rlvor in Loko Masama and Monibolo ohiofdonifl, Kholifa 90 ISobong chiofclom in the Tonkolill Plotzlct ossoolatud V7ith thu Rokul rivorJ end Knnio^al ohlofcl@m m Veorai^a District osooelatud with thu Jeng rivur. On tho controxy, thu snxsslond a^oapa that oiu found oouth @f 3,cd:itudo 8^ S. curu oQQtly cosospaot ond oontinusus in thuir distribution. Aloost thu ontln; £p^ali^ mo^ oxoo. of thio xuglon io confintxl to thu Bontfau Dlatrict. OoipunKl to thu groEHS^ond streoE^o 0f tho rust of thp osuntzy, thosu of tht) southum riiglon havu a coaatol looatlon. This la porticuLaray oo in the Caso of tho Kittas Woanjo rlvors and Shor^ra island gmsalond fhi graaslond isvonsjs ©f Slorro Loonu could bo fsoaurally ponoidoivd under two bread divisiono: 1* Lovor riverain grasolcmd sc7aiq33 2. Interior gxtissland acran^s. 1. Loner El-ouroin Grasslond SWQS^Q Within this division, fsur distinct sub legietns aru identifiable, all ctatfined to a region obout 28 inlleB from the coast. (a) Tho Sewa - Wocn^Je - Kittam - Malon - Jong rivers area (b) The Sburbro Island area (o) The Soordes rivers and Sam ohiefdom area (d) Thu Hibi -r Buii|)e rivers area. 91 (a) Sovra Waan^ - Eittdm «> HaLen <> Jons Bivers Arua. This is the aost io^Ttojat of oil grassland moia^ areas «f Sleixa loono fa;^ the viewpoir* of areaL coverage ond p©teatialities. Bdiu, the trellis pattern whloh tho Kittajn - Sewa - itslon - Waanje system oxonqplifioa is ncaiifeat in tho distribution of erasslond gcroinps. (Pig.j, 14) The close rulationahlp between rivers and those sr/osg^s is thus dearly evident. This vast gnissland sxfmp area ahows a !Dore or loss coapaot and continuous a^ct. Prom the coast, bordering tho Sewa river, these serojnpa ejttwnd inland for cbeut 22 njllos continususly. Fringing tho KittcsiB and Wean^Je rivers a belt of grassland tsranp runs parallel to the coast for a distonoe of nearly 40 inHes €rm tho Kittam estuazy upto Lake Hape. The continuity sf this belt is brcacun at sotio places by manswe spreaip and rice fields. The thickest spread is seen associated with tho So(7a river, partioulcrly on its right bonk. Crrassland swoi^ bordeilng tho Malen river, parts of thu Jong river and tho Mongerl and Bende cruelcs, extend t© Jedn the main Suwa river swanj) region. Those graaslaiid anroups are bounded by mangrsvu and other straag?s. Cos^ared to thi total area of grassland swon^ found in this rugion, the area devoted to rice is voiy small. Tho main rice lands ore found fringing th;.' Sowa river eapedaUy on its eostenx bank and bortlering the Kittoa and the Waan^ rivers, (Pig. 21) in the rest of the grassland swamp region aiv fovmd scattered patches RIVER CATCHMENT AREAS AFTtir J.I.CL»B«t. Pig. 15. 93 of rlooland bolng vory nogliglblo in total aroa, , Araoaig tho factors controlllxjg tho diotrlhutlon of grasslani Gtranpj in this rcgloii, thoco of primary ifiotportanco arc tho oxtonslvu frosh wator Hooding fobllitatod by tho high rainfall, tho largo vp^Luno ©f water of tho liwrs and tho lew-lying naturu of tho roglon. Tho Sec7a is ono of tho throe rivors ©f Sierra Loono with wry largo catohmont areas, (Plg. 15) (tho othors being tho Groat axxl Littlo Soardos rlvors), Espodally during tho m)t season tho Sewa rlwr canles on enorraeus VOIUIDO ©f wator. Tho intri• cately iDUQiKlorlng naturo of the ri^r extends tho influonoo of flood waters to a wide ozpanse of Itanid, The Sewa waters help to raise the Mttam end 9aan^ rivers and thu nuDurous stroams asso• ciated with these rivers, A groater part of tho banks of those rivers thexxiforo are sub jeot to deep and prolongod iloodlng. This is partloulariy so in tkj region i©rth of tho Waanjo river and lying parallel to tho Sowa river, forndng an intenaodlate belt between lokos Balaaa, Ewotoo and Kbinason and the Sowa river grass• land awanp. Flooding starts usually in July and may reach a depth of 10 to IS feet on those low-Dying sites. Tho nonaal flood• ing of thu Sewa river is four to six fuet in Aiigust, but a peak t^jto 15 foot is not unconmon. Tho rivers of this rugien for tho groater part are not tidal and are mostly friosh-water rivers. 94, Almost all grassland seron^s of this rogisn are coined to land below 50 fOet elevation. The borrier effect of high greund restricting tho extension of flooding ond tho oonooquent grassland 3waiEE> dovelo3?fflont is seen in thu areas between tho graaalond mta^a of tho Mblen, Sowa caad Woonjo, to tho oastcif lakes Pcrpel and Tlbi, botwcen the gitusalond mas^s of tho Sowa river, Boiklo oroek and tho Joi^ river, and between tho grassland swoq) of tho I!3.ttaj& river, Jong river end Bende creek. Along the coast, sand xldgos found here and there limit the ^preofl of grassland mcaap Qecs7ards. Mangrove awoBips with their characteristic brackish water influtmoe, torn a lindt to tho grassland aero^ss in the intexlGr ef Turners peninsula and in parts of Nongoba Bulloa, Towbeko and Bum chief doms. Lakes have acted as barriers to the spread of grassland flwosi>s in the Bum chief dan area. This is one «f the most well-watered areas of Sierra Leonu from the point of view of ralnfoll. (Pig. 12) It receives a mean annaal rainfall of mxo than 120 inches but on extensive port of thu region ruooives about 140 inchus. A large part of tho catch- Itiont area of tho Sewa river receives over 100 inches soon cnnuol rainfoll. This accounts for the groat volumo of this river in the wot soas Tho grassland swcii|7S found ii^ tho intorlor of tfa^Ls zeglen, csfcff from the influonoo of thu nnin rivers, oro mostly iloodod by the heavy rains which drain tho surrounding i^slands. Tho soils on which swamps have developed ore river deposited silt. These are deep and rich though slightly saline near man• grove awaops. (b) Shorbxo Island Aroa About 1/5 of the area of tho istland consists of grassland swoBjps, Those are mostly found in tho control tracts beyond tho inner maxsins of nan£x«ve awas^s. Tho continuity of tho grass• land maap orua Is br^kun hero and there by ethor swaq^^. In contrtist to tho Sowa - Waanjo <^ Kittam area, hoie graaolcnd swanjjs are not associated with large rivers. Banks of smell stroams and abandoQOd longitudinal lagoon tracts and depressions foxm tho pxedoininant habitats of grassland scaups in the island. Rainfall plays the most dominant role in contralUng tho distribution of grassland swanps in this area. An average annual rainfall of over 150 inches helps to raise tho stroams and flood a largo part of tho island. Tho low-lying aspect of tho land offexB littlo obstodo to extensive flooding, Flooding is intensified by tidal bacslslng, Tho coastal strotchos naturally suffer from the offecto of saline water, but salt-froe conditions are lestoxed (a,\ at tho end ef July in most areas and last till mid-Deoenfeor. ^ 96 Tba interior swong? regions enjcy a longor salt-free period, (o) Scoaroies Bivers and Samu Ohiefdom Area Grassland oi7ans>a are largely found on thu bonks of the Little Scard.es. (Pig. 14) Smaller ooncentrations are evident associated with the Great Scarcies, Somu ohiefdera aai wootezn Loko Ifasama ohiefdom. Except for some parts of tho Little Scaroies area, grass• land aamqia are located prodostlnantly beyond tiio inner nargi i^ of mangrsve land. A greater part o£ the grassland massi>a of this region thus on^y an interior location. Tho noteworthy exceptions are honever, those of Western Loko liasama chiefdom and the small patches in Somu oMofdeoij found along tho coast. Only along tho tapper reochoB of the Scarolos rivers do grassland acrai^s fringe the nvera, elsovfhoro thoy are assooiated wholly with the trlbutorlos &£ these prindpal rivers. In Samu ond Wostczn Loko Masoma ohlefdoms thu boi&s of smaller streams and creeks support grassland swamps. Thus tho alignnont of the fsrmpa shows the pattern of tho strooms ond crooks, Unll^ in tho Stjsra Waon;Jo - Kittam - Ifalen - Jong rivers area, here gjrassiand swaiqps are found for tho greater port as limbs spreading out in all directions in harmony with streams. Tho interior limits of those protruslona ore usually hii^i ground covered with forest or other affanps, A relatively continuous stretch of grassland swa»p is found ©n tho left bonk of tho Little Scarcies river. This area includes 97 the Gbenti, Ma]sen3)a and Bobusp swangss. Th) grassland swai?? area dssoclatod with the Great Scarcles river is small in total aroa. In the Samu chiefdom grassland sweats e^iiiblt a scattered jpattem of distribution, (Figs. 14 St 6) biit tho lorgur conctaatrations are associated with the tgppor roachus q£ the llahola cknd Saslyek ereeks and their txlbutarlos. Thu faiotors ccmtr^JLlng the distribution ef grassland swas^s of this region ore similar to thoso enumorated in connoction with tljo Sowa Waanjo - Kittam - Malon • Jong rivers aroa* The rela• tively high rainfoll which the vast eatchmotit areas of the Groat and the Little Scard.es rivers receive, (Pigs, 15 & 24) provides those rivers vrlth an onarmoos volumo of water. Tidal backing results tn the floodiJ^ of oxtonalvo aroaa, Tho Great Scarcies beii^ very tidal, foils to provide contlnufflus flooding, but tho Little Scarcios Is less tidal end a largo area is continuously flooded with fresh water. Salinity is a common foaturo in tho Groat Socroios waters due to tidi^ Influonoe, but tho little Scaroios is ptrodomijfiantly a frosh-wator river, The flat terrain of a greater port of the legion. pormlts convenient flooding. (Fig. 22) This is particularly so in tho case of tha Little Soardes aroa whoru v^ilonds oxo more fragnontcxl tim in tho cose o£ tho Groat Scarelos area, Jn the Samu, central Monbolo and in parts of Loko Manama chiofdomo, the fingor-liko 98 distribution pattern of swon^s are caiisod by tho interloofelng nature of t;^)lands on either sides of the scfojzip. CO.inatic conditions have alrocdy been discussed under nsuigrove atraops of this region, (p. 63 ) Gctierolly hi#i rainfall and relatively hl^ wet ond dry season tcwgxsratures mark this region. The grassland swanps hero are dry OJily for a part of tho dry season. The interior grassland 3woBg?s of this ru^on oro* nourished predominantly by hoavy rainfall rathur than by direct river flooding. Seepage oad run-off from thu surrounding iriiLands moke those swasqps waterlogged. Soil conditions are similar to those of thu regions already discassed. Conditions similar to mangrove soils ore found in those gnisslind swcaqpo which have been previously inhabited by (6) mangrove.^ ' (d) Ribi «• Bunspe Rivers Area On either sides of tho Ribi and Birapo rivers, ore found elongated limbs of grassland swamps, troiding inland and fringing the nuinorotia trlbiitanes of the two rivers. All those swoaps have an intwior location, beyond mangrove swojips which fringe tho coast and main rivers. (Plgs. 14 4 7) Almost all tho grassland swonipD of this region are confined to tho legion bela«7 ^5 foot moan sea level, (Pig, 11) The restricted nature of gjwissland swotirps in this region is duo to tho unfavourable oonditions brought about by tho extensive tidal infLuonoo to which 99 tho Ribl and the Bumpe rivers are si&>^ct. In the rainy season the Rlbi rivor is tidal as far as Hobong and brackish water flood• ing is ccmoiu The tidal influence of the Bun^ extends bo^rend Rotifuflk and Moksnibo.^ ' Prolongud doop fieshM^ater flo®itng is coiomon only in the uppor roaohoa. The grassland swamp areas associated with tributaries of tho Ribl and tho Bumpe rivers being f^mo the hl^-spxing tide level ore devoid ef saline water ef foots and enjey ftfi&h^txtQV flooding during tho wet season, Tho heavy xtdnfall dxirlng this senoon htilps to make the swasp waterl«^U^d. It has boon estlmted that 83 aoros asaodated with thu Ribi river and 582 aoros aosodated with the Bun^ie river , axe sublet to deep flooding. The ef foots of relief is similar to that onumLirated in respeot of Scardes grassland swanps. The climatic in£Luencos are similar to those aosodatod with tho Sewa « Woan^ - grassland swconp area. Soils of tMo region are siadlar to thoao of other Qwas^ grassland aroos. (e) Hinor Regions Assodotod with tho ;^ributanos cf tho Port Loko crook and tho Rokel river are limbs of grasslaM cwanip forming a small total area., Theso gorjorolly occtgpy interior locations, cs?oy from tho influence of bracjkioh water of tho tidal river and creeks. Thoy arp howover, aibjeot to a seasonal frosh-wator flush and oonsecjuont 100 silt deposition. The Bort Lofco crook with its relatively limited violuBu of water dxvtsm from its snail oatohmunt orua, (Pig. 15) is in- cepable of flooding on extensive area. Relief, moreover, offtTs a rustriotive influence on flooding, oonfiidi^ the grassland sfvoops to tho shallow depressions assooiated with minor streams. 2. interior Grosslond $woi^3 Tho grassland stronp roglen of tho interior aflisooiated with the t^jper roaches of rivers and streams, is mostly ooafinod to tho North-central part of the oountiy, inelcKllng Northern and Eastern Koj&ia District, Bpmball District, Eastern Port Loko District ond Western Tonkt^Lili District. Within this large area scattered irregular patches of grassland swaaps of varying SIBOS mark the distribution pattern. (Pig. 14) Tho eastern section of tho grass• land SEraap area is tho so callod Bolilands region. Tho obnpt eastern linlt of this region is a notcwortl^ feature, Tho Bolilands region deserves cpuciol consideration Gqnpared to the rest of tho interior grassland maap region, thu Bolilands area consists mostly of a very dense concentration of groosljaad swonps. To tho west of thu BoHlonds region is a largo arua whore abundance of narrsw elongated strutohos of grasslond QtTtaig?, ore founi widely dlffusOd and assooiated with amoH streoma. The dynso ccnoentrationo of grassland swoiqps in tho interior are PBECAMBRIAN ——• ROKEL RIVER SERIES (JSEOLOGICAO DBTRKT tOUNOAmES Pig. 16. 102 found to abound thu baziko of the upper roaches of thu Little Scardes, the R^l and thu Uabole rivers and their txlbutorlos, A langu part of thu swoB|)8 Qf this region ore aligned ocoorOing to the rivers and atxeoffis, though a oonBldorable nuofeor occupy dry valleys and depxesdons. Two congpaiat and oontinuous grassland swanp aroos oro found uzi^Gying ioolated poslti(»is ossooiatod with the v^rpor Jong and tho t^ypor S&r& rlvors in Komajie (UoyaniSa District) and Bum^ (Bo Distxiot) ddefdoms, rospootivoly, A stziklng corzelation is evident in thu distribution ef the rolatlvely dense grassland swosip oroa ^ the Bolllands xegion, and the undorlying gpological strata which consists of weak pro- ooaibrian oedlJi&ntQrieo called the Rokul xlver oories,^^^ These extend from thu Guinea border, for ab$ut 140 adlos in a strip about 25 xoiles wldu. (Pig* 16) The soils derived from tho xooko of this Rokul river series, are low in nutrient otattis as thoy aru inherently much poorer in mlnorQlo,^'^^ Reliof has playt^ a oignlflcant role as a coctrolliiiS factor of interior grQ;sslond swanks, Pjractically tho wholo region is b(^0w 250 feet elevation and oon^itutes a vast @jntly undulating pldn^ The shairp oscaxpmunt to tho east of this roglon marks the abrupt qastem limit of grassland swcoi^o. 10£J In a larger part of tho Bdilonds arua, rlvuz^ or streams noahdur olmleooly and during the wot season from Hay to November, when they onrurflow, a large OTipmoo of land is mdotoiod. Surface and 8ub-sux$aOe rtawff from tho sorrsundlng c^lands dyring the roimr season oolse a cansidordble part of thu grasslond mompa watez>» logged, Usually Bolilands axe subvert to sudden unGsntzvlled flooding from the zlvers. Pleading vozleo In depth fron one area to another^ Silt deposition is gqEmrolly little oc^dolly when cODiiarud to the grassland swanks of tho loner oourses of rivers, A striking cerrelatlon is soon in the hea»y rainfall of the oostom part of thu interior grosslani sfoBp region, and its dense coniuntratlon of grassland meoBpo, The relatively Im rainfall of the rest of tho region finds esprossien in the sparse ond diffused distribution of grassland swoni>s, A gruater part of the Bolilands region receives a moon onnuol rainfall of os high as 120 to 130 inohos. (Pig* 24) WoU definud wet and dry seasons are evident in tho roglcm, yarlobility of rainfall Is rOlatively low bdng 7.5 to lO^, only tho northum areas showing a slightly higher varia• bility ranging from 10 to 15^. 90 to 9fi^ of tho total rainfall is roooived during thu wot season. (Pigs. 26 A 27) A large port of the grassland majnpo dry out cos^tely during tho dry season. Due to its interior location, this ORranip roglori eaqpozlenoes a rulatively high seasonal range of tcnperaturo. 104 Grassland Swenps as Rico Lands «• Thdr potentialities and Limitations Swamp grasslands offer inxoenso peteDtiolitlos in respect ef xico cultivation, Acoerding to Roddan (1939), and tho Sessional Pcper 1 of 1951, there axe about 63,360 aeros of glassland swanks suitable for the cultivation ef rice in the Stsra - laanjo xivero arua, Rodd 5,312 oorus, Eagpsoxo oroek area - 589 aorus and Titibul crook area ^ 794 aoros. (Pig* 13) Rjr.H, Church eotlKited 40,000 aoxes of potential rice land in tho grassland owaaps of tJw Scardes rivers orea.^^^^ Dalton in 1961 estimated 250,000 acres of grassland sweicps suitable for the oultivafcicm of rice in tho north-central Eolilcnds xegLon. Thus the total grassland swaap area sdtable for xioo cultivation in tho whole country mif^t be 350,000 aoxes. It is dgdficont to note that ef this onoxmous oroa, (»ly a small portion has been put to asy pxeductlve use. Huchonical cultivation has enabled tho utilisatlcn ef a consideroble aroa for rioo oultivation. The flat and low-lying naturo of a largo part of grassland macaga fadlitato its extensive and convenient utilisation for rice cultivation. Muohanlcal cultivaticai is made feadble, espeoially in rospect of tho southern grossloitd owanps and the Seardos grassland swanks. A lorgor part of tho Bolilands 105 zugion als© cadXik be muchanicalJy cultivated. Bom ©f the QacOl iiitorior grosolaiad msncga hmayvr, off or ilnttationa to isuchanlcaL oultivatien. But thu otktption ef ®x>pl6ujshiflg, as has boun cU^Qonatratud in thu Hoboli vcllqr grooolond cR^oBipQ, csga holp conaick^roibly itai ;)uc!ioioaQ utilloatlon of thosu mai^a oloo. Thti aqUa o£ groisoloiid ssrses^a of a gxt^ator port of thu (»untz7 oru f^ile end rioh in orgonlo matter and iron. Their T/ater ixitcdning oopooity and f^dhle nature ore other odvontoeus frd© the vleopolct of rice oijltivation. In the southern grasa- lond mtsB^a, ooll Is a voiy fertile block alltwliim which is replpnlohad by onnuol flooding. Thou^ dry for a part of the dzy 0Ooaon> grosslond osrcsnp sollo aro tusuetUy unler vco^ng \wt coaaitionfl for the rest of the yuor/^^^ Iho aone is true of the Soa3:eie& xlvurs gz^slond OErajqp oolla. Here soila ore pole grey to brwn cloy. In the Intcilor QraJOfHoxtd mojapa vrhioh cxv moinly floocled by rajxpr/ater, the soils ore nzuoh dorkmed by humus reoei^ling fen peat,^^®^ In the cater fringus of these scromps close to ugplonli} sond mpy be present* Only soils m ed@us of aoin tidal fSRm^ neuld appear to be solty. Hi^over, these soils ceuld be DXtde prodaotive by iisproved drainage oenditions as has been duffisnstztited in tiw Scorcics area. The soils of the Bolilonds area do not offer as auoh potentialities as those of the other grosslGnd ovrcus) regions. 106 Thu dagx«M» of fertility in tlds ru^on varioa from ploco to place.^^"^^ 7ho fiokul zlvor guoLesiOQl surie& h£is givuii riou to a llgfat and xulotivuly po&r ooil horu* Svcn thu aUtivial soils fouM in thu Bolio ttcti loss fsurtilu, 'being clurlyocl from tho in^povoxlehod lancls opountl.^^^ Boll soils haw a ckjpth ©f (ibout 18 indiOQ er oexu ond a toxturo of isilty ol2^ IQQJBI or oUty cloy. In tho roic^ ouasan tfauy bO(^QU huavily flooded l^ut in tbu dxy ecasm, dry out c^a|>lutely ond thu soil orgonio nattor is thun duhydztitud and ita> aoil "booomia vuiy light groy in caUur. Tfaoy cceo uauaUy vuiy dcflcicmt in nitrogen caad available phoqstwio and iron.^^^ MbverthelosB, thuso Qoilo ore oapcHhi 0f being isiareved by the ^udioiouQ use of phos- phatio fertiliaera* Oliioatioally grassland meea^a are suitable for rioe pzoduotion. In oertaln yearshaumixc, eorilsy rains and consequent early flooding have Interfered with tho prejaaration of the swani? for cultivation, whereas in others late rains havu caused problems. Btst, instances of this nature have not been too frequent. With proper methods of T7ater oontxol and droinage, such prdblens could be resolved. Floodlxig is the other In^portant oharojcterlstic of gxtissland swonp onoblirg the drcs?ing of a good rice crop. Most grassland s57on^ are diruotly flooded by rivers and -ttielr tributaries durlns the \7eft season, aostly bojoked by tides. The seasonal nature of this floodiJ?8 is a great advantage from the point of view of rice 1C37 cultivation^ for it avoids tibe necessity of drcsiring crater from rivers by ortifioial methods os • caiKluctod' in maiqy Soutii-eoist Asian countries. SOBK grtissland mcxg^s closer to rivers and creeks are deeply flooded for a considerable period of time. Thezu are others T?hlch ape sribject to tidal saline water effects. These have posed problons. However, enpolderins and rugulating flood waters or by the use of floating tlw varieties which can resist deep water conditians, these oreos could be made productive. Deep flooding has been a problem more in the southern swong? grasslands than eloetTfaoru. In the Sewa - Waanjo rivers area about 8,900 acres ore subject to deep flooding. ^^^^ In some Boli owoinps, briefer periods of rcgaid ond deep aubnerSenoe have caused problems, The problm of salinity could bo overoom;^ by iapnjveaent of drainoBO conditions by clearing and deepening tbo existing natural watezwc^s oi^ erecting channels. Shozi: duration salt-zeslstont rice varieties could be cultivated in these Bwaigps. gootors that hove Inhibited the DeyeloFciunt of Grassland SvyaB^s for Rjce Cultivation. A multiplicity ©f factors both naturcd and cultural have in voj^ng degrues inhibited the extensive utilisation of grassland for rice cultivation. In Chapter H the gtaieral factors that have inhibited the utilisation of sBraiBps in the country have been enumerated. Most of these factors aro opplicablu in respect of 108 grassland moxnpQ. Those directly concerned with grosslond maapa ore vforth further aniplification. Duriiig the early yoars grassland scromps were sources of piasaava ond thatcWLns matexlol in sonu porteof the country. Piassava brought substantial incorae to the people of the Bonthe and Pujehun Districts, Thus their extensive cleaaronce for rice cultivation was not resorted to. The v^ond.) fam st^pplied the necessczy food for the people. The inability to practice mlsjed cultivation as conducted in xiplaridlhrBis siode people avoid grasslond mmpaS^'^ Ian population had been a very characteristic featuru in gxtxssland acrearp areas, Shcm very early tines. After thu first few decades of the prusont oentuiy, most young nen were attracted to more remunerative dobs in the mining indistries and uzbon areas. This was cjspeololly seen in the 1950's, Jfioreover, tho patchy rice fields^ ' that were found in grassland 3Prai?)S of the Soutkirn Province before the carfy 1950* s, did not diorr encouraging results.^ ' The yields were la/ nainly due to the iwn-availcbility of high yielding floating rice varieties during this time. Iforeo'vurj, people wore dlscourogod by deep uncontrolled flooding nhioh caused consicler^le donage to crops. In the Soc/a - Woanje rivers area, 20 feet depth of flooding is not exceptional. In the Bolls, suddun uncontrolled flooding in the wot season and the shortage of water during the dry season have 109 caused serious problems.^^^^ hm yields dw to poor soil conditions have been on inhi* bitiw factor in the Bolllonds area. Inaccessibility has been oiie of the xoain reasons for the non-utilisation «f a largo oroa of grasslond mw^S^^ Some grasslond ssroiap oreas which have been cleared had to be abandoned due to difficulties In transport and comnunications.^^^ (eg: the Uorti^ site of the lioyoniba Diotxlot). Iiock of orgonization on the port of the CovensBunt, esspedally in respect of marketing, storage ond milling foollities was a discouraging factor. The difficulty of dealing and preparing the asronp grass• land for rice cultivation also hindered progress especially in the early days* Itock of adequate tools end lagpileiaents added to tids difficulty. Th^ denao sedge or gross growth and the doop strong root cQTstem posed im^or px^lums entailing inuch hard work. This problem was overooiBe only after the introduction of smchonlcal cultivation. Even here deep digging has to bo resorted to, in order to completely dear the sedge ond to eradicate woe* growth. The intrusion of weeds has been perhc^s most troublesome In all grassland aam^ oreas that have been dearad for cdtivatlon.^^^ Weeds have made rice yields dwindle considerably. When the weed pzoblem was grvat the number of seeds sawn hod to be inoruosed to no rcirapiute with the weeds, Tbm about 90 lbs. ©f seed per core had to be aocm.^^^^ In the Bolilonds area, successful rice cultivation depends on the. weeding ©f the yemg crop. Biids, monkeys, fish axid other pests have been found to be oaiitsli^ much doma©^ to cultivated crops, discouraging many farwirs frem avQiq? farming. ^^^^ Sroasland Sgegt> Cleaxoiaoc for Sjce Cultivation Govemmunt initiative and assistance primarily in tho foia of mochanlool cultivation end seed distribution schemes diiectly helped to convert considerahle areas of grosslciul suramps into productive rico lands. $ho introduction of floating rices, (espeolally the Indo China variety) enabled the utilisation of the deep flooding grassland jwoaps which were for long held as lands unsiiitablo for rice cultivaticn. Grassland ^oisspB have been used for rice cultivation as far back as 1880* o, iu the Scarcies rivers area.^^^^ A.C. Pilled refers to rice foms in cleared grassland ac?ons?s in 1922, in tho Bum - Kittom - Waanje rivers area. In the Bumpe river apraojps, grassland atraiqps were those first used for rlou cultivation. HOoover, oil these earliest grassland syang? rice lauds have been very limited in total area. In most of thum crop yields have been poor and disappointing.^^^^ Ill fhi potentialitiea of grassland anoaips as rice lands have been increasin&ly realised by the Govemnont since 1922, and in the years that foUowed it tried by means of extensive prispafiaBcla to pppulaelse tho utilisation of grassland swangps for rice cultivation. In tho 1930* s the Indo-China floating rice variety which is resistant to deep water conditions, was intrKluoed to the southern grassland ssranps. BetvTeen 1958 and 1940 surveys were made of the cxicting and potential rice lands in me^ areas of the coastal region. In early 1948 tbu West African Hlce Mission toured the riverain grtxoslands of the Southern Prsvince and stressed the inport- anoe in developing them for rice cultivation. However, the utili• sation of these swasps was actively taken vq> only after about 1950. 'Sbi) previous lock «»f Interest in these stramps was probably due to the greater interest and attention in mangrove swains. But later on, difficulties that orejaped tip in mangrove txrixa^ oruas and mostly tto ritAng duraand for ilce whidi was felt in the oountiy as a whole made the Gorvummtait focus its attention on grassland awanp develop• ment. In 1949 it was realised that the adaption of muchamoal raetbods was eaeential to bring wider areas of grassland swanps under cultivation. Swojqp clearing, ploughing ond harrowing invariably necessitate the use of machiwiy. The inherent nature of a large port of grassland monpB being covered \7ith a thick growth of aedgu 112 or grass with strong deep and dense root systems, makes mechonicd methods of deozlng and ploughing isiperative. The erodicatien of wild grooQos ond vxM^do that intiriKle into deared or edtivated land necessitates deep digging of 10 to 12 inches, by mochanlcd nothods.^^'''^ Also, the need to dear end plough the lond guicldy without delay during the dry season ruguireo the adoption of rauchonlcd meUiods. The sudck)n onset of the rains ond the consequent deep flooding of rivers would otherwise taoko culturd practices in the tsTtaapa praotl- colly impossible* Above dl, the locsr popdatlon ond shortage of loboiu* make the med for neehanioation more Ingportant. liony grassland moj^ at present utilised for rice odtl- vatlon havebeen mechanicdly dearod jmd ore being mechanically ploughed ond horreKTod. Diffiodties were em^nintezed in muohoxxlcd edtivation of some grosdand swonpo, due to very dense sedge ond weed grswth. In the Bdllands area deudo of dust generated by muchanlcd ploughing in thu dry season couaod problems>lums. Also, the cost of ploughing mechoniodly was unddy high.'(39 ) It was in 1952 that developmunt activities wore centred mainly on nechonicd edtivation of riverain QC702^S.^^^ This was otorted on a fdl scde in the Bonthe Sistriot ond extended to the Fort Loko - Sporoieo ond the other Districts. Froa 1952 to 1958 there was a progressive increa^ in the area of grasdond swonp ploughed oikl utlllood. The popularity of floating rices enabled the further extension of thu area edtivated. The entry of Qo-q?erative societies into muchanlcd odtivotion in 1956 further extended the area deared, partlouiarly in ttw Bonthe District. TABLE 5 MECHAKtCAL PLOUCaCKS BI THE OSPARIMERT OF AGRrCDLTURE Southern Oirde North-Western Northern Cirde (Bontho District) Cirde (Port (EoBjbdi - Loko District - Tonkdili Scarcles area) Distnot) 1949 4 - • 1950 69 • - - 1951 282 80 - 1952 465 645 238 1953 1,178 683 915 1954 2,278 767 2,449 1955 4,073 1,G014 3,600 1956 5,530 2,008 2,819 1957 5,302 2,334 2,625 1958 4,346 320 1,504 1959 4,389 243 356 1980 5,508 592 926 1901 6,934 656 1962 7,828 676 2,296 1983 8,630 358 5,135 Source - Annud Heporto of thu Deportaunt of Agrlcdture Sierra Leone. 114 Muohonical cultivation of the Bc^ilands was started in 1952 and fr^ 1954 to 1958 a rapid increase in the area cleared was noted. In the early years the Swasip Clearance Bonus Scheme of the Government encouraged clearance. Infertility of soils that was posing problems, led to the use of mechanical methods of drilling ftirtiliaers with tho seeds in those areas. The distribution of fertilizers at subsidized rates by the Government, led to the utilisation of considerable areas of the Bolilonds region, Amose the factors that l&l to the expansion in area of gxtxssland S(7amp titilised for rice oultivation, the interest token by the Native AdminlBtrations camiot be overloofcud. Thqy cleared s^osps and rented out to farmers and were engaged in distribution of seed paddy. Improvement of drtdnogu and water control methods, portlcixLarly in tho Soaroies peat ssramps (interior grassland Gc^anpa) also led to the utilisation of a fair tioroage.^^^ Befuronces (1) G.H. BODiDAN, "Beport m Existing and Potential Bice Lands East of tho Bagxu River and Including Sheztxo Island (1939)'* West African Bice Researoh Station, Rolng>rp Sierra Leone, Bulletin »o.6, 1968, H?. 1-15 115 (2) D.RJS* JACKSON, "Extracts from a Report on n Visit to Sierz% Leone to Study the Cdtivotion of Swoiap Bice, DeooH^r 1950 to October 1951", West Afrf.can Bjce Beooareh Station, Bokupr, Sierra Leone, Bulletin No»4, 1958, pp. 35-62 (3) Aiuaad Seport of thu West Afrtoon Hioo Reooareh Station, (fiotai>r. Sierra Leone) 1960, p.20 (4) &.M. HDIDM, OP. dt. (5) D.R.E. JACKSON, op. dt; R.B. (EJJSTCLSEf "An Agrlculturd Survey of the Existing and Potentid Rice Lands on the Seareies Rivers (July) 1940)", West African I^co Hooeareh Statjan, Rekupr^ SieCTu I*>ene, Bullet 1958, pp.l2-34 (6) E.G. BALXQN, "Recent Develapsint in Sierra Leone", Bdletin of the ghona Qeogrgphicd Associationa Vd.VI, No.2» July 1961, pp. 3-12 (7) &,M. ROIDAN, "Report on a Survey of the Existing ond Potentid Rice Lands in Certain Swonp Areas in thu Soutfaanai Pjc^vinoQ", Sessiond Paper No»7, 1958, (Freetown: Govemmtait Printer) (8) diU. W£Si&B, "Report on Existing Sherbro Island", op. Pit. (9) K.G. DALTQif, op. olt. (10) A.R. STOEBS, Thu Soil ond Geo£reg)lBr of Boliland Beglen of Sierra Leone> 1963, p.5 (n) G.M. RDEDAN, "Report on Existing ..... Sherbro Idond", op. dt. (12) R.J, H&RRISCH CHtlBCH, West Africa, A Study of the EnyiroBgaunt and of Man* s Use of It, 4th ed. 1965, p.313 (13) Sierra Leone: Quarterly Statisticd Bdlutin. No,3, Sopteaixjr 1964, (Centrd Statistics Office, Freetown) Toblo 40, p. 48 116 (14) 'SoU Corffiervation and Land use in Sierra Lecaie, Seasjonal Po^'r 1. 1951, (Preetqiyn: Govemmnt Printer) p. 41 (16) Anntffil Report op. oit., 1961, p. 36 (16) D,R.E. JACESOH, op. cjt. (17) K.G. D£mm> OP. dt; (18) H.P. WBTTE, "Vuchonical Cultivation of Biosont Holdings in West Afnod", Qeoflcrgphy. Yd, 2LIII« Kovoniaor 1958« pp. 288-270 (25) Annual Report ..... erp* ojt.. 1961, p,35 (20) G.M. BOCDANt Report on Existing ..... Shez^xo lalond", op. <^t. (21) H.R. JARHETT, "REOB Praduction in Sierra Leone", Malayan Jourotol of Tr@>pieal QeoiErai^Y. Vol. Vtll, Juno 1956, pp. 73-81 (22) Soil CgBaaoJ-vatlon and Land ooo ..... op, cit., p, 39 (23) Sjorrg Leone: AigBBol Report of the Department Agrjeulturet (Preototm: Government I^riter) 1954, p,14j 1957, p, 1 (24) Ibid. , 1949, p,2 (26) Ibid., 1955, p.29 (26) ibid., 1947, p.23; 1957, p.4 (27) tbid., 1954, p.U (28) tbld., 1957, p.3; 1958, p.2 (29) ibid., 1960, p.22; Annual Report ..... op. oit., 1962, p.l5; G.M. BOiDAN, "Repfla* on a Survey Southern Province'', ep» cit.I D,R.E. JAC8SC2I, op. dt. (30) iljmual Report ..... op^ oit.» 1962, p.16 117 (31) R.B* CaUANTILLE:, "An Agrloiltiud Survey ..... Scardeo Rivers", op. dt.s Sell Conaervatj^en ond Land use op, dt., p,42; Sierra Leone: Annud Report Agrlodture, op. dt., 1960, p. 20 (32) R,R. (StANVILLE, "An Agrlrailturd Survey Scardes Rivers", pp. dt• (33) A.G. PHIAI, "Purthor Note (April 1922)" West Afrteon Rice Reseoreh Station, Rokiq>r. Sierra Loene. Bulletin^ No.4, 1958, pp.10-12 (34) G.K. aMSDM, "Report on a Survey .... * Southern Provinoj", op« oi^t,» (35) A.C. PTtiTiAT, "A Report on Rice Cdtivaticm in Scordes Arm (January 1922)", West Afrlean Rioe Rooeorch Station^ Rekupr. Sierra leenet Bulletin No,4, 1958, n>. 2-10 (36) G,H. RQEiDAH, "Report on a Survey Southern Provinae", ep» Pit.: G.M. RODDfiN, "Report on Existing Sherbro Island", OP' dt.; R.R. GELAHVTLIE, "An Agricdt\a?d Survey Scardes Rivers", op, C^t. (37) Sierra Leone; Annual Report ,.... Agrjodturo, op. dt., :i952, pp,l6 & 20j 1953, p.23 (38) K.G. DAMON, op, pit. (39) Sierra Leone: Annud Report Agrlcdttgu. pp. dt., 1950, p,16 (40) Ibid., 1952, p.l (41) Ibid., 1953, p.25} 1955, p.5 (42) Ibid., 1947, p,5 (43) "Infortnation on Sierra Leone for 1959, Transmitted by United Kingckan, to the Unltod Nations under Artido 73(e) of United Nations Charter*, (In the Pilea of the Ministry of Agriculture ond Saturd Reoouroes, Sierra Leone) 118 CHAPTER V OTHER SWAMPS OR INLAND VALLEY SWAMPS Inland valley maas^a are distributed oil over Sierra Leone. 0oot:5>ylng usually interlar locations, they ore found in association with minor valleys and depressions beyond mangrove and grassland st/aaps, (Figs. 6 & 7) but bordering either forest or savannah land. Enclosed for thu greater part by tqplands, these narrow elongated valley a7anps exongplify soil ond v/ater condlticms peotQ,lar to themselves. Inland valley owoaps are essentially fresh water s(7cmo[>3. Inland valley swasps ore of particular lEfiartance today not only duo to their ogrloulturol potentlolltles, especially in rice cultivation, but also because of the failure of their neighbouring i^^ilonds to satisfy adequately the needs of the people. Mangrove and grasslani meapo, due to their prudomlnantly coastal location do not offer a great attraotian to the farmers, as these owcaaps ore far tB^ay from tho i^ands, the traditicmal hones of the fanners. Tho problem of attracting farmers to mangrove and gasslend scras^ areas has continued to be a problem till the present dny.^"*"^ However, the inland mcsBspo which are situated at the foot of igd-ands are more accessible and therefore ore more oopable of attracting the iqpland faziner. This has been noticed especially in the remote districts of Sierra Leone ouch as Eoinadugu, Kono, Kallahun and Eunema. 119 Inland Volley Swoap Yoflutatlon The vegutation of idand valley mcaaipa is mostly grass. However, those found neighbouring grosdond owoscps and mongrove swesips, siqjpott swonj) forest of tho rophta palm - rophia gracilis ond raphia h(x>kerl. Some idond vdley stsronps ore under water for a prdonged period, ond form the habitats of floating vegetation. This Is oomon in the sc^oaps fringing nsxngrove ond grassland sr/ojqps, in the coastd areas. Among the grasses the typicd is wild rice or Oryaa bgrthil, and tho sedge Fulrena unanjaiatq. On the margins of these swomps PorAoum parvlfdl^imi ond Paspdum serobjculgtum ore coomDrily found. Vegetation of these owanps has enriched the soil by odding considerdblo quantities of orgonio matter. But vegetation has posed a negative influence on the clearance of stiranpo for rice odtivation. This is partlcdorly so in ruiqieot of rc^hia swamps. TlttJ larger cash ruturn which the prodiacts of rcgphio palm provides, con|>ared to rice, has prevented ttu deoranoe of these SWORQ^S in the Bonthe District, particularly in the Sherbr© idand. Tlx) degradation of :vegetation of the uplands due to bush follflw ogricdturo has caused tho loss of an eorller ctbundant source of organic material for the idond valley styouj). Decline of water tc^le and sdl erosion aru among the other problems that have ruodted. A |1. V ! I.. 'i ."v ( if ' ill! 1.1 (X' , ! ' •''•;'''3,v"'''i; • * M Z3 r II I! 1,( (, ^^ j'4 . 121 Djotrlbiitlen »f jInloM Volloy SBroinpa Thou{^ inlond volley man^ have a covmtxyvdclu cliQtrlbutlai, tholr mala dwnoin ia tho wotorn hdf of tho ceuntiy. (Pig. 17) Largo cogpanauo 6f thu NdirthKuniiraL ond Hexth-oastoxn Dountainous ruglens ore f cr thu gruatur port ciuvold oT thusu oiyon^* Bonibali, Toxik>llli, Bastoxn Kon^Jla and Eostum Fort Loko are omens thu main diotrloto whtttv'othor 0Gronp3*arp nugliglblo. laLoncl volloy swonps do not haw a conipact end contlnuoua distribution pattern as mongrovK; and aonu graaoloikl scTonps. On tho contrary thoy ohgw a vfldoly diitporsod pattern consisting of nonw elongated atrutohes. A relatively slight coii3>aotnesa Is evident In the sffomps of the lesser Jong river, Malen river and east of Loke Motiooi. (Fig. 17) Dense concentrations c£ Inland valley sramps ore confined mostly to the coostol oruoS} within 20 milua of the coast. These fringe thu u^jper ruacfaeo of the tilbutorles of rlvera that drain this area. Thua the diatrlbutlon pattern of these cwaEBps well oxuajiLify the dendritic pattern of tbo offloller struoms. This is parti(wlorly evident in tho Itoyaaiba District, Tv?o distinct inland veilloy sfiroB|) regiais are displayed in the meg? shoiying the distribution of other ss7aD5>3. (Pig. 17 ) (a) A coaotol vallty ssyoBg? area Tvhlch lies vJlthin 20 fflilea of the coast, caid 122 (b) thi romainclur \7hi0h has a prutloinincaitly inlanci loootion, Both logloaiQ are bolt-llko in f OTB, troncUng novo ©r loos portillel to the coast In an cjjproxiiaatoly Horth-wost - Southeast dlitiotion. Tho coastal valltiy swanip bolt io dlviolblo into thnxj minor rogions. 1. Tho Rifei - Bunpo rivora, Ka^oro, Thaufca, Titibul ojruuko region of tho Voya^a Diotrict* 2. Thi JcHig rlvur and Shurbro laland xoglon of thu Bonthu Dletriot. 3. Thi Ifolun and Itoa xlvors and Lake Udbusi region ©f thu Pujohun Dlotrlot. Mnor coiwontrationo oro tMclunt ossooiatod with tho Retail rlwr, Port Iioko and Graboi crcoko and thu aiBollcr ctroomo of tho I«Qko UosaiQCi;, Koffu BuUom and Som obiufdoma. Tho intozlor bolt of highly diffused patches of valltg'' Qwoiqpa, extends south from eastern MDyanfea District through western Bo District into north Pujehun Distxlct. In the latter flistrict this bolt takjB on easterly direction into tho Koneiaa Distrtct, (Fig. 17) Two gmolljur inlarti volley otrcjsp areas arc found associated with the Ettzoams ©f the uipjpor reaches of the Gieat Scarcies ond tho Little Scareies, The Great Soareies taxja fdls within the chiofdoms 125 of Tonko Lis&a and Branala of the Konfeia District, while the Little Scaroies oxua is inclucled in the northernmost chiefdoms of BaBisali District - Taiibokha, Sola Lii!i>a, Sanda Loko ond Kasunko. In total area, these two areas are quite amoll. Footora Controllinij; the Distribution of Inland Valley Swa^s Tho factors controlling thu distribution of inland valley scroops ond interler grassland ts/oinps are sinllar in mojvy respects. Relief plays a dominant role as a controlling agent. A loTBu part of these scranps are ooncontrated in the rugion below 2S0 feet elevation, but within this rugion a larger o^onoe of awoiqps occv^y thi region with an elevation of less than 100 feet. Relief has given to these swonps their elongvted and narrow foiB restricting thofse to the narrw low-lying valleys of streams or depressionfl. Rainfall and flooding, hjwover, have had a more dominant influeiioe on tho emot location and size of the volley awomps, which ore moistened in thrcxj v/ays: by direct rainfall, by rainr/ater see• page from adjoining tqplonds, and by ©verfloiv of the smdLler streams. Dry valleys and depressions which are reaote from streams are usviQlly waterlogpid in the fonner two ways. A large part of the vallijy aTonpo in thu coastal areas are usually flooded by overflow• ing streams. Thu latter oreas for tho greater port ore dueply flooded, 30 much so that some volley swaiqps appear as lakus during the wet 124 aeooon, normally sxQ^rtlng floating vegptotlon. Tetqperatuxe concUtlens of thu volley QV7OB^ oreos of the ooastol tract, ore slndlor to those enumerated in re expect of ncngrovu scrQii{>&. (p. 39) Inland volley ssroiqp E^ils vary considerably in fertility. A grvator port of the shoUot? si^onpa usuolly have sandy soils, defi(deat In orgonlo matter* 7hu deep scroops on the other hand have more fertile soils. Inoreased run.-off and erosion froa the uplond forms have had adverse effects on the soils of a lar^ger port of inland volley otromps. "As most of Sierra Leone* s t^GLond soils ore light ones, so basically ore most of the asmvQ oBca, ond fertility is bound to decline unless adequate supplies of ©rgonio matter are roalntolned.''^ ' SeoscnoL deposition of fresh soft silt is more cotmon in the volley mon^ of the ooostcl oreas. I^nland Valley STOBPS as Rice Londa; their Potentialities ana Llmitatlens Although for the greater part coiqposed of small scattered patches, la totol area inlond volley a^oa^ form a good part of the entlxo mtmp load of Sierra Leone* But as in the case of man• grove and groflsland sE7ani>s, these SFosps too have remained olmost untouched for a very long time. Even todpy, only a very limited portion of thu total area is being oontinuoualy utilisud for rice cultivation. 125 A large port of ihLond valley swanpa unftor rice are those dooeot to upland bush follow farms. Cultivation of aerajip takes place purlodioally in conjunotion with tbt» t^Land f am. Tho oxtent of cultivation in swamps is mostly depoodent on the success or failure of the usp3.ond farming operation. In max\y areas early roins ottd inability to oLoer and bxim the upland farm bush, or thu insuTfieient bum of form bush, necosoitato the cultivation of owonps, (e.g. Kbnema, Kollahun and Keno Districts). In oam areas mtmp ouLtivatien is attcapted only after the t^lond fazn is Iffvparod* ft io -^us ovidunt^ that inland volley moa^ oultivatlGn in a gruater part of thm country is tokun mostly as a secondary or supplemDntory fanning activity. The systom of forming adopted in many inland volley mon^a 10 similar to that foUcKTod in the upland form. The atesBpo ore fallocn»d for somu years pexlodloolly, €K7ing to the decline of soil fertility and oonsoquent deterioration of crop yleMs. In mQi\7 oroas of Sierra Leone, where v^donds have been found siidtoblu for oxiltlvation, swoiops have been totolly neglooted. Thuro ore areas where inland valley swontps ore not fully used in spite of the 1^ soil fertility of thu inland farm. Even whore stranps are more coiis>l&tely utilised os in aom QWQB^S of the Northern Frovinoe, the efficionciy with whidi it is condooted is offeoted by \:^flad fanning activities, which claim priority. 126 A lar@u majority of v^tlond formers ore ruluotoBt to odfipt mom^ farming as thpir neons of livelihood, in spite of the oontinuous efforts of the A^culturol Department anl the locol odmiitf.strative author!ties to enoouro^u ond promote tsacuap culti• vation. The vorloos factors that have inhibited the use of aaaaga, have been olreacly enumurated in Chopter tl. (p. 95) Relatively intensive inland strosip fozmiiig in both net and dry soasons is ocmmon in the northern scvoimah oruas of the oountzy* Cultivation has been found to be fairly intensive \3h0ru btioh fa2Io(7 has deollned and partiovQLarly population has increased* These areas ore uoxioUy found around large rlllagus and tocms vrhere pressure on the load is great, ond good mor^ts for dry season producso ore avolldJle. Patches of relatively deep flooding inland volley auaa^o of the ooastol region, have been used from early times for rice cultivation, f all-grwing rices such as *Pa Yotox', 'Pa Lltoma*, and 'Pa Moba* (Temne) have been grocm. Yields have been vari- cible but gpntjrolly poor. This was portly dutu to irregular flood• ing ond partly to inefficient methods of cultivation, A consider• able port of these deep flooding inlojod volley ssromp areas has been brought untlor cultivation since about 1940. This vos mode possible due to the Introduction of tha inib-China floating rtoe variety, on an extensive scale to these oreas. 127 The widespruod ocloption of the transploatlng method olso helped In the developomt of such deep flooding awoBips* Tho ;}tdicioiis adoption of drainage and water control methods would ooQsiderobly help these stomps to overcome the dimatic ond roaaltant flood hazards to which these aruoo ore occasionally stft^oted. The narrow form ond scattered distribution of Inloml valluy swanps moke the ojpllcatlon of mechanical cultivation methods difficult. Boerever, compared to nonsrove end most grass• land 97{m^o, inland volley siirainps are not difficult to dleor and cultivate. Ox-ploughlns had been satisfactorily adopted in the Kolnadugu District, ^" though' it^ ia at present very llndted and haphaaordj dctu to thu look of ploughs and suitable oxen. Soil deguneration ond decline of crop yields have been the greatest problems in inland volley swonpo. "PejOTonent swoinp cultivation is dopemlent iqjon thu quollty and quantity of vegu- tation growing which ore periodiccdly cultivoted for rice done, organic matter is not odded adequately to thu soil. This has necessitated the f ollovTing of the ixraa^, Xn the savonnoh areas this problem of maintaining an adequate aiipply ®f organic matter in the SGronp, has been overcome to a gceat ezteat, by the proctico of both wet and dry season faitning. A similar practice, with vugutobloo ond 128 legumes grown in the dry season with irrigation, and the unused ports of plants dug into the soil will help considerably to enrloh the soil and enable continuous utilisation of a^osips. The use of artificial fertilizers such as nitrogenous and phosphorous manures will provide increased fertility to the swong? soils. Those have boon tried in some Inlond valley swoi^s and foisid to bo very effective. The practice of mixed farming with cattle breeding will oloo serve os a source of manure. The establish• ment of permanent true crops in the t;^ilands or the lengthening of thu fallow pori€Kl in v^sland farms, would further help to deviate the problem of soil fertility. Inland Valley Swang) Clearance for fliee Cultivation Since 1925, Ckivemment has been taking stt^s to evcdoe Interest among the upland fanners in inland swamp ctiltlvation. Domonstration farms were opened xt^ at various places and instructors wezv appointed to teach the ixpland farmer tho tronsplonting authod and the other cultural prxictlces Involved in sftm^ farming., A soed-padtly distri• bution scho&o was inaugurated, cmd the high-yieMlng deep-ilxxl-reslstant Indo- Thu TTidespreod adoption of the tronsplontli:^ muthod also helped in the devulopiDent @f such deep flooding strosipo. The judi(^ous odoption of drainage and water control methods would ocnslderttbly help these tssosi^ to overcome the dimatic and rusultont flood hazards to which tkise areas ore ooeoslonolly subdectod. The norrot? form ond scattered distribution of Inland volley msB^a taoko thu application of neehoniccd cultivation methods difficult. Hoerever, compored to mangrove end aaost grass• land 97oispo, inland vdley swamps ore not diffloilt to dear and cultivate* Ox-pLoughtng had been oatisfaotorlly odoptod in the Koinadugu District, thitugh It^ ta at pruoent very limited and h^^hozord, due to the lack of ploughs and sultoble oxen. Soil degeneration ond decline of crop yields have been thu gruatoat prdbleiua in inland vallcjy owoapo. Texmonent swonp cultivation is dependent vqpon thu qudity and quantity of vege• tation growing on thu neighbouring t^donds.'*^^^ in the satxapa which ore porlodicolly cultivoted for rice alone, organic matter is not added ocbquately to the soil. This has necessitated the following of thu acran??. Xn thu savonxah areas this problem of maintoining an adequate supply of orgonlo matter in the scromp, has been overcome to a great extent, by the practice of both wet and dry aeoflon fanning. A similar practice, with vuguto^o ond 128 leguiujs grown In the dry season with irrigation, ond the unused parts of plants dug into the soil will help considerably to enrloh the soil ond enable continuous utilisation of tsros^a. The use of artificial fertilizers such as nitrogenous caad i^osphorous manures will provide increased fertUily to the swaap soils. These have been tried in some Inlond volley masss^a and found to bo very effective. Tho practice of mixed farming with cattle breeding will oloo servo as a ^urce of manure. The establish• ment of pemoxumt true crops in the iqalands or the lengthening of the foXlem period In upland farms, would furthur help to oleviate thu problem of soil fertility. Inland Valley Swamp Clearance for Rice Cultlyation Since 1925, GoTommunt has boon toking steps to evoke interest omOng the upland fonoLira in inland maxq) cultivation. Dotoonotration forms were opened •ap at various places ancl Instructors were appointed to teach the upland farmor the tronaplanting method ond the other cultural prtiotlces involved in o^on?? farming., A seed-padi3y distri• bution scheme was inaugurated, and tho high-yielding deep-fbod-reslstont indo-China floating variety was among tho rices that were diatributed. In the early years espeoiaUy in thu early 1930* s these attoapts of the Govemnunt sow some fruitful results, for tsa. Increasing nuc^r or riphwd farmurs took to swamp cultivation. The effects of 129 this was soon fblt la the gradual disappeoronse of the onnual "hungry season" which has been conmon in previous years mostly totyords the ond of thu rainy season.^ ' Encouraged by the uorly success and conjaelled by tho rising demands for rice, thu Govern• ment took more ootlve steps to further SCTOB^ developnent in 1936. BtXTUver, thu mining industry WOE^ drwing more and more farmers awoy from forms. Also, during thu 1936-1937 period the high prloes of cosh cr^s such as palm kimelsj ^n^r and piossava were mokiag formuro mm iixslinod tasrards those crops. But after 1938, prions of these cxxsh crops fell, )iu[npphile» eapedolly after 1939« war activities were drowlng a large number of farmers ond fflaiV7 VQ>lond forms vAsre totally negleoted. Since 1946, Hativo AdmlnlBtratlQns have taken a keen interest on developing Irlond moB^ farming. Thuy cleared syanps ond runted them out to the people. Suud distribution sohumua cad sued multipHcation forwa were conducted by Hatlve Administrations, i^ever, one cannot soy that these attospta goinud mmh success, for the strasps that were developed wore limited in size and aporodlc in distribution. Since 1940 the Grovemmont has been noru indinud towards developing the coastal ssromps rather thon the inlond awoaps. In the 1940* s great interest was tdt»2n in mongrove dearcmce and after 3550 attention woo diverted to the raudianlcal cult i vat lea of ssraap grasslands. Tnlond vollqjr S5?anp cultivation hcsrev^r, dad not 130 disappear, for the Native Administrative authorities wore now ei^gaged aotiwly in the popularisation of inland OWOH^) cultivation. tn fact j an increase in acreage of inland maa^ cultivation was noted ofter 1963, in tho Pu^ehun, M0yojiS)a and Bo Districto. But in most of these swamps tica cultivation is supplcmentory to li^ilond farming. l&jchanical cultivation was intxvducod to some inland swomps lait with little ouceeas, offing to the inaccessibility and the limited size G£ the swoiqps. Even today meohanioal cultivation of inland ^asipo is of little sl^ficanoe. Thou2^ c»iO could say that the area under cultivation in roapeot of inland styomps io considombly greater toflay -Uian it was in the 1950's, in total area it is still only a GB»11 f^raotion of the swoi^ rice lands of Sierra Leone. References (1) Soil Consergation and Land use in Sjorrfi Leone, Sessional Paper 1, 1951, (Freetoprnt GovenmKjnt Printer) pp. 59-47 (2) D.R*E. jAOIBOS, "Extracts from a Report on a Visit to Sierra Leone to Study the Cultivation of Swo^p Rice, ' December 1950 to October 1951", West African Riop Research Statign„ Rokmar. Sierra loono, Bullot|,n No.4, 1958, pp.45-62 (3) E.R* (SifiNVIIIE, "An AgrlculturEa Survey of the Eaistlng and Botiaatlal Rice I^wds of the SGarcles i«.venj (July 1940)", West African Rjco Researeh Station^ Rokupr^ 3;ierTa Utona, Bulletin No«4. 1958, pp.12-^ D.R.E. JAQISCN, ibid. 151 (4) O-.M. BCSDAH, "Beport on Existing and Botentlol Rlou Lands Bast of the Bogru River and in(^u£Q.ng Sh^r^ro Island (1939)", West Afclean Rice Busearoh Station, Rokapr^ Sierra Leone, BuHotin go.S. 195S, pp. 1-15 (5) Soil Conservation ond Land use ..... op. dt., p. 44 (6) &*H, "SSSLM), "Fzioblisms Assodatod with Di^velopnttnt In Sierra Leone", ggrm and goregt^ Vol. Y, April 3S44, pp.21-24 (7) Annuol Itoport of the West African Blo& loaeareh Statiwi, (jiokupr, Sierra -'•'^jno) 1961, pp* 32-54 (a) Sierra LBone; Amnaol Soport &£ the DeTartaaHfe of Aggjculttro. (Preetflwn: GoverBaent Priater) 1931, p. 11; 1933, p,2 (S) IHd.,» 1953, p,125 1955> p.l7; 1956, p.l4 132 camm n SWAMP RICE IN THE COASTAL REGION Tho ins^rtoDiOO of meap rloo in Siorra Leono* o agrlcultuni Cannot bo overeotimatod. Tho aignlflcanco of its devolopront has beon 00 constoBtiy ong^thaolaed, that today ono is tesiitod to epsak of awo2i|> rio@ as tho * glamour crop* of Siorr^ Leono, ^aap rice cultivation io mostly confined to tho w@Qt9m dlotrioto of tho Nerthom ond Southern Provinces of tho country. KtuiS^lQ and Port Loko Districts m the Northern Province and Hoyosiba and Bontho Dlotriots in the Southern Province contain the largest and most inportont epoap rice regions in Sierra Leone. Tho Bombali and Tonfcollli Distrioto in tho interior of the caintry are hwever not^wort)^ for their BoUlands rice fields. In all the other diotriots Qwaii^ rice is found only on a very limited scale. Among the ohiofdoms ingportant for swoiqp rice cultivation, Samu and Mon&olo Of tho Kombia Diotrlot, loko Ilasama of the Port LOko District end Nohgoba BuUom of the Bonthe District stand out prominant with their r@lativoly lar@s o::^anoes of swamp rice land. it is a oigmflc^t factor to note that in spite of the avoilobllity of a largu Oztont of swamps, only a omoll fraction of this potential rice land is boing continmuoly utilloed for culti• vation. Thou# some mem^ rlco lands ore found scattered in the interior swamp oreas of tho ooiOBtryf particularly in the Bolilands r 1% 1 :,f| : 7 AREA UNMAPPED ii N J 1 J r // 4 /, 4. • 1 ^^^^ .;..flo,,, ,f A!! . Hi 3J34 region, thoy oro InfiigRlflcont in total area. The relatively ojctonoivo and prodc»nLnant 8wcs^> rice lands are confined olBiost ®xcluBiv«3y to the coastal roglon, wltMn 22 to 24 mUoo from tho coast. In the coastal troot distinct swaiqp rice roglons may be identified, which are more Or loss isolated from each othor. Thoso roglono are predoBdnantly aosoelated wi& rivers and streams ond for the greater part fringing them. (Plg. 18) Among the rloo roglonoj the pro-omlnonoo of the Soardos rlverts and Western Samu cHefdom region is a striking factor. Its total area is far greater than tho oodslned area of all the othor a^aap rice reglono of the country. (Pig. 19) Thu main Sffcgap rlco regions of the coastal tract constitute: 1. Soaroieo rivers ond Western Somu chiefdom area 2. Bart Loko creek and Rokal rlVer orea 3. Ribi - Burapo rlvejftj and I5a^orO creek area 4. Sowo * Wcan^ - Klttam - Malen rivers area. The minor oreas include: (a) Jong river area (b) Sherbro ioland area (c) North Eoffu BuUom chief dom area. It is estimated that there are 110,000 acres of anamp rice land in tiio coastal aroas of Sierra Locne, Of this area, a little ,135 SWAMP RICE (COASTAL REGION) SCARCIES RIVERS- WEST SAMU CHIEFOOM AREA PORT LOKO CREEK - ROKEL RIVER AREA RIBI-BUMPE RIVERS KAGBORO CREEK AREA . SEWA-WAANJE- KITTAM RIVERS AREA t£aES-.6SOOO 390O0 I3 000 Ml LE S Fig. 19. 136 iosa than 3/4 to fouikl In thu Rorthuxn Pravlnco Komblnt Fdrt Loko I^otrldto ond thu W&atuxn arua. Th? Socccoiao xlvurs oncl Wc^Qtam Soim etilofctom axx^a olood account for mto than ®^ thu total zico QOxuog^ of ths coastal oroa. (FiE> 19.) fhi &ruat oncl Little Scoxxjliso xivero zioo GOXQO^ ia tnaro than thxu« tliaos that Of the S^a *r Woan^ * Klttcua - Holen xfimra area, wldch ID th« Q«oond lojig^ot concdntztttion of mta^ zice in the countxy. Accorcdng to tho orta of offtxa^ rico osoooiatccl vith oaoh of tha tseiin tivvta, th) Gzx^at Soaroloo coma first faUoetid by thu Littla Scorc^&o, Sma, Bun^, Fort Loko (ort^tok), Klttom oncl Blbi in that orcksr. Grs^at Soaroiea •> 36,1(H oozos ^ttie Scarelos - 32,968 " Sacra 9,920 Buna?© 8,071 " Port Lako ^ 6,494 " Klttoffi - 4,736 " Ribi - 3,230 " Hifltciiy of Sffoap Ittca Ctiltivatlon Qxfta^ rioQ eultivation first b^gan in thD Soaroiuo rivors rBgion* Thlo rtigioa could b& oonoidursd oa thu pionuer of tho othur mem? riOi) r&giond of the countxy, for it TTOS its irflu»nc» that 137 locL to tho nmr^rico ond develepo^t of tho othors. Ths initlativa and enthusiaoin of Toxsm formta, v7ho first introduood this cultl> vDtion to th© SoQX^^Q ar(3a>vt,uru mostly roQponsi'ble for thu steocly ctevielopiBent of the Soorci«s region. In the othor a^aa^ rlcu zvgionQ of Urn oountxy, it was dcmifenantly Govummont imtlatlw, osdi^tanoo oncl edtioourasenent tlmt -brouj^t about duvedoprant. The early davwlopount o£ tlis Sccuroi&o rivurs oxma was most probably duo to its taormas to Guin»a» wbarsa ss7aD{> rice cultivation has bo»n proptised from vmxy uorly tinus. H.D. Jordan oboerrao that the fairly congihsx cultviral prootioes odoptad in s^omp rios oultivation in ths» Sooroies rivwrs ar»a, wn» introduced fran French Guini^a (not? ths Esiptiblic of Guinaa) Soma of th» vorietioe of zic« groim in th» Sooroivo r^^on in early tim^s hod be@n introduced from ?r»nah Gidnea. R.H. aiamiUe soys that th& TmanB pepplu of Sierra Loom vriao went to assist the Susus in thsir ti^bol quorrals in Pranoh (kdnuai beooms ocquointed with the ox^hod (2) of tronqolontinB zlo@ and introduced it to the Scoroies aroa. ' Whilo this Qxt@mal inflix»nco must bo accorded a ploos in tins hiatozy of the ds^XOposnt of this region^ it cannot b«i denied that thd fovourcibility of th® x^Vfsicoi envixoniasnt for rico production couple with th® concozn of the poeplu of thu orua for rioo culti• vation halpod advancs tho atooi^ (jsponsion of cultivaticm in the 138 It was around IBSO, that OJOIOQ rice cultivation first ccHmencttd in tho Sooroios xlvoro rugion* £vid9nc«» is conflicting as to whsne thu first rice fi«ldo vmtw mtxla* K*D* Jordan holds it that it was around tha mouth of tha Little Scarcies.^^^ Aceorcling to A.C. Plllai, it \7aQ on daonid loangiiove moa^ at ManibQlo n^ar tha Gntat Sooroius river. H0B«v©r, R*R. GlonviUtJ ouggBSta that in thu Great Soarcios banks, th& first rice fi@ld was mciia at Uatcntu opposite* Rokuq^r. This had b««n a grassland saosspt behind mangrove. In reopsot of th0 Little Soarcies orda, h@ holds that tho first farm was macki in a tidal rccphia palm mos^ islancl, botwu@n Kakosi ancl !I?tBii>u, ancl Bubsetgijpntly cpmoU to Biaan and Rosint n^hia and c^lgs messq? load in the mainlond. According to GlaxnriUo the first nansrovts txroup rice fam woo mode around 1683 near Ttmibu.^^^ 7ho xiccQ that wisru first usud in aasBip fioHs mxo upland variotios and &v&n thu nsthod of cultivation that woo adapted was vt?iy similar to that of tha ujloxicls. At first, so«do wero broadcast. Tim cultivation cf swanp rice as such hBomoVf beccms more connon lat&r on as more and mor0 mangrove mx9 foiled to mala> farms. Tha transplanting metiiod was eubsejjuBntly adopted, with th» rics nursozlos in the upland. By 19^ thy area under GWanp rice cultivation had increased considerably, and tho Goveznmcjnt than took octivu steps to introduce end TpGSvJLoxim tMo iypo Q£ rice cultivation in tho oth^r a^anp cTBas 139 of th0 countzy. An Indlon rioo osgs^ A.C» Filloi was oommlssiansd by the Govsmiiisnt in 1921 to investigato ond report on tfas rioo industry in th* ^onpo, More detailed aunruyswer* mode by R.R. Glonvillo ond G.M^. Hoddon in tha 1930's. Thuou reports provldvd tho Crownwant with ii^rtont boolsground or basic inforoatien oncibXing it to tol® mm pesitlm^ stops towards further dsv@lopnont of swQB^p rice cultivati^a. In 1954 a GoAnamm^t rico station was Qjxsn^d at RokS|>r> Demonstration fanss wux« conducted in many perts of tht» ceuntzy, with Teaaw instxuotoro fr^ tho Sooroiiiis orsa, ohisfwine hocr swcuap rico should bo oultivotod. Tenas nca farmsrs who imsratod to the oouthom SWOBI> orooo of tho countzy t^speeiolly tb» Bumpo ri^r aroa, holpod to bzlng conoidBrablo o^gpanses of maa^ land unclsr rice cultivation. S»ro as well as in the Ribi riy^^r cr@a, th» first rictt fields wore dwvelerped on cleared ro^ihia ond Sfdse owan^s, isad letter on spzead to mongi^Qve liXicL. (Fig. 13) In a greater port of oouthpm mim^ areasi seed was first broadcast, ond It was not till later cn that th^ tirnnsplonting technique was atteraptod/^^ Hotrever, in the soutiMim swong? areas, in spite of tha avallofeiiity of very extejrisiv© stretches of ^sag? land, rloe OiiLtlvation did not expand to the extent that It did in tho Sooroles rivers area. ?y 1930, the latter area hod as nach as 40,863 ooiea xxml^r awan?? zloe:^ ^ 140 TABES 4. SWAMP RICE ACREACE OF !IHE SCARCtES AREA 1930 Little Scardies Great Soarcies Total Rict* plahted tidal 12,608 25,005 37,613 Rico planted non-tidal 1,216 1,062 2,278 Rico sigsm tidal 422 250 672 14,248 26,317 40,663 Abandont^d farmlcsid 312 2,246 2,758 iksw ol@azlngs - 173 173 By 1950 in tl» Soarci Qoooiuratod phaao in th& dovelopbnt of tbo Soarbies rioe area began oftor 1950 with the Govemm^t molting a lor^ contribution in money and effort tosrordo oi^^anding tho rioo aroa to indude tho l«3s favouFoble affong? aroas. A droinofu and wator control QchegD3D enoblod ths elooronou for utilisation of an oxtensivu arua, ohd oonoiclercitbl& areas were empoldered. Scam of theao empoldur- ing OohomoBin somo oreos hocrever foiled end tho Governnunt was obliged to start a Ochom* of deepexdng ond oloaring tho existing naturol stxooms end crooks, »nd cuttix^ now channels to ii^rove drrdnago ooxxlltiowj of tho owtaap, Tho vast eagjanscas of rice lands of Iiutl, P^oino, Furftsdoh and Bota^at havo emurgid porti- cularly duo to Govomment initiative. Substantial aruas of d&ep flooding swamp lend, which hod oarlier beon considered uns^tciblo for cultivation of rice, were mode productive by tho introduction of tho tndo-China and othar floating^zlce yorietlus, which are copoblo of withstondins deep water conditions, Th© influens? of tbEJss varieties were portl- cuLorly noted in thu southern owe]i|> regions, whore cs>preoioble areas of grosslond t^otqps wezo. mocb usu of. Tho ulcvatlon of the Govern" Bisnt Rioe Station at Eol0i5>r to a Rico Hoacaroh Station gavu on added Ijijwtus to tho develepaDont of swonrp rlco. It helped in providing neoeasaiy information ond material which gonorolly mado fantero conscious of tho need to c{>ply method to th»ir vi&rk. 142 o 143 Thu introduction of mtsofaanical cultivation, first in the southern grassland atanps and later elsewhere, enabled the clearance and GuLtivation of still lar@ar ea^anses of swamp. This was particulariy so in th) grooslani swoiBps of tha Bontbo District^ig.29) Diaferibution of Sr/amp Rice <.^-=-A 1. Scoroics Rivers and Western Sanu ohisfdom Area. (Fig. 20} There are about 59,072 acres of acramp riou land on the levser bonks of tho Great and Little ScnxtJios rivers* About 3/4 of this total acreage is assooioted with tho Great Sooroios rivor. Western Somu chiefdcn area has approsinately 5,000 acres tmdor zlce* A fair estimate is that witMn tho entire Soareios nv@rs and Western Samu chiefdom area, there are over 64,000 acres devoted to swasip rice.(Fig.ig) The min rice fields of this region frin£p the Great and Little Soaroies and the conraon estuary of these two rivers. From these areas, liEft>o of rioe land pretruKle inland along thu many creeks and tributarioo of the main rlvera^^ The tjdbutary creeks - Kij^lmp, Kiohom, Bid^viya of the Great Scaroies, and Boll, UakcRrbo, Koylnti and Gbinti creeks of the Little Scarcies are some of thu more iiq^rtant ones tihtat servu to extend the rice lands inland. Excluding Ebrtimaw and Yeligbungo islands, all the othsr riverain islands are almost completeiy covertsd with rice fields. The n»re significant of these include Gbontuk, Yolbi, Karabu, Bankcgpia and the three islands south of the noutb of the Ball creek. 144 WlHiin this region, towards tha t^per reaches of th» two rivors cmd their associated creeks ore found is£^ted pateheo of rice iand« These ore particularly evident in thu Idttle Scaroies river region east of the read from Uabundulai to Kotonga. In the Great Soareleo river oi^a this phenooonon is observed north of thu Maooba oreek. However, in total area these rico lands do not account for much. The Western Saxmi chiefdom rice region is moru or less separated from the main Scaroies rivers rice region by a vast stretch of undeveloped tsfmp. In Western Somu ohiefdbm a cei^act rice hcibitat Is foiujd towards the Korth-^reot. UnUke thu Scarxdos rivers rico region, this region is paredominantly associated with small fstvuom eopooiolly those of i^iper Mohela creek. This region appears to morse with the Guinea rloe region found in its neighbourliood to thu north. The total zlce area of W«aturn Soma chiefdem is obextt a/12 of that of the Sooroles rivers region. Between the main Scaroies rivers rico zx^glon ond the North• west Samu rloo roglon, ore found small patches of podcly fluids of irregular shapes and varying sizes. These oro assooiated with the Ifohola and Sasiyek crx^ks ond their tributaries. (Fig. 6) The Great Scorcios rice rugion extends almost unbrOtasn, fringing tho rlvur closely for obout 24 miles t5)Struom oloog tho river. Tho Idttlo SOOTOICD principal rice lend is found mainly 146 azQund its estuary, and for cliout 10 miles inland along the banks df the river. The regien exhibits a mare or less triangular aspect, narrowing oa it ostenda inland. Beyond this mx^r zloe concentration tho region reduoeo to a narros? belt running continuously parallel to th® river on its right bank, for a diatanoe of another 10 miles. South of this belt, along the left bank of the river are found ooattertd poteheo of rice fields. Thou^ mangrove e»m^a, grassland swanks as well as inland vallaiy owanps hove been utilised for rice cultivation in the Scaroies rivsrs and Western Sanu ehiofdom area, the mangrove OEranp has been ttie prsdiimdnant habitat of rice in the area. On the Great alid Little Scaroies river banks, all available mangrove lands have been converted to ^oMy fields • The rice lands found tetmrds the interior of the region, €sray from the principal rivers and nadnly associated with the v^p&r and middle readies of the tributary creeks of the two rivers, were eriginolly grassland mejs^a. The scattered potohes Of rice laiKL on the banks of the rivers are also developed on grassland awesi^s* Rice lends in inland vcllay swai^ are not as extomsive as in the mangrove and grassland oweaops. In the Sana ohl«fdom, on the rSl^ bank of tho Great Scareies, rice plots are found developed em inland voll<4!r artaspa^ These ecoeunt for a tamil total area* 140 Surveys havo now been coai^ted to into poaslbilltles of Oooiverting the Rhom^ SWQB^ area on the loft bank Q£ the Idttle SeaxxsieSf into produotive load. 2. Bort I^ko Oroek and Rokel River Area The medn xloe fields of this area are along the loner banka of the Bort toko oreok and its tributaries. (Fig. %B) These cover on aria of about 6,494 acres. The Rokil river has e^ut 2,716 acres dicrperaed alaog its banks. Frlngihg the Fort Loko oreok &a its right bank a namw belt of rice land itma inland for almost nine miles from the mouth cf the oreek around Elrlina. From this belt licdbs of rice land pro^ot inland and exhibit a dei^rltio pattern. This pattern is aaintained on the left baidc too, but here the rioe bolt lonedlately odjolninc the main oreek is net continuous as in the case of the right baiik. (Fig. 18) Trlbutozy creeks act as ba<;dd)«ai0S to the prejeotions of rice land that oxteM inland en both banks of the W@xt Loko oreek. The cmoll rice area asse<4ated with the Roksl river is in the forin of irregular patches, highly diffused in distribution tOnrards the mooth end locmr bonka of the river. These generally fringe the tributary creeks of the river such as the Grobai and these found to its west arid oast. (Fig. 18) Some rice fields are found in tt» riverEdn islands Of Ho#eli and Tunasu. The banks of the U£>per reaoheo of both the Fort creek ond Boiasa river mig^gort isoi^d plots of rioe lands. 147 A larso port of the riot land ef this region was originallly w&agxxm owcpp. Grassland meiq^a hove also been converted to rice fields on the bahks of the t^iper reoi^s of the Fort Leko cnMric and RokiA river. In limited places rice lands besm «nsnaeim& into inlaM valley scranps. 3. Ribi •> Buniie Rivers end Kaipsaro Creek Rice Area £xcl»3ing the few fields found m tbQ right bank ef the Ribi river, the rice lends ef this vast region fall ontirely withi|L ^he diotriet of Msyaiiia* The total rloe ooreofie ef the region is etbouit 14,115. (Fig, 19) Within ths} region thesre are tlo^ diotlnot nee arvas, mere 0t less isolated fr^ oaoh other. The first region starts from th^ estuarini area of the Ribi river and runs osuthvards more or less parollol to the coast, (Fig* 18) Thoui^ not continuous this region consists of iilongated otretotoes of rice lands roughly in a belt pattom. It extends to the estuary ef the Ka^re orvek. Thlo rlcm region is predosdnantly osseciated with snail streams of . thi». Ribi and Bumpo rivers axvi the Kagboro creek. The total aorsQse of this Mttoral rice region is cibout 7,656 which is almost 2/2 the aria of the entire Ribi - Buspe - Ka^ro oreok area. The stseond rice region is very preminant at the t^per reocAi^s of thE) Bunpe river, and constitutes about 5,401 oores in area, which is twice tho noo aoreaQB of the Roksl river. This 14$ rOgion starts about 14 sdloo the Bustle river end extwids inland along tho river bonks in the fom of two elongated stretches with a loultlpldolty of finger-like smaller protrusions along minor strtDoma* (Fig. 18) The whole of this tlce region falls within tho BuoDpo chiefclom. The third of these rice rsgleno is in the upper Ribi river axoa» whore rioe fields egre highly dispersed. Thu latter ore assooiated only partly with the river but more with the mmBrous tilbutaades of the river. In total area thssy constitute about 1,658 acres. A lar^ part of the rloe land of the Ribi - Bua|3e rivers - Ko^ro oreek area> had been originally neingrove awcnps. (Fig. 9) A Gonoiderablo area of grassland swan^ adjoining mangrove land have also becm utilised for rloe cultivation. The ujiper Buag^ river zlee lands have been d^sveloped predomlnnntly coi grassland owaaips. ^ru as well as in tho u^er Rlbl river and Ehmorahka creek areas, noo fialds have spread into inland valloy oc^i^o* 4. Sewa - Waan^ - Eittom ^ ISalen Rivers Area. (Fig. 21) The total ooreoge of this rice ruglon is approximately 19,264, Th© important rice lands within this region closely fringe the Sowa and Klttam rivers. Tho pattern of distribution of rice lands tends to follow thu alignment ttm rivers and the denOrltio pattern which is so common in ether swaiip rice regicms such as the 163 f4 150 Scaroios rivers^ Fort lako creek, tipper Bun^ river, is cbse£ct in this region. Instead a ooni^act belted pattern is eb0orv*d. (Fig, 21) The Sewa river banks stq^port tlw lorevat area of rice land within this region. It accounts for about 9,9SK) acreo being a little more than 1/2 the rice area of the Waon^, Kittea and Ifalen rivers oot^imd. The Sewa river rice region runs inland along the rlwr banira, closely hinfod to the river for a distonoo of about 18 mllco, from the place where the Sowa river falls into the Waanje rivor« The rlo© belt on tho left bonk of the river is more oontinueua and extensive than that on the right baiik^ Small patches of rice land are fotmd particularly on tKie right bank of the t^]p@r reaches of the river. The Kittam and Waan^ rivers ore bordered by norroer belts of rico land. On the left bank of the Kittam river rioe land continuously extend for a cmotance of about 16 oileo along the river, from tho junction of tho Kittam and Setra rivers, (Fig, 21) Else• where there are elongated stretches of rice land hugging the river and sftream^. The Waan^ river banks de not support as nucih rice land as the Kittam. Elongated patches of rice land run along the river. The region between the Sown, Waan^ and the lakes Ealama, BTQHD and Eamasanj, includes a multiplioity of small cOTpast plots 151 Of ric« lond^ hts}i3jr Olag/svoaci in diotzltutlon. To tbs ^st of UHoB I&roko a fairly Xorge plot io fftund. th» banks ef th@ Kol^n riv@r osd the i^iipeir zooehtfs cf th« Bwncb cz««k Qtqp]port ct €m Fotctos rios loncl. fha sow io true of thi banks 0if lalqss liogpe cod Ibasool. Sins® 1964, eiliwut 1,700 oozBQ @f grasalfind ocroiq;) havu b««n dearsd on th@ Uolen banks f«r QdLtiv&tim, Tfata Sma » Wcan4« •> Kittom Ifedon rivers riou regittn is cUstinot ftpora ethers as it has be@n dewlofped alnest «x6l)isiT«l7 on 8E7osp gmssiomla. Fatchos of maxgrevw moa^B haw bown utilised on th» Eittom banks. Th» saiw is tru» of SQIB^ rictt lands b(itw««n thu Sma Tiv&Vf Waan^ rivnr and this lataKS. All thess bmvnr, aec0unt f er a mvogrtt ar«a dOB|^an»d te thv l^arefi ttx^mssa of gross- icJid {srm^ xAiich. bava b««n utilised ^^articuLsrly in thi S«(7a and Kittoia bonks* Th@ utilisatien of inland vellwy (sroaps for rico groi^h has b0«n negllxiblo in this opsa. 5. Hinor Arvas (a) joae, Timr &ma Scatt@rod aiaall patchvo of riou lands, neatly d«vi»|Urp«d on inansr»vtt ai^aBpa, aro found on tim banks of the river and its tnbutorios, parti MsbuObu, Boncio, taisim, asionaia, H&rdbn and Ifc^gi. Thi total ez«a of this xloo region io about 1,900 OOTBS. 152 (h) Sb&xbie9 tdlojod ozua * Coagpansd to its gfxixt sjipoxm «f ovcsiip Iciiul, ti)0 iodUmil's «»2lstlcg xlos oroa is nogligi^ltt, 1»ing otAy cvbfut 940 Qav&B. Thla orna fenos loz^Sy & coUeotiOQ of tlnQT ploto di(^:i;i3ed «0p90lal3y in tho wsQt-oe^ntraL porto of the islam. A x«»lativ@ly coi^peuot ef 390 oozus io foKod in the QTs^xmB vmcsb, in tb® Btam. obl^fO^. This plot haa been (l&viilefped on iijQiipcovo tsvs^f A loic^ge port <^ th^ rest of the xic« fielclo had origincaiy hmn grasolond sffirosps. Small otroano b^rii»r msot of th^so 3rlc@ Ifindo thouj^ sonm om fouixl z^sntu fxcm e^x^em* (o) North Knffti Bulloin ohi^fOom ax«»a - Scatt&rtd patohta of xloo fittlds cl^lt^P^ maiixlly an irCLnnd vt^Uaor QC7Q]iapo moistvmd by saoll otreonffl pairticulorJor ef the ElpuLun czeek curw feund in this legion. In totcl cvroa these f©m tijxwt 437 acres. Rcforoncas (1) H.D. dOHQAK, "Tho D(mlO|paape^t ef Sioa, Busoarch in Siorra Leone", Ti^cta AffllculturPa Vol. XXXE, Jonuaiy 1954, pp. 27-32 (S) £l*R, (SiSMJLLEi "An Asrioultural Survey of tho Bxiating ond Potantiol Hloo Londs of tho Scorciaa Bivwra (July 1940)", Wast Aftloan Bjce Rcaaaoreh Station, fi^upgi Siorm Laoncit lullotjm Ho«4, 19S8, pp. 12-32 (3) H4)» 30m^» ep* cit*.» pp. 27-32 (4) A.O. HLIAJ, "A Report On Moo Cultivation in Scarcieo Aarya (Januaiy 19225", W«ot Afgioon Rica aBatfgrch Stationt RoRupr. Sierm IiO0na» Bullirtih Mo.4, 1968, pp. 2-10 153 (5) R«R* GaWMVTIIEi OP* Pit. (6) A.C* WJJMl, OP. Pit,8 R.R* GLAHVlUEfi, OP. Pit. (7) BD£S)AN, "Ropert on th» Existing end Fetontial Rioo Ziands in oi?rtain Swaa^t Areas in tho Soutfasm Fzovinoo" ^ Sessional Feopor yo*7« 1938 (8) R,R. GSJ^PrmJ&, OP* Pit. (9) Soil Conaarygtion and Land use in Siorrg Loepo, Scsnionea Ff^r 1, 1981, (Proatowm Govommant Erintorj p« 40 154 FHtStOAL FACTORS AFFEGTXHG S T R I B 0 T I 0 If OP 3WAMF HICE Pi^yoioal factors havy piayi^d and c^ntinuo to pl^ a doadnant rolu m tho dlstxibutim of saaag riou ctitivation in ooastol Siorm lioono. What is dearly aanifbat is tho i:ulativu3y iw^gnificant rslo man plays in c^ntrallii^ and miuLdiiig tho forsus of nnturo to suit hi 8 lauuds and tho ntx>dd of his czops* Uostly gconoado and oooial tcaoons havu modu men ourrendur to the fercus of naturu. Thus, dotor- isinitiiQ is soon holding stray. Ctoology Gooloisy has littlo effect on the distxlbution of macap rioo oultivation in Siurxn iLoene, othur than enablii^ thi conoerp-ation of water undergroui^ at ccrtcdn places. Aiitjost the entiru coastal a»ai^ rice run-on of tho country falls within the belt of Pleistocene sedi- xoents knacm as the Bullwn Series, wlidoh consist of alternating bands Of olays, sands and gravels. Agpoot of Land Plat or gently undulating lands oru eminently suited for rice cultivation. They unable tho retention of water in the fidd, whieb rice eultivatian dunanOs. Meruouur, the extexisive utilitkvtion of liuohcsiiOai and other mdurn methods of cdtiiratltaei are mpo 155 136 foasiblo. Thia osgoct of losd faoilitatuo tho profitablu adoption Of Irrigation and orator contzol nothodo. From thu viut? point of tho dovolopmunt of tho cultural onvironmunt, oopoeially in thu fOm Of trancrport end oooctunication wtaorks and aottlcaoL^nts around thu ricu laixla, a flat or 0>ntly unchilatiz^ Icsod is favouztblo. Iho dbvuLopnsont of thusu foaturoa is a atimulus to thu pzogruoa of rioo cultivation. Tho actpoct srcgBp l{aad enabloa oxtonslvo flooding of rivoam and otivaBia* !Shio hal^o not only to moioton zlco lands but also to provido thorn Hth a layur e£ fortilo ailt. Also, it has onoiblud thu infiuoncM of tido wator to bo folt ovur ^du areas inland, offering advantages as v^oll as prpl^oss in ruspuet of rico cultivafeion. ( ooo p. 59 ) All s^OB^ xlco rugions of coastal Sicrm Luoiu aru eonfinud to tho region below 100 foot olov&tlon, but H»st aro bolo» 60 foot. (Pigs, 11 & 22) Tho foot that most ©f those rogions aro located in river basins, enables the derivation of the physical luqulrenunts of tho rloo plant, particularly water ana fbrtlle silt. Their jprydiwtAnantly coastal and rlvoitJln location is further advantageous frcro tho view point of water transport. Qlifflatio Faotoro^^^ dimate has a dosminating influenco on sfcs^ rice cultivation in coastal Sierra Leone, impart from tho c^nnanding influence of the 167 m^sture factor, teiqperature and oinlight ore pez^ps the prlnoipal diJnatlo factors affecting the distribution of mosp rice cultivatitm. The ohaip dual seasond aspect of the cliiaate of SioiTa Leone, has particularly infl«?i>ced the rhythm of massp rioo cuLturo in tho country, with a wet growing season and a diy matudng and harvesting oeason, a) Toiqporattire AH vorieties of rice require high ttaai^rature for their grwTth. "Wet rioee characteristically ruqidre at least two and preferably three months of tcatporature of 68°9 or higher." D*H. Gfriot dbserroo that "The avbitige tenpernturo ruquiied throughout the life of the plant, xxaim^ f«Ma 68° to 100^."^^^ The aeon tengperoturos of rice lands of coastal Sierra Leone, do not fall below 76*^. (Pigs. 12 & 23) Loner teflgporatoreo in the early grewth atogps of thi rice plan*, JXitord the duvelepcunt of seedlings, delcy taxgaEjplontins and ixjduoe tiller foimtion. Also, plant heights cyad the nunber of leaves are affected wlversely, cousing delay in heading. Moreover, lower ttagperatures after heading, cause a decruoiaj in tho nuinber of fertilised rice twrnols and in their weight. In the Bwoisp rice areas of Siurra Leone, the growing season (i.e. nurceiy period u|) to harvest) starts in Ife^ - Juno in the Scaroios rivers. Port Loko creek, tho Ribi Buiqpe rivers Kogboro creek areas, and around .^ril, in the Sewa - Woan^ - Kittam - Molen rivxara area. 158 -I I I 1 L. O ; I I I I I I I » I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I [ I I I ' m •A 2 >• 1 r* 52 _l K t- Hi ^ ;z 3°' i \ I I I J 1- I I I I I I I I I H I I I H I M I I I I I I I I I I I I 169 Theso xloo lands experlonoo tho rejoeasaiy High tenperatuioa of BOTO than 79*V during thu giowlng season. In the Scarcies area during the transplanting period (July - August), an adoquato man tei^x^r- ature for the grtwth of seeclllnga of 77*^ is available. (Pig, 23) In the Seaa - Waanje - Kittam - Malen rivers area, during tho whole of tkj early gr^jwth period a mm teiqperature of mm than 76*¥ is j&aintalaod. (Pig* 23) The maturing season of SRroiap rice, during the later inonths of the year, is also maxked by fcsfOuToble hl£h teii^jeratures. Uaiolly in the Scaroies areas, a aeoond crop of rice is plaiited after the harvest of the zooin crop in tho Dooeniber - Jonuaxy peiiod. This orap however, suffers froa a greater range ^ aean doily teffljjeratuJtes, which has adverse effects on the satisfactory growth of the orOp. Por eanaple the dally range In December in R^aq?r (Soercioa rivuro area) io and in Jonuary 22.7^, and in February it increases to 22 «9^. The Sowa - Woanje - Kittom - ifcilon rivers an>a usually has a Imor daily range. (Pig. 23) These relatively high tengwraturos of the coastal aruaa haw an in3iiuot influence on iloe cultivation* They aeki zlver waters warm, which of^'oicHy during the young ear stage or in the heading stage of rico plants, help in iBgpxoving yields considertsbly.^^^ b) Sunlight Sunlight in inspect of its influence on plant growth, is 160 mmoXlsr refen?@d to as the photoporiod. The latter neans the opticm length of doy as it affects the amount of light ruoeivud by a plant for narmcil grawth and dovdopaent. for the satisfaotoxy growth of the zlce plant aiqplo sunli^t or a relatively long photoperiod is esoontial. %i^ . *. * ^ loay influonoe plant behaviour by its inten^ty, its OfflBpooition oaL by its continuity or diaration for OJ\7 twenty four hour period. This factor is particularly sigiiflcont in o^oo with high rainfall and humidity, where isolation tends to bo reduced by olouAiness, The gzowth rate and the consequent duration of rice (tiau taken from ooiTing to hajnniBt) are oonsic]orsi>ly affected by light intensity. Temperature cotgsled with the omoont of light radiation dotensino the oooifindation of food reserves by the rice plant. Duration s^ziLight further offoots the tiniD of floner- i|3g« The hoavior the shads the greater the delay in flonoring* Shade clooreasos the rate of tiller formation and oenaoquontly affeeta yields odvuraoly*^ ' E^q^eriments cenduoted at the Rice Beseoreh Station Rdku^, with a nun^r of riOe varieties to under• stand the of feet of tos^mtuzo and photoperlod on rice grocrth, roveolud that the growth of the rice plant woo poor in the 8^ hour ^^^hotoporiod. The best phote^riod was found to be ll|- hours, but satisfactory rtjsulto wore also obtainod in the 10^ hour period. 161 BottToon June csid Soptoaiber, thu short duration of sun• light affects the gtwth of the main rice orep. (Pig. 25) This poariod coiiisides with the period of heavy rainfall, high hunddlty and donso cloud oovur. (Pigs. ^ A 25) At Rokt^r (the Scaroies apivoto area) the itoan jolative hundcllty (at 1500 hownj) from Ibar to ^Bivi^i&iat ranigoo from 64^ to 82^, A^^igust showing the hiid^est of 8^ Duration of xDoan claUlgr sunshino f £oia June to ^tes^r ranges fresm 2 to 5*5 hwars. (Pig. 23) Thus photoperiod is oqtioidorably reduoed during this period. In Bontho, (thu Sqwa i- 9aan^ - Kittam » Ualon rivers aroa) the period sT duration of noon daily sunshine is longer - Kay to S&p^nbQT - aal the Doean elailjr duration rEdxges froia 1*6 to 5,2 b&at&* (Pig* 23) The offoct of cloud oovur during thto period on duration of sunshine caad oonsequeatly on thu duration of sunll^t, is ovident frsco the follewing figures. lEAR AMDtBiT OP (SjISM) (W TEHTffi) ee^TSB i J. p. M. A. M. J. J. A.. S. 0. H. D. 4,2 4#0 ;6.3 6*1 7.2 7*9 8*8 9.0 8.3 7*3 6.8 6.0 Con|>axod to thu Sowa Waanjc - KLttam - MaLen rivers Hco rogion, iha iSoaroios rivuro rice region enj^ a eaare prolonged poriod Of aiua^ daily sunshine, particularly during thu early months of the year. lEowovi^r, in both regiems, from Octobor to Uey the 162 ; MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL, INCHES IPO 140 •UNDER I40 I60 OVER 160 AFTER S GREGORY Pig. 24. 163 duration of sunshine is relatively long. This period coincides with tho latter port of the grotrth period of tbu main rice crop. Therefore, it is aeon that in the early otogpo of groarth the rice plant suffers from inadequate sunlight. The longer duration of sunlight daring the Januozy 1^ April period, which is usually the off season for rice cultivation, has boaefioiol effects on tho soil. Drying the land during this isoason is ccnoidarod to isi^rovo soil conditions., and thereby inoreaso crop yioldo, The inability to control natuxtd factors ^oh as sun• light and tengperature has necessitated the breecling of rice varieties to the prevalent photoperiod and tensierature conditions. Fhotorperiod insensitive varieties have been bred at the Reki^ Rice Reseoroh Station. Al^jration of normal growth period by delas^ng planting by eight weeks has also been found usefd to overooooe the ill ejects of low sunlight durlt^ a greater port of the growth period. Hotjover, the wide adaptability of the varieties insensitive to photoperiod have boon founi possible to be fsxma out of season, under a range of li^t and teiqperature conditions and at all seasons of sowing giving good ^elds.^"^^^ o) Rainfall i.^. / Rainfall is undoubtedly the most insortant factor controlling SGranp rioe oultivation in Sierra Leone, though in 164 ooastcuL areas its influeiioe is indiruot rathur than direct, for nattiE^ river and struom flooding foras the primary source ot. water supply for these rice fields. But direct rainfall fOims thu acdn source of water to an oppreoiaJale part of the nen-tidal interior a^asp rloo regions of the coastal tract, which axo nostly ajieociatod with inlcaid valley swanks. Direct rainfall aopeover aosista in the washing awciy of saline conditions of the oeilo ef tidal ssfToxa^^ before land is pxxjpared for rice cuLtivaticn. Salinity of soil reailts frcm the tide water inunclation during thu dxy aoaaon. A Imowludge of the rogional di3tributi region^, is nec^osazy to umierstand the effects of rainfall on river Htfir, flooding afldi oonaoquontly on rice cultivation which is dupOndent on the fortser. A lorgu port of catohomt areas gC all the rivers ^t drain tho main swonp rico regleBi of the coastal aicua, rec^vUo iaoro th^n 100 inches ceroro&i tsuiucd rainfall. (Pigs. 15 A 24) A ccnsidorBble part of the Sewra river eatohBunt aroa and those of the Kittom, Waanjo, Slbi and tm^ xlvors, It^ivu OS mu<:^ oa llO to 150 ixiohes ef average annual rainfall. Thu rivers of thu Southum Province are ti&^ fed with great volunes Of rolnfall, rusulting in rulativu^y duop flooding. All varieties of rice require fai#i tezmpuraturua and 165 INCHES r30 ROKUPR / MASWARI ^^BONTHE J FMAMJ J A SOND RAINFALL MILES DUH. Pig. 25. 166 abundant moisture, during the growing period* **Where rice is depenclent on roinfoll, wet rice requires somu 40 to 60 inches during the gtwwing season," Rainfall should be well distributed during this period. The grecrth period of mos^ rice in the coastal region of Sierm Leone which is usually between Aprll/l^ Doooii230i9|^Jonua3cy, is woll served with normally high raioCall of oyer 98 inches. The Scorcdes area receivos a total of as much as 106 inches during the period from tronaplonting to maturing, i,e, from June to Deccadber. (Pig, 25) The ooastol moap rice regions of the Southern Pxovisoo receive much higher rainfall during the grsffilng oeaoon. Beothe sh^ws a total of 146 inchos for the period .^prll to Nowaabor which eoincideo with the gonurol groKring period of the southern regions. (Pig, 25) It is jEiotewortl^sr that tho coastal mcjap xicq regions ore wdl served in regard to the quantity of rtiinfqll required for the growth of the rice plant. Moreover, this rainfall is distributed advantageously throughout the growing period. Wo Soardes rivors area receives mm than 9^ of its annual rainfall during this period while the other coastal swanp rloe regions receivo 90|i to 95^ t£ their annual rainfal^ during thto period. (Pigs. 25, 26 & 27) Anomalies in thu nomal seasonal ' distribution of rainfall eure soon to affect rice cultivation odversely in soioe areas of the coastal zone. Early rains and consequent early floodisg am result in the loss for cultivation 167 O lO 20 30 40 MILES INCHES UNDER «o WET SEASON RAINFALL I J O to 140 OVER I * o (MAY - NOV.) (AFTER S. GREGORY Fi£. 26. 168 Of a considuro^Xu fxmsi of rlou lond in tbu Bonthu cad Port Leks Distrlcto.^*^^^ PailWi of raSLafetU ctorl^ thu noma period af its ocasurpenoo iotl to powre proTjluiiaa in 1967 ond 1958/*^^ lotto rcdns iouan pzolongud clxy suoson which xvaults in gruatur Qceumulotion of sollnity in thu Qoil of tidnl mosg riec ermn. During thi period Docw*or to -April thu caurtol aruos ruooivu a loos zuldoiblo im rcdnf oil of tmdor 10 iscfaus, thu Scorciua axGtsa having lus0 than 5 inoin^s. (Figs. 28 A 25) Thus cUultiQ this iseoison ZDin*-fcd rioc eiiltivation is proctioalljr isisomai'blu. <*$hu zoaat sucoQosful produotion of ricu talouo plaou vrhtirc thsto is a conountmtion of thu cnmiol rcdnfcll duri% tho WiXKfitsQ Goaoon, hut with a Jruiativcljr dry ooasoh at thp tisw tho (Htjp matuRis*'*^^*^ Tho dry ouaaon facdlitotos tho piopor iDat«j> ihs of thu riot! gxtdn ood undhluQ convenient and ausocssful horwotix^. Tim ri\ythm of rainfall of oocstd Siorra Z«onu is thus @uen to hi; gtinorolly favourahlu for thu propngatlon of rice culturo, A canaickaration of pot is ncooafiacy to undurstapd ttm o^oultuxul valuu of the rainfall rtjoolwed* it e^cSslos on uw^urotanaiBg of thu ngsgaitiJiao of run- • off and thu oxtont of soil lostatviru ubilleation. Thueu factors axv Of porttetdttcij ai^ficonoo with jrogaid to arcasp rice cultivation in thu coastol zcigion Of Siorra Leono, hecauso here, tratur s\^3jr MILES iT T UNDER »o RAINFALL PERCENTAGE IN OVER «' WET SEASON (MAY - Novf^' (AFTEP 5. GREGORY; Fig. 27. 170 for cultivation lo mtxtly ctorlwd from zlwr flooding. Gcnozally it could be ^Gcprrkid that tho eumuol total potential cvopo- tirttpoidratlon of a gioatt»r part of tho ooaatdl axua ef Siortu Loonu rongoo fro© SO-^S Inohis.^^^^ Tho total annual auon rainfall of thu ooastal orud. io in thu noi^libourhood of 110 inohu8.(Flg. 24} *£hisi ohoRra xniH tho magnituck) of run-off- Eron in tho intorlor awjoo Of tho cx)iartry, run-<^ la muoh ooru than the total ovapo- trty:iopiratidn rato,^"^®^ What io oignlfioont to note la that run^ 0ff io gxvatust duEing tho period of highust rdnfall * Juno to Octoljor* -Phis la tho aoauaa whon potential ovogpo-transpiiTatlon in^vtila cxi) low. On tho other hand during thu Docuaibor to April poslod jpolnfoil i» 30 lew that ovopo-tronrjpiratlon folio below potential. Bivey levels fall conaideratiJjr cluring this period. Slant growth is^ affocted, end needs to dupend lox^Quly on soil noia- turp utilisation. in tho Soaxxdoo rivuro area, it has been found thcvt mter dufidtawy and soil moiaturo utillaation io greatest during JXJouDiwr.^'^^^ Water Sttpply ond Ccntgal gactorp f he la«:go volumoo ©f tm&h water cazrled aeaaonally "tar xivoro and streeiKS haw been a great cdvantoge to rloo cultivation. 'Triolds ©f padfity deponib to a gpcoat extent on the qualify of Troter uaed for iriisatlon. Water aay hove a ^naidurablo fbrtilising 171 MILES I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I INCHES I I I I I I l^'^ UNDER s I I I I I I DRY SEASON RAINFALL (DEC.-APRIL) OVER I » t-ffi rAFTER SGRECORYKV Pis. 28. 172 voluD hooouoo of its ndnoral nutrionts .....«• "Quality of wcitcr is dopondont on its origin* Riwr wator is (junurclly prpforoihlu to that from othur aouccus. Xn oddition to thu fortilioing eliofflunts diaadvud in such wator it carries silt end olay,"^^^^ Tho gonoralJy worm naturo of river wator duo to thu usoolly high t<^umtuxuo of thu country^ is another favourohlc factor in xuspeot of padcly ciiltivation. River waters aro iroreovor genorally well ouratod which oonscquently is onothor odvontogei considering thu oKids of thu podcty plan** In tho main awcaaDp rice grwing oroaa of thu country, tho multipiloity of auandoring otzvomo and tributorius of main rivers and the vast flatnuos oT thu riVur hanks enoblu the sx^stening of extensive tracts for cultivation puzpoaes. fiiver waters however, axe not generally derived by means ^ oonala and water-^CQrs as in the case of the rice re^ons &£ the river haslna of S artificial irrigation is nugli^hle. Fc^ldy lands in Sierra Leone ore oyib^ieot to natural flooding of rivers. This occurs oeaoonally Q»d is thus, favourable for rice cultivation. River flooding is caatxolled hy two HKvin factors. One of these is thu amount of rainfall received by the oatohraent area of the river* The depth £»d extent of flooding depeni to a gzeat extent on thu voLuBie of water thus coUuoted by the 173 river ana its trilbutarleo* The second foctor coaatrolling floods la the ocean tide. tidal bookii^ espeololly ciuring tbu vtst seofion lec^ to the overflow of the river. The duration ond depth of floocling la to a considerable esctent controlled by the level of the tide and its duration, ThU3, it is linpertont to note that in the paSLcly growing areas of coootal Sierra Leone, ihxxm io alisoat cOBsxLote surrender to natural con^tieno of flooding CRTing t© thu lack of water contz©l. trxwgularitios in the distribution and ommt of rainfall hcwe their dlroot repercussion on river volinae and floocling and conaequtsntly cHiectly affect rice otdtivr.tion as the faiming syetein is cossgpletely o£Uis>ted to fit in with natural water oontlitions. The pro-requisite of of f loient ond oconondc paldy preduet- ion is adequate control ef drainage and irrigation thxx?ugh^ the grpwing oeas able for the field as soon as it is reacly for plontlng. If floods cojae too early the ciop nay net bo sufficiently gro«m to Avlthstaad Inundatltm. If floods ore too detq? they inhibit tillering or dajnoge the ox9p. Ifi Inundation Is dplpyed the erop aety be too for adtrs^noed to tolsp full advantage of water. An iocBsj^ngly late flooMng oay offoot UawviM interfere with harvest. Water control is therefore ess^'ntiol if the grqwing 174 crop is to bo pxwlded with adequate smpplles as neocted* "Saiall quantities of water given at fzequent intervals axe more oondusivo to high yields than are larger quantities given at loss frequent intervals." ".«.,, given an adequate and well contz^lled vr&tot siq>p3y the crop will grow in a wide range of ooiis and in mapy dioates.**^^^ Wator control is therefore aeon to be a primary factor enabling successful rice oultivatien. In tho coastal areas of Sierra Lecou lorg^ tracts could be easily nsdu productive by adopting water oontxol and irri• gation nethods. It is mostly economic rather than physical factors that inhibit the inauguration of such methods. More• over, tho initial atteopts at water ccoitzol and isproveaent of water conclitions for rice growing in tidal (Rhjaophora) mangrove swoni» areas led to cbtrimentol soil changes which discouraged attespting fsaah schemus. Howover, slxifdu end inu;^nsive measure a of amelioration of natural water conditions can bu ef great value in certain aruas. Tidal fiLoo^ng and thu tffect of high tides on the natural flow of rivers also effect rice cultivation. Some rivers of Sierra UxiW axe more subject to tidal effect a than others. The predoBdhnntly tidal rivers catee probltais of salinity. Tho extent of salinity in river water depends ftostly on -tiie volume of frash water tho river carries. Rivers with larEJo voluraus of 175 fresh water ouch as the Zdttlu Scaroies and the Sowa are xx3lativoly littlo affected by tidal eallnu water effOcts. HESBOO, those river vratcro ate more favourable for paddy cultivation, fiivera ore greatly rtTfyoted by tides during the dry season when the river water levels are low and brackiah a considerable diotonoe away from the river moufch. Thus, rice cultivation with river waters is laade praotlGolly inipossibLe during this period. It la seen that the possibility ©f planting rice is dependent on the rate at which salt enteiti thu river and the length of the salt-frw period. A prolonged dry oeoaon due to failure of roinfoll during the nomal periods of its occurrenoe leads to higher salinity of tide water. In vam^ mangrove swaesp areos whore there are no large rivers to maintain fresh water conditions dioring the rainy season, the salt concentration of tidal watera is to© high for rice growth. The exol<«»icn of salt water and the holding of raimater weni attei^ted in sosu swamps, by oaeans of en^joldcrins the lend. But it has been found that Qom nan^ve soils undei^o cheraioal changes when they ore ensjoldered, and that osnditiona inindcol to the growth of rice develop, Hanoe, SOTU of these SchtiDies have been abandoned and instead the clearing and dixjpening ol* the osdotlng nafeirol otreans and crooks and tho cutting of WW channels to property flood and drain these lands 176 have boon uffeoted with suooeos, HOerover, in limited areas and en^soldering/'the exclusion of tidal saline wator flooding ha^ had good results. Saline water flooding during the dzy season has some bonefioial infLuenoe cn rice cultivation as it controls thu grc^h of weeds in padc^ Holds. In oonfezmlty with the period of rainfall of the oountxy, generally rivers begin to rise around Kay and flood• ing starts by July &e August* However, this is variable depending on the seasonality of the rainfall. Flooding usuQlly deolines towards October in most of thu rivers. For the rest of thu year river levels are generally low. "it has frequently been assorted that owing to shifting oultivation and suboequent erosion on the vqpilonds, the rivers contain less water in the dxy season and floods are more sevuru in thu rains than fomurly."^^^ The Scaroles rivers area is oub;)eot to excessive flood• ing which though variable, zanges from about one to three feet above the marginal land level. But, in limited areas particularly doser to the river, flood waters rise ouch more. Uouolly flooding starts by July or August and continues until Octoiber* During this period rice fields are flooded daily* Water recedes from thu foms when the tide ebbs. Thu muLti- pliolty of streams asaooiated with the two rivers help to 177 flood and drain on extensive area* A nuznber of stieans run dry during thi diy season. Despite the foot that the two rivers ore neighbours the Grieat and the little Scareies are very dlffbrunt in character: The Great Scarcies is relatively oore tidal and saline in the dxy oeao^ and has low banks* The Idttle Shuttles en the contrary is mostly a fresh water rivor and due to the gruat volume it oorrles espeoially firing the wet season, salinity la isuoh ruduoed* its bohka ore usually high, overtopped mainly In the middle of the rainy season* The Little Scarcies rtmr is tidal as for as Mange which Is about 28 miles from the mouth of the river. Here tho tidal rise in water in April during tho diy season, whon the river is at its lonest is oboud; 2^ foot. At Katonga it is 4 feet ond Probu 7^ feet during the some period* But the tidal effects axu greatly restricted during the rainy season, espeoially from Augtist to October.^^^^ Salinity dxiring the dry season is most pronounced however from the river mouth vqp to Konta,^^^ (which is 14 mllos from the mouth). During the dry season spring- ticbo, the remote parts ef the rice region are left unaffected CIKL get ^^ried vcp from about January to May. The river begins to rlou in June ond fr^ July to October is in flood. The latter xvoches itii majdmiim in Septeid>er ond scmetiraas causes much 178 damage to crops. For a period of thrue to five weeks the lew- ilying Icaid particularly between Uakaai and Mange is deeply flooded up to thrue fuet " and sometimes acts as a limiting factor to zloe growth. BOtJover, the fteoh wator period of this river is relatively long, being fr^ August to October. Braokiah water effects Oorne into the soexK) in Deoemtor and nze felt in Tunibu in Januazy. In vuzy dry years during high-tides in April ond May a tzoco of salt mcQT be evident oven as far up as Katonga. T)» Great Scaroies is a aaaller river than tho Little S<»roi03, and is stib^ot to great tidal effects. It is tidal as for as KanMa, 32 miles from thu river mouth* The tidal rise in April is about 4 feet 5 inches in Kaa^la, in Hax&olo (9 miles from mouth) it is 6 feet 10 indbes and in Xalkonki (one aftle fraa mmxth) it is 7 fbet 6 inehes. Throughout the tidal aeotion thu river bonks ore low and thu tide waters overflow thum at Mgh water. In the dzy season the high tide usually floods only the lands dose to the river and creeks but in the raii^ season large parts of tho rice land are flooded to seise extent daily. Unlike the Little Soarcies, damage to rice crop due to deep flooding la rare in zespect of the Grreat Scoroiea. The extremely tidal nature of the xlvur prevents oontlRuous floodingt From ICoikonki i^ords thu river is fresh at oil stages of the tide from July to ISiayQv^tt iXmg thu West coast of the Sam OhiefdooD thu 179 oreeko are fresh usually from August to October. The Great Soaroleo io salty at high tides in February, and by April salt reaohes Buidto ond Kupr. The large size of the catchmc^nt area and the high annual rainfall which it receives have resulted in the S<^a river being om^ with the Ixucgust volune of itesh water in the countzy. (Pigs. 24 & 2lS) For the greater part cut off from the dixect influence of ocoan tides, this river is prudsminantly a fresh v/ater river. Thotigh not altogether absent, tidal influence is not a ma^or factor controlling flooding of the Sewa. The control• ling influonoe of rolMfoll is explicitly seen in the depth and duration of flooding of this river. Usually thy flood season is from June to October. The difference between the diy geason and wet season river levels is considerable being ebdist SO to 60 foot in some places. The nozmal d^th of flooding ef the Sewa river is greater than most of the othuf rivers At sono places a depth of 20 feet is not unoonaoon. At Torma Bun normal flooding is from four to six feet and a peak of Bp to fifteen feet ef alow-moving flood Is esqwrienced in August, at the height of the rainy season. ^^^^ Deep flooding has been tho most inEportant limiting footer in regord to rice cultivation in tho Sowa river region from veiy early times. Even today some of the; deeply flooded areas are inocgpable of utilisation. But ISO after the intreduotion of the floating rice varieties which can resist and w^ithatand deep water conditions, it was possible to bring under the plough a substantial portion of the river valley. Proper isothods of water control and drainage would enable an extensive area to be converted into prosperous rice land, as the other physical cendltimis, eopeoioUy soil have buen found to be vezy suitable for rice growth* Thu bonks of the Kittcm and Waanje rivers are to a great extent very low and axe thus oUb^t to extohsive flooding* Tuinonj peninsula acts as o bajrrior to the overflow of flood waters to the sea. The Kittom is sub;)ect to tidal effects which act as a barrier forcing tho overflow of tho river watoaf^. Howover, salt prablom is not Qoute Scaroies. The Blbi river is tidal from Moibang to thu sea during the r&ivff season* At thu height of thu tide the rice lands on either sides Of the river are flooded. The tidal offecta are noticed in the bigger tribiitortes of tho river, Thoui^ diy season cultivation is affected by brackish water, salt tioiible la not as pronounced as in the northurn rivera. The Bunpe being oxtxtanoly tidal, is devoid of thu danger of continuous flooding. The river overflows a ohort distance on either side, A orfflclently 181 long salt-free period is found for tho flucceoofuL growth of rioe. The rice region between the Hlbi and Bunp) rivers and the Ka#)erQ oreok, is mostly flooded by smaller streams and the overflow of the main rivers during tbo wet season. Here, the use of short-duration rices would enable the utilisation of o^asidero^le areas of swoop for rice, as the period of fresh water floodlit is not long. The Ka^oro creok carries a considerable amount of fresh water during the wet season and molstona the rice lands on its right bank near its estuary. Here the salt- free period is suffioiently long for tho taking of a rice orep. The Port Lobo oruek and Eolsul river ore subject to tidal effects to a considenible extent inland. Saliidty has inhibited oultl- vatlon of a greater part of the swanpa of the lewer parts of the two drtdnoge lines. The u^pper and odddle parts of thEftr bahka however, hove a sufficiently long period to tolce a success^ ful crop of rice. The period of flooding is similar to that of the Soaroies rivers. The banks ef the Fort Loko creek arv sane- times sublet to deep n.ooding causing danogu to the crop. Sh^xbro island rice lands and the Koffu ^illom Chiefdom rice lands are usually drained by small streams and by direot tainfoll. Shuz^ro Islcaid is greatly subject to saline conditions as the tidal influence on the island is quite great. The effoct of the Jdng, Eittam and Suwa rivers is to dtmi the salt water against 162 Shezt>i:« iaiahd, so that mtre sal^ oonditions prevail on the island than en the moiiUaiid. But water buo«wo oeato^fzee obout the end •f July this condition lasts till about Deoumiber. Thu pn^em •f salt is ii»t grave towards the Interior of the island wfaexe rice oultivation is posOlble fairly exteneivuly. The Rivur Melon and the lakes zegion in Ito neighbourhood are subject generally to deep flooding at thu peak of the rainy season. Floating x!iou variutleo would prove satiafaotoxy for these lands as has been demonstrated in oian!) limited regions within the area. Ednphjo Factaars tbo distribution of rioo cultivation is mostly governed by considerations 9^ water supply and climate than "by the natttre of the soil. D*H* Griot maintains that ** paildy cg^parently mokes no c^>eoiol deaand regarding sail," thoi:©h " paddy have boon fouhd particv^Larly ^ted to certain types of soil ** "JProVldud that tho water Supply is aducjaate, paddy cultivation io poosih^A} on a wide xcmge 1^ soils. Many uiq^r^oing soils accr be built into good podcly-produoing soils by cultivation and suitable manuring." The paddy plaztt receives part of its nutrient requirenunts fr«n Qoilo and port frtm irrigation r/ater, either in solution or in ouopended solids such as silt. The important requirements of the poddy plant ore nitrogen toad phosphorous, which ore mostly 183 CI£)Z1V Coloium, ou3Lphur* potaoh, iron, mcingQueiJo end jninor *titioo &|£ffis»nto' form atbt^r toquitm^nts of thu plant, Thoiso nutzltmts QXV xat roqvixoO. in equal proportion fey tho pdslAy plrsnt. But a ^11 boXancud aoll ^th oil tboau nutricntQ will rusiU.t in good yield? and xuaiotonow to plant dlacoao, Iteficionoico ©f those n)itrl manuring. ?h0su plant nutriwt jRjq\ilront>nts have boon found to bo prooont to a lar^' cxtont m tho alluvial cloy sollo aoaooiatod v/ith thi msascpa of coastal Siorra lioono. Those aro rich m gttjat quantities c£ oiganlo loatter and with a ooaaonally ronumid coating of soft fertile tdlt. "The fibrous loud asseclated with Rhizc^hoi^ mingrorc svranps im a higher pK vaiuo, a higher oontenfe of oxidlocJsle sulphur, nitrogen phoaphereus, a hi£^r cerbonrnitr36«J^ ratio, and a lorgur trater holding oepoeity,'*^^^ The bulk of unc^C£»s3?oscd organic mtter in the f ibreua mid io also found to be great. ihe need to retain water in and on the sail neoessitatos a faaasy sc4l pr^jferably \?lth 4C^ oi^ 1nore of clay and an iaipexmeable hard pan. D.M. Grist spye ^..... there appears to bo direct oyidojooe that It gt&ws better on hocwy day soil than tqoen the lighter soils ocntoimnB a high prqporfcion «f sand,"^^^^ Jt has also been found that good padcly sella are almost invaridbly acid 184, in Jtoootlon* ^^•''^ In tMs ruopcot, a greofcor port of Sierra L&dm* s coostol QC730|> soils cuxs favoural^e though prolal^Ds ef ion&r VQ1\«)Q havu bcx»n oncountorocl in aono ooncravo oruas. E^z^during df fi^tsoiphera mongrevo streiaps onci thu rosultont s^ oonditiona wfaloh mxo inindool to rioo grerorth, havt) olrualy been mfexred to. (p. ^7) Thio is particulorly dm to the oluMcal ohangus in tbu soil wldch is sublet to dusibceatlon boxing thu dry mamn, "Thu Ehizophom bearing soils QTQ eulphi^c aM hi^ily fibrous in natuxt} ond OUQ of the m^&r effQoto Gf ©smoldering is thp pxodiastion of sidphate in quantities ijufficlont to zosult in soil oomlitions toxio to rlc^j."^*^^ Iho pH volua e£ eiq?oldBt«d soils hasru Ismn fouad to dudino QS lot? as 2.9 in znax^ oxvos. Tko lisdting sell oolcHty foi" e®ot^ sic© gtwsth is pH s/^^^ For tho eucoossful cultivation of xi&i, tozlo substonoos found in oi!]9pold@red aaline Rhizorphora mongzove sviras^s have to bo hsBJOlc^ out. E:^riaonts at Wullington oalinfs) mongrevu man^a have shoim that lining and leaching indcrpendcntly, roduou soil Q0icllty« Hoouvor, lining i0 prohibitively coqponsive as largo qucoititios aro ruquirud, OTKl luaching is a film procuss taking at l^ost trro to thzco Among thu othur probloms rulating to soils in ricu aruos of coastal Sierra Lcsonu havu boon thu IOGT nitrogun contunt of 1S5 OCTas soils, ^^^^ and tba soH^jr naturo of the soils of aawo ports of tho coastal aruas ©f tho Southern Ptoavinoo. SoforoneiiS (1) StatisticoX data ebtainud from the follotTlng sources: Statistioa Illustrating tho Climate of Sierra Leent? - 1951 (FreetqwBj Gevomwnt Printer 1952) j Monthly ffeathtac Reports; Biltish West African MutereelQig!t.qal Seryjoesj Sierra lleeno and Gfafciai MetercQloglcal Office, Prootovm Airport, Lungi, Sierra Ittono, (2) BROCaS JOacBCSf, Tho Stopl Food Econyides cf Woatem grgpical Africa, (Stonfard Pniwralty fteaa, Stanford, Callfbmla) 2Bd Printing 1983, p, 96 (3) B.H, m0$» BICE, 3rd ed. 1959, p.9 (4) Ibid. , p.9 (5) BRUCE P. JOHIBQH, op. cit.> p.96; D.H. (SOST, ibid., p.9 (6) K.H.W. KLA£ES, Eoologioal Orpp Googrccphy, (Kevir Tork 1942) p. 277 (7) Annual Report of the West Aflclenn Rlee Rcsenreh Station^ (Eokupr, Sieira Iieonu) 1956, p.25j 1960, pp. 25-24 (8) Ih^.. 1963, K>. 13-14 (9) D.H. CERKT, OP. Pit., p. 32 (10) E(^rt op. cjt., 1960, p.10 (11) BiajCE P« JOHfBCW, op. dt^. p. 96 (12) Sjiorro. lieonet Annual Report of theJDepnrtaant of Agri• culture l9j:Q&t (13) -Annual Report , op. oit., 1957, p*9; 1958, p.9 (14) miKJE P. »©CSN, OP. Pit., P.97 (16) iUmual Beport ...... eia. ,oit.,. 1959, p,ll (10) P.K* MtTCSBEIIi, "Irrigation In SiuiTa Leone, Possibilitiea and ProCipeots'', Pt^r read at th© tJ.H. Conforonoo on tho aEplioatian ef science and technology for thu benefit of the loss develepod ar^as, 2lst Sii^tedscr, 1962. (17) Annual Bepgrt ..... ep. tsit.. 1969, p.U (18) D.tt, GBIST, pp. cjt., p. 51 (19) Ibid.., Ep.29-31 (20) Ibid., pp.28-32 (21) Soil Congdnration and Land use in Sjerra I<^CB»« Sossional Paper 1, 1951 (Freetagm:. gofyornaent Printer) p.59 (22) R,R. GSMnUMf "An Agricultural Survey of Existing and Potential Rice Lands of tte Searches Hlvurs (July 1940)", West A4^Gan Riot) Research Station^ Rokupr, Siogra Leona, BullQtin Hot4, 1958, pp.l2-a4 (23) D.R.E. jAfiBSOH, "Exferocts from a Rupert on a Visit to Sierra Leone to Stuii^ the Cultivation of ScraHj) Eioo, DocoaixJr 1950 to October 1951", West Afrleim Rjee ReatBareh Station^ l^la^ry Sierra Lepnoa ^Sulictln Kc?«4, 1958, pp.35'-52 (24) G.M^ WW£Sf "Repert on Exiotins and Potential Rice Lands Bast of the Bagru River and inoludins Shezbrd Island (1939)", Woi^t JU^oaun Rjce Reoearch Statj^ep^ RakugTy Sierra Leone, Bulletin No«5, 19S8, pp.l-lS (25) Annual I^3t>ort •..«« op.dt,. 1960, p,20 (26) D#H. GKST, OP. cjt., pp.11-12 and 27 (27) Ibidi, pp.185-196 187 (28) P.S, H^E, "Soaase Difibrenoos Between the Soils of Rlttzophora and Avioonnla Ifongr^w ^ircaa^o In Sierra Loono", Plant and SeU, Vel. XTT, No»4, July 1961, pp.335-S46 (29) K. RAMKAH, "Poctors Affecting Rice Productlan", P.A.O. A^cultural Devylopiaant Paper 45, Dooenbor 1964, p.9 (so) D,H. (aiST, ep. o^t., p.l2 (31) -Xbtd>..p.l2 (32) P.H. HESSE, ep. cjt. (33) Annual Ropart ...op. ott., 1956, pp.30-52 (34) Ibid., 1960, p,29 (35) Ibid., 1960, Ep.32-33 168 CHAPTER Vm TECHHIQUBS AND UETBiODS 0? SWAMP RICE CULTIVATIOB Apart from the z^soent intsoductlon in aem areas of ioechanLGal plou^ng cm£L harrocTing, tho oultuxtiLpracticos ebounrod in mtacs? rico oultivatlon in coastal Sierra Leone h£^ beon booksToxd ahd pxitidtivej ^im partly no douht to tho foot that mest^ rice cultivation is a rolatlvi^ly recent devi^opauat in the countzy. The sKitfaods of foTBdng prevalciint in Slorra Leone, cannot be ooBjored with the traditional sii^e but efficient nethocls of eultlvatlan which the Aslon farmer has evolved throuiJi centuries of esperi- m^tation. In Sierra Leone, these prxictlces havu no in^genous tradition to giv^ them strength. Ho(7@ver, It is not only the tim factor that is laigpertant here, btrt also the attittxb and dlsp9sltl(» of the foziaur himself. The 0{>athy and gpneral reluctance of the fanoer to ocoopt inxiovatlon ancL his duep-rooted conaerv-atiaa have ODsk} hin mxu &c less stagnant with his primitive Inefficient oultarol prapticea* Uoreov^r, moot fonoers appear to be contented with what they evoguire fzom the land with the minizaam of effort. They seem unable to opipieoiate the volue ef that extra toli whloh better cultural practieeo involve^ The economio InsteMlity of the fonoer con also be cited as on iniiortant factor restricting 189 innovation. Most fornaers lack the os^tal to enable thea to ndeiipt tm cxeL msam desirable asthods. She evDluti^ af better and nor^ preduotlvo iDasthcdo of QUltiv&ti^ iD^ihibited to a sr^at sxtont by the sfaser depcaidenots on natural fa&tors and very little att and adjust them* In this respect, the lack ef a^jr fdm of ui^ioiont water control is of prinazy iiq»artance. Land Oonersblp and Labour Land is oanEunally hcdd though it is not unusual for the hQod ef each fan&ly gret;^ to regard the plots alleoatcd to him by the omBounlty as his and passing to the head of the fandly en Me d«joeaBe# The emeunt of lend h&ld by each faxroer vanes oonsiderably* Gkpnezxdly it is one to tero acn^a. In scau of the |X30ently developed sc?aap areas of tho Southern Province, tm to foiO' aCTB plots ore not uncommon. The native land tenure sgrstem and pledging ef land have coj^^ioated the pattern ef land holding. The total aroji of laiKl held by aiv single farmer does not hoRever indieata the total orea farmed by him. . The area ef land fazned Qftcati depends on the size of the faolly and the availability ef fara laibour* The greater part of tho cultural praotioos iBvolvod in 07aap rice cultivation la ocxn^splished by the faraer and his family, though the richer fanner aometiioia appears to easaley eutslde labour. 190 There are no fixed wage rates for bimd labour, and ctoney paymunt is not necessarily the neznol practice. Txvu food ami payment in Idnd Is the customaxy arrangenent in souks port ^f the Scardes region^ There are also working oooieties - ^Ka Botho^, ^A lofo' ond 'An Ruag?', wid(^ offer oeicvloeB to the fojraer during the fanadng season. Thsse ore espeoiaLly fotmd in the Soareles oxea. Cenmunal labour is ocoai^onoUy ruaorted to in the Searches region as well as in parts of thu Hibi rl^r ond the Bonthe Dlstxlct aruao. In the Scardes area it is not uncooDion for the bigger farmer to allot snail plots of land to his relatives in exchange for their services in the cultivation of ,hls lax^r personal holding. SjLngle and l^juble Cropping WltMn the coootel rice region, there aru little variations in fomdng methods. These variations axe brought about mainly by diff^runces in water and soil conditions of the azea cQnoer»»d. Usually, one main rice cr&p is grocm. Vexy limited aruas practise dafele crapping in scane years* The suconcl crop which is ncamLly a shOErt duration crop is taken in areas which ore do»p and fiee from dry season oolt conditions. The second crap ripens very irre^orly and the harvest extends over a long period, Among the faotoro inhibiting the successful praotitje of double cropping is the low piK>toperiod undier which the second crop will have to gxw. 181 At the Rice Reoearoh Station in Rokugar an e;^rij&ent on deiible cropping, using varieties of short maturation and with Im sensi• tivity to phetoperlod, gpao a total ,yleld (both crops) greater than that obtained hy cxiLtivation ef a single long duration variety. TABLE 5. DOUBLE GROEPIHS (Maan Yield in lbs.per acre ) lojlety let erep 2nd erep Tetal 52 H. 4,3 2500 850 3350 52 M. 6.1 2120 930 3050 51 M. 4.1 2020 880 2900 62 H. 3.6 2020 1070 3090 52 H. 8.1 2010 1100 3U0 mSSl HATIP 1950 870 2820 52 H. 6.4 1910 1040 2924 5E M. 4,3 1510 900 2410 RfiDTH CRCHA 4 SIN(H£ CBDB . 2340 While it is not possible to discount the possibilities of deiihle creEPii^ Tdth the xise c£ suitable varieties ef seed, still tht greater cost ef production involredb in double oxepping as compared with a sdn^e orep is an inhibitivo factor. It cjrpears that at the pzosenrf: time, in coastal Sierra Le^, the best oourae 192 would bo to plonk a long duration single 6x«p, which if properly (2) gjretm would giv» a heavlecr ylold.'* ' Rotation af Cropo Orily in vexy limited areas in tbs si7oii^ land of Sierra Leone, that rotation of crops is prcuotiaed. Rice is usually rotated with aamit potatoes, oaosa^va and vegetables. This net only helps to enrich the soil, but also to keep dotm weeds. It has been found, that ** ..... continuous cultivation of paddy zeduoea yield ORTlng to defective soil auratl^ ond oonsequijnt distuzbanee of thu mloro^ologlcal balance of the soU."^^^ A rotation of a grass \n3uld enatde the devolopnent of livestock farming especially cattle. BcKrever, rotation of cr^s In most areas is again clependunt on water ond soil concHtlons, because salinity In the dry season for oxan^, could inhibit the cultivation of oxvsr crop in the moe^. Pzeparatjon of Load The initial prt^paztstlon of lead for tbu cultivation of p^tiilAy is slight y^lam ootas&xedi to those methods used in East and South-east Asia. In the tidal areas of the Soareles rivers, iidtiol preparation of land is alaoot non*<3xi8tant. Land is neither ploug^KJd nor dug. In some otetus whoze weed gretrth ia widBcrpraad, m ibofedng 4ind bruohlnfi aro ptractiaed. These aruoa ore noraoolly the non^tidd fKfo93i?0m Oaually» beeing is £ri%tllov« Hhtm ^veed greerth it well establ&fihtiS, ixfo heeinse ore giviun to the land - cn eerly heuins Mitring tho dxy season oi^ a late cam before plen^inf. In tm^t cramt hopiiB pezik^jps umeooasary ae the land le eeft (ifiseug^ fe^ diruot tvt^»^plnnting. in oocae farms, wide aeehud i^tsncue ef intervervt^n stlcia} ere made bufere oudtivatien, to exGludu the intruaien ©f wueda fleeting in tide w£{|er« Weed pv^lm is Citxs^ in thf oQuthL^m grasslcnds aruiond thus hoeing as an Initial pre^tiee has beoooe ussentlal. Woeda axo ap^'nerally *cul!l:QS8ed* end the bmiahlnge ore heaiped ujp end lefl te ret. Befcucx) planting, theee hee^e aro iNamt in thu Secra river groaaland artssp azea. Thu GommO^ used ise^iamit to cut grose and wood is th@ eutlaB or matcSiet* There &e a native hee w^eh is else used. Ht^B io vmtisp ehr^^ in outline v/ith a curved SlAt blade. A loxQe iBlcded hoe is uuaed fSsur heovier work. But new, laxgux* areas ef the gjn^s^ilaSidB in the south azu muotetnioally sleughed. In oene parte ef the Pert Loliie mmU rioe re$l^, hotdng of nuede inte the sell ie pmetioed, which helps os a seuroe ef orgofiio natter to the soil. Xn acm rice laiids of the Scarsdos rlvura and Weetern Ssobu etdefdem area, rtg?alrl«g and cieanlna ef bun3e fields mi 5a5.tlal praotiee*, These bunde are to eassludo tlio Ingreae of sailne tide<47ater into ^ farm» They else help te eoeuEHulete eilt 194 within thoir precincts, when the field is submerged with fresh river water flooding. H<^ever, this type of bunaing is only found in limited areas. Muohanjcal Cultivation ItQOhadoal cultivation Is a relatively recent Introdueti^ to Sierra Leone* This practice is ncs? fairly widuspxead in the gmsalond stronps of the Southern Province. Its introchiotlon has olso led to thu eoenpjnce of large extents of nee land in other parte of the country, lljohanical ploughing is done in grassland and inland msaepB, but haa been found to be unsulted to mangrove offasps. Most grasalond swaag? fields of tho Secra, Waanje, Klttam, Malen, Little Scarolea rivers. Port Lpko creels and the Soutb»WBt EU^ehun District, ore ploughed mochanicolly once each year before the land is inundated by the emtflmivi$ rivers and strt)aas in the ralfly season. In the recent past a rulotively large are of Boli- ionda has T?cen e|»ned t?? for ilce plantii« with the hdLp of iauchanioal methods, Ktjohaniool cultivation is gonercJLly cohaucted by the Aiydculturol. Department. A few CoK>porative Societies in tho BfWithe District have repuntly tokun 15? the praetioe and have been quite oucoeBsful. The Govornmpnt of Sierra Luone hopus to traiPfor the entire work of wucfaonical cultivation ultimately to 195 Ce-opemtlve Secietles. Beth Government and Co-orperatlve Society asichines plough and harroc? the swoBsg? during the latter port ef the dry season - I.e. January te AprU, - the foriBer praying a fee of 6 Looaes (£5) per acx^ for the services, ffaisiurs having a cash stake in the erep by reason ef the peymcmt of ploughing fbes, have shewn a relatively greater interest in the cultivation thexeafter. lipehanioal ctiLtlvation has helped to bilng abeut on inezvose in yields per acre and per nan mostly duu to the efficient eradicatlen Qf weede aotH bet'tor pxeparatien <^ the seed bed. Thu small popu• lation in the greater part of styeng? areas of the ceizntry Indieate that mechcmical cultivation is all ths mere nocesoacy for develop• ing tho petimfeiol awes?) rice lands both in the coastal tract end tho ihfcetler. However, thero are certain technical problOBS particularly the inadequacy ef aervioing faeilitles for the maln- tcdnanbe and rupair ef machinery still to be solved and till this problem is todd-ed, the practice perhaps cxmnet be ceaaipletely inte• grated with the local fanslng system, nevertheless, in most areas of the southern grasslands, Bxsohanlcal ploughing has beconu an established part of the fonaing cycle. The costs ef meehaniKil ctiltivation consisting of eperatien depredation oal general supervision costs an} borne solely by the owners of thu machinery, whether Govenaaent er Co-eperatives. Each troetoir unit found in the impertant grassland end inlca:Kl scranp 196 rvgiolis isonsists of about 10 to 25 trustors. fhi tzYUjtors used by the l&^ohanical Co-operative Societies ore g^raUy of a lighter type which have been found cheaper to operate.. These tractors have been obtained under a fiv» y«or Government loan to the societies. The Covemmtait tractezns aro usually crawler tractors, wheel tractors and garden traetero. Generally It is observed that tractors are incaqpLetely xised mainly duo to the fact that they are mode use of only during one season. Btommjr, this does not mate their utilisation less justified, as their use promote ?a greater output ©f work in a limitod period and also in the final result, a relatively heavier yield. In the case of the deep-flooding grassland mccsps of the BenthLi District ond parts of the North-contral BolilondB, early and quick pruparation of land being necessary, muchanioal cultiva'p tion is cn attractive proposlticn to the fcvraur ond readily resorted to. The adcption of muchanical cultivation has in turn helped thci farmer giving him more timo to engage in other proclactive acti- vitlea whldi con help to aolaj his life more varied and interesting, thus aoJ?uring him. of the opportunity of greater oooicd. and cultural intercourse. Mechaiiiool cultivation has reduced tho drucieory involved uspcciaXly in weed dealing which has for a long time been thu joost tlmo-oonoundng operation in the period of preparation 197 MECHANICAL CULTIVATION SOUTHERN CIRCLE (BONTHE DISTRICT) sooo^ 72001 NORTHWESTERN CIRCLE (PORT LOKO DISTRICT- ^ MOO-H SCARCIES RIVERS AREA) 4 600-1 5 2 00 2400H l6oo^ 800H -T- o —I 1 1 I I 1 r I ' ' ' 1963 19b4 1951 1952 1953 I9S4 ICSS 1956 l«S7 1958 I9S9 I960 196] 1962 iPUH. Pig. 29. 198 fdr the soning of armiii> grasalcnds* These factors eo^cd with the higher yitildB thoy enable, ha:vt9 mode cul^gatlon in grassland motapa on attraotiyo pursuit, and or@ nsw gradually r^stxleting the flm ef pecvple to towns and mizdng areas. Ksohanical cultivation started in Slorra JJS&BO in 1949 with f0ur aorus cultivated In the B^he District mmp grasslands* the acreage mechaidcolly cultivated increased appreel&bly in 1952 and af tor until 1958 in which year on overall dedlno in ooreage cultivated was noticed. (Pig* 29o) This was mainly due to the ohansd in pdlicy of the Govemncmt regarding the payaunt of plough* ins fees in odvonce* A rejuwanatlon was hqcrever observed in 1960 with a nartoble increase in aoreogu cultivated particularly in th£> Bonthe District. In 1963, aa SB2ch as 8,630 aorea ond in 1964, 8,552 oorea were eultlvated mechanically in the latter diqtriot. In the Little Sooroles river. Port Loko Distzlot and Pujehun Dlstflot areas, the largust acrwago meohanloolly culti• vated woB in 1957* In the Little Soaroles and Port Loko District orvao, 8^1 {Sid water problems as well as the laok of Intezisst by fernurs have resulted in the slow pngress of muohanieal cultivation. In the milm coastal serosa zlou regicat of Sierra Le^one, a total of 9,212 aeroa w@re ms^anieally oiiltlvatod in 1^. In the Bont^ DistHot, meohanical cultivation appears to be mE»t pepuliu' in the XTongoba Bullom ohiefdom where 5,195 acres were cultivated 100 RtVERS- PORTLOKO )V:REEK REG/ON MECHANICAL CULTIVATICPN 3 BURE CHIEFOOM 7 YAWBEKO CHIEFDOM 4 MAFORKI " 8 KWAMEBAI KRIM / MAMBOLO > 9 PAN6A KRIM Z LOKO MASAMA 10 YAKEMO-'KPUKUMU 5 BENDU CHA „ // MANO SAICRIM sEvm- 6 NONCOBA BOLLDM - /2 MALEN WAANJE- KfTTAM- MALEN'\ RIVERS REGION 3900 2 600 I300 MILES 5 lO IS II ( o I I Pig. 30, 200 iDDchaniotaiy in 1984. (Figs. 2a & 30) 1!^BLS 6. 1964 MECHAHtCiL CULTlYAiriOW IH THE OQASm REGIOir (By ChiofdoBio) A(3E3 S195.3 )lai)0 Skxim 1332,8 993.5 987.2 33.4 U9.5 Buro 66 il8 100 "5wO 64.3 Fonga Sriffl 86 XaJgBsiyi-'^^paaum Krlm 106 256,8 HJOTAI. 9812.2 ISAXGRAIi BESOQBCES, SXESESRi I£ORB. 201 tn th) smatiiv part of the edostol onronzp oreos af tho Southefn Fiovins^, aft&r tho praporation ef lojod^^rEdet 'broat^oat sonlng of smiL is procrtlaed. Though in d^p-fXoocIlng grasslonl mm^ or&oji this ia thcs prectoolnant pxttotiou, it is als® 6b&£'ci0toristio of maogrevt^ B?QXI> KICQ lands aseodated \7ith tbu Bibi'Buogpe vimro oad tfas Kan^ro qre»k. Xn thu Scarcies rivers area though dln$et soinriQg io oonduotod in aam ansaa, it is foot diacsppooring duo to tho foxme rucdioing the greater priductivlty of tim trofioplat&d orep. Trtou^^Mtf^tins io aom graduaUor s^ad- ins ^0 the es7QinE> j^@lda of tht> Seuthoni Pxovinoo, Wcsud prfirbloa b@ooraus acute with tzoadeost sowing and zDoults in lot? erep yields. In tho ScoroiOB Uvuro oxxl tho Fort District rioo ettroas mxQ emsam ie thu praotioo 0f tram^plantiiiig of aucdlings grdcm in nursurios usvially eeroy frqm thG» 97003} fields. In th&s® artjao, tha initial work of the farmer is eonoemsd vrith the pr^oration of th& nursuzy bod. Thu losst o&mon pztustioe is to pn^^oro tho nursoiy ar9und mttiamiTiba, paths snd roads > Hscwror, flursorios oro also isodo on oloaPDd \;|>lQnd hush, samtinas a oonsidcrablo diatanoe cffroy fxm th& mca^ riots field. Thuao nurooirius QXO cmmQ^ loforrod to as "dxy nuraerios.* Inoreas- in^ evident is a thixd tyjio of nursoiy dwdoped in inland volley end grcissland mea^a found in thu noigKbourhosd of tidal 202 znanettm} mtxa^, Thu exhaustion df met ef th&i t]^|pJ.a»ds in ths noi^'towhood ^ cffircoip fild8> hoo lecL te tho inoroaednc uou of ouch ttfieh-mxtQp aronp mraoxtoo in the ^p|»r ixjaohcis of rivurs Aiiel otzeams. 3?ima, tronstport ouodLings from nuraozy to tfau 07eai> fioH bfis boon at tisua n liadting factor to produetien, BpotOf oonooQ end soinutiiocs lorrius arc (sioployQcL to tronsi^rt GoOdLingo. lior@ often, oonsic!oraj)lo tim OIG^SOQ butvioon pulling and x^platttinSf B^ng conditions dotzinuntal to thu aoudlings and oonaoopienfcly to tho rieo crop. Nursuxy lands oru vuzy zturuly plougfaed or asuiurod. Thoso Qround sottlamunta am piLQnt&d with vmet potcttous, ooosava and vogotdlJleo oftor rio@ ooodlings bs^ boen ruiasTOd. GunordUy, a gxt^atuf part of tho land uoud for nursurioo, is in a Iscr statu of fertility, afid is c^t to dt^line as tlwy aro moru continumtdly utilised* This is particularly neticcablo in tbu Soareius zlv&ra aroa. Xbo adoption of iMfBoe&md oultunCL practices in the nurooryf uspuoicslly th0 propor ojjplioatlGn of artificial furtiliaera ond cos^>^t aro urgi^xtly required te al^ndate thu proves. Bmemr, it t/ould be BSiXo dosizxiblu to uso for nursorios thu zaoro fortiZu frush wator inland vaUsy ond grassland areaapa, Xha dxy nuraczy is ufually mode In li4;fat friat»lo soils, ifoimjlly whan kish aryos oro utilised, thsy Qru first doared ond burnt, and thu seed is c&m bxoadeaot. Aroind settloioents, paths 200 and rsads pxra^rios are goncrdUy lightly ho£)d buforu soaring. In fjeah^ator st?onp norscilos, vugotation is oithor cutlassed or uprootod end bumfe, SoBoetincs rlc© straw is burnt on tha nursoiy ground to enrich thu soil. This is noro eoionon in oroos vrhera sho^agu of land has cosp^od thu fanoDr to uso thu &cm plot year after yoar. Burning helps to xoCxxxi tho soil to a fine state of divii^on czid d&stxoys woed seeds. Nurseries nr@ usually sonn jjni Me^ and Jua^ duzlng thu uarly rolns. Seedlings txm left in the nursuxy for six to tdght woeks dj^pOnding on thu variaty socra. Sonu arc left for eolong as tvro to thru© oeraths by v?hlch tinw thoy are oft«n found badly ovorgrBcm, It has boon found that suodlinga with a diorfe poriod in ftartilo nursozy give high cr^ yiolds, Bi^riLttents in thu Rico Eesuarsh Station at Rola??r haw rovualud that thu 'teoiabinod offudt «f high fertility and short nurouiy puriod gavo doublu yiulds trior a los? ftJPtility and loijiffjr nuinujy puriod, Ihlo was in xusseot of the (4,) ptetoptJriQd-sunsitivu varioty Radin CIdna* ^ ' Tbo mnjExL 8@ud rate of thu mrsezy is found ooaoonly to b« high, buing 600 lbs or laoro pur aor©. In thu infortilu aumjxy, this hl^ ooad ratu roaijts in wosto of suud, weak grcwth of ouedlings and ccsnditions which favour plant diaoasoo, Tho shortaso of rich aJ3d cxtonsivu nursci^ land in the neighbourhood of stas^ fiulda, oot^ilud with thu apathy and gunurcl lutharg7 ^ thu 204 farmar hewo reoiattsd in the aloption of a hlah seed rate in the nuropxy. But osg^risBnts in the Edkapr Bice B^suareh Station have Qho(m that a seed rKto ao high 700 to 900 lbs. per aero could bo fabourably uded trithout adv»rst» effects on seeclliqgs or yields, pztif^d@d a fertile naraeiy is used ond tbe nursery period is reduced. Seedlings sns x^arooted when th»y are found fit for trons- plontii^. Hanto ore gunerolly vim to twslvnj inohaa t?ai when tht^ are uprootttd and tiod into «B»11 bundlus. Tho seedliQSS oro ahak^ after uprooting to shed the soil from the roots. Sooe foxners rinao the roots in Trater to r&novu ooid and soil. Soe^ines are also trijaned dosm at their tips, Tsith a small losife or cutlass. This trliwins has bcsen found to be jnecessaiy if the grawth of Qo&dlinsa h^ bt>pn vigorous in the nuraezy as it obecks trans- 2?lmtioii whilst the roots becone ©stcteliahod in the field. It gives rigidity to the jilant so that whcm transiplanted tho loaves do not bend over into the water but stand er^ct, ft also prevents seod- iirgs from being b®aten dotm into the mad by heavy rains or tidal flooding. The moXl hmtdful bupdlea of seedlings are usually tied into bigger onf^s oc^able of being Oarried on the head. About ten doso or a fortni^t oey usually eleigjsu froai the day of ttprooting to the day of trnnsrplcaating. It is not the practice in Siorra Loono 205 as in aany South-^ast Asian countzlus to kt^op soudlings in watur for a night boforu ]plaixting. ^his is kasm to be bonul^eial, for it holps to dustrey ttggs insect posts by fummtatlmu Transtplaoting seedlings from s^ b&ds to thu field proper has boon found usaential in many tidal aRroi^ aruas, duu to thu faot that at thu beginning Qf thu rainy soason, rioo pLai|^t«d diruotly in thu sssfcBp wsuld GBeeuBtui* salinity gnjatur than tho riou plant can t^oiititti* Ftarthuxnorut it has buen found that transplanted aoed^ lings aro bottor obliJ to withstand su^jEurgE^nou and water nevuaent on ^u tidal 07QS^S« Uoreevur, it faoilitatus wuod cootrel. While opabling a unifom field, tronspljmting has boon found to induce a WLghur yieldj though it inyolvus considuitfelu hand labour. Trnnsiplattting is usiaally donu during the very wet months of July and August whun tho liuoh of river water aioiston fields. In tidal swaag* fields, soil salinity is washed by this tine and fruahconditions IXJIG available. I=lonting spreads dotm ilvyr as tho scat bwccOTSs washed out* Test plots ara planted in advonoe in tho noro srJLins oiwno. at intervals of a week, until their survival rowals favmroblu conditions. Transplanting is done by nun, wqaan and children, unLikw in iBOst Soiith-cast Asian ooimtrles whare it is a woaen* 3 j*)b. In the 206 Scareies areas a fdzto»d sticJc (narmally consisting of a piooe of basdaoo about nins inches long with a blunt *V* ahc^d notch at ths planting oM,) or pieos of iron is uavd for tronsplaBtizc. tfauolly five to ten soodlinga are thrust into the and with ^ hslp of this tnuusplantiEig tool* The distanoi) between 'hills' of |3lants is uottolly nine to eighteen inches f^art. On heavily rich isud, twolve by twelvie inches is comDon, but on li^t end less foztilo soil, seedlings ore planted about six inches apart. 3Cf the? seedlings are poor, the nuEober pur dlxaqi is increased. Aa aony as twomty to thirty aeedlii^a per hiU is not uncoonsn. Glooer planting f«wer seedlings to a oLm^ give bettor p^oults. The iffifeive foraer is inolined tp plant a large nuri^er of soedlings in oash stand end i^aoea these stands widaly. This is mostly da@ to carelcEomos and also as a coiq^satozy measuro for eraib dc^D9ge. Sj^riaunts in thtc Rice Besearch Station at Rekt^r hem shown positive advantages in a spacing of six to nine inches and the jilaclng of two to throe seedlings in each stand. Bawover, in areas where crab damage of aesdlings is great, larger mnter of aeedllBga to tho stand acy be odvisablo, Whwrever wet and dry season at^ai^ cultivation is intensive. Hoe is cuLwoys faurl t® be transplanted. In awaapo which are subject to sucldon and deep flooding or to rapid flow of water as evident in parts of the grassland s(7asgos of the south, newly transplanted 207 seedlings art) liable t® ba washed c^ay, Th»refore, in these areas the practicje of eotohlishing the er«p early by direct broad• cast oisiwing has continued. ^ Cotnpared to Asian standards. Sierra l^one's nursexy culture and transplianting oothods ar^ ganorally unsatisfaotoiy. Haphazard transplanting has inidbited the prcpor gra^h of seadlings. In iKJst Asian countries nurseries are car^jfldly nade with proper manutlng ond regulated water conditions. Seedlings are trans• planted in regular rot/s visually ta.ght to ten inches apart. Konnal plant spaoing is four to six inches in the row. Aboafe threo to four soedlin£s ore planted erect at each point. This nuthod has enabled not only the vigorous growth of the plant v/ith large oarheads, but also has eased the clearance of weeds which rob th© rice x^lant of ligM, air, water and food that would have gonu to increase rice yields. Weodiiig After transgplanting, the faimer usually leaves thu field for natural conditions to have their full iHjJoct on tho plant. Woeding is done very haphazarflly but in mcjiy areas it is conplately absent. The weed preiblem horcver, is lesa in tidal area, as the flush of saline water dmlng the dry season controls weed growth. In tho rest of the esvaj^ fields weeds pose a difficult problem and is one 208 of the Bain iwasons for the inability to raise good yields in most onrapip fields. Preparatory tillage, iinpeunding water, harrowing tho grswlng rioe and systematic transplanting, as conducted In most Asim countries, may be interpreted lately as measures of weed si^ression, and actoption of these methods with on incruaae in ©ffioienoy would result in better weed control, ond would em*le the taldng of better cropst In the tidal swamp area, as the crop is almost entirely tronsgplonted, a long period is ovoileble for the fanner to do preparatory tillage of the SWOJI> field. But this > practice is almost cottrpletely absent. Thus v/eeds that He dormont in the dry season oiJpear luxuriantly along vdth the transplanted rice duxing the wet reason. In Asian countries the fields ore subKlividod by low bunds whioh help to insioual and regulate water. Stoncling water in the fi<5ld helps to control weud growth. Some famwro in thu Scaroios area do one weeaii^ about six weeks after tronegjlanting. Weeding being an unattractive ond tedious job in the soaked sproap field during the peok of tho rainy season, has made the people loathe this practice ond where it is dons, it la hfiphaJsoKlly and inooq?letely done. In soaa grassland moos? fields of the Southern Province, where direct broadcast sowing is practised, weeding is acooaiplished along with soiying of seed. tjauolly, while soao raensow , others 2oe 02;^ seen ^rooting weeds gunuxtiUy with thu help of a hoe. Woaen mrjaolly collect the t^rooted v/eeds and grass ond pile them vp along thu fi@ld boimdaries. As a rule, during the greater part of thu period from S^toidaor to DecsHifaor, the former does hardly ai^r work in tho pc^xly field. ' When earihueds appear cWldren are seen in OSMIO areas, mi^mi(l in bird soaring. Manuring Bonuring of fields is nugligiblu in th^ tsmap rice siiusLs ^ opaotal Sierra Leonu« In nost fields it is ooo^tuly absent. Itlattiral fertility of a substantial part of the coastal swaB^ zloo land dpUfs not necessitate the use of fertiliaors, Moawring, especially T^ith artifi<3ial fertilizers such as sigjoxpho^hatus has been tried in some lindtud areas and found to give vory satisfactory results. Havover, in tjpito of the govemiBGnt subsidy on fertilizers, their utilisation is restricted owing to their relatively high priooa which farmers cannot afford. The Judieious j^iplication «f ferti• lizers before plantiiag end particularly before the heading of plants has ; been found to boost rico yields, in certain areas. Poor drainage ccmditions due to thu absence of water regulation, inhibita the derivation of proper benefits from fertilisation, as the real 210 effects of fertiiiaers on the plant, depend mostly on water conditions of ibii f ield. ^ Harvesting Towards tho foynd that hnrvestlng should bo demo earlier then tho trBjditlonol tim, ExperiroBnto in the Roto;5)r Rico Rosepjxh Station hove reveolod that yields oro not offected by an early harvest. 211 Woisen, loen and otaldren, all tatos part in harvusting unLlte in most Asicffi oountries where it is isainLy a w^ni»'. Job* The ia£xLe- aent tised in harvesting is a small knife. Thu ai^hBd of harvesting is tedious as only one er few heads are harvested at a tiae. This is especially ao when the rice plant lie flat on the ground dus te eff^ots «f floods. In this cose, thu tangled mss beooius difficult to harvest. This is paztieularly seen in thu attas^ field of thu south* Also in thia area, there ore sections where the floatii^ zioe varieties hacve to b& harvested on boats, as the fields ore flooded even during this period, After Harvest Staclslns in the field and escpoaure to direct sunli^t have dioodvontoges^ as the heating and sftld ftannoiatati&n 0f the grain that aoiastiines recR^lt, affect thu viability and adlllng (|aantity of the grain/^^ The etQic&aed bundles ore carried on head or treoiflperted usually in baskets to thu settlements, and placed in gronaries. When the settleaiaito are senu distance may from the field, canoes and il^lein boats are used. In seioe rice fields, after harvest the soil is piled in hecgps with the rice stubble biuied beneath. In eom swcnps which are oontinueualy oultivated rioe strss? is burnt beibre thu land is 212 heo|)@d. On this land later on, smsot potatoes, yams, vegetablos and tobaoco ore grocm by some farmers. In the neii^bbourhood of settlcBoents, household refuse is sectn soattored over this growing orpp. Bowev«r, this practia# of mixed oropplng is found on a "^sy liislted sealo. Tho usual prEtctioo is to leavtt tho f Am unatte>¥£l£>d ImD&diately after harvest, Threahjnty Threshing to separate the grain from the stalk is done , whc^nevi^ eonoehlont. However, Uaroh ond April are aonths when th0 proctioe is oaomonly noticed* Unlike in most Asian omintrios where threshing to dono %y driving buffaloes olmly around on the rice stalk to trsaq>Ie out the groin. In Sierra Leone due to the obcense of dregoght anlmols, threshing is done by tho fanner and his family usually beating the rioe with stieks. ^sraoUy the oh^viis are hosgped between two v^pi^t posts, ond the farner beat out thi rice from the beep with s^eks dm± three to four feet long. Wonsm sdbseguently conplete the work by beating the sheaves with long slexKisr etiekfi, to atparate the remaining groins frsm the stalks. This is a tedieiis praotlce involving much time. When iihe Crop 1B small, some fazmers thresh the crop with their feet. This method is effective though very alow, and it prevents scattorlng of seods whidh is o^omon in boaton rice. The operator generolly 213 tsiiepTto hifoself en a long stick held upright in ene hand. This muttMd is uvidunt in thu Grreat Scarcieo area. WinnBwjng Thrudhinf is usually fellswud by winiMRirmg. Thu lattor is deno with the help ef wind and winnesTing trt^* It is denu zpnoally by loen standing on top of bexes «r tqptumud riou mrtars. Thu uzislnnseed ricu is oelluoted in trtvys and the farmer holding thu trqy in front ef him at ohoiildur level er higher, gently shakus thu trtor ohoddiiTg thu paddy from the trt\y. Wind aoparatus thu husk and shaff from the c«dn. Sanetiines the ui>7inniwed rice io oDlleotcd in trays and is shalsun and tossed with a twist of the wrists. Here the tray is held lew, SWDU fanaars fan thu fallen jrloe with winnpying trays and suporatu tho chaff from tho grain. gaming Calendar The aaoap rice farmer's calendar of w«rk is siniilu, ond except for a few vorlatlens, is found to be genurally similar in all parts wf the coastal region. Xareh to April is usually the period ff shalli^ hoeing and weeding* Sinvovur, i^s io not universal as in most cnroap rioe areas t» hoeing and \nxKling are danu^ In A^w mmc^ rice areas, nuaroyjloe on? aiwn in late Vbroh. In swuu gjnass serai^ of the south, burning «f grass io done during this period. Itoru important 214 htrnvor, in the mechanical ploughing of grassland and inlond swas^a dnring this period. in maa grassland mox^ fields of the south, the dry season short duration on|> is harvested during Uaroh and April. In SMae Of the lAiMii Soaztd^s owanp fields, and in Qose parts «f the Sewa and JwQg rivers swamp rioe areas, broadcasting of, seeds is done in April and continued until May. This is particularly seen in inlond valley ewjjops. The preparation of rice nurseries for long^duration main rioe 01^ takes place fr»m May owaids. 5hiO continues until Juno oM early July. Ih the grcator port of southern grassland awjaqp rice area, broadcast (sowing is in progress fro© May «waxds ond is Osmm^ily ouon in Jvtne. Harvesting of cassava and sweet potatoes grKm as dry seasofi bnps in some tffc^ fleldo also ta&us plooe during this tinO' Farm digging Wti. wueding are also seen in senu limited places in the Soareies arva. Sn some limited areas planting of short-duxtition varieties starts in May. The harvesting of this crop which e4»0ipncca around late July is usuaUy seen to contiiaie until August. Hffscver, July and Aogust are more important ao the period «f tranfi- plipting of the main rice erop* Transplohtlng oometimes continues urrtil Supateo^r. 2X5 3t^t<3Bk>r, Ootobur cand H&mDboT axQ usually tnonths withsut neodi work thi fofmra. In aoam inloscl va3.1ui7 si^osips onl S£CiS0lciml mmpfi, etort-duration early zlO(^ oz^ gumrcOly barv&otea dui^iflS thio pitiod, Ikicx^oibor and Jcoiuozy forin the ffloin horvostins mason, whieh is Bomtima oontixaxxL txp to early Fbbruaiy. During this puri/dcl ^Tutit potatoes, yatiis and coosova aro plontud in th^ hQrvust(>>d mojt^ fields in eom aruos. M^dianlodl cultivation ooniwinQ&o uauoUy in Jonuoxy and prooi&ds to eibout April. In COOB tj^ciaoB duzing iSati Gorily port ef iho yuar« dzy suooon ohect- duration rioa voxlativa &co plonted. (1) Annual SmdVt ,tf tho Woat Ai^oan Rjoo Researeh Station. (Hokii^r^ Sierra hms/i) 1963, p*8 (2) D.a. GStST, Hiea. 3rd ed* 1959, p.l39 (3) m^.. P. 148 (4) , Annual Boport ..•.» gp. Oit.> 1902, p.ll (6) H,D. JQBDAH, "Devel^jpntaat of Bioy Buouoreh in Siorm Le»^**, TTOE4oal AJtriGultmu, Vol.TSXI, Jcnuoxy 1954, p.27 (6) ibid. (7) Sierra hnwm; Annual Report of tbg Departaggt ef Agrioultura. (Prswtam: Ctevomrnsnt Printer) 1955, p,42 ' (8) Annual Bsport OP. ojt.. 1961, p. 18 (9) JACKSC97, "Extracts fr^ a Report on a Visit to Sierra Leoie to StuQy this Cultivation of Swoa^ Bice, DeoGsater 1950 to October ISSl**, West AfrtLcon Bioe Baseorch Station. Rofaipr, Sierra Le^na^ Biilletin Ho,4, 196S, pp.35-^2. 2X6 PRODUCliON AND YIELDS Sloxrn. Luon@ usually pzechio^B about 315,000 mtrle torn of Hoc por yuar/"^^ This inolucloa cwoiq? as voU. ao igilnncl rlcs). Though oeourato ctata oro not ovniil/Mc it coulcl bu diooomol that a oubatantiol poxt of iAm annual production oootso from tbu SErasi) fioHs of thu coastol zoglen. It is in thoou acroqps that osouao rioo proclmtion on o, oonneroiol eum oiibolotonou soolu is soon to a gzgat extent. In this zuspect the main oruos of pzoctuotion include thu Scayolcjo xlwrs oni tho Scwa - Waon^ - Kittom rlwra oivas. In ths) rupont past, thu inoroasc in locol ptoduotion Of 3¥loo io portictilorly Cm to tho atoady dowlopajnt of oaraiqp xioo csultlvati TABLE 7. (2) Yoor VbtriG tons im/SQ 255,000 1956/59 264,000 1959/60 264,000 196Q/61 264,000 1963/62 264,000 196^65 315,000 217 mm 8. (3) 1968/65 mmoncsi Ctop Uitzlo tens Hice 315,000 Gasoava 54,000 $€ai|hum 1.2,000 lallot 12j000 9,000 SiToot pota* to&s oi)d ^GUSS 9,000 Oaraunl nuts S,000 Though largo quantitius of xloo are locally pvodaoed, Btm thoy have 'buon found insuffioiunt to noot tbu danonds «f thu bountzy. This has noouositated the in^ecrtation of conaidorablo quontitioo from foxuign countxloo particularly Burma and Si»9in. (Sou Tdl>lo 2, p. 22) Though a dcdina in ingporto of rico was noticed in 1963, ooim first in tho list of agzlcultoral isgports, both in giaontity and voluo. Thu ssoin ruas^ fsr thu hugu isfiorts of riou oro thp inor^oi^jas dunand fxom thu adidng and uzton azoos, end tfam iimdequooy ^ oUling and atozo£9» f aoiZitios iTlthln the oountzy. Bttfoire 1954 the guontitios of zloe iinportod wro nugli* giblo. in fact in 1953 Sierra LOonu e^^rted as cuch as 663 tons of rlco. 216 Conoidezlns ^ ^to at which population is zlsing in the Gountxy, uzbanlsation, ond rlsins incomes it mcty be eotioatod that in tivo yuars, a dot;fl^lins of the cjuonti^ of zlce nas insported would be lajoessisy to saeot the needs of the eountxy, if hpiiae p£odaction and mlllins facilities do not simultoneouaLy iiQ^ro^K}. HtCE •gEBLDS Yields in men^ rice lands vazy considerohly aocorOing to the season, region and variety used. Ancamlies of dinato ore seen to have their direct iiopact on rice yields. fioiTever, soil conditions cc^txe to bring about ereater differences in yi^ds. Kangrove stands closer to ri'vera yield as nuch as 3000 lbs. per opre, tDOotly due to their great fOrtility* Yields are seen to dedinu as ami goes inlond moy from these areas. The average yield of fflangrsve areas could be tolaen as 1200 lbs per oOze* in the mtas^ grasslands of thu Southexti Frovinse yields aveztige 1600 lbs per acre. But there are areas providing 1800 to 2000 lbs and othezts leas than 1000 Iba per acre. The grass• land swozqps of the Scaroies area senenjlly do not yield as such OS the oGingzove mm^ rioe fields which adjoin thsa* But recent esperiiaents of Ohimao zloe eapozto on grassland swoaips at iionse on the bonks of the Little Scaroies have given alBiost 219 double the yield geiuztdly obtained fzom such lond. Yields of irilca)d volley «S7oaip rice oroao ^thin tk) coostol region ore generally losr ronglng from 700 to 800 lbs per aoro. The huge yields obtolned by the Chlnejso at Mange and the Rice HDaooroh Station at Rdo^jr shot? e^ioitly that the general yields durived by the ordinary foxioer frDm the a»ang? oroaa of Cooj^tol Sierra Leone ore for below their potential. $he eapansion of n£>zinaL production and yield of mox^ rice would nijceaoltate the increoop of productivity of the mcmp field and the utilisation of the presently unused osanp lands for rice production. Eaqpansion of rice lond is eepeeitdly pooaitle in the Southern Province. Grassland and inland valley mtas^ of northem areas also offer possibilities of developisent* Fcctero Affectlni;^ tjeldo and Praduetlcm Uony foctors have offered a confined influence to bring oibottt relatively low yields in a greater port of OBrongss of coastal Sierra Leone. Ancmg the primary factors is the olmost ooiqplete ai&mission to natural oanditions and little attengpt at controlling them to suit cultivation, a) Water oontroL Lack of \7ater control has resulted not only in poor 220 yields but also in the inability to bring under cultivation large troots of swQspo. The latter areas ore tdtbur deeply flooded, inaduqvuxtoly flooded or p^rly drcdned. Anomolles in the roln- fail ollmate have cttitjot effect on river flooding on which a largo part of cultivation rusts* Orasalond OWODE® in Scorcies rivers ar@a found bcsyond mongrove swemisps ore portlculorly cqpable of producing gsod crsrpo, if some fom of water control, iiTigatiito and drcdnoge oro ods^ited. Sollne-^ater flooding inhibits cultivation of lorge extents of oangiOYO land. In^roved water conditions would enable cultivation &£ these tufmpa. Adverse soil conditions itbat hove resulted in atteaj^ts at water octroi in &om mongrovu areas could be ovur^ine by adopting the method suooeasftilly experlmonted at Wollii^n by the R0ki5>r Rice Research Station (p, 68 ) The land-foiias of the coastal areas facilitate impouncliflg of water and the ooistraotion of irrigation ond cte>oinage eh^anbO-s. The large voluaeo of water that flocr unutilised into the ocean espeoialily during the wet season couLd bo ham>8sed by is^unding. The geology of the coastal areas hoS boon found to offer little obstacle to in^tmding and conser• vation of water, though lox!^ schemes of irrigation 02^ drain• age, perhsg^ would not be economically feo^slble at the osratait, QiKtLler oohemea would be of great benefit. 221 ^b) Soil fertility Soil fertility is seen to affect rice yields considerably. Fertility of soU declines as one goes ©ray from iAvo rlver# Presently there is olznoot dai^iiito dbsenoe of fertilisation in the asreap fields of tfej farmor. The high yields that have been derived by the Ohineae at Konse ond the Rice Resoaroh Station ot Relojpr have "bmn primarily due to the sciehtlflo effsplication of fertilizers. Though fertllljsers would not be neoeaaoxy for tha awaap areas closest to the rivera due to tte naturol fertilisation which these areas receive by seasonal depo^tion of silt, maa^ areas in thu bcclsg^uild need fertilloation if yields are to be inproved ond SKdntolned. Continuous oultivation of rlee on the sane land has led to cteoruoaing of yields in mopy fields in the Soar^es rivers area;. Kot only ths? rioo field, but the nursery on which thy aeudllngs oXv brou^it tq> alwuld be fertile if yiolds are to bo iniproved. The i;®lawi dxy nursery that Is predoaalnantly used by tho rice faraer is for the greater port infertile laid does not provide faeolth/ seedlings* Thu BtHsa^v Bice Research Station hos demons• trated that an Ixqsroved nuraezy by fertilisation results in a large number of ears after jaropor trazMBplQHting. Expurijnents by the Reaeorch Station in imnszove as well as in itiland-selloy cwanj? areas with phoaphatus and nitrogen fertilizers, have shown considerable increases in yields. The inland valley swanks particularly requizu 222 , fbrtlllzatipn If oatiofactoiy yields ore to be ©bttdned from them, Fortiliaera should be t^jplied at the correct time and in the correct 3^f5op03Jti©n to derive oa^plcte b^^ o) Bice voHeties Unoatiofaotoiy ylttlds In most sffong? areas mcy be attri• buted to the use of poor and alsed varieties of seed poddy. The l2i|>zovpd high-yielding seed varieties ore not avoilahle to a Xergfi number of foinisra mainly of the romster areas* Moreover, suffiolont quantities ore not multiplied to satisiy the needs of the faCBkars. Varieties have to bq inultiplied to suit the partioalar locality. The Rokuja* Rioo Reoearoh Station has gi^atly contribute in Oxidising csod nultiplyii^ a nuaibez^ of Vial^ies to suit different water, soil ond climatic conditions. In mangrove lond, the latest intr»duction by the Rice Research Station - Rodin China 4-is giving svajstantiol yi^do. It has given fanojro who used it a yield 50 per cent over that of other fanaers. The vorioty is gaining populority and is gruatly in demond in sene areas. This variety has been found to be yielding well even in deepuly flooding eroao of the Sowa river and in inload valley ssranps of reosonoble fertility, with late ao»ing asaocioted i^th a fertile nursexy and pr^r transplanting, rDmarkoble increases in yield have been possible. 223 S,H, 28 is or^ther nuRrly introduced variety, with oonsiderable resistance to salt-water and with a short duration. This variety has been found to bu better yielding than the pZi}Q«mtly gzotm Lead and Soro sdt-tOlerant varieties^ The use of S .R« 26 would ctfioble the utilisation of a laz;se extent of saline swosips presently unused. In^-Ghine Blanc, a floating rice variety, has been found to be particularly suited to all deop-flooding grassland Olteo and has been foiuid to grew well oven in flood waters 15 foot deep. It is believed that in the future, this variety woudd zpplaoe the presently used Indo Ghine 53, in ovoap grasslands. (Jontong is yet another ©utstonding long-duration voriely whose yield have been ^to high. This variety has been highly ztiooimaunded by the Roki^r Bice Research Station for oil oongzove awaiqps mey from tidal salt water influence and also for inland Volley swcanps, QontmJg is eaqpooted to replace thu prestmtly used Kav 12, India Pa lit 46 and Ngasein 57, Howover, its long duaraticn is oensldered a disadvantage by some fortnors due to tbulr proferenoe fotr short-duration varieties which enable an ear3y horvuait. This is particularly loarkod anongst thiu poorer farmers* Usually the long-duration rices have a larger yield btxt this fact is not cg?pZQoiated by many fazBurs. Amsng those fanning solins s»ngrevu atexcpa S*R. 26 (145 days duration) is opt 224 to bu more popular, due to its sh^rt duration and hi#i yl(»lds. It is pxopooed to oonduot o r&g^d in^roved ieod- lojdltiplldatlon and dlatxlbution ooheme, thesi^uaut the ema^ oroofl of Sierra tixvm in 1963. All ht£^-yitiOb$Lng iiq^ron/od variotioa ore to l5o laatiplied and extemivoay diottlbtrted to osedhido ^ planting of leKr^^^eldii^^g, poor and adjmH varieties. Thilo v/ould cmobiu a considercdsle increase in pocoduotlon. d) Ct^tuml prootioea Hot oriiy oaturdl factors and seed varied, but ouLtuna prootioeo odorpted in pzodoction, have a great liqoaot on the yielda of rice. The primitivu and inufflcient Ixichniquus of ciiltivotion adapted by the former tavur droopy twen cnunsjoMvtod in Chcg?terVm:.In the Scarcioa rlvero oiua, yields could bo gicuatly inozDoaed by iqgxorml nurseiar otLturu and trcnsgpuUtntinfi n&ithodo. In soine mce^a digging Utibre transplanting has been £ound to iituskiti lusuxlont @?owth of the xioo pilant with o larg^ tmiSxjv of cars. $ldo pzuotioe is almost cocg^tiay aba^nt in the Soorcieo rivers oxua. Muoh^oaL oultivation bsa oncib3M the duiwilasiimt of loxm os^oiaaoa of Idnd doe planting in the mathsm rivurain grosslonla, in thum oreoo, due to the t>ettt)r piupon^ion of the aeodp^bod by n»ohmleal nothodn, inoreajaud yields have xt^sultod^ eapeoiolJy when odspmjd with gxnsaiand or/anp oroas in whic^ iieohanioal ciAti^^lon has 225 not been xised* In smt oangrove s^oiip areas laeohanloal culti• vation is not possible, du@ to their extruadly soft nature. Weeding is negligible ond almost absent in thuj greater part of asroiBip iloe areas* In somu fields a few days after transplant• ing a weeding is given to the field. But this is haphazardly donu* In groGSlcaid ^m^a, weeding is essential if ij^rovcd yields are desired as weeds ooi^te strongly with rice in these areas. As weeds absorb a lorge port of the soil nutrients beneficial to thu rico plant, the growth of the latter as wuU as its nunteer of ecr-huadi ore luduced* The proper control of rice plant diseases and pests is also necessary to ensure Mfi^i yields. In a greater port Of coastal Sierra Leoaae, plant diseases ond pests have mt been a. strong limiting factor in ruejpeot of yields. The ii^jiovuiBont of harvesting end post harvest cultural practices w©uld also cauoo thu rcduotion in thu loso and danaogc of groin* The prcctiooo that oro adopted presently, are inefficient and tirau-conauujing, e) Other factors Rice milling, marketing, tronsport, storage oncl thu inpiwciount of the eeonondc ond social conditions of thu famur are among thu other varied factors that affect nee production. Their modernisation ond in5)rsvenent would have a vuiy beneficial ingpaot on rice production in Sierra Leone. 226 References (3^) F*A.O. Production Yeozbook. Vol. XSH, 1963, p.53 (2) ibid., 1963, p.53; 1960, p. 51 (3) fbld., 1963, pp,48-5S and 80-120 (4) "Ii^itjving Rice Yields in Sierra Leone", Notes issixid by the Rice Reaoareh Station, SoIa5)r, HjcO-a Uniwr- oity College (Sierra Leone) 1965, 227 GBfiFTER X PBOCESSIHG OP RtOE Pztiksessing Of zlov involves mainly tho mmoval of tho glumes or husks that oi^ose the xlce grain* This process is r^^rxod to as hulling* The whito appearanoii of ric« is obtained by ^ polishiiig* - nemoving the outer coats that cov»r th» whito grain. .The hativo procossing method in Siorra Lttom is dovioed particularly to hull pod4y. Polishing ®f zlc« is dan» usuQliy in zloe ndllo. Hgtivo Precossing Itothod Pounding of podtly in tho woodsn mortar is the coBOBonsst method of processing stwn in the er/oiEp growing oreos* This is oxolusiwly done by woiwn* In tho «v«ning pcdc^y is left to soak in a lar«« pot of wat»r. In tha moniing tho wat«r lo reoovod and a llttl© frwsh watar is added. Siibaequcaitly th» pot is ksjpt on fir» ond th« paddy is boilakl till the husk gsi^ open, Tb@ paddy is thtai spraod wit on the ground or on oats carouffll houses, ond is sun dri«d. When dry husk is zwadlly rumovsjd by pounding. Pounding is done in a wooden mortar with a v/ooden staff (p»stle) about five to six feet long. In this wcor the husk is zumoved fron the grain. The pourcled zloe is collected in round troys £aid by winawring the gcoXn is 228 separated from the hui^. Though pounding results in groat guontitiea of loeraels being broken, this method of processing does not rob rioe of its nutritive value as ho^'ns in milling zioo. P^RinddLng dees not polish the groin con^ctely opd the rice is usually bronn in colour with a large part of the nutritive bran remoining. But pounding of paddy consumes a lot of timo and energy. A very large part of xloe conoumud by a swaiqp faxxoer is pounded or native pleonud. Milled rice Is usually bought by the fanner when he has exhausted his pounded rio^. The inoli- nati<»% of the former towordo native denned rice is not only due to its better taste btit olso due to the eoqpenses involvud in niUing rice. Also, many famers hove no alternative as nulling faoilitiea are not available in the neighbourhood. Rice tailing Rice mills found in the coastol areas of Sierra Leone are of two kinds - Grovummunt ewned lorgu mills ond private or Oo-operatiw owned smoll mills. Go^iummimt Owned Large Mills: The four Gonn^rnmunt mills ore located in the follocTing plaoos 4- One at MosibOlo (Konft>ia Distriot) 229 One at Tozna Bum (Bonthu District) Two at Kissy (Western Area) The iQill at Uosfcolo serves maihly the Scaroies rivers ozua while that at Terma processes rice produced in thu southern riverain grasslands. The two mills at Kiscy aze fed by podcly fzom both the Soaroies rivers and the Sewa - Woanje zlvers ozvas. The greater bulk homnrer, is sttpplied to these mills frsm the Scaroies area. Both mills at MbmboLo and Tenoa and one of the mills at Kiscy have an ixj^iat ot^ooity of 25 tons of poddy per doy* The QoOQiuL icill at Eissy whioh was installed recently, hos on ir^ oopacity of 75 tons pur day. Thu mills at HombOlo ond Torma are wozkud by diesel engines whereas those at Kisqy use eleotricdty. However, thu boilers and rice driers at iCissy use Oil as ftiul. All the mills process husk rice as well as native deaned rioe. A lorf/J part of the rice purchased by the Govummunt is processed in Government mills. Numereus farmurs and traders too process their rice in Govurnmtait niills. Hative cleaned rice is milled because milled zlce has a better n&rlart, Thu output of Govemnunt rice mills has censiderobly inszuased during the past deco^. The 1953 output of 1975 tens Was inoruaaud to 3416 tons in 1956 ond this was almost dotibled in 1959 due to thu setting of the new mills at Tezna and Eisay. 230 In 1963 OS much as 7887 tons wore processed. Paddy ohd native deooid rice that enter Govomoent mlllo are mainly from the ooastol si^ati^ areas. TABia 9 RtGE IttlLiMG - 1965 - IN GOVEBHMEBT RTCE lgLI8. (1) (nf TOWS) TOTAL IHPOT OUTPUT IQNTBB BOSK N&nVE CLEAIQD January 658 414 Pebrmry 255 607 605 Vareh 241 574 643 April 378 631 790 May 437 847 1011 i^une 204 762 772 July. 891 20 600 August 723 - 456 Septoniber 946 610 October 1257 - 794 Novesjber 1074 671 December 830 - 521 TOTAZS 7894 3341 7887 Thu Torma mill end the larger mill at Kissy oru modern plants. Poxf^oilli^ of rice is done in all Government Hills* Drying ofter par^^lins has been a prGibltim during the roiay seosen, but the instollatlcm &£ artlf idol drying plants has encfeled the overcoming of tMs difficulty. 231 Tfau clulivuzy o£ riou to ttilla ia tisuoXly GI«U by forours dlioctly, ©r by CJ©*«|purRtl©n Soolotlwo, prlvato treiluro and by puz'Qons authorised by thu Govurnmuat to hvay rloo, A lergf) port of tho attpplloo OTP ooUuetud by mono ef wator trtyji^ort - rlvor dul coafitfsrieo* Se^ of thu zloo procuooud (vt Kissy is tan^isporttid thuro by loztlos. Thu initial pruparation »f peufbOy for lollliDS inoludus par• boiling. First, padeiy is olc&nud of strcsr In thu psw^ ({Loaning unit and eubsoqUohtly tremforcod. into lox^u conorutu tanks oontfiining wa.tur« in thuau paddy is ooakud and plecud in laxvu stool dngas to bo pazti^Hud by stoaia. Aftor bailing pad4y is sproad en tho d:^yin8 n«9r in thu sun t» dty. Tho artificial drsring unit ia alsd uood whoru hot air drlos tho groiUi Siibso- quiontly padi^ io hoapod and is oterud in a ailo tv&S^ to bo sdllod^ Thoro oru aovural ad^antagus in parboiling pai^. Tho roault ef pasbollini io to naJv it uasior to runovo tho huok, and for this ruaaon loss brelcun rioo ia obtatnud in ndHing and also thu amount &t ndllihg nuousaazy ia luaa than for non- paiboiiud rico. Parboiling ^vos to rioo a tsasmrlw koo]^ng qualil^ and nttru iiq^ortant, it holps thu grain to rotain taost «f its nutzionta duzlng milling, washing and ceoMngf Aa a zvault, a. Icrgu saving of rlcu and of valu£^lo vitamins and mlnorala 232 ccmM t» •btoinxl fmi poxtoilud rlou^ Also it has buun fount that pax%)ellucl ricu has a gruatcr zvslatoiMXJ to inouot snd funguo infootatlon.^^^ After poi^boiXins rlcu* to olstoin good zvtsults fz^ allling» ziou oilould lie cUriod vaxkit olight eheUb ratfaur than in full aun- Xi^. Thlo h^ps to mehxao hxoeko&i in thu adll.^^^ To ea»t(\ixi Ixtst ndiling ruraaltd unclur loqal odntiitlons thu idolstuzx} contunt of pcuiay ohould IxJ botwjon 11 to 12 pcroont.^*^ tn thu ioill thu hosk is oupozntud from thu grtdn. Thu husk is hlpmi off into thu htisk room* ft is uoud to ibud iho furnaou of thu dzyins plont^ Thu grcdn is torn poliohud buing tronofurrud ogoin ond ogoin in voriouo cows. Thu bran is thuxuhy zumovud from thu grain* Anothur loaphinu auparatuo thu finiahud ricu fron tfau brobun riqo ond thuy O.XO ouparotuiy storud, xoady for dls^sol. Thu dugruu df sdlllne and polishing dutursdnus thu szosunt of nutriuhts iumvod, Thu bron ceni>rl3li^ thu puricarp cOTtains most of thu vitondns ond protuins of thu gndn. CQo{>lutu polishing that is donu in most ndJLls in Siurra Luonu, rusuLto in thu loss of a Inrgu <]uantity of thu groin nutrionts. Thu losouo on polish- ing ricu havu buim ustimatud gunurally as 29 pur ouat of thu protuin, 79 pur ount ©f fat, 84 pur ount of lima and 67 pur cunt of iron. 233 Whuro pazboiling is not practisud thu milling guolily dupunds tQ3on thu sta^ij of rlpcnuas of thu crop at harvuat, thu Quthod of final dzylng and thu uvuntuol noiaturu contunt ruoohud.^^^ It has boon found that uarly harvoat luada to thu rustriction of intornnl orooSang of grain. ^"^^ Small Nativu-Osnaud llSlla: Pxi^icoaalng of pad^ in small mlllo oio mmi ccBoon in thu countxy, la mt aa coii^x as in Govuracunt milla. Faz^oiling ancl dzying of riou aru almaat coiE£iIutu2y obaont. Thusu mllla only pciform thu ftunction of naaoving thu husk from thu grain, and polishing tho groin. Tki riou bran and husk aru not ouparatod. IfOlthur thu husk nor thu bran la uaud for any uauful purpoau, \7huruaa in thu Govommunt nllla at meay, thu bran is baggt'*^ and cold aa animal fliod. Thu cBOunt of bruokogu of gxtdn ia uxcuasivo, fiiainly duu to thu milling of non-poctoilud rlcu. This is suun uctpu^ally cturing thu m>t auaaon wfaun tfau atdckud riou ia aillud to bo gold back to thu fannt?r» Mixing of dlffujiont vnrlotioo of rlcus takius place in tho amall mills, IlUling of ai^ud variutiua roailta in much btvakagu of grcdn. This Is wU suun from thu fact that for uvuzy tvro bushuls of podc)y milled thu guxKiral output of mlllod rlGu Is only onu atti a quartor buohils, Thu faiinur losus fairly oooaicjurnbly by milling hia ricu in small miUa. Thu mill omoura ujsually ooLLpot thuau 'bz'okuns* and cull thumbaok to thu poor 234 CO O< O < en < LcUt to > — U u< LU u 238 forinuro at 1/^ Luom) a buohul during thu *huneiy season*« This is also sold as a p«»t]ltx!y fuud. Tbu largost conountration f£ small native eonud miSjls is in thu Scaroioo rivoro orua* (Pig. 31) Prusunt^y thuru aru t»unty ninu ouch mills and a numbur of ethurs aru prsposud to bu inotollud in thu near futuru, by privato individuals and Co-^oporativu Sociotius. In thu Southum Frovincu in thu onallur tOKoio nround thu main riou grdcilhg oruas a £b9 sanoll mills aru found. In Fort Leks two mills aru found. In thu Soaroiuo rivuro aru, rico miUs oru oonountratud in Eassiri, Rokii>r, Uoi^sae opd Korobia. (Fifi. 51) Eossixl is thu moot importont: of thuou placus \9ith uightuun nativu< mills. Bokupr has six, Uanibolo has thruu, ond tvro mills aru founH in Konbia. Excqi^ tv70 miUs (onu in KoaHo and en) in Bolo^) v?hioh usu oluctrioity, thu ethur mills ctru putrol or diosul opuratud. Usually thruu to five mun trerk in onu mill, th} nuB2)ur dupunding on thu supply of rieo for milling. Thu roednmillin g puriod is from Pubruaiy to May, during thu dry suoaon. Thu piolonsud diy ouason follocring thu horvost of thu or&p in Duoumbur, cnablus convunlunt sun- poiboiling* Thu olaokunlng of milling activily in thu rainy Guason uspuoiaUy from Junu to Suptunijur is not only dtiu to thu uxhouatlon of ilco otoote tanong thu fannuro, but also bucausu thuy 236 aru unisblo to aatiofaot^rlly dzy padAy aftur pazboiling. Thu lattur h«30V0r, c^jpliua in particular to GofTumount zicu i^lla. EiRch mill haa an adjacent store to stock padAy and mlllud zlcu.. Some havu a eoaoacity of 200 btu^ls. Paddy la ulthur huc^md or fa^pt in bags. Thu avuroffi output of a mill voxit^B Urm 50-75 buahels per day portiouOLarly during thu dxy seaaon* Hotruvur, thla varies aeooxding to its oappliea V7hidii depend to a gruat extent on the looatitn «f the mill in the rice producing area. Innediatuly after harvest, v/hun thuzu la a ateaA^^ atj^fg^ of largo guantitlea of rioe to ttio mill, the nonsal output per day reaches aa mach as a hundred buahela. Footora Affecting Iiocation of llUla Factors of txtckisport, xxsf mterial and mozkutlng hove offered the otronguot InfXuenoe on the location of riou mills, it ia intezusting to note that all lulling centres of thu Searoies rivero axva ore located on the banks of thu ttf rivers^ (Fig. 31) Thu Se^a has been thu looaliaing factor in rucpeot of thu Torraa Bdll. Thuou rivers fora the main means of conveyance of both poddy and milled rice, Aa ]^iddy la a buU^r and heavy ooianscllty vrater trans• port la chuop and oanvenient thou^ it la relatively alo^, The offuot ff river transport on the loavtlon of mllla la auea when one ozaminus the eourouo of paddy to thu mlllOf it la evident that a 237 iox^ port of tfau SM^ius of any singlu mill comus f ram thu fiulda odjoining thu rivur ^th vihioh thu mill is associatud. Thus, thu hinturland of thu mill Bpposxo ulengatud uxtundlng a oonsiduroblu distozjou along thu bonks of thu rivur, and a ftv miilus around thu mill. HINTERLAND OF RICE M»LL RICE MIL/L L!L/ Thu location of thu mill in russpuot of thu rivur has also buun duturmintxl by thu facili^ \7hich thj rivur provldus to transport mlllud ricu to FruutOKm. Road transport has conoidurably influunoud tbu location of thu Port Loko and Eissy mills, though thu mazicut has buun thu moru dominant looollidng faotor. In Kissy easy coastwisu launch trnnsport htis onaMLud comuniont colluction of supplies of paddy frcHn thu North from thu Scaireius arua ond from thu soiith from Bontho District. 230 It is suuA that thu location of ndiling and ricu purchasing ountruo hmo a gruat ispoot on thD duvulopmunt of riou cultivation in thu Sooroiuo oruas. Thu mtaap aruos ruB»tu2y locatod in rulatien to mills and purchosiiiS duntrus ozu uithur unduvulopud or haphazardly duvulopud for ricu cultivation. Thu mill ond tfau purchasing ountru io an inountivu to thu fazmur as hu can oonvuniuntly oull his orop at thusu placus. Thu look of roads ond transport faoilitius moku oondltiono mroo for thu faimur. Thus it is sucn that thu location of Edlls and thu duvuloianunt of riou lands havu ruoiprecal influunous v^on. uach othur* Uorkuting is thu ethur most ingportont localising footer of ricu mills. In foot, thu location of thu adll at Kisoy is govumud primoxily by thu maz^but factor. This has also strongly influuncud thu location of nSXlu at Gambia orjd Port Z.eko as vnjjl as in semu towns of iAm Southum Provinou. Usually milling cuntrus aiu import— ant nudui of oommurcu ond trodu. Fad^ as \?ull as3 ndUud ricu find a good morkut in thuso plaous. Thu lorgu morkut for ricu, brofcun rieu and bran in tfau Yiustum arua and u spud oily Prxxrtovm has buun tbu prinaiy iiLooalising factor, of Kis:^ mills. Kisqy also his tho roodlly availnblu av^f^ «f uluctricity and labour, as well os ouffioiont cpocu for usg^anaion. Apart frcan Kiosy, olnost all thu otbur importont milling contrus aru r/ithtn thu main ricu gretylng oruoo. This shews iau> iaiportaaou of thu aourou of ras7 maturiol in thu locotion of mills. 239 inaduquaoy of Iftlllng! Faollltiea and Proopeots for Future Thu largu stocks «f paddy that have accuraulatod in Goveniaont istorea and sdlla year after year, and thu nuud to iagsert lorgu quantitiua of pcliahud rice from d)road aho(7 o;^licitly thu gxeat inadoquacy of milling faoHitluo within thu ooiintiy.^®^ STOCaS OF HBBK RICE AT THE END OP THE iSAR MB 1954 - 254 1955 - 2880 1966 - 8309 1957 - 13792 1963 - 19727 Thla is an inftortont factor limiting zlou production in Slurra Leone, tfillins capacity baa failed to kuep paou with thu large s^ppliua availc^lu. Since 1951 it haa been thu polloy of the Gevumaunt to purchaau all ssfaas^ padOy or native-oleanud rice effuzud to it by faEmura. Hbvjuvwr, a Inrgu peart of thla wna lying in atorua duoplte QH incruasing demand for rice in thu country* Thu problem of stocks reacfaud auoh a climax in the 1950' a that ultimately thu Govern- mt»t had to curtail its padfly purohasua owing to lack of atoragu cogpaoity. The latter problem la on outcoBu of thi inability of the Qdlla to haiKllu thu suppUua that accumulate* Ulllii^ will have to be aoeulurated and made to kuup pace with inoruoau in rice produotion 240 for in thu fUturu an inozvasing (bmohd for rice is inuvitoblu. Thu instollation of moiru modum mills, oi^puoially in thu xicu gi^ooing ojcvos, would unoblo not only thu stu^ milling of oil thu sifpliuo but doe lusouiiing thu lessuo end prggblums ihotirrud in small acalu nativu milling. Thu output of th^ uxiot- ing MUo could bu inoxuaaud* Ifeidum mills ^wuld f^hur OnaKLg tfau utilisation of Hoo bran and thu duvulopmunt of livuotodc industry partioulerly poulti^ in thu focttdng oruas, vvhich votild havu a vary bunufioial infitiuncu oh thu ueondmlc progruss of thu farming oonmit^ty. In small millo, ziou husk vThioh is gunurally thr90i {S7Qy could bu moru usufully divurtud to fUmaoua to foiBilitatu artificial diyii^ of pazfeoilod riou, Iferuovur, thu praotlcua of ethur countrlus ujspuoiolJy Asia, ^ using thu husk as a res? matuzlol for various induotxiuo, oould bu addptud. Xdght wj^^t eonorutu bzlquuttuo, pc^r, hardboord and various btiilding matprials couid bu manufacturud out of thu husk. Rufuronous (1) Siorra I (3) •^iqprevlhe filco tloldo in Sierra Li»ne*, Notes Issued by thu Bleu Buaeorch Static, Roku^, N^ala Univeralty Ck>llegu, (Sierra Leone) 1965; R.Q. CR6IFUED, "Moiottire Changua in Haw and Parboiled PadtSiy m West Africa and their influence vgpon Milling Quality* IT, Changea During Drying", The En^re Journal of Expgrlmental Agriculture, Vol. XXX, Ko.l20, October 1962, p. 321 (4) Annocl Bopert of the Weot African Rice Research Station, (Roki;^, Sierra Leoou) 1956, p. 19 (5) J,L. SOSEUD^, Journal of Malay Branch B.M.A. 5, dted by D.H. GffilST, Rjco, 3rd ed., 1959, p» 333 (6) R.Q, CRAHPDR0, OP. dt. (7) Annual Ruport *.. *. OPy dt. 1959, p. 18 (8) Sierra Leone: Govotipont Rice Devoloiaaunt Pilea, 242 cmmL u SOME ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL FACTORS Marigiting Rice, being on casentlctL c^mno^ty, haa an o^)an^ng mazkut in Siu^ira Leone, Not Only the rloe of population, but also that af living atanSar^ and uzbaniaation havu great ItapBSt m the zlce market. The lariu amounto of rice ioiported ovezy ^ar into Sierra Leone, and the pzogzuasively ineruaalng ozaounta ef zlce milled and aold, ahoc^ Uiyond doubt, the contlnuoualy atrutehing market for rice within thu country. The main areas of oonsus^tlcoi of rioe e:^rted from thu coastal riou regions &C thu Seareies rivux^ and thu Bonthe - Pu^hun Dlatzlcsts inOludu Fzeutotm and ito outaklrta and thu predeminantly non-nce praduoing distzlots auoh as Bo, Sunema, Kono and Kailahun. The sdning areas es^Kicdally dzts? vast quantities of locally pzoduoed csranp rice. Rice is purchaoed for maxluting in these areas and others in varloua WCQTO* It is purohaoud by the Govuzxmunt dizeotly at thu Goveztanunt rloe ndlla and at the varlouo rice purchasing ceatrea. Government also authorleea various persona to buy rloe from farmers and mzppay Gorommant mlllo# Pozeignero are forbidaon to trade 243 in ziou* Thuru aru pzivatu individuals usually trodurs ungogud in thu purchasing of riou for oolu« Iiqpoz>tant GovorniDunt ridu pnrohofling ountzus indudu Uao^o, Torma^ Xiosy, Bonthu, and Fujuhun. Mogburoka is thu main cuntru in thu Bolilonds region. Thu total amount of paddy and notivu-oluonud rlcu purohosud by tho Gowomtaait during tho yuor 1963 omountud to 13,377 tons.^^^ Of this 11,174 tons TJUZO purehosud at Govummunt zlcu mills: Uiambolo - 32l2 tons Tozma - 4068 " Kisqy * 3894 " Total 11,174 " Th<^ total quantil^ of padOy lajpobosod by GovurnjBunt in othur ouBtxuo omountud to only 1085 tons: Bonthu 507 tons Pu^hun - 500 " Magburoka - 58 Total 1065 " Thu usual ]^zlod during which thu Govumnunt puirohasus local 07oiip Tico is from Pubruazy to Junu. Govummunt purohaauo not only husk ricu ond nativu-duonud ricu but also foruign riou, Hativu-oluanud ricu ootcoB usually frcsn thu Soaroius arua, and is purchaoud mainly at I^ssy. Sulk 244 Is^tdrtatidn of foreign rice nezmoUy tokea place te^Tozda the latter part et the year starting generally in September. Thia la parti• cularly due to the scarcity of rice that la felt during thia period. In 1963 aa much as 17,785 tons wore inported.^^^ A lar^u ntma^er of private indlviduala both local and foreign, (in spite of thu fact that foreigners are fozbidden to trade in rice) are engaged in thu purehaae of pad(j|y from fazmere. Private puzchaaea are mode In plaoea where Govummunt purchaaing ia done, as well as in smallur towns and settlement a. in the Scarcies rivers area, Kaaalzl, ^ehma Roktpr and MosibaLo aru the major purohaolng centre a of private bt\yera. Bucently, Co-c^^^lw aodeties havu takun iqp purchaaing, milling and aelllng of zice. In the Scarolus rivers azua there are 24 Bice Baztotlng sooietlea, and in the aouthum graaalanda region there are 20. The Port Loko creek zlce rugion end thu Bolilondo zegi(»i havu 12 aodetlee. (Fig; 32 ) Financial ontanglementa of moat faznura do not pumdt them to suLl their zlce to the peraon of their prefuzenoe. Moat formers are foroed to ahare a substontiol part of thdr harvest with parti• cular traders eapuoially Leban^ae aa the repajnomt in kind of flnondal and other assistance the fanura have received from these trodors during tbu wet seaaon^ Moat farnurs btsy thdr food particularly zicu, CIKI other houaohold nuousaltius fzm auch trodera 245 during thu wut suoson or thu ao oallud * hungzy suason'. Thuou tzttdurs oolluct ricu and uithur aund to Fzvutotm end to thu uastuzn distriota for oalu, or storu it to bu sold book to fazmura during thu following wot ouoaon^ Govummunt normally hv^a all riou offurud to it by thu farmor at a guarontuod priou TThioh is ustially duolarud at thu txiglnning of thu suason* Initially thu oim of this oohumu vas to Iff'OmOtu moru ordurlly inarkuting and to unsuru to thu formur a constant sourcu of incomu. It was thought that this schumu vrodd protuot thu farmur from any poosiblu fluctuations in thu pricu of zlcu. In 198V65 ricu buying arrangumunts wuru as foUocrs:^^^ Driud row husk ricu - Iiu.4.48 ots. pur bog of 168 lbs. nut. (£2-4o*9d) Driud nativuo^^Luaaud zlou <- Lu.7.10 pur bog of 168 lbs. nut. (£3-lls) Thusu pricus suggust that nativu duoning of riou is unooiuttgud by thu Govuznmunt, This is purhops so bucausu of thu progrussivuly uapandins ccoalPtitius of husk ricu stodko that aru accumulating in Govurraount storus, and thu inability of mills to handlu all thu stocks. Thu problum of otoragu of thu purohasud husk zicu has also bucomu ocutu* Thouj^ nativuKsluaning of zlcu is uncouragud, it is paradoxical that thu consumur prufurunou is usually for millud zloo. 246 Thu auUlng pzlcua of rice wlAch have boon in foroo for the past deoc^ In Freetown are as follows: MUlud pazbdlod rloe - Le.8,90 cts. per bog of 168 lbs. (£4-9s) Milled ztgr rice - Lo.9.35 cto, pur bog of 168 lbs. (£4-13a-6d) Dried native-deonud zlcu - Lu.8.00 eta. pur bag of 168 Iba. Thu higher priouo of milled rice appear to have on Inhibitivo influence on its markut and thurefoze on rioo mllllngi In the pzovinces, thu selling pricus of zlcu aru hii^r offlng to trans• port ooato, TABLE 10 HgCES OP LOCALLY PARBOILED AND MTLLS) RICE INC3^IVE eg TRABBFORT COSTS 196V65 (per bag of 168 lbs.) Town Lu, Ota. Town Le. eta Pzeetonn 8 90 Kunuma 9 33 Tozma 8 90 Su^wuma 9 48 8 90 Daru 9 50 Kaatola 9 10 Pu^hun 9 50 Ma^uztdca 9 23 Funduii3}u 9 53 Bo 9 25 Balima 9 53 Mbkenl 9 28 Gandorhun 9 80 Bonthe 9 30 Koilahun 9 83 (LO.2 » £1) (10 cts.« V-) Source - Govummunt Rice Department, Sierra Leone. 347 Ozip is imXimH t® think that thu oentxol ef pzlou that is btiing offuotod io t}y no nuans on uncouro^SuiDpnt of tfau ooztott whidhhoa a clixvct Ixiaring ©n tho production of xico* Arvsr inprovu- svnt in inadfiiit <^rl£IitiQns as null 00 prodaotion of ricm in Siurm lioaxifi nocossarily loqulro the setting op of a nunibor of ilcjo mills and Inoiwasing tho oojsaclty of tho cadotlng onua* Conounur pj?of03?oi*3o should rucoivu proper heed to ingprovu markut cOTdltlons* Bleu that is pozohoaod by the Gcnrernpunt and ndUed at Qov^emaient ndllo io aold to mith^rlsod persona tTho tronsport it to the provinoeo sole. Vmoo it io seen that in zuspect ef btyring xice as well as oelllng zlce, Ckm>nm;nt io dependent on ndddlesun. This is portlcmlorly due to the lack of ceilequato end satisfactery GoveriBDont tranaport faollitico. A part of tho rloo lo troncgported in Govurncoent lozries from rioe millo to the selling oentrus. But tho bulk of the atHed rice io handled by contraotoro and private trEH^i^rs who uoe their oen lorrieQ fer transport. fhe look of a satiofod^x^ netcTox^ of roads particularly in the interior districts, ookis it difficult for the Govumiiunt to undertake tuay efficltint: oystom of riee narkuting thJEQUghoxxt the oavaxtxy. ^hus? it has been found neceosaxy to nako use of the iqiddloioen to diotribtcto xloe to the xvioate inaccessible oruao. 246 In nam of thos30 orpaa, oopcdoll^f In thu o&atorn diatrioto, rlco io thus Sold &t pzlouo T7Mch axts oonoicbrQl)!^ hi#ur thon nucessozy. It oduld bo said that no slnglu fadtdr will oontrllnxtu to buttur inoJrkuting cohditlonQ and thuzuby to inoiuasud production tha^ thu uxtonsion sT thu mcd qjrstum. Hhi i^Btuin of tronsport found in thu eirem? riou grocring oruoa id bdth inoffioiont and tiinu-consuiai^s* Tho zood nuttrork is VUZ7 oparst)* (Fig* a-l) and tho loyout for tho gicator part is unsatiofflotoiy. fn thu Soaroioo as m^U ao in thu Scvra-Woon^ rivurs aruas, thu rivuro havu buon thu oain highEroys for troncrponktlon of goods pooplu sineu uosdy tious. Conpu ond boat trsnspert is oonBnea» and io usud mostly to tnmsport paddy to riou ndllo ond to purohoo- ing cuntxxio. Thu truiamidous influuncu of rlvur transport an thu location of ilco purohosing ountros io oloarly ocun frcwa tho foot that almost oil tl«>su oru in rivur-oidu location, o.g. Kaosirl, E^chcBB; Hcmibolp, Rola;Q?r. (Fig« ^) ihu giuator port of pa347 cowus to Fruotonn by l^unoh trans• port, ft teJaaa TB(?fo than haXf a doy (12 hours) for a launch from McflriJolo to ruach PruotoBm, Thu dulc^ is jsolrily duu to tho dopond- uncu of launch troni^ort on tidus. Launchus i^loy at Barlo (Fig* 0) for thu high tldo, as tho lattur hulps naidgatlon, facili• tating oasy nobility of thu launch^ l^om tidu transport is said to bu oa^nsivu as it involvus gruatur consun^ion ef fuul, usually duu to thu foot that Isunohus havu to WOTU against thu tidu. Tfamigh lounoh tront^rt is bath slot? and inaduqUatu, it would o^inuu to bo on iiiip9rtaiit svans of cdnvoyanou not only bucouau of its faveur- abtlity for bulk transportation of riou, but also duu to thu poor statu of thu road tztmotport cg^tum of thu riou grcxring oruas. Thu look of a good txtin^Jort eystum has had an inhibitiw influunco not oh3y on oeu^ing and ndlling «f zicu, but also on thu duvo3;opiDunt of thu vast potuntial ziou lands that aru aTollsl»lu. This is poztioularSy whun onu studius thu tzioiisport cfifl riou dlotritnxtion oops, lioat of thu unduvulopud tsrcanp lands liu e^ay fxom zeads and rivozv. la^rtont ziou ountrus such as Kanibolo, Kiohmi» Kossiri and Boktipr havu duvulopud to a largu uxtunt duu to thuir accusciblllty by road and rivur. (Fig. 3i) Tho duvulopount of roads is partlcularSy fult In thu gwoog? fipraaslandrogia i of thu Sc»xtham Provinou and in thu Wust 3mi chiofdom arua, vThuru thousondo of ooruo of potuntial rlcu lands azu avollciblu for duvulopznunt but iiu unutlllGud GWing mostly to inoooossibilHy, Tho duvul^pi^unt of wctofL tront^rt fooilltlus would unablu thu fozmur to drco? moru kooisr-^haw end maturlal to incruoou thu produotivity cxf his fluid ond iiiprovo his conaitlens. ^ghur ylulds would bring deon coot of production ond unceuragu inoruasud production. JmpzpvuroLint in ztwuls and comraunicatlon would luod to thu u:^onBion of uxlstlng ilou maxiuto ond thu umurgunou of nuw onus. 250 tt vjQttld stzungthen the bargaining position of the producer fazner in xulation to the local trnder and rulddleinan, and would make it possible for the faxmor to be more csroxc ef ooiicet conditions. Rico Storofflj The fomur ctoxuo his rioe for dosustic needs usually in the roofs of kitchens. Tho huat and smoke from the kitchen fire below, helps to kuop the paddy free from damage by insects and rats. Paddy is normally kept with straw. OcoasicmaLly bundles of paddy ore token when xequlrud and threshed for cansucfttion. In some orooo in the Southern Provlnoo, special huts ore made to store paddy* Also, rice is stored under water in special baaketo» Seed rice, hotvever, is usually stezxxL in the dwelling houses, Fazm house bam, cribs sudi as baskets and mats, pots, wooden bosoms are omons the other ways adopted by the foniur to stozv paddy. The richer fanners ha»o a store room in their houses to kiop p£^lc^. Hovuver, on the wholo^ storage conditions and methods ore badaroEd amongst the majority of fanners, causing (Kmsidurable loss of paddy by rot and insect damage. The fazmer generally disposes &C a greater part of hia harvest at the earliest opportunily and thus the stocks held by him for doncstlc needs are usually small, This is pexhops a prlmniy xeaaon for the absence of satiofaotory storage conditions among farmers. 251 All ri<^ sdlis both GowmoLmt and private osmed, have stozes attached to them to stook paddy as well as Mlled rioe. Those associated with smcdl native ovTned Mils are defective, and consideroblo losses of grain have occurred wring to rats. In Government mills, storage facilities though relatively satisfactory, are generally inadequate to cope with the large quantities of rice handled. This has led to the restriotion of purchase of husk rice. Much of the damage caused to grain in stare is not r^aront until husking or huLlins, when it nay be founi that there are larfso nuidaers of cn^ty flumes. Pznctically all the destructive agents of stored poddy arise frcsm excess ©f moisture. Paddy should be stored in a reasonably diy ojndition. In rat-proofed and well wntilated conditions it has been found that padcjy could be stored for almost two years. The need to espand the ccgaooity of the existing stores e^oiaUy those associated with Goverwntaat rice mills, and tho setting vp of larger stores particularly in the paddy purohasing centres, is an uz^ent requirement* For the average faziner, the ideal storage conditjons aztj perhaps wooden chests or old oil-drums v/here zlco could be stored under safe d?y Conditions. 252 Part)Ollud zlou whun corruotly dzlud storuo much buttur than rtsw ricu, and insuot infostatlon is vuzy much roduoud. Thu huinutic storogu tuchniquu Is acclaimud by mojyagri• culturists as thu most usuful duvulopmunt in thu tochniquus of otorago. This method could bu adopted by thu Govuznmunt os it v/add hu3p in saving of ricu from damage in storu, and also lagprovu thu qaoilly of riw. Thuou stores ooiald also bu out m? by fozmurs through their Co-opuratlvu sociuties. Good storafsu vfould unablu a constant supply to thu mills and would onsuru to thu conaumor a continuous supply of grain throughout thu gzvator port of thu year* It would indirectly have a bunefldol infltaijncu on rlcu producticm. Finance ^ Crudjt and Sttbsldlus Tho uoonomic insecurity of a lorgu majority of farmers is a primary factor provunting thu improvuiajnt of fanning conditions. Financial iiistability has rontinuud to keep living conditions of thu fannurs at a low luvul. This state of affairs cannot bu attributed only to thu rolatlvuly low incono thu fanner drasc from hia crop. It is purhaps ooze accountable to thu gunural thzlft- lusanuss, Isipzovldencu and incllvidualism of thu avuzTtgu faziour. Most f ajooers uapedally in the Scazdus rivers azua, dro in debt ot the tine of horvost, and thus a good part of thulr crop 253 goes 00 payjaant of debts. During the dry season after harvest, when rio) Is available, the fanner usually eats three auals ef rloo a day and thereby exhausts a larBO part of the stocks that he keeps for home consunptlon. Thus, irorariably he has no rice during the wet season and is con^lled to buy food on credit 0r to seek loans to be paid from the forthcoming harvest. The inadequacy of proper credit facilities for the farmer and in mahy rtoHbte places, the canpLcto absence of opy credit faoilities make the farmer depend entirely on the Lebanese or Syrian trader who makes ixse of the {^tuation to his mn advantage. The Lebanese or Syrian shop has thus iKJCome td>iquitiouo in towns and bigger stjrttluaents in tho rioe areas. Co-operative Thrift and Credit societies have in some areas assisted the farmer by providing credit. But most fanners oGorplain about the inadequacy ®f the credit that can be drawn from ouch societies. The pdvurty and wretchedness of the faztners are well seen when one examines their dp/oHings, wMch are for the most part eafity withoull> any wortbvhlle material beliaigings in them. In most houses, & few pots, pans and plates, mats, a small kurosene oil lang?, and a few primitive farm inplements constlttite all the houcehpid goods.) tn others a few clothes hung on a string, and a bed or two made out of stznw and oticko and a haimnook or two are seen. 254 To most faznura the only wealth that thuy posauss is their Iond» Thus whun bodly in nuud of oredltf thuy pludse thulr land* This is a oosnon ecourrunou in most nrazq? riou gzwlng aruas, leading to further duturioration &C uconoodo and aooial oendltlons of thp fomerOtt Thrift and a duslru t# in^tovu conditions oru gruatly nuodud. ]fi98t formula appear contented with thulr method of living. Idttlu uffdrt is token to Awk oddLtionol aourouo of ineoau to iiq^rovu thuir conditions. Thure io a eonsidurobly Img slack period which oouid bu used for other produotlVQ activities* Rowuvur, most of this is spcmt luisuruly olthur in thuir dRuHlngs or in thu t«wns in Hu) nuighbourhood. Thu dupundunou on a solitary orsp of rice has resuLtud to a gzuot ostent in thu 1CK7 uoononlo status of thu fozaor. Concuzn with tho normal pie horvuot ohortoge of riou pronpts fazmuro to plant ozQps with & short gxving auason but poor yields. Thus, thu result is that full bunuflt is not duzlvud oven from thu only produotive activity In which thuy ore involved* It is intuzustlng to note that most of the farmurs who oloim to be relatively stable finonoiolly, are those holding the furtilo ond more produstlvu rice lands closer to thu rivers* Buzv again it is noru the natural foctoro than man's oim inltiatlvu and effort that have helped the famner to better his conditions. 25d It ia a fact that tho salvation of a gxuat majority ef padc^ cultivators depends on thomsolvus, on their am initiativu and offort. They st^uld seek seurous o£ inoame and txy to free thomaoLvus from finanolal eiiisarraosiaunt. Thu eppoefk education, the eradication of illiteraoy and tho adoption of Co-qperatlvo society systtnn would help tho fexnera to a loic^e extent. But the Co-operative ^srotem will have limitod otasoess if the cultivator dees not leora thrift and doolxu izEprovufiont of his oonditiooa by oolleotive effort. Govumment has attasqatod to assist the fanner by suans of otd>sl47 sobumes for laqpzeved seed paddy, fertilisers and nuohaniool cultivation* These dohumuo atteispt to bring to the faxner inp:^dvud suthods which could be made use off by him aocerding to his meajas. B£K7im)r> povezi^ SBH inaocesoibUity pxwunt many faxmers from btintxfitlng. This is particuLorly seen in tho West Samu chiefdeci, the Rlbi-Buzqpo rivers area and in some regioos in the Soothurn Pr^vlnoe, Upland otzt^ that aru almost con^lotuly wasted. Biou bran is uoud in many Asian oountriuo to maku cattle feud such as poonac* Live- stodc would provide xist only an additional source of income by woy of meat, milk, eggs etc*, but also would help thu fczmer as draii^t animals emd in addition would providu nsmure for his fields. Undur-nourlshmunt and malnutrition which ore prevalent abundantly aooang thu farming ooimunltles could be ^atly reduced by thu consus^tion of the nutritlvu food which cattle ond poultzy would provide. Rice straw could be made use of to mak) hats, mats, boskets, hordboord, paper and other building maturials as donu in cosu Asian countries. Ceylon* s paper industzy is almost entirely based on rice strcsw* Co-opuratlvu sooiutius con help oonoldurobly in the development of thusu sucondazy activities. The Chinuau e;^rto have dumonstratud on thu swacp fields at Vssa&i (idttie Scarolus) that a vazloty of t^land crops ond «u®u- toblus can be cultivated in thu cs7oii^ during thu dzy season ond early wet suadoni Household oemgpoundo coidd be better utilised for thu cultivation of vegetables ond yams. With the eztonslon of roads ond maz^cptlng facilities, and particulariy with thu development of urban cuntzus, thu demond for better foodstuffs, for luxury food such oa vegetables, fzults, eggSf meat, milk etc., is apt to rise. Buncu, thu duvelopnent of 267 lilresteek fatnini omplied with mixed ort^prpins inoezperating vuge- tabloo and fruits, would serve as a gMd source ef income to the foziaer in tho future. Eduoatien Tho need te raise tho standard t£ literacy ef the fanner is vitol if ary ottaopt is to bo mode at inereosing produotion and iiqprwing forming conditiozm. Pnper geneztd educational f&oHiti^O te tho farming omasunitios should aim at making the faxtnor iitialiso cod appreciate the bonufito ef butter farming by w(^ ef nedem iniprevod todmlquos and methedo if rice preduotien. tt would greatly fooilitato the farmer te shed eff inhibitive troditiens and primitivu faxBdng prooticos which are rutar^ng durolepiQent ef forming today. "Traditions which are stzengust in their influonoe are troditiens which tend te Inpodo rather than premete nts? devolespnont." ^ ®^ A pr«3»luffl that is inozoooingly orepping up, and te oouoo ourieus oenoexn in the near ftztuzu, io that ef traditlenal land inhoritanoe In evoiQ) areas. Frogmuntatien ef land that is taking place as a cenoequenoe ef the division ef tho f aznland on»ng the vorieus mumboro if tho family, is semothing that has te b0 ourtailed imfmediatoly. Theao ousttms and traditions are diffi-* cult te suppress unless the former is made te ruolisu through 258 eduoatien, and is eonvlnoed ©f the foot that they lead to thu lowering of productivity* The realisation of thu tremendous unonondc benefits that Oon bo durivod fxom the OoK>peratlvu system, Is possible only if the iounlbur foziEuro ef the sooietiea ore at least generally llterato* Usruovur, tiiu social conditions of thu farmer, whloh have a gruat offeot on fozin production dizuotly and Indlructly could bu is^Z9Vud subotoii^lolly. Thu gunural apatl^, indifTorenou, iiqarovidunou and zuluotance of thu farmer to deport from thu oustmnaxy nodu of life can be ulladmted by bringing about a coB^lute change Tho elevation of the Njala Agricultural Training College to that of on integrated Agricultural and Educational University College, is espeoted to speor-hoad the agricultural and educat• ional revolution. 260 Ifoolth, Sqnltation and Liyjia Ccndltions Huolth ond oonltazy conditions of thu farming cammmlty ozu at a Im ebb, and is Itipuding the development of fartaing* The main Qwonp rice regions have continued to be malarlol. Poor housing oiJd unsatlsfaotoiy living conditions of tho great ma;jorlty of the farmers have to a large uactent brought about sickness, disease and malnutrition. Active steps havu to be token by the Govuztanent to lng3«jvu health and Bonltczy conditions of the fozmers, A s<:huau of bousing loons could be inaugurated to hulp the formers to conotzuct proper dwelling places in keeping with heolth ond oonitozy requirements* The cjlooBy, ill ventilated and unfaygiunio dwellings of the farmers appear to provide more shelter to diseases end guzras. Thu installation of a propor water si^ifly is another nucwasity to inprow aonitazy conditions in the forming villoige* At present the foraer is dependent mostly on zlvur water for all purposes* Huroi ulectzlficatlon has had oonslderoble iaofluenoe on the Inprpvomunt of living conditions of tho foznlng community in many Asian countxius, India and Ceylon may be cited as typlcol exoiqpluo. This also facilitates thu development of cottage industries, small ocolu and medium scole industries. The typo of colonisation schemes as found in Ceylon, in thu rice grxjwing areas, where the Goverofflent provides irrigation, domestic water, electricity, housing, and other ooolol services including ogricultuml services ond 261 subaidies, wmild porhc^s enable the conversion of largo azeas of iSTop^ land into pzpsperous farm land. Better conditions of living that those sohemoo prevido v/ould be an inctmtlve to the people to cQgagp in farming. It would help considerably, as has been doffloinstratod in Ceylon, to elevate tho economic and social status 9f the fazniex<. Any attuqpt at iisp:'®ving tho coiiditiona of the fanDur and inczvasing production invariobly require the active support and Ihitiativo of the Govozninent ond peqple at large. "A full responsi• bility zusts, indeed, ^pon the Government to provide thu essential otrupturo of the territorial eeonooy, coaqxrising an efficient oeanounication cystem, adequate research inotitutiozu}, lively field otof^ showing the way to iiqpzGved methods ef preduction, sound and eqt)ital>lu marketing arrangements, and an c^Iministration which is in all respects well^-equlppod and progressive. Given all this, however, tho interstices of tho structure have still to be filled m, and this oon only be done by the people of Sierra Leone them• selves acting through vigorous local institutions. If the fruits 0f development are to be attainud there Biust be self-exertion and willlngdOBs to od^t new techniques and methods ^ ^, The Co^-oporatiVo System The solution to moot, of the s^oio-economic problcans facing tho owaS^ rioe fanaur lies in tho Co-operative sodoty :^stem. 262 A wull organiood Go^operatlvu systun could satisfactory' tookle thu difficulties encountered by the fazmu: as a result of thu lode of prppur moriuting, milling, tronaport, stora^', finance, agrioultural wrvices, inproved seed poddy, fertUiswrs eto. Thu incuduquAcy or thu absence of some of thusu facilities and oorvlous has uneiblud thu middleman to show himself well and in fact in mony zicu growing, oreao» hu has been found to be olmost indicpunoablu by the poor farmer. Thus, a oonsiduroble portion of the ineem df the producer fazoer is dz^n by the niddlumon. Thu Go»sperativu socluty Eystum, espedoUy Thrifit ond Credit oooiutiua, is purfac^s best suited to uzdudu ti^& mtddluoon oj^plditation. At present, thu odddleaan is in a 09od bargain• ing position as Co-operative societies hacvu not developed Jjuffiduntly to oust him. CoHapurativu qystum would not only hulp tho formur to (sdiVu his probltams, but also it would assist in featuring thu actiVitius of thu farmer. By taking such schemes as nuohamcol Cultivation, furtillawr and iniprovud euud-paddy diatrlbutlOT and other modem enl mcru productive methods of cultivation, Co• operative aociutlus ozu otc^lti of helping tho fozmer to brinf more land under cultivation ond increasing thu productivity ©f thu existing lands* Thu tremundous benefits that could be derived by Joint acticai via Co-operative sodetleo in respect of 265 oco« <5 '\ 3 ©ccc ; / ^ c < ©c / N ccc DOM 8 BENDU CHA IS BUYA ROMENDE 1 SAMU 2 MAGBEMA 9 NONGOBA BUU.OM l» MAKARI GBANTI 3 MAMBOLO 10 KWAMEBAI KRIM 17 KHOLIFA MABANG 4 UOKO MASAMA 11 MALEN fMARKETINC 5 MAFORKI 12 PANGA KABONDE SOCIETY MARKETING TINKATUPA-MAKAMA- YAKEMO-KPUKUMU- ®. UNION *-SAFROKO- niBIA "-KRIM CHIEFDOM 7 IMPERRI 14 MANO SAKRIM "BOUNDARY CCC COOPERATIVE RICE MARKETING SOCIETIES DUH. Pis. 32. (aovuloplng accondaiy activltloG such ao <»ttQ®) industrios, llvo- otoQk farming end mtxud ez^x^ing havu cOruoAy boon hinted at, Boiisii^ and living conditions could iiq^z^svud "by moae of tfau Oo-qpopotiw inothod, by taking tho constiuotian ef houalng Bohcinus, wator aupply oohcoius, and othur suzvlcoa. Tho Co^qporatlvu socluly eohuny Is a rulatlwly rooont intrwauctlon to Sierra Loono. Hotnjwr, it should 'bo said that It has had cn appxupiobXu sphuxv of influence in the arai^ rice regions of the oountzy, portloularlsr during the past feer years, Markuting, Thrift and Credit and Ueohanicol cultivation sodotles are the main aveiaies through trhich the CQ-o£WitLtive monrenunt is helping the farsnor. -^>art from thes e societies, there are Co- opemtive rice niillQ and a scheme cash advances to selected societies by the Co^oporative Department - R»C,S, loan fund. These loans are offered for qpoclfic purposes and projects. There are 56 Rice Marioutlng Societies in the countxy, all dealing v/lth swemp rice marketing. The main mos^ rice areas of the coastal tract have 51 ef these societies. (Fig. 32) Kambia district 18 Bonthu 15 Port Loko " 13 Pu^hun 5 Boniball " 4 TonkolUl " 1 265 Thooo socjlotlos collect paddy from all thdr noiabors at harvoot tlmu, ndll it QOQtly in Govumncnt zlcu mills, osd aull It to thu QamrxmiD-^i in Fxiiotoan* Since 1955, Bioo MozfaDtlng BOdtitioo havo so ck>vuLqpui. that in 1963 thuy ^ro a^ to isu^pi^ 435^ 0f thy local purcluvcoo of thy Govcmmint Rico Duportniunt, caad in 1964 it is knocm to havo inozuoacd iltrthur. This io an uhceursging sign* TirancpGartation of husk flee cliroGt to Fruutotro is offoctod by oojny eooiotioo, Convoyanoo is nomoHy donu in Plliiatu louiic^'d dr in Isrriuo. Thrift Credit oocletius azx) more nuncreua. Thezu are 162 s3ocletio3 in the coastal ssroa^ riee diottlots, oainly (sutvlng the s^ob^ rioe faztoer. In the interior mmp rice diatrlcta of Bonaboli and Tonkolill theie are 45 societies. Credit is usually given during the wet season when the farair ia in need of money. The omeunt of credit depends on the financial jfcsotrrces of the Godety. In the Scardes rivers arua, most fanners eonplain that the credit that mcor be drram fitan Co^ operative societies ia inadequate and that they are still eon|)elled to seek the help of prJ.vate traders, HotJever, what is obmidantly seen is that most foimers do not malsu proper use of the credit they obtain, Very few ore seen investing the credit obtained, on ocxne wealth producing activity. 263 There are two Mechanical Rice Cultivation societies in Cbimdapi and Tonna Bum in the Soxxthum Province. These societies mn two catepillax' D 4 tractors each, with ploughs and hurrews. This year (1965) 0lx international BTD 6 tractors have been purch^^d by those societies to extend the scfaemu next year. Tho Go-oporative Dupartmunt pxwldes wozicshap tools, fitters and mechanical superintendents. The societies b^y ftiel and aparus and pay drivers from the Le.7 (£5.1(/-) per aoru cdlleoted as ploughing end harr©wlng fees. This money is also used to bu;y oqulpnent. These societies plough for anybocly on certain sitea for 1x^.6 (£5) per acre paid in advancx? and Le.l per acre (IC/^) for seed harrofning. This is usually done in the Southern and fferth-central Districts. Co-operative rlee adlls are small motor driven mills and are located in Bouma (Handu), Kenema, So^Knmtx, Pendembu, Gbundc^i, GFbop and Gboyoma (windu), all in the Southern Frovinae. Fourteen others oie in the process of being installed in Port Loko, Kanbia and in the Nerthr^xintrol Bolilonds Districts. The need to ozpaxiBL this ftohtane of Co-Ofwrative rice Bills is greatly felt duo to the ^imrol lack of adequate milling facilities in the <»untry. Since 3951, the C0*operativu Department has been oporating a loans scheme to seoieitles, utilising conioerclal bank overdrafts 267 eoaz^tntood by the (kn^nusent. In 1963 this evurdraft was Ui 640,000 (£320,(XX}) and nm It has been Inozeasod to Le 1|000,000 (£500,000). This is used to iasuu loons to societies for the building of stdruQ, purchasing inaohines for nedianical eultivatien^ purohaoing launohea and also for nonnal short term asrlcul^iral foeilities. The Soizthem Province Co-operative Union has a large launoh, Sozau oooieties oim launches and a few others are buildii^ tboja and Installing engineo. These onginea have been purchased thr^igti the fi*0*S. loan fUnd sehenu. HaRTever, no oooiety in the Horthurn Province tmi laimehes. This is a great disadvantacu for troBsport costs oouild be substantially xvduced if Co-eperative Q0Ciotles ©porato launches. Among the dlfflcultioa that havo been encountered in respect of the woitelng end spread of the Co^-oporative society system are primarily the illiteracy of the people and th^ir iniibillty to t^ipDPeoiate the Co-operative principle. Also, the lack of good trained men to do all the work that is needed for the successful operation of the Co-operative system is another difficulty, Conoer- veitism end the independent outlook of most farmers, and also the lock of responsibility and interest in the activities of thu society, hinder the proper functioning and sound establishment of 268 the Ooreperativu movement. The paucity of trained personnel to eancy out the secretarial and accounting work of societies, and the atertnf^ of foisilities for training such people, have limited to a large degree the extension of the Co-operative soelot^y ^jrstem* pofocts in the coDpositlon and out t;^ Of the coolet.tus add to the difficulty. The CO'i'^^ztitivu movement has definitely not taken a sound foundation as yut, but in spite of the various problcas aiul limitations under wtdeh the moveflunt funotiono, faznero ia the iBain swoBip rioe gxw7£ng areas on the Bemthe-Pujehun Diotilots and the Soaroies rivers area* have acquired a notable neasure of benefit from the Cto*operatlyo society system. Befbrenoes (1) Sierra Leone: Ctovemnent Rice Department (After 1965 - Rice Corporation) Piles. (2) Ib34 (3) (4) Ibld^ (5) Professor D.T. JACK, (1958) Economio Survey of Sierra LeoneA (Fieetowm Govomnunt Printer) p. 74 (6) B* (3S£UB» (1949) Flan of EoonoBAo DeveloMauat for Sierra Leone, (Freetown: GovurroBent Printer) p, 2. 209 Selected Bibliogrcgtqr A. mEBSL BookD CSELDS, H. (1949) Plan of Economio Dovolepaont for Sitarra Leone. (Proetotmi Govommont Printer) CHDRCS, R.J. B&RRESCR. West Afrloa. A StuOy of the EBviron» aent and of Man's Use tf It. 4th ed.. 1963 GOUBOtr, FIEBRE. The Tropical World. Its Social and Econando Cendltj^ons and Its Future Status. 3rd ed., 1961, New iiqpreasion (8th Printing) 1962 GS13GI0BI, STmS£. Rainfall dvor Sierra Leone. (Univeraity of Livezpool, Dept. «f Geo£r^pl\sr publication, June 1965.) csrsT, D.R, Rjee^ 3rd ed., 1959 JACK, D.J. (19S8) EoOTQplo Siavpy of Sierra Leone. (Freetosnu Sovejramunt Printer) JQHKSOli, 6BI7CE, F, The Staple Pood Economlea of Western Trgpioal Afrlea, (Staitford University Preaa, Stanfozd, California) 2nd Prlntinf ELAlSBS, E,H.?. Eodogical Crop Ctoogranhy. (Jfaw York, 1942) STIPES, A.R. (Vegytati<« by Dr. T.3. BAKSHl) The Soil and Geography of the Beliland Regian of Sierra Leone. (PubHahod by thu Gowznment of Sierra Leone, 1963) Statiotioa Tlluatratih^ the Climate of Sierra Leone, (FroetotTn: GovenMamt iPrtuter, 1952) Ton Year Pl^ of Econemio and Sedal Devol^Bmunt for Sierra I<»ne. 196^63 - 2972/72. (Government Printer, Sierra I«one) 270 Artlolao end Pcpurs «Co-^ratlon in Slorm Leone", Review of Intemitlonal Co-^ratjon^ Vol. 52, October 1959 "Land Tunnuzw in Slerro Leone Protectorate", Joumol of African AdMniBtrtitittn, Vol. 1, No.3, July 1949, pp. 129-123 LtTTIS, K.L "The ISiiaiSo Rice Farm and its oost", Zaire Brussels. Vol.V, Ifaroh 1951, pp. 227-273; April rg?. 271-^0 "The dlmate «f Sierra Leone", The Journal of the Sierra Ifuone Geoytg^hjeal AsBOOiatian. Vol. V, 1962, Tpg. 2-5 0LQ9fASANIC, B.A. "Land Tenure and Agrleultural tiaprtvejDunt in Tropical Africa", Jotgnal ^ Pai^ Eoon., August 1957, p* 733 "Paotoro Affecting Rice Production", F*A.O. Agricultural ,Develo(^Bunt Paper 45, DaeoOoor 1994 BOEIEIRTS, B.ff. "Storage ef Cereal Seed in the Humid Trigpios with Special Reference to Rico", OGSi/FKO SyB|>08lum en Stored Food (1962) "Mangrove Syanps", Farm and Forest ^ Vol. Vni, No.l, 1947, pp. 23-30 "The West African Torritorleo", An Econeinlo Survuv of the Cental Territones Vol. III. 3951 (Landonj His Majesty* s Stationary Office, 1952) B. SIAMPS AMD SWA)E> RTCB GP SIERRA mm Anmpl BuDOrt of tha feat Afrtoan Rice Research Station^ (Roki^jr, sierra LeJwo) 3954 to 19«3 Annual Report «f the DopnrfaBent of Agriculture. Sierra I^ono. 1912 to 1960 (Froetatmi Government Prlncter) 271 CABF£3?I!ER, A*J. "Objectives and Methecb in Rice Breed• ing and Selection in Sierra Leone", CCTVFAO Syi^josium on Rice, L'Atrenomie Tropicale. V61.X?III, 1963, pp.783-785 CARPENTER, A*«^* Ql^ EDBEitTS, E.H. "Some Useful Techniques in Speeding tdp Rice Breeding Progrs^s", En^ru Journal of Experlinuntal Agrjoulturo, Vol. XXX, 1962, p. 118 "Moisture changes in Res? Ped^ and Parl9oiled Podigy in West Africa and their Influence V^KX Milling Quoli^. I. Moisture changes in the Ripening Crop II. Changes during Drying", Empire Journal of Experimental Agrloulturo. Val.X2X, 1962, pp. 315-329 CRAUFQBD, R.Q. "Huthecls Of Ifi|)r0Vlng Rioe Quality by Post Harvesting, Drying and Parboiling Teehniques", Cdtl/FAQ Synpositmi on Stored Rice (1962) DALTGN, K.&. "Recent Devulppmunt in Sierra Leone", Bulletin of the Chana Goograi^cal Association, Vol. VI. lfo.2, July 1961. pp. 3-12 mmm, E.G. "Rice Prom the Scardes River", Journal of the Sierra Leone Qeogrsphjeal Asaooiation. Vol.V, 1961, pp. 9-10 DEKT, J.M. "Some ProblesiB in Eiipolclered iy.ce Lands in Sierra Leone", Eteagdre Journal of Experlmentcil Agrjoxilturu. Vol.XV, 1947, p. 206 DOIHB, H*0* "Soolu Swcug^ Rice Crowing Soils of Sierra Leon)", Tropioal Agrleolturu^ Vol.X, No,6, Mby 1933, pp. 132-138 272 GLAKmiS, R.R. "An AgriouLtural Survey of Exiating and Potential Rice Laoda of thu SearxJiea Rivera", (July 1940) West African Rico Regoaroh Station, Roktgr, Sierra Leona. Bullotl,n 90.4, 1958, pp. 12-32 Em, H.G4R. "Sulphur Oiddation in Tidal Kangrovu Soila of Sierra Leone", Plant and Soil, Vol. H, 1959, pp. 215-236 HARP, M.G*R. "Obaervationa on the Souroe of Acid in EiBpoldered Ikingrove Soils, I, Ponnatian of Elemental Sulphur", Plant and Sol^. Vol* Xm, 1962, pp. 87-08 BART, M.a.R. QARREMTEE, A,J, 01^ JEEPHU, J.W.O. "Preblema in ReolaSi&lng Saline Hangrovo Soila in Sierra Leone", CCTVKAO Syigposium on Rice, L^Agronomie Tropicalo, Vol.XfUI, 1963, p. 600 BES^, P.R. "Soaooe Diffexenoea between thu Soils of Rhieophora anl Avioennia Hangrwe Sweats in Sierra Leone", ELant and S04I. VaL.XtV, No,4, July 1961, pp. 335-346 HESSE, P.R. "The Deofflnpoaltion &C Organic Matter in a Mangrove Swaie^ Soil" 1 Plant and So^l. Vol. XIV, 1961, pp. 240-263 HESSE, P.R. and iJESWEKY, j.W.O. "Same Pra^^erties of Sierra Leone Mangrove SoUa**, CXJSl/PAO Syiqx)aiimi on S^ce, L»Agr3napfl.o Triopioale. Vol. xmi, 1965, pp. 803-805 JACSS0I7, D.R.S4 "Eztraots from a Report on a Visit to Sierra Leosie to Stu^ the Cultivation of Saramp Rice, Duo. 1950 to Oat. 1951", West African Rice Reaeareh Station. RokuBT. Sierra Leone. Bulletin ife.4. 1958, pp. 35*62 273 JARRETT, H.R* "Rioe Production in Sierra Leone", Mfilayan Journal of Tropical Geographf Vd. Vm,. Juno 1956, 73-81 3mm, J.w.o. "Fertilizer Trials m Sierra Leone Swcuq? Rice Soils", COU/FAD SyBfwslum «ai Rioe, L*Ag»aHBmlo TrttPioole. Vol.XVm, 1963, pp, 606-810 JOSQAn, HJ). "The Voi^tatiOQ of Mcngrwe Swsi^s ia West Africa", (KTV^AO Synposium on Rice, L*Agronomic Trtpicale. Vol.XVm, 1983, p. 798 JORDAN, H.D, "The Relation of Vegetation end Soil to Devulopnent ef Mongrove Swnaps for Rice Cultivation in Sierra Leone?', Journal of Applied Ecolegy I, Mqy 1964, p. 209 JORDAN, H.D. "Troiitiflnal Rioe Cultivation Practice. Should There be a Retqppredsal?" Current Science. fcH, XXXI, 1962, pp. 269-270 JORDAN, H,D, "The UtiUsatim ef Saline Mangrove Soils f0r Rioe CreKTing", Proceedings of the Third Inter^Af rloan Scdls Conlbrenoe (1959) JORDAN, H«D. "Doyeloppunt Of Uoxwmvo Sxfsa^ Areas in Sierm Leone", CCIVFAD Syspoalus on Rico, L^Agranegjo Tropicale, Vd.XSUl, 1968, pp. 798-799 JORDAN, H,D. "Crabs as Rjsts ef Rice in Tidal Swai^po", En^dru Joumil ef EagerlJKmtol Atrjeultura. Vol. XXV, 1957, pp. 197-206 JORDAN, HtDi "DevelepBent of Rice Research in Sierra Leone", Trepieal Agrlcultare Vol.XXXI, Jan. 1954, p. 27 JORDAN, H,D. "The Vest African Rice Busearoh Station"» Nature. Vol. 190, 1961, pj^. 773-774 274 H&OKEHZtE, A.P. "Land Tenure in the Scarciea", Sjerra LeoDo AfirioulttuiTil Notes, II0.8, 1940 UACLI35KZE, H. "Rioe GrenTix^ and Eo|>olderin8 Devolopneilt in Sierra Leone", Farm and Poroat. Vol.IV. N0.4, Dec. 1943, pp. 155-160 MACLUSEZE, H. "Redcmtlon of Mangrove Swaapa for Rice", World Crops Vol. tV, Ajarll 1952, p. 129 PEICH, G.A» "Developing a Sierra Leone District", West Afrloa. No, 1934, Mbroh 20, 1964 PtOSOTT, C.J. and KICBQLAS, E.H. "Factors Afftjcting the Yield of Rioe on the Bella of Sierra Leone", (tqppubllsfaed - Sierra Leone Department of Agriculture) PiLLAZj A.C. "A Report m Rico Cultivation m Soarciea Area, (Jon. 1922)". West African Rice Research Statieq. Rokiipr, Sierra Leono, Bulletin W0.4, 1958, pp. 2^10 PRATT, S.A.J. (1952) "Report on a Seoio^coiuniic Survey of Swang? Rice Poimlng in the Scarcies", (uiqpubilahod - Sierra Leone Department of Agriculture) RAB, C.J, "Swamp Developaaent in Sierra Leone", Fa|B and Fereot. Vol.H, Ho.3, Dec. 1941 "Development of Tidal ^asp Farming in Sierra Loono", Trcglccl Affl:ieulturu, Vol.3a:X, N0.4, i^l 1942, pp. 69-70 (Reprinted from Faro and Poroat, Vol.11 1941, pp. 53-65) RODDAKf 0«U. "The Cultivation ef Swcop Kloe in Sierra Leone", Tropical Acrlculturo, Vd.XIX, No«5, Mcv7 1942, pp. 84-86 BOOPIDAN, G*M. "Ssfoni? Rice Varietiea", Sierra Leone Department of Agricullxire Notes, No.5, 1937, 276 B0DDAN, CM. "lU^pert on a Survey of Exleting and Potential Rice Lands in Certain Swamp Areas in the Southern Fz«vince", Sessional ^aper No.7, 1938 (Freutocm: Govermtent t'rin'bir) RQDDAN, &.M. (1939) "Report on Existing and Botentiol Rice Lands East of Bogru River and includ• ing Sherfsre Island", Wust Afrjean Rjco Research Station, Rokupr, Sierra Leone, Bulletin Ho.5, 1958, pp. 1-16 "Rice Grwing Made Easy", West Africa. No.l994, May 14, 1955, pp.443 "Rice in Sierra Leone", Tiaea Britieh Colonies Reviet?. No.7, Auttmu 1952, p* 22 "Rice Growing in Sierru Leone", Gomftowealth Survey. No.95, April 25th 1952, p. 40 "Rice ^roduotim in Sierra Leone", African World, June 1952, p. 39 Sdil Conservation and Land Use in Sierra Leonu'v Sessional Pager No*l, 1951 (PJIMOWW Government Printer) "Self help in Sierra Leeno", African World. March 1953, p. 8 "Swamp Reclamation In Sierra Leone", Corona. Vol.1, Sept. 19^ "Scarcleo River Roclcmatlorf', West Afrloa, No.l9, Aug.1948, p. 906 "Swonp I^ce Cultivation in Sierra loone", The Ciwn Colflnigt Vol. XH, No. 151. Oct. 1942, p. 672 TOMLINSQN, ^.E. "Changes in Sulphide - containing Mnngrove Soil on Drying and their Efft'ot l^pon thu Suitability of thi Soil for the Grwth of Rioe", Bapire Journal of Ea^rlaentol Agriculture. Vol. XXV, 1957, p. 108 TOMi^CHSON, TiS. "Seaofflnal Variations of the Stoface Values of Some Rice Soils ©f Sierra Leonj", Tropidal Aglculture. Vol JCXXIV, 1967, p. 287 276 msumo^s T.E« "Relationship bettveen Mangrove Vegetation, Soil Texture and Reaction ef Surface Soil After j^ipolderlng Saline Swai^ in Sierra Leone", Tropical AgrlcultTixe VolXOlV, pp. 41-50 WHETE, H.P. "Muehanioal Cultivation of Pbasant Hold• ings in West Africa". Qeogrgphy, Yd.43, Nov. 1958, Ep, 269-270 0, Maps Si ATLASES Atilao Of Slerrtt Loonu (Freetowm Govomrasst Printer, 1953) QtAiRKE, J*I. Sierttt Leone iri Ifopa (To be published in 1966 by the University of London) TerxjagptgateLo Mags li 62,500 Sierra Leone (Gold Coast Survey fiyad Quarters, Accra) 1: 63,380 Vicinity of Preetosm (Geographical Section, General Staff, War Office) 1:250,000 Sierra Leone - West Africa. (Gold Coaat Survey Head Quortora, Accra) It 500,000 Sierra Leone - (layer coloured) (Geographical Section, General Staff, War Office) Othtar Mapa 1: 2500 Fmot&m. and District (Surveys and Lands Devx^epioent, FreetOGna) It 10,000 Freetflim Peningula (D,0,S.) 277 It 16,00 (Approx:) Sketch Map, Rh^obe (D.O.S,) 1} 16|000 (Approzi) Land Use, Ehoni>e (D.0,S,) Ij 40,000 (Approxj) Sketch Mop, Little Soaroiea (D.O.S,) Ir 40,000 (Approx:) Land Use, Little Scaroiea (D.O.S,) 1: 40^000 (Approz:) Sketch Vssp, R11»i-#n|^ (D.O.S,) 1: 40,000 (Apprexf) LandUae, Hlbl-Bunjje (D.O,S.) It 50,000 Sierm Leone (D.O.S.) Is 600,000 Chiefdem beundarlea; Agrlculturol Production end Trade. (Surveys and Lands Dept. Freetown) Ij 1,000,000 Adfldnistrative; Vegetation; Tribal; Geological; Soil; PopulatKm; Agricultural *^roducts; Soil Conflervation.. Feruat Reaervea; Land olasslfication; Population and Pcll6R7a; Degroded Areas; Zenea of PrBduction; (Surveys and LanOa Deptj Preetosm) lanoral Deposit a (D.O.S,) NaTigable Watercraya (Survey Dept., Accra) (D.O.S. - Directorate ©f Overseas Surveys) D. AIR PBpTOGBAFHS Covering the whole of Sierra Leone - Foirey Mr Surtfoyo LlMicd, 1958, 1962.