The Physicians of Syria During the Reign of Salah Al-Din 570-589 A.H. 1174-1193 A.D

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The Physicians of Syria during the Reign of Salah Al-Din 570-589 A.H. 1174-1193 A.D.

SAMIRA JADON Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021

[CCORDING to available information, physicians in Syria during the reign of §alah al-DIn can be divided into several groups: the physicians of Salah al-Din, those in charge of work at the hospitals, those who worked on their own and had dispensaries; the physicians of Aleppo, private physicians of certain princes; and those who were mentioned briefly by name only. Ranking these physicians according to prestige and reputation is only possible in the case of diose who served Salah al-Din and those who worked at the new hospital of Damascus, because each had a special type of work to meet the needs of §alah al-Din or the hospital, and in consequence their biographies are fuller. The most outstanding physician of these two groups, who was more devoted to the practice of medicine than any of the others and who was known for his medical treatment of bodi the elite and the common people (al-khassah wa al-'ammah), was As'ad ibn al-Mutran, one of Salah al-DIn's physicians.1 Information on the physicians of Syria during his reign from 570 A.H./ 1174 A.D. until his death in 589 A.H./1193 A.D. is found in a book called " Uyun al-AnbaTfi Tabaqdt a\-A$bha> (Sources of Information on Classes of the Physicians). The audior was a physician named Ahmad ibn al-Qa- sim ibn Khallfah ibn Yunus al-Khazraji, but known as Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah, who was born at Damascus around 600 A.H./1203 A.D. His grandfadier had

Portions of this article are incorporated in a different context in my paper, 'A comparison of the wealth, prestige, and medical works of the physicians of §alih al-Dln in Egypt and Syria,' Bull. Hist. Mei., 1970, 44, 64-75. I. This paper discusses the physicians of Syria as a professional group during the reign of Salah it- Dln, shows that there was an office of the chief of physicians in Syria, and introduces the fact that owing to the riseo f the Muslim leader Salah al-Dln in Syria the country became the center of attraction to these physicians. The importance of medicine in Muslim countries like Iraq, Egypt, and Spain is pointed out in many historical works on the Near East but Syria has been neglected. The aim of this paper is to show that during this period, Syria was worthy of note for the number of physicians who came to Syria to live and practice medicine.

[323 ] 324 Journal of the History of Medicine : July 1970 served Salah al-DIn when the latter was in Egypt; what kind of service he performed is not known. The author's family lived in Aleppo but moved to Egypt when §alah al-DIn became its master. His father and uncle practiced ophdialmologyin Egypt, but in 597 A.H./1200 A.D. moved to Damas- cus where bodi became well known in their profession.2 Ibn Abi Usaybi "ah studied medicine at Damascus where one of his teachers was Radiy al- Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021 Din al-Rahbl, the famous physician of Salah al-DIn.3 In collecting material for his book, Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah used biographies and histories, but the most interesting information he provides is that re- lated to him by his father, by physicians, and by others who were contem- poraries of the physicians in Syria during Salah al-Din's reign.4 The medical profession was classified by the later distinguished historian al-Qalqashandl as being the highest among all professions.5 Ibn Abi U$aybi'ah wrote that his grandfather wanted his sons to learn medicine because he knew it to be an honorable profession greatly needed by the people and because he believed that those who practiced medicine, although enjoying honor and wealth in this world, came 'first in rank in the next.'6 Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah seems to have agreed partly with his grandfather by saying that medicine was one of the most honorable and profitable professions. He said it was his intention to write of the classes of physicians from the be- ginnings of the profession, since this had not been done before, and he would provide anecdotes about those of the highest class and divide them according to the periods in which they had lived.7 Today, because of the sparsity of information, it is impossible to rank all the physicians who practiced in Syria during the reign of Salah al-DIn; Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah wrote of only the best of his profession, so that the present paper will deal chiefly with these selected physicians, mostly Mus- 2. Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah, 'UyQn al-anba' fl (abuqSt aUa^bbi', A. Muller (Cairo, 1884), n, 146-247. 3. Ibii., p. 194; Ibn al-'Imld, Shadharit al-dhahab (Cairo, 1350 A.H. /1931 A.D.), rv, J47. 4. Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah quoted repeatedly from one of the molt important published workj on the history of Greek medicine tranmiitted into Arabic, and on biographic! of learned men in Iilam, in- cluding physicians, a work by §l"id ibn Ahmad ibn §S"id al-Andaluil al-f ulaytull, fabaqat aUumam (Beirut, 1912). This work ii translated with notes and indexes by R. Blachere, under the title Dei categories dts nations (Paris, 1935). Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah quoted from the biographies of Ibn al-Nadlm, al-FIhrist, Gustav FlUgeL, ed. (Leipzig, 1871), 2 vols., and from Ibn Juljul, fabuqit at-afibba' wa\- hukami' (Cairo, 1955). He also quoted from the history of Ibn Qutaybah al-Dlnawiri, 'Uyiin aU akhbdr, Carl Brockelmann, ed, (Leiden, 1898-1908). Some of the names of the oral informants of Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah are found in his biography: his father and uncle (n, 135, 202,246-259); the physician "AM al-Latlf al-Baghdidl (n, 247); the physician Ibn Raqlqah (1,253,267,290, 291,300, n, 167, 169); the physician Ibn al-Suwaydl (n, 177,266,267); the oculist SubymJn ibn Musi (n, 145,155,190); the physician Raijiy al-Dln al-Rahbl (n, 193). 5. Al-Qalqashandl, $ubh al-a'sha (Cairo, 1914), rn, 496. 6. Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah (n. 2), n, 246-247. 7. Ibid., 1, 2-3. Jadon : Physicians of Syria 570-589 A.H. /1174-1193 A.D. 325 lims, although there are some short biographies of Samaritans, Jews, and Christians. The Samaritan physician Ibrahim ibn Khalaf who served §alah al-Dln is mentioned only very briefly, and the biographies of the three Christian physicians who served the same ruler are less than a half page in length, one of them a mere two lines. Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah seems to have been prejudiced against certain physicians. He tells us of the disappointment of Rafral-Di n al-Jili, one of his Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021 teachers of philosophy, as well as teacher of medicine and chief judge (qadi al-qudah) of Damascus, who, upon examining a copy of the work in the presence of the author, found himself unmentioned. Criticizing Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah for referring to a physician who had been sentenced to death by §alah al-Din, he added 'you mentioned this one, but you did not mention others who are better than he,' and pointed to himself.8 On the other hand, there is evidence that contemporary physicians and dignitaries of Syria were pleased with the contents of the work. The minister (wazir) Jamil al-Din ibn Mapruh also praised the author for a work which he considered to be without precedent.9 Another minister, who was also a physician, Amin al-Dawlah ibn Ghazil, told the father of Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah: I have heard that your son has written an unsurpassed book about the classes of physicians. Those physicians who visit me are pleased widi it. It is a book of great value, and although I have more than twenty diousand volumes in my hbrary, there is none of this nature. I wish you would ask him to send me a copy of his book.10 Early in the year 643 A.H./1245 A.D. Ibn Abi Ujaybi'ah had a copy of the work made for the minister to whom he dedicated it, and in return he received a large sum of money and a robe of honor (khil'ah).11 In the twelfth century Syria attracted physicians, scholars, and others from all walks of life. Some of the reasons for this were the movement of the center of power from Baghdad to Damascus during the reign of Nik al-Din, and from Egypt to Damascus during the reign of §alah al-Din; the establishment of such institutions as hospitals (Bimaristanat),12 with a school of medicine at the new Bimaristan of Damascus; and the urgent need for physicians owing to the Crusades. 8. Ibid., a, 172,13-24. 9. Ibid., p. 113. 10. Ibid., p. 237. 11. Ibid., pp. 237-238. 12. F. Steingajs, Persian-English Dictionary (London, 1963), p. 224. Blmaristan ii a Persian word which mcam hospital (Ibn Abi UsayWah [n. 2], 1, 27). The mraning of Blmlr is 'tick,' and that of stan u 'place.' 326 Journal of the History of Medicine : July 1970 NUT al-Din had recognized the need for more hospitals in Syria, and he proceeded to build them with the ransom-money for Crusaders.13 In this way one was built at Aleppo14 and another at Damascus, each called al- Bimaristan al-Nuri. The famous Spanish Muslim Ibn Jubayr, who traveled in this area during the reign of Salah al-Din, saw several of these hospitals which he called Maristan, a short form of Bimaristan,15 one in Aleppo, Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021 another in Hamah, two in Harran, and two more in Damascus. Indeed, it would seem as if Ibn Jubayr saw a Maristan in every district he visited in Syria from the nature of the question which he put to one of the sheikhs at Him?: 'Is there [in Him?] a Maristan in accordance with the town plans of these districts?'16 He was especially impressed with the new Maristan of Damascus and recorded some information about it, saying that 'the daily expenses of this new Maristan were about fifteen dinars'; that it had super- intendents who maintained records of the names of the patients and the kinds of food and medicine prescribed for them; and that the physicians were accustomed to go to the Maristan early in the day to visit and to pre- scribe the necessary treatment for the patients. The Maristanat, he con- cluded, were one of Islam's great glories.17 The physicians of Salah al-Din whose biographies have been preserved for us were eleven in number:18 Name Geographical region Faith Ibrahim ibn Khalaf Unknown Samaritan Abu Mansur Unknown Christian Abu al-Najm Shafa, village in Huran, Christian district of Damascus Abu al-Faraj Sumaysaf, Iraq19 Christian

13. Sibf ibn al-jawzl, Mir'&t ai-Zam2n (Haidar Abad, 1951), vm, pt. 1, 248. 14. Ibn Ach-Chihna, Les Perles Choisia, tr. with notes by J. Sauvaget (Beirut, 1933), p. 77. 13. Ahmad "111, Tarlkh ai-kilm!aistinitjl al-lslam (Damascus, 1939), p. 4. The word Bimaristan was shortened to Maristan and was first mentioned by al-Jawharl, Tc$ al-lughah wa-fihih at-'Arabiyah (BOliq, 1282 A.H. /1865 A.D.), 1,477. Al-Mlrijtin ii a house for the sick. The hospital of Nflr al-Dln at Damascus was completed in 1156 A.D. Ndr al-Dln donated a large number of medical books which were kept in one section of the hospital that served as a library and study halL Medicine was uught in this hall (Ibn Abl Usaybi'ah (n. 2), n, 155; Sami Hamarneh, 'Development of hospitals in Islam,'J. Hist Med., 1962,17,366-372); part of tiiishospita l which served the people as a healthcenterandschool for about seven centuries is still tf^"d'"gtoda y (ibid., pp. 371-372). 16. Ibn Jubayr, Rihlat ibnjubayr, William Wright, ed. (London, 1907), p. 258. 17. Ibid., p. 284. Lucien Lecrec praised the management of the hospital at Damascus owing to the fact that the hospital had a chief physician, an oculist, a surgeon, a druggist, attendants for the patients, and teachers of medicine (Histoirt de la midtane arabe [Paris, 1876], 1, 568). For more information on history of hospitals in Islam see Hamarneh (n. 1 j), pp. 366-384. 18. Ibn Abl Usaybi'ah (n. a), n, 162-201. 19. YaqQt al-Rumi, Mu'jam ai-buliin (Cairo, 1906), v, 138. Jadon : Physicians of Syria 570-589.A.H. /1174-1193 A.D. 327 As'ad ibn al-Mutran Baghdad Christian, became Muslim during the reign of Salih al-Dln20 'Ah al-Naqqish Baghdad Muslim 'Abd al-Latif al-Baghdidl Baghdad Muslim Radiy al-Dln al Rahbl al-Rahbah Muslim Sulayman ibn Musa Egypt Muslim Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021 Yahya al-Bayyisl Bayyasah, Spain Muslim Ahmad ibn al-Haiib Damascus Mushm The significance of this chart is that four of these physicians were not Muslims, thus showing the tolerance of Salah al-Dln to faiths other than his own, also seven were from countries other than Syria. Presuming Ibrahim ibn Khalaf and Abu Mansur to have been from Syria, there is still indication that it was the center of attraction for more than half of these physicians. The following chart divides the physicians of Salalj al-Din into four categories according to their medical training:

I II in IV Came as physician Had *Ah al-Naqqash Had Radiy al-Dln Teacher to Damascus as teacher as teacher unknown Sulayman ibn Musa Yahya al-Bayyisl Ibrahim ibn Abu Mansur Khalaf Abu al-Faraj Ahmad ibn al-Hajib Abu al-Najm *Abd al-Lapf As'ad ibn al-Mujian al-Baghdadl 'Ah al-Naqqash Radiy al-Dln al-Rahbl The biography of Abu Mansur, in the fourth category, is less than two lines in length. We are informed that he was a Christian and remained for many years in the service of Salih al-Din.21 Abu al-Najm was also a Christian. The son of a peasant who lived in the village of Shafa, he was brought to Damascus while young by an unknown physician who taught him medicine. When Abu al-Najm entered the service of Salah al-Din, his work was different from that of the other eleven physicians since he was chosen with others, whose names and biographies are not given, to treat the households in $alajj al-DIn's residences.22 Abu al-Najm was in a poor financial state, his salary, the amount un-

oo. Ibn at-Jiwil (n. 13), vra, pt. I, 411. ai. Ibn Abi U«aybi"ah (n. 2), n, 183. 31. Ibid., u, 183. The meaning of household here ii the royal family and servant!. 328 Journal of the History of Medicine : July 1970 known, being insufficient to buy trousseaux for bis daughters. When he told §alah al-DIn about this difficulty, the latter, after asking for a list of his needs, paid the bill which amounted to 30,000 dirhams. When As'ad ibn al-Mutran, another of Salah al-Din's physicians, heard of this generous gift, he became jealous and neglected his duties until the ruler, observing 23

his neglect, understood the cause and gave him a like sum. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021 The biographies of those in the first category show that all of them were already physicians when they came to Syria. Sulayman ibn Musa studied medicine at Cairo, and Abu al-Faraj, "Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, and "Ah" al-Naqqash studied at Baghdad. "Ah" al-Naqqash came to Syria in search of more income from his profession, and * Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi was seeking scholars and knowledge. Sulayman ibn Musa held an outstanding position among the physicians of §alah al-Din as the only oculist among the group. He accompanied §alah al-DIn at all times. His salary is not known, but it is reported that he was highly paid for his service. He was well versed in literature, the Arabic language, poetry, and prose, and was liked by the people.24 The biography of the Christian physician Abu al-Faraj, who was trained at Baghdad, is very short; it merely notes that he was an excellent physician, respected by Salah al-Din and paid for his services. The amount is not known.25 On the other hand, the biography of * Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi is very long and mainly concerned with his life in Iraq and Egypt. We are informed that he was not impressed by a teaching post offered him at Da- mascus and refused to work for Salah al-Din when he first visited Syria. Although * Abd al-La£f al-Baghdadi declared that he found many scholars from Baghdad and other countries in Damascus, he wanted to go to Egypt to meet three scholars, among them Musa ibn Maymun (Maimonides). He requested a recommendation from Baha* al-Din ibn Shaddad, the

13. Ibid., p. 176. The information that ii left to ui in historical works on the value of the dinar and the dirham in the twelfth century u not sufficient to make estimate! of owing to the Crusades, epi- demic], and high mortality (E. Ashtor, 'Etsai sur 1'alimentation des diverses classes sociales dans l'Orient medieval,' Aim.Soc.Econ.Civ., 1068,5,1031,1052); a study of thirteenth-century Damascus currency was made which shows that the gold dinar was worth $1.45, the dinar was not in much use, and the silver dirham, which was more often in use, was worth $.07. The relation of the dirham to the dinar was according to the amount of silver used in the dirham, i.e., the value of the rlirham was changeable. The best Hirhatm were those that did not contain much copper, called nuqra; each twenty dirhams of this kind made one dinar (N. A. Ziadeb, Damascus under the MamlQks [Norman, Okla- homa, 1964], p. 88.) Also see in the same source (p. 74) two lists during this period, one showing the physician'j monthly salary which was $21. In the same source see also pp. $6, 73. 34. Ibn Abl Usaybi'ah (n. 2), n, 182. as. Ibid., p. 183. Jadon : Physicians ojSyria 570-589 A.H. /1174-1193 A.D. 329 judge (qadi) of the army of Salah al-Din, who gave him a letter of introduction to §alah al-Dln's representative in Egypt. When Jerusalem was recaptured from the Crusaders, *Abd al-Lapf al-Baghdadi returned to Syria and accepted employment as a teacher of grammar and medicine at the Umayyad mosque of Damascus. As one of Salah al-Din's physicians his duty remained that of teaching.26 Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021 The physician "Ah" al-Naqqash was also a notable member of the first category of physicians who came from Baghdad to Damascus. Of the many physicians he taught, the biographies of four of §alih al-Din's physicians are given: As'ad ibn al-Mutrin, Yahya al-Bayyasi, Radiy al-Din al-Rahbi, and Ibn al-Hajib. *Ali al-Naqqash was famous as a physician and influential to the extent that he was accustomed to introduce his students to Salalj al-Din, who hired them upon his physician's recommendation. "All al-Naqqash himself had studied medicine with the famous Christian physician Hibat Allah ibn al-Tilmidh of Baghdad.27 He also studied Tradition with other teachers, and he spoke Persian as well as Arabic. It is not known when he left Baghdad for Damascus, but when he went there to live and work, he was not satisfied with the money he made from the practice of medicine and, hearing about the wealth the physicians of Egypt were enjoying, left Damascus for Cairo, seeking work with the physician Sadid al-Din. The latter paid him a salary of fifteen dinars a month for his service, provided a furnished residence, a handsome maid, a gorgeous robe, and one of his best mules.

26. Ibid., pp. 205-206. 27. Ibid., 1, 259-276; Ibn Khallikin, Wajayto ai-a'yin (Cairo, 1948), V, 119-126; Ibn al-"Imad (n. 3), rv, 190-191; al-Qiljl, Tirlkh al-hukami',]. Lippert, ed. (Leipzig, 1903), pp. 340-342. 28. Ibn Abl Upybi'ih (n. 2), n, 109-110, 162-163. 29. Ibid., pp. 162-163; ai-"ImSd al Iffahinl, Khar\dat al-quff wajaridat al-'afr, Shukrl Fayjal, ed. (Damaicui, 1955), 1, 507. 330 Journal of the History of Medicine : July 1970 Bayyisah in Spain.30 He served §alah al-DIn for a time when he was at Diyirbakr but resigned 60m his service for reasons unknown and lived at Damascus. In spite of this, Salah al-DIn continued to pay his salary until his death; the biography does not mention the amount. Yahya al-Bayyisi was interested in handicraft and made many geometrical instruments for his teacher ""All al-Naqqash. He was also known as a teacher of music and Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021 author of medical treatises.31 Ahmad ibn al-Hajib of Damascus was another student of

30. YiqOt (n. 19), p. 318. 31. Ibn Abl Ujaybi'ah (n. 2), n, 163. 3a. Ibid., p. 181. 33. Ibid., p. 176. 34- Bar Habraeus, The chronography, tr. from the Syriac by E. A. W. Budge (London, 193a), 1,329. 35. Ibn aJ-'Imid (n. 3), iv, 288; Ibn al-Jawil (n. 13), vm, pt. 1,411, recorded the same information with one exception: he said that God guided him to Jadon : Physicians of Syria 570-589 A.H. /1174-1193 A.D. 331 verses about them which were popular among the people and were quoted in several historical works. The subjects of these barbs were infuriated and asked As'ad ibn al-Mutran, who was also the chamberlain (hajib) of Salah al-DIn, to inform the ruler about Ibn -Unayn, and the poet was sent into exile.36 No matter what the people thought of the conversion of As'ad ibn Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021 al-Mutran, the following event shows that he was aware of the fact that a Christian physician, in order to be successful and to live comfortably in a Muslim land, had at least to wear the clothes of a Muslim physician. Ibn Saqlab (Saqlin), a Christian physician, came from Jerusalem seeking work from As'ad ibn al-Mu^ran, who helped him find a job, but told him that the type of clodies he was wearing did not fit that state (dawlah) of Mus- lims, and that for his benefit he ought to dress according to the custom of the Muslim physicians.37 As'ad ibn al-Mupran held many posts. He was physician and Hajib to Salah al-DIn when the latter was at Damascus and accompanied him on his campaigns. As was the custom of the private physicians of the Near Eastern rulers, As"ad ibn al-Mutran remained at Salah al-Din's door in case he were needed. It is said that he did not waste his time but always read from a book that he carried in the sleeve of his cloak (jubbah). There were times when he took leave from Salah al-Din's service to care for acutely ill patients at al-BImaristan al-Nuri.38 He also visited the sick poor and gave them medicines without charge.39 Sometimes, too, he traveled outside Damascus at the request of sick dignitaries such as Sahib Hims, §abib Sarkhad,40 and "Imad al-DIn al-Isfahanl, the secretary of Salah al-Din when he was ill at B'albak.41 Many students came to study medicine with As'ad ibn al-Mutran, some of them accompanying him on his travels and even on the campaigns of $alah al-DIn. Such was his fame that his students were accepted as physicians without question. On one occasion a young man seeking a job pre- sented himself to the physician and handed him twelve verses written in his honor. Since he did not know medicine and was dressed as a soldier, As"ad ibn al-Mupan provided him with a physician's attire, a horse, and written medical instructions, and sent him to Sahib Sarkhad, a former pa-

36. Ibn "Unayn, Dlwin, Khalll Mardam, ed. (Dmiucus, 1946), pp. 6-7, 18-23. 37. Ibn Abl Uiaybi'ah (n. 2), n, 177. 38. Ibid., pp. 178-179. 39. Ibn at-'Imid (n. 3), iv, 288. 40. Ibn Abl Ufaybi'ah (n. 2), n, 177, 179; Ibn Wijil, Mufarrij al-kurOb (Cairo, 1957), n, 35. 41. Imad al-Dta al-I^ahinl, Ai-Fath al-qusslji al-Jath al-qudsl (Leiden, 1888), pp. 411-412. 332 Journal of the History of Medicine : July 1970 tient. The latter received him as a physician and, following the written instructions, the young man cured §ahib Sarkhad. When asked to continue his services, he was obliged to reveal the character of his mission. Never- theless Sahib Sarkhad rewarded him with 1000 Egyptian dinars and, upon learning that he could play chess and backgammon, made him his cham- 42

berlain. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021 As'ad ibn al-Muprin's fame as a physician reached many princes, and when they were sick daey often competed with one another for his services and rewarded him with large sums of money. Even Salah al-DIn gave him one of his wives' handmaids in marriage, and he gained great wealth both from his work as a physician and through his wife who brought with her jewels and valuable gifts from the wife of Salih al-Din. A visitor described As'ad ibn al-Mufran's home as very beautiful, filled with carpets and redolent of sweet perfumes; the pipes of the fountain were said to have been made of gold.43 As"ad ibn al-Mutran had a reputation for haughtiness, even to Salah al-Din, but the latter respected him for his skill and kept him in his service in travel and sojourn (fi al-safar wa al-fradar). On the other hand, he was praised for his humility when seeking knowledge. It is said that when he studied grammar, after being freed of his duties, he was accustomed to ride to the mosque surrounded by a large group of Turkish slaves and others; approaching the mosque he would dismount and walk to his class where he sat wida the students.44 Another example of this characteristic was his acceptance of the request of the mystics (sufis) that he hold a spiritual concert (sama*) for them on his wedding night, while the bride was waiting for him at dar al-'Aqiqi (the house of the father of Salah al-Din).45 As'ad ibn al-Muprin desired to collect a great library and employed three copyists for the purpose; he is said to have had more than 10,000 volumes in his collection.46 Another of Salah al-Din's physicians was Radiy al-Din al-Rab.bi, who might have had the same high rank as that of As'ad ibn al-Mupran had he not refused to serve Salah al-Din on his travels; nevertheless he was given a mondily salary of thirty dinars for services at al-Bimiristan al-Nuri and at the citadel of Damascus.47 Radiy al-Din al-Rahbi lived to the age of

43. Ibn Abl Usaybi'ah (n. 2), n, 177-178. 43. Ibid., pp. 176-177- 44. Ibid., pp. 175-176. 45. Ibnat-Jawzl (n. 13), vm.pt. 1, 41a; Ibn Wasll (n. 40), n, 20. His father's house in Damascus was known as 'Dar al-'Aqlql1 (Ibn al-Athlr, AI-Kimilfl at-tirtkh [Cairo, n.d.], p. 131). 46. Ibn Abl Usaybi'ah (n. a), n, 178-179. 47. Ibid., p. 193. Jadon : Physicians of Syria 570-589 A.H. /1174-1193 A.D. 333 48 ninety-seven; he was born in 5 3 4 A.H./I 13 7 A.D. at JazirafUmar, and died at Damascus in 631 A.H./1234 A.D. His father was a physician but was better known as an oculist. As a student of medicine, Radiy al-DIn al-Rahbi stands out among all the physicians of §alah. al-Din as the one who traveled to other countries for the sake of learning. He first studied medicine at

Baghdad and then in 555 A.H./I 160 A.D. accompanied his father to Damas- Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021 cus where they settled and opened a dispensary (dukkan'Ipr). He then went to Cairo where he studied medicine wida Hibat Allah ibn Jumay', the famous Egyptian Jewish physician who had served §alah al-Din when the latter was in Egypt. Returning to Damascus he became the preferred student of al-Naqqash and served §alah al-Din.49 Radiy al-Din al-Rahbi lived during the reigns of four rulers of Damas- cus. He was the only one mentioned among a group of physicians called upon to treat Nur al-Din for the angina that caused his deadi.50 He thereafter served §alah al-Din and, upon his death, served his brother al-'Adel and finally 'Isa ibn al-'Adel. Ibn al-Jawzi was the only historian to accuse Radiy al-Din al-Rahbi of being the cause of the death of §alah al-Din, saying that when $alah al- Din became ill, 'the physicians agreed not to bleed him, but Radiy al-Din al-Rahbi disagreed with them and bled him and was the cause of his death.'51 This incident is mentioned in the autobiography of the physician *Abd al-Lafif al-Baghdadi and quoted by Ibn Abi Usaybi*ah.'Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, as a physician of §alah al-Din, did not mention the name of the erring physician but merely stated that the patient was bled by one who had no knowledge of bleeding, that the procedure weakened Salah al-Din's strength and thus brought on his deadi.52 On the other hand, his biographer, who was wida him until his death, offered a different account. He stated that the physicians agreed to bleed §alah al-Din and that when they did so, his illness became worse. He made no mention of Radiy al-Din al-Rahbi.53 In addition to serving the rulers, Radiy al-Din al-Rahbi taught medicine privately. According to Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah, if one were to screen the physicians of Syria, he would find that they were eidier his students or students

48. YiqOt (n. 19), m, 102. 49. Ibn Abi Upybi'ah (n. a), n, 193. 50. Ibn al-Jawzl (n. 13), vm, pt. 1, 321. 51. Ibid., p. 430. 52. Ibn Abi Ufaybi'ah (n. 2), n, 206. 53. Bahi* J-Dln ibn Shaddid, Slrat $alafr al-Dln, Jamil al-Dln al-Shayyil, ed. (Cairo, 1962), p. 243- 334 Journal of the History of Medicine : July 1970 of those who had studied with him. Indeed, Radiy al-DIn al Rabbi told him that 'all those who studied and accompanied me were to become for- tunate and the people profited from them.' However, he refused to teach non-Muslims (ahl al-dhimmah) or those he thought were not suitable to become physicians. He did, nevertheless, teach two non-Muslims, a Jew

and a Samaritan, since such pressure was put upon him that it was impos- Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021 sible to refuse.54 Ibrahim ibn Khalaf al-Samiri, one of these students, became one of the physicians of Salih al-DIn.55 It is clear that the status of Radiy al-Din al Rahbi may have been as ele- vated as that of As'ad ibn al-Mutran. He was highly spoken of by Ibn Abi Usaybi

Name Date of Death Place of Service Type of Service Ibrahim ibn Khalaf Unknown Unknown Physician AbuMansur Unknown Unknown Physician Abu al-Najm Unknown Damascus Physician to Households Abu al-Faraj Unknown Unknown Physician As "ad ibn al-Mu^rin 587A.H./1191 A.D. In travel and Physician and sojourn (ft Chamberlain al-safar wa al-hadar) 'All al-Naqqash 574A.H./1178 A.D. Unknown Physician "Abdal-Laflf 629A.H./123I A.D. Damascus Teacher of al-Baghdadl medicine Radiy al-Din al-Rahbl 631 A.H./I234A.D. Damascus Physician for out patients, at al- Blmiristin al-Nurl 54. Ibn Abl Ujaybi'ah (n. a), n, 193-194. 55. Ibid., p. 193,333- 56. Ibn "Unayn (n. 36), pp. 179-184. Jadon : Physicians of Syria 570-589 A.H. /1174-1193 A.•D. 335 Sulaymln ibn Musa 590A.H./1193 A.D. Unknown Oculist Yahya al-BayyasI Unknown Diyirbakr Physician Ahmad ibn al-Hajib Unknown Unknown Physician57

The unknown place of service mentioned above may have been in the company of Salih al-Din during his campaigns against the Crusaders, when the need of physicians would have been greatest. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021 The following chart shows the occupations of fathers and sons of §alah al-Dln's physicians:

Name Occupation of Father Occupation of Son Ibrahim ibn Khalaf Unknown Unknown Abu Mansur Unknown Unknown Abu al-Najm Unknown Physician Abu al-Faraj Peasant Physician As'ad ibn al-Mu£ran Physician No children "All al-Naqqish Cloth merchant Unmarried "Abd al-Latlf al-Baghdadl Teacher of Koran and Tradition Unknown Radiy al-Dln-al Rahbl Oculist Physician Sulaymin ibn Musa Came of good family Unknown Yahya al-BayyasI Unknown Unknown Ahmad ibn al-Hajib Unknown Unknown58 The fathers of As'ad ibn al-Mupran and Radiy al-Din al-Rahbi were the only two in the group whose occupation was medicine. Because of lack of information it cannot be determined how much social mobility there was in the families of the others except in the instances of the families of Abu al-Najm and Abu al-Faraj and if we consider the father of Abu al-Najm to have had some sort of minor position. There is little information about those physicians whose work was con- nected with the hospitals. Ibn Jubayr spoke of physicians going early in the day to the new hospital of Damascus, and there is mention of the surgeon Ibn Hamdin.59 The biography of Muhammad ibn Abi al-Hakam, chief physician of al- Bimaristan al-Nuri of Damascus, reveals that his work was totally con- nected with that hospital. His father was a famous physician who came from Spain and had a dispensary in Damascus. Muhammad the son learned

57. Ibn Abl Ujaybi'ah (n. 2), n, 162-101. 58. Ibid. Sg. Ibid., p. 179. 336 Journal of the History of Medicine : July 1970 medicine from his father and became sufficiently renowned so that Nur al-DIn appointed him to the important post of Chief Physician of al-BI- maristan al-Nuri. This is the first time the office of Chief Physician is mentioned in Syria, although the office existed in Baghdad and Cairo; it is, therefore, an indication of the importance of medicine at this time in Syria.

Muhammad ibn Abi al-Hakam had a two-fold duty; first, to make daily Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021 rounds of the patients in the hospital and to visit the citadel of Damascus to care for sick dignitaries of the state. It is interesting to note that these state officials were treated at the citadel, the residence of the ruler and his en- tourage, rather than in the hospital. His second duty was to teach medicine in the great hall of the hospital where there was a large medical library, the gift of NUT al-DIn. This teaching session, attended by physicians and students, lasted for three hours.60 Muhammad al-Muhandis was called by this name because of his knowledge of geometry and his reputation as an engineer and carpenter before he studied medicine. Most of the doors of al-Bimaristan al-Nuri were made by him.61 Perhaps he was inspired to become a physician through his work in the hospital. He studied geometry (handasah) with a teacher, then, by himself, the geometry of Euclid and Ptolemy's Almagest;62 thereafter he studied medicine with Ibn Abi al-Hakam, Chief Physician, and as a student constantly accompanied his teacher. He then served as physician in al- Bimaristan al-Nuri.63 The kind of work he did at the hospital is not known. One of the daily jobs of the physician Radiy al-Din al-Rahbi, who was appointed to work at the hospital, was to receive and take care of out- patients. After examining them he used to write their prescriptions, and they received the medicine from the hospital's pharmacy.64 The salaries of the hospital's physicians are not given, but it is known that the monthly salary of Radiy al-Din al-Rahbi, who served at both hospital and citadel, was thirty dinars; when serving at the hospital alone he received fifteen dinars.65 Although the physicians of the hospital were not spoken of as physicians of Nur al-Din or Salah al-Din, it is obvious that they were hired and paid by the state. Muhammad ibn Abi al-Hakam, the Chief Physician of the hospital, was hired by Nur al-Din but not as his personal physician. We

60. Ibid., p. 155. 61. Ibid., p. 190. 62. George Sirton, Introduction to the history of science (Baltimore, 1927), I, 153-156. 63. Ibn Abi Ujaybi'ah (n. 2), n, 190-191. 64. Ibid., p. 243. 65. Ibid., p. 193. Jadon : Physiriansof Syria 570-589 A.H. /1174-1193 A.D. 337 have no information that Salah al-DIn gave the post of Chief Physician of al-BImaristan al-Nuri to anybody during his reign, but it seems likely that all the physicians who worked at the hospital during the reign of NUT al- DIn continued to work and be paid by the state during that of §alih al-DIn. It is known that the latter did his best to please the learned men, and there

is no evidence to show that he changed the hospital posts of the physicians, Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021 even though when he first ruled the country he appeared as a usurper who challenged the heirs of Nur al-DIn. Salah al-DIn realized the attitude of the people towards him and in order to achieve the leadership of the Muslims, 'he had to reinforce his own actions and example by creating a moral and psychological current in his favour so strong that it could not be resisted. For this he needed allies, and especially the influential class of'college-men' "who were the leaders of public opinion.'66 The physicians in Damascus who were not in the service of §alah al-DIn or the hospital had dispensaries in the market place. Other towns must have had the same type of physicians but there is no information about them, and the biographies of only two such physicians living in Damascus during the reign of Salah al-DIn have been preserved. One was Ibn al- Budhukh and the other, "Abd al-Mun'im al-Jilyani. Both came from Spain, but no information is given about their medical training. Ibn al- Budhukh's surname was al-Qal'I al-Maghribl.67 He had a pharmacy (dukkan "Ip:) where he treated patients and prepared and sold drugs.68 "Abd al-Mun'im al-Jilyani came to Damascus from Jilyanah, a fortress in Spain.69 He was an oculist, physician, and alchemist. Ibn Abl Usaybi'ah records that al-Jilyani had a pharmacy of his own,70 and the historian Yaqut says that he found al-Jilyani making his living by sitting in the shop of one of the druggists (al-'Aftarin).71 It is probable that al-Jilyani did not own a pharmacy because, as we shall see, he was not wealthy. He had the ability to compose poetry in which the medical meaning could be understood, and he was the only physician during the reign of Salah al-DIn who wrote poetry as well as several books in praise of the latter's activities against the Crusaders, for which he was occasionally rewarded by that ruler. One of al-Jilyani's poems indicates that he preferred independence to wealth coupled with the humiliation that resulted from serving rulers.72

66. H. A. R-Gibb, The achievement of Silzdin,' Bull.John Rytandi Lib. Manchester, 1952,55 /(, 56. 67. A village in the district of al-Q^'ah which u one of the province! of Andalui (YiqQt (n. 19 vn, 148). 68. Ibn Abl Ujaybi'ah (n. 2), n, 155. 69. Ylqut (n. 19), m, 130. 71. YSqdt (n. 19), in, 131. 70. Ibn Abl Ujaybi'ah (n. 2), n, 157. 72. Ibn Abl Upybi'ih (n. 2), n, 157-161. 338 Journal of the History of Medicine : July 1970 Biographies of only two physicians in Aleppo are preserved, both from a single Jewish family. The biography of Sukkarah al-Halabi mentions that he was skilled in his profession and acquired landed property from Nur al-DIn when he healed one of that ruler's favorite maids. * Afif , die grandson of Sukkarah, became a famous physician and all his sons and 73 relatives lived in great wealth and practiced medicine. There is no indica- Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021 tion that the physicians of die al-Halabi family constantly served a particu- lar prince, but it is known that when al-'Adel, the brodier of Salah al-DIn, heard of the latter's illness at Harran, he went to see him and was accompanied by physicians from Aleppo.74 The type of work and payment to the physicians who served various princes in Syria differed greatly. We have already seen how As'ad ibn al- Mutrin was able to help die Christian physician Ibn Saqlab to find a position. Ibn Saqlab stayed 'night and day' with the sick prince Mayuun al- Qasri of Damascus until he was healed, and he was given 500 dinars for his service.75 We have also seen how As"ad ibn al-Mutrin helped a young man, whose name was not given, to work as a private physician for Sahib Sarkhad and then serve him as a chamberlain.75 Muwaffaq al-Din*abd al-'Aziz taught dieology at the Aminiyah school (al-Madrasah al-Aminiyah) of Damascus, dien studied medicine with As'ad ibn al-Mutrin and served al-'Adel, the brodier of Salah al-Din; he obtained great wealdi and high rank through this service.77 Yusuf ibn Abi Said was a Samaritan and studied medicine with two of Salah al-DIn's physicians, Ibrahim ibn Khalaf,78 and "Ah" al-Naqqish.79 He became famous and was called upon to take care of sick dignitaries in Syria such as Sit al-Shim, the sister of al-'Adel, ibn Shukr, the minister of al-'Adel, prince Izz al-Din Farkhshah, and Bahram Shah, the son of Fark- shah; he remained with the last named at B'albak. Yusuf ibn Abi Said acquired great wealdi and prestige from his profession so that he became the minister of Bahram Shah and, holding such an important position, he was able to appoint his relatives to various posts. The people hated him and his relatives because of their power and wealdi, and he was eventually de- posed by Bahram Shah.80 Shihab al-Din al-Suhrawardi stands out among all die physicians of the

73. Ibid., pp. 163-164. 74- Abfl Shimah, Kitab aUraw4<>taynf\ akhbar al-dawlatayn (Cairo, 1187 A.H. /1870 A.D.), n, 64. 7j. Ibid., p. 177. 76. Ibid., p. 13. 77. Ibn Abi Ufaybi'ah (n. 2), n, 191-192. 78. Ibid., p. 16. 79. Ibid., pp. 9-10. 80. Ibid., pp. 233-234. Jadon : Physicians of Syria 570-589 A.H. /1174-1193 A.D. 339 period because of his peculiarities and was described by Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah as having more knowledge than wisdom. He studied theology and philosophy and served as alchemist to Sahib Aleppo al-malek al-Ghazi, the son of Salah al-Din.81 He was also recognized as a wandering sufi.82 His name is Persian, and he came from the east to Baghdad, then to Damascus, 83

and finally to Aleppo where he served al-malek al-Ghazi. It is said that he Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021 was dirty in appearance and never cut his nails or hair. 'Lice crept over his face and clothes and whosoever saw him ran away from him.'84 The mystical fervor of al-Suhrawardi appealed to al-malek al-Ghazi, but the conservatives of Aleppo disliked him and informed Salah al-Din that he was a danger to his son's beliefs. In consequence Salah al-Din or- dered his death, but al-Suhrawardi isolated himself and died fromhunger at the age of thirty-six,85 and thereafter his name became something of a legend. When Ibn Khallikan lived at Aleppo, the people there gave him a number of stories about the death of al-Suhrawardi.86 His life and works have become the subject of discussion by contemporary biographers, and he has also attracted the interest of a number of European orientalists; some have described him as having a unique genius.87 The last group of physicians known to have practiced medicine during the reign af §alah al-Din numbers seven. Abu al-Fadl al-Mifwa" oculist88 'All ibn Hamid oculist Hamid ibn 'All oculist89 Sadaqah al-Israitl physician90 As'ad, the father of ibn al-Mufrin physician91 Two brothers of As "ad ibn al-Mupin physicians92 In summation it seems clear that of the physicians in Syria during the

81. Ibid., p. 167. 82. A. J. Arberry, An introduction to the history o/Sufism (London, 194a), p. 70. 83. Ibn Khallikan (n. 27), v, 317. 84. Ibn al-*Imld (n. 3), iv, 291-292. 85. Ibn Abl Usaybi'ah (n. 2), n, 167, reports that al-Suhrawardl went on a hunger strike. 86. Ibn KhalHH" (n. 27), V, 317. 87. Aiberry (n. 82), pp. 70-^2; the most characteristic of al-Suhrawardl's work was his metaphysics of light, of illumination (ishriq)- It is the neo-Platonic theory of light, a spiritual light that serves as a symbol of emanation but at the same time is regarded as the fundamental reality of things. This theory has played a great part in Christian and Mmlim philosophy and mysticism, yet al-Suhrawardl made so much more use of this symbol than anyone else that he became unique and known to posterity for his metaphysics of light (The encyclopaedia of Islam [Leiden, 1934], pp. 306-307). 88. Ibn Abl Usaybi'ah (n. 2), n, 145. 89. Ibid., p. 239. 90. Ibid., p. 213. 91. Ibid., p. 175. 92. Ibid., pp. 179-180. 340 Journal of the History of Medicine : July 1970 reign of $alah al-Din, As'ad ibn al-Mutran may be selected as outstanding, and such remarks of Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah as 'he was the master of the physicians,' and 'the most preferable of his time in the medical profession,'93 in- dicate his medical rank. His services to all kinds of people are referred to in the words of Ibn al-Athir: 'The skilled physician As'ad ibn al-MuJxan . . . was thanked for his medical attentions by the elite and the common Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article/XXV/3/323/767826 by guest on 01 October 2021 people.'94

93. ttid., p. 175. 94. Ibn al-Athlr (a. 45), nc, 218.