Introduction: Tourism and Inequalities

Stroma Cole and Nigel Morgan

As its title suggests, this book seeks to make relationships between tourism and a distinctive contribution to the tourism inequality; more than this, however, its and inequality debate, not only through its contributors also review international investigation of how and why tourism examples of socially responsible tourism to contributes to and reflects social inequality, provide a stock of good practice cases for but crucially through its exploration of the tourism students, educators, practitioners ways in which tourism can be a means to and activists. reduce social inequality or alleviate its Tourism has always been a site for and impact. As such, it is firmly located within a contributor to social inequality (e.g. ‘hopeful tourism scholar­ship’, an emerging Morgan and Pritchard, 1999; Walton, 2005) paradigm within the field, which advocates but as tourism expands at a seemingly linking critical thinking, pedagogy and insatiable pace, the inequalities become action to achieve more just societies in and increasingly evident and so too does the through tourism (Ateljevic et al., 2007a; Ren need for more complex and nuanced et al., in press). Tourism is frequently understandings of them. During an ESRC described as one of the world’s fastest seminar series on Tourism Inequality and growing industries and a new source of Social Justice in 2007, the level of interest wealth creation in deprived regions and and the number of researchers actively less developed nations. Recently, however, engaged in research about tourism and emphasis on its economic benefits has been inequality became apparent. The individual countered by increasing concerns over the seminars each examined inequality from a uneven nature of such economic develop­ different perspective and those who ment, serious questions about the environ­ attended them came from a variety of mental sustainability of the tourism backgrounds, including academia, the industry and disquiet at the negative social public and private sectors, third sector and cultural impacts of tourism. These organizations and a range of non- concerns have been expressed by aca­ governmental organizations or NGOs. The demics, policy makers and practitioners, academics came from a broad range of and have been raised in relation to different different disciplines and fields of study scales: individual well-being, family struc­ beyond tourism, including leisure studies, ture, community development and national psychology, sociology, anthropology, geog­ identity (Botterill and Klemm, 2006, 2007). raphy and cultural studies, and while this In both tourism-generating regions and in volume is not in any way intended to be tourism-receiving com­munities, tourism is representative of the seminars, they cer­ part of wider social, economic, political, tainly provided its genesis and many of ecological and cultural processes, and the these disciplines are reflected in the goal of this volume is to unpick these following chapters. complex processes in order to expose the Of course, analysis of inequality is not

© CAB International 2011. Antimicrobial Peptides: Discovery, Design and Novel Therapeutic Strategies (ed. G. Wang) xvii xviii Introduction

new and there is a well-developed book. While it was written to appeal literature on exclusion, inequality and primarily to undergraduates, we hope that social justice within many of tourism the book will also open new intellectual studies’ underpinning disciplines, most doors for masters-level students and offer notably geography and sociology (Barry, stimulating reading for doctoral students, 2005; Pogge, 2007), much of it traversed in academics and reflexive practitioners. the following chapters. Similarly, scholars Thus, the volume endeavours to provide an working across the broad fields of leisure accessible exploration of tourism’s role as a and sports studies have undertaken exten­ site of injustice and its potential to address sive research into inequality and exclusion inequality. It seeks to extend debates and in leisure and sport provision and discourses prominent elsewhere to tourism participation (Roberts, 2006). Such research studies, where research on inequality and has addressed spatial, social, cultural and social justice has lacked the visibility seen economic inequalities, the mutually in other disciplines and subject fields. informing nature of such inequalities and Across its 14 chapters, a wide range of the ways in which inequality is experi­ inter-related forms of inequality and routes enced differently in relation to cultural towards social justice are addressed. These context, social class, gender, ethnicity, age include, but are not limited to, relations of and disability. To date, however, there has class, nation, ethnicity, race, gender, been limited synthesis of existing research disability and age, as they relate to social relating to all these different forms of justice initiatives incorporating poverty inequality, exclusion or injustice and how alleviation, social inclusion, fair trade, they relate to tourism (thus, contributions ethics and human rights. such as Hall and Brown, 2006, and Burns and Novelli, 2008, cover some but not all of these areas). At the same time, on the Tourism and Inequalities other hand, reflecting broader theoretical debates in social sciences, there is a clear For most people in MEDCs, having a sense that tourism as a field of research and holiday or a vacation is considered a an area of study is maturing and demon­ feature of their everyday lifestyles, it is part strating a ‘critical turn’ – a shift in thought of what they do and there is a well that provides opportunities for more developed literature on the benefits that critical engagement with the major can be derived from taking a holiday (e.g. environmental, socio-cultural and political Minnaert et al., 2006, 2009). Everyone can issues facing the world (Ateljevic et al., derive some benefit from taking a holiday 2007b). As a result, there is a growing (many of which are listed in Table I.1) and demand for volumes such as the present such breaks from routine are especially one, which focus on issues of ethics, important in affirming relationships with citizenship and justice as they relate to family and friends, particularly for children tourism in an intellectually rigorous and (Hazel, 2005; Hilbrecht et al., 2008). How­ thought-provoking way. ever, while many of us can and do enjoy Such issues are of increasing interest some or all of these advantages, most not only to the growing tourism student people cannot, indeed it is estimated that body in the more economically developed less than 5% of the world’s population countries (MEDCs) of the world but also in currently participate in international air the less economically developed countries travel (Peeters et al., 2006). What is (LEDCs) who are seeing exponential growth particularly pertinent in all this of course is in tourism and a consequent growth in that it is usually those who are most in tourism education provision. The need for need of the benefits of a holiday (e.g. a single volume that is accessible and children and adults living in poverty, lone above all affordable to today’s diverse parents, individuals with disabilities and student body was the rationale behind this chronic, terminal and mental illnesses and Introduction xix

Table I.1. The benefits of holidays. Recreational pleasure Respite from the exigencies of modern life Educational awareness Enhancing and maintaining one’s cultural capital Self-actualization Improved quality of life Self-esteem Material for narrating self-identity Mutual interaction Making new friends Reinforcement of group and family relations Subject of family narratives Relief from time and place Investment in well-being those who for care for such individuals), tourism brochures not only exclude British who are least likely to be able to have one. asians but have also been described as Since the early 1970s, scholars working marginalizing women in ‘a world broadly in leisure and sports studies have dominated by male heterosexual marketing explored in considerable detail exactly fantasies’ (Pritchard and Morgan, which groups in societies are least likely to 2000: 899). participate fully in cultural life, which If gendered and racialized exclusion encompasses sport, leisure and the arts and marginalization (see Chapters 4 and 7, (Critcher et al., 1995; Haworth and Veal, this volume) results from discrimination, 2004; Cushman et al., 2005). Yet, after more cultural prejudice and fear, there are than 30 years of scholarship in tourism ‘genuine problems and challenges which enquiry, the field has nothing like a can attach to having bodies/psyches that comparable literature in scale, scope or are different from mainstream “norms”’ longevity, such has been tourism’s focus on (Butler and Parr, 1999: 2), such as ageing or technically useful, management and disabled bodies. There have been calls for performance-driven investigation, which the tourism industry (and other areas such has little interest in those who cannot as environmental and product design) to access tourism products and services. adopt universal design principles. Uni­ Clearly, some groups are excluded from versal design is a paradigm that extends the participation in tourism as a result of socio- concept of accessibility and barrier-free economic disadvantage (Hughes, 1991) but environments to incorporate intergener­ exclusion and marginalization also results ational and lifespan planning; it recognizes from discrimination, cultural prejudice and the nexus between ageing, disability and fear. For example, studies have shown that the continuum of ability of people over racial prejudice and institutional racist lifespan and much more. Universal design: practices restrict ethnic minority citizens … is the design of products and environ­ from enjoying tourism experiences to the ments to be usable by all people, to the full and thereby limit them from achieving greatest extent possible, without the need for full rights to social forms of citizenship adaption or specialized design…The intent of (Stephenson, 2006). Such discrimination the universal design concept is to simplify and prejudice encompasses all aspects of life for everyone by making products, tourism; for instance, the promotion and communications, and the built environment marketing of holidays by major tour more usable by more people at little or no extra cost. The universal design concept operators is perceived negatively by British targets all people of all ages, sizes and Asians who consider that holidays in such abilities. brochures are ‘for white people’ (Klemm and Kelsey, 2004). Demonstrating how (Center for Universal Design, 2010) human status characteristics (such as These issues are examined in depth in gender, race, class, sexuality, age, ethnicity Jenny Small and Simon Darcey’s chapter, and ability) form layers and points of which analyses inequalities for people with oppression and empowerment, the same mobility disability. Their chapter highlights xx Introduction

how it is society that disables people, a Tourism, Inequalities and Prospects theme continued in Chapter 2 by Victoria Richards, Nigel Morgan, Annette Pritchard Analyses of the causes of inequality in and Diane Sedgley. Taken together, these tourism and how they relate to wider two chapters expose how ableist power international systems of political and geometries (Kitchin and Law, 2001) prevent economic dependency relations are not people with disabilities from fully new (e.g. de Kadt, 1979; Harrison, 2001). participating in and contributing to tourism, The underlying causes of inequity relating and reveal how disability interacts with age to unjust global systems, unfair inter­ to create further inequalities. national trade agreements, the workings of Disability also intersects with poverty transnational corporations and the neo­ and gender in this regard – for example as liberal capitalist system are reviewed by Richards et al. (Chapter 2) point out, over various authors in this volume (see 80% of people with low or no vision in the especially Chapters 9 and 10). However, UK of working age are unemployed, while while they review previous contributions the impacts of disabilities are felt to this debate, the contributors to this disproportionately by the populations of volume move the discussion forward in a LEDCs, particularly women who have less number of new ways. To see a problem is access to medical care. As disparity of an easy task, but to understand multi- income is one of the commonest causes of faceted problems is a much more complex inequality, it is not surprising that it but essential undertaking if we are to begin features in many of the chapters in this to find solutions. As editors of this book, volume. Chapters 3 (Michael Hall) and 8 neither of us wanted to produce a collec­ (Lyn Minnaert, Jane Stacey, Bernadette tion that simply scoped and reviewed the Quinn and Kevin Griffin) discuss poverty problems of tourism and inequality; we in the MEDCs context. Taking a relativist wanted to produce a thought-provoking view of poverty as equating to exclusion and accessible text that also engaged with from participation in a significant part of prospects for greater equality. Thus, while contemporary life, at the European level the power dynamics of international the inability to afford a 1-week annual politics are rehearsed here, the contributors holiday is an indicator of material urge us to see these relations through new deprivation (see Chapter 3), and since 2003 lenses, to appreciate their complexities and the UK government has used this as a to demand more in-depth understanding. measurement of child poverty (see Chapter This is true of all of the chapters in 8). Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7 and 10 explicitly different ways as their authors go beyond analyse poverty in the LEDC context. Here, examining the problems to ask ‘what can we are discussing tourism production and be done’ and ‘is there another way’? Thus, consumption in a framework of absolute in Part I, Darcy and Small (Chapter 1) and poverty as much of the population in many Richards et al. (Chapter 2) argue that of these tourism receiving countries exist equality legislation needs to be combined on less than a US$ a day. Thus Stroma Cole with enforcement, education and and Jenny Eriksson (Chapter 7) relate attitudinal change to create more inclusive Gladys’s story, a woman who has to walk environments, while Hall (Chapter 3) calls for over an hour to work an 8-h shift during on us to understand mobility and which she is not allowed to eat or drink at accessibility as being imbued with values any point. At least this woman has a job, that are central to human well-being and a unlike many of the ‘bumsters’ in The sustainable society. In Part II, Jacqueline Gambia (Chapter 5) or the women and Sanchez-Taylor’s (Chapter 4) examination children who have nothing left to sell other of sex tourism contends that a deeper than their bodies (Chapter 4). understanding of the interlocking processes Introduction xxi

of globalization, legislation, race and Eire, France, The Gambia, Kenya, Palestine, gender inequalities is required to develop a New Zealand, Thailand, the USA and more fine-grained understanding of the Wales. This book is divided into three growing phenomena of sex tourism. parts. Following this introduction, the first Similarly, Sheena Carlisle (Chapter 5) examines social inequalities from the exposes not only the causes of inequality tourist consumer’s perspective; the second for Gambians but also examines some explores inequalities as experienced by the excellent examples of how marginalized tourism producers; and the third part groups can be included in the benefits of consists of a series of chapters that review tourism. Angela Kalisch (Chapter 6) is initiatives to reduce or alleviate the impact overtly critical of neo-liberal capitalism, of inequalities for both consumers and which has continued the colonial legacy producers. It should be noted, however, and created unequal relations between rich that this division is somewhat artificial, as and poor nations, but offers an alternative individuals can be both producers and in the form of a fair trademark for tourism. consumers of tourism; furthermore, while Stroma Cole and Jenny Eriksson (Chapter the book is structured in this way, there is 7) investigate the human rights of citizens overlap within and between parts; for in tourism destinations and go on to example, while Sheena Carlisle’s chapter provide a strong argument for companies to examines marginalization in The Gambia, include human rights as part of their it also provides some excellent cases of corporate social responsibility (CSR) how, in partnership with various inter­ agenda. Derek Hall and Frances Brown national organizations, the Gambians are (Chapter 9) lay out the case for welfare- overcoming their social exclusion and positive tourism, and the chapters by pursuing a more equal form of tourism. Minnaert et al. and Tim Gale (Chapters 8 The first part of the book consists of and 11) provide compelling evidence of the three chapters that examine inequality from benefits of social tourism, while that by the perspective of those who want to take Dorethea Meyer (Chapter 10) moves beyond part in tourism. Each chapter calls for a causes of inequity to examine solutions in more nuanced understanding of the the form of pro-poor tourism (PPT), and complexities of non-participation in tour­ Freya Higgins-Desbiolles (Chapter 12) ism and argues that the answers to why explores both the causes and effects of people are excluded lie beyond economic inequality and injustice in tourism before poverty and include cultural prejudice, examining how they can be reduced discrimination and fear. Jenny Small and through justice tourism. Simon Darcy’s chapter examines the social inequality of tourists with mobility disabilities. Critical of the commonly used Structure of the Book medical approach to disability, the authors encourage a social approach that con­ Taken as a group, the book’s contributors ceptualizes disability as a product of the draw on a range of disciplines and case dis-enabling social environment and pre­ studies to provide unique perspectives on vailing attitudes. The chapter provides the social justice and inequality in tourism concepts necessary for a fuller under­ from the consumers’ and producers’ standing of disability. Using Australia as a perspectives. The disciplinary perspectives case study, the chapter unpicks The of its contributors include sociology, Disability Discrimination Act and explores cultural studies, media studies, geography, the complaints that have been raised since anthropology, history and tourism the Act became law in 1992, 27% of which management, and they illustrate their were in the tourism and hospitality sectors. arguments with international case studies The chapter concludes that legislation alone drawn from countries including Australia, is not enough to effect change and that England, Ethiopia, Belgium, the Caribbean, political will, enforcement, and education xxii Introduction

together with changes in attitudes and adds to an already large body of existing behaviours are required before this form of literature these chapters all take new inequality can be combated. perspectives. In the first, Jacqueline These themes are reinforced in the Sanchez-Taylor argues that hitherto sex next chapter written by Victoria Richards, tourism has been examined within the Nigel Morgan, Annette Pritchard and Diane framework of gender inequalities and is Sedgley, which focuses on their research better understood through the prism of race, on tourism experiences of people with low globalization, agency and gender. Her or no vision in the UK. Their chapter chapter examines how sex tourism today demonstrates how, when the sighted world involves men and women, the formal and fails tourists with visual impairment informal sectors and overt prostitution and through organizations’ inabilities to pro­ ‘friendships’. Examining case study material vide staff training and inclusive physical from the Dominican Republic and Jamaica, environments, those individuals’ tourism Jacqueline Sanchez-Taylor explores the (and life) experiences are circumscribed. In links between sex tourism and globalization, such situations, many people with visual the law and race. She argues that economic, impairment prefer to remain at home and gender, race and age inequalities all forgo the benefits of tourism rather than interlock in the diversity and complexity of negotiate the anxiety and stress of travel sexual-economic exchanges between tourists inan unsympathetic, unaccommodating and locals. sighted world. Richards, Morgan, Pritchard The next chapter, written by Sheena and Sedgley conclude that the challenge Carlisle, examines tourism in Africa’s for the tourism industry is to identify these smallest state, The Gambia. Following her customers, analyse their service needs in provision of the background to the economic more depth and treat them with respect situation in The Gambia, Carlisle goes on to and dignity, to learn new skills, to be examine the barriers that marginalize local creative and then to truly apply that people from full participation in tourism knowledge holistically. development in beach enclave tourism. She The final chapter in Part I by Michael illustrates how the inequalities result from a Hall links the topic of inequality with lack of access to certain areas, poor access to mobility and discusses the ‘mobility gap’ water and electricity, limited marketing, and between those with privilege and plenty a difficulty adhering to licensing rules and and those whose deprivation is acute. international legislation, and demonstrates Using evidence from National Surveys in how the resulting marginalization and social the UK, EU, USA and New Zealand Hall exclusion has led to the well known prob­ provides evidence of how social and lem of ‘bumsters’. Carlisle then examines economic inequality limit access to travel the role of ASSET (Association of Small and tourism and how the car is the most Scale Enterprises in Tourism) who work to significant factor affecting travel. In his include local businesses and provides chapter, Hall calls on us to understand examples of how the Gambians are rising mobility and accessibility as being imbued above their social exclusion. Finally, the with values that are central to human well- chapter concludes by demonstrating how by being and a sustainable society. He working in partnership, some of the barriers concludes that if tourism studies are to can be overcome and a more inclusive equal embrace social justice then we need to form of tourism can be pursued. understand how tourism opportunities are Chapter 6 is written by Angela Kalisch part of the overall life chances of and examines the complexities of develop­ individuals and appreciate how these are ing a fair trade mark for tourism. After constituted and reproduced. presenting the backdrop of unfair, unequal, The second part of the book examines neo-colonial exchange that has given rise to the social inequalities experienced by the present capitalist tourism economy, her people in tourism destinations. While this chapter explores issues of corporate power Introduction xxiii

and the problems of unfair international include groups in tourism that would trade agreements. Kalisch then explores otherwise be excluded on the basis that tourism certification in general before tourism is a right and promotes integration, examining Fair Trade certification in knowledge and personal development. particular. She exposes the rationale and Their chapter explores the social and philosophy behind the Fair Trade in economic benefits for social tourism for the Tourism Network and the criteria it individuals involved and for society at developed. Kalisch concludes that a market large and, after reviewing examples of instrument such as a Fair Trade kite mark social tourism from various European cannot change the root causes of poverty countries, the authors explore the impacts and inequality in isolation but might of social tourism based on research in Eire succeed in bringing about changes in and the UK. Their work illustrates how values and a greater commitment to social holidays provide participants with a much- justice. needed break, improve family relations, The final chapter in Part II analyses create new social networks, enhance self- how, despite tourism’s ability to alleviate esteem and lead to the development of new poverty and bring dignity, it frequently skills and improved behaviour. The authors does the reverse and so abuses the human conclude their chapter with compelling rights of the people in destinations. Stroma social, economic and policy arguments for Cole and Jenny Erikson demonstrate how social tourism and their evidence suggests the political economy of tourism means that tourism can be used to reduce that the rights of the tourists to rest and inequality as well as to bring wider social travel override the most basic human rights and economic benefits. of others, and argue that by regarding In the second chapter of this part, tourism as a system rather than an industry Derek Hall and Francis Brown advocate we can gain a more appropriate approach using a ‘welfare approach’ to the study of to understanding human rights abuses in tourism to enhance its benefits and reduce the tourism context. Their chapter uses its negative impacts. Their chapter examples of labour, privacy, water and acknowledges the challenges of welfare- housing rights from a variety of inter­ positive tourism while examining the need national cases to illustrate how holidays for to explore the ethical dilemmas, nature of some bring about poverty and destitution responsibilities and welfare trade-offs of for others. The chapter ends on the and between the many different stake­ business case for including human rights as holders in tourism. After placing welfare in part of social performance indicators in a its philosophical context the authors company’s CSR report. examine how tourism contributes to the As we have made clear above, this well-being and welfare enhancement of book is not just about how and why tourists. They then take McKercher’s tourism contributes to social inequality. It ‘fundamental truths about tourism’ and also examines how tourism can be a route Fennell’s ‘five paradoxes of tourism’ as to alleviate social inequality and reduce its their starting point for examining CSR and impacts, both for the consumers and for the industry responsibilities in tourism, before producers of tourism, for those that take turning their attention to welfare considera­ holidays and for those in destination tions in destinations. communities that provide the products and Following this, Dorothea Meyer’s services consumed by the holiday-makers. chapter then examines the origins and The third and final part of the book thus ideas behind PPT. She begins her chapter examines the prospects for reducing with the meanings of poverty in LEDCs and inequalities in and through tourism. Lyn then examines how tourism can be used to Minnaert, Jane Stacey, Bernadette Quinn reduce poverty through two intertwined and Kevin Griffin begin with their chapter approaches: pro-poor growth and sustain­ on social tourism – initiatives that aim to able livelihoods. Meyer then evaluates how xxiv Introduction

these strategies have been put into practice Palestinians; the International Solidarity by focusing on the accommodation sector. Movement; and a solidarity activist, Rachel She notes how PPT is not without its critics Corrie. Through­out her contribution, and explores these critiques before Higgins-Debiolles explores the ambiguities examining how this approach to reducing and difficulties of justice through tourism inequalities can be taken forward in and concludes that global solidarity tourism development. tourism can help change our ethical under­ The next chapter is Tim Gale’s analysis standings. of urban beaches, a phenomenon that has We said at the beginning of this become a feature of many European cities introduction that this book is located within in the summer months, with the aim of the hopeful tourism scholarship paradigm. providing an alternative recreational space Being a hopeful scholar or a transformative for residents on low incomes. Gale’s chapter advocate matters when taking on research extends the discussion of social tourism in in tourism, in that your position (whether Chapter 8 to encompass the urban beach as it is based on anti-oppression, social a means of addressing, or compensating for, justice, pro-woman, advocacy of emanci­ non-participation in leisure travel by the pation or self-determination, or any other least mobile in society. He focuses on Paris similar worldview) influences every aspect Plage and Bristol Urban Beach and thought of the research process. Thinking about provokingly concludes that such ‘tourism/ your research and those with whom you leisure’ spaces may increase in popularity co-create that research (including your as the era of uncomplicated long distance partici­pants, co-researchers and your leisure travel comes under threat from audiences) from a critical point of view climate change, economic downturn and sharpens your ethical approach to a project. global insecurities. Above all, taking on research as a hopeful The final chapter of this third part of scholar means that we all should consider the book explores ‘justice tourism’. After the wider impacts of our research – whether briefly examining tourism and injustice we are an undergraduate or postgraduate and how the discrepancies in wealth, student or a more established researcher power and status are particularly apparent and educator. We hope that this book will in tourism encounters, Freya Higgins- be of value to anyone who is thinking Desbiolles considers the limited contribu­ about, practising or using such tourism tions to the discussion of the ethics of research. Of course there are gaps and tourism and looks at theories of global omissions, as this volume is not intended as justice and how these could be linked to a comprehensive textbook but rather as a tourism. Her chapter then goes on to collection of explorations into tourism and examine how tourism can be used to bring inequality – that, after all, is the nature of about social justice. She describes a any project – it is never and nor should it continuum of justice tourism, from respon­ be complete. We urge you to read, learn, get sible tourism at one end to transnational engaged, get thinking and get active but solidarity activism at the other. The chapter above all, be hopeful for a more socially provides four case studies: tours offered by responsible future for tourism practice. a human rights group; support for the Introduction xxv

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