A STUDY ON THE SOCIAL EXCLUSION OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES IN TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU, INDIA
A Thesis submitted to the BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY, Tiruchirappalli - 24 in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN SOCIAL WORK
Submitted by ADAIKALASAMY. E
Under the Supervision and Guidance of Dr. J. GODWIN PREM SINGH M.A (S.W)., M.Phil., MBA (Exe.)., PhD., PGDBA., PGDLL., Associate Professor of Social Work
PG. AND RESEARCH DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WORK BISHOP HEBER COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS) (Nationally Reaccredited at the A+ Level) (Recognized by UGC as 'College with Potential for Excellence')
TIRUCHIRAPPALLI - 620 017 ^ April-2014 PG. AND RESEARCH DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WORK BISHOP HEBER COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS) (Nationally Reaccredited at the A+ Level) (Recognized by UGC as 'College with Potential for Excellence') TIRUCHIRAPPALLI - 620 017.
Dr. J. GODWIN PREM SINGH, M.A (S.W)., M.Phil., MBA (Exe.)., PhD., PGDBA., PGDLL., Associate Professor of Social Work
CERTIFICATE OF THE SUPERVISOR
This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY ON THE
SOCIAL EXCLUSION OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES IN
TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU, INDIA, is a
record of research work done by ADAIKALASAMY.E during
2010 - 2014, at the Post Graduate and Research Department
of social work, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous),
Tiruchirappalli - 620 017 and that this thesis has not
previously formed the basis for the award of any Degree,
Diploma, Associateship, Fellowship or any other similar title
to anyone and that the thesis represents entirely an
independent work on the part of the candidate.
Place: Tiruchirappalli - 620 017 (Dr. J. GODWIN PREM SINGH) Date: Research Supervisor ADAIKALASAMY.E Research Scholar Post Graduate and Research Department of Social Work Bishop Heber College (Autonomous) (Nationally Reaccredited at the A+ Level) (Recognized by UGC as 'College with Potential for Excellence') Tiruchirappalli - 620 017.
(Ref.No.11181/Ph.D2/Social Work/Part Time/Date: October - 2010)
DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE
I hereby declare that the thesis for the Ph.D Degree on A STUDY ON
THE SOCIAL EXCLUSION OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES IN
TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU, INDIA, is my original work and that it has not previously formed the basis for the award of any
Degree, Diploma, Associateship or other similar title.
Place: Tiruchirappalli - 620 017. (ADAIKALASAMY.E) Date : ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Echoing the words of the Psalmist who says, "I will give you thanks in the great assembly; among the throngs I will praise you" (Ps.35:18), my heart overflows with the sense of gratitude to the many great intellectuals who have contributed to the completion of this study.
I am immensely grateful to the Almighty God for his blessings and benevolence towards the completion this research work.
I acknowledge my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to my Research Guide, Dr. J. Godwin Prem Singh, Associate Professor, PG. & Research Department of Social Work, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli, for his valuable guidance and support in directing this research. His continuous and constant encouragement has enabled me to sustain the spirit and enthusiasm always at a high level. I deem it a great and rare privilege to have got the wonderful opportunity of doing my research under his supervision. My research guide is my role model. I am consistently impressed with his knowledge of multicultural topics and I am also impressed by the way he holds himself as a good teacher and motivator. He defines what a teacher can and should be.
I would like to offer my sincere thanks to Most. Rev. F. Antonisamy, D.D., S.T.L., Bishop of Kumbakonam, Very Rev. Msgr. A. Packiasamy, S.T.D., Vicar General, diocese of Kumbakonam, the College of Consultors for permitting me to realize my dream of undertaking my Ph.D in Social Work.
I extend my heartfelt thanks to Dr. D. Paul Dhayabaran, M.Sc., M.Phil., PGDCSA., Ph.D., Principal, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli for permitting me to do my Ph.D in his prestigious college.
I am very much indebted to Dr. A. Relton, Head and Associate Professor, PG. & Research Department of Social Work, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli, for his constant support and co-operation in completing my Doctoral programme successfully. I wish to place on record my gratitude to my Doctoral committee members, Dr. A. Umesh Samuel Jebaseelan, Associate Professor, Dr. A. Florence Shalini, Assistant Professor, PG. & Research Department of Social Work, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli, for their constant encouragement, staunch support and technical assistant in statistical part of my Ph.D thesis.
I am deeply grateful to Dr. K. Parthasarathy, Assistant Professor in Social Work, Hindustan college of Arts & Science, Chennai for introducing me to the topic as well as for the constant guidance and scholarly support right from the day one of my research to this day. I would not have been able to complete my research without his intellectual inspiration on each and every moment of my research.
I would like to express my deepest appreciation to the Research Scholars and Students of Social Work, PG. & Research Department of Social Work, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli for their unfailing support at all times of my journey in this research process.
I owe my thanks to Mr. Srinivasan, Office Assistant and the Librarians of Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli for their support in helping me to carry out the research in a meaningful way.
I wish to express my gratitude to Tiruchirappalli District Disabled Rehabilitation Office for their support to carry out my Ph.D research in Tiruchirappalli District.
I am especially thankful to the participants, the Women with Disabilities who contributed to the case studies, interview schedule portion of this study, their willingness to allow me to share their experiences.
I thank with sincerity all those who helped me in one way or the other in this research.
sA&frifcflfasamy. E ABSTRACT Women with disabilities are more vulnerable to exploitation of various kinds, such as sexual harassment, domestic violence and exploitation in the workplace. According to the 2010 UNDP Human Development Report, women with special needs are twice as prone to divorce, separation, and violence as able-bodied women. Disabled women also tend to be relatively easy targets of sexual exploitation, particularly if they are mentally retarded (Rieve, 1989). They are deprived of political, Social, Economic, and health opportunities. The problems of women with disabilities become very complex with other factors such as social stigma and poverty. This study was interested to concentrate on to identify the status and social exclusion of women with special needs in Tiruchirappalli district. The researcher also focused to analyze the impact of disability on their marital status, emotional disturbance, social attitude, abuse and violence against women with special needs, family adjustment and quality of life of women with special needs.
The study has brought out that a majority, 82.1 percent, of the women with disabilities did not participate in the social gatherings and functions held outside home. They opined that that disability is the main reason behind it. Lack of guardians' permission was another important reason. A majority (75.7 percent) of the women with disabilities said that they faced discrimination compared to others (non-disabled women) in enjoying social status. A large majority of women with disabilities faced discrimination within family, among friends and in the community at large in terms of social behaviour. A majority of the women with disabilities had personal experience of sexual harassment or any form of abuse. It is a known fact that women usually do not disclose their experience of sexual abuse at home/public place/work place out of social stigma, a sense offear and lack of support from within the family. A Majority of the women with disabilities were not aware of policy and law related persons with disabilities (62.5 percent), awareness about acts/ laws / polices related to women's right (65.7 percent) and awareness about Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (68.8 percent). Majority of the women with disabilities were not aware of various special provisions for disabled women through law such as treatment rehabilitation, education, training, employment, independent living, safety and social security, access to social services and information and abuse: physical, social, mental and sexual. It was understand from the focus group discussion among the 60 women with disabilities in Tiruchirappalli district.
Majority of the women with disabilities, as evident from the table, have faced discrimination at work place (including in terms of wage) and in enjoying social status compared to other women in the society. The fact is women with disabilities were themselves ignorant about their basic rights and opportunities, laws and acts related to disability and government schemes for their welfare. A large majority of women with disabilities not having knowledge about act/laws for securing equal rights and opportunities for women with disabilities, along with state/national policies for women with disabilities. Around 68 percent felt that these policies are gender sensitive.
The study revealed that a majority (75.9 percent) of the respondents faced double discrimination in availing basic human rights and services provided by government and non-governmental organizations for women with disabilities. A vast majority (82.81 percent) of the respondents said that women with disabilities need special attention to care them. And half of the respondents have had physical problems, cognitive problems, affective problem, social dysfunction, economic problem, ego problem and the overall level of quality of work life is low. It is also observed from the participation observation there is a noticeable lack of coordination between media professionals and those working for the disabled. This is responsible for the lack of involvement of media in the cause of disability welfare. Besides lack of suitable material, there was also a general indifference to this cause. It is important to remember that women with disabilities do not form a homogeneous group. Women with different kinds of disabilities have different requirements and problems, which need to be addressed accordingly through specific interventions in areas like education, accessibility, training and employment, social security and protection and the like. No single stakeholder can bring positive changes in the situation and status of women with disabilities. A combined effort - more sensitivity, awareness, willingness, initiative - of women with disabilities themselves, the government and non¬ government organizations, common people, media personnel, law-makers and law-protectors, teachers, educators and trainers, can empower women with disabilities in a true sense and ensure their societal mainstreaming. CONTENTS
Title Page
Certificate of the Supervisor
Declaration
Acknowledgements
Abstract
Contents -- i
List of Tables -- ii
List of Figures -- v
List of Abbreviations -- vi
Chapter - I Introduction -- 1
Chapter - II Review of Literature -- 41
Chapter - III Research Methodology -- 74
Chapter - IV Analysis & Interpretation -- 88
Case Studies -- 174
Discussion -- 181
Chapter - V Summary, Findings, Suggestion
and Conclusion -- 207
Bibliography -- I
Annexure (A) Interview Schedule -- VII
(B) List of Type of Disability - census -- XX 2011 in India/ Tamilnadu/Trichy (C) List of Publications by the Researcher -- XXV
i LIST OF TABLES
Table Title Page No. No 4.1 Distribution of the respondents according to their Socio- 88 demographic characteristics 4.2 Distribution of the respondents according to their Socio 95 economic and living conditions 4.3 Distribution of the respondents according to their Disability 96 4.4 Distribution of the respondents according to their Status of 102 occupation 4.5 Distribution of the respondents according to their 105 Educational attainment 4.6 Distribution of the respondents according to their Decision 106 making in house hold 4.7 Distribution of the respondents according to their Social 107 Mobility and Inclusion 4.8 Distribution of the respondents according to their Marriage 109 of WWDs 4.9 Distribution of the respondents according to their Abuse 110 and Harassment 4.10 Distribution of the respondents according to their 112 Awareness about Acts/Policies & Rights 4.11 Distribution of the respondents according to their 113 Awareness about Government Benefits 4.12 Distribution of the respondents according to their 114 Awareness about NGO intervention for WWDs 4.13 Distribution of the respondents according to their 115 perception on media 4.14 Distribution of the respondents according to their Attitude 117 & Perception towards WWDs 4.15 Distribution of the respondents according to problems faced 118 by WWDs 4.16 Distribution of the respondents according to perception of 119 which is need to be change in the lives of a disabled woman 4.17 Distribution of the respondents according to their 120 Suggestion for improving the Positive attitude towards WWDs 4.18 Distribution of the respondents by various dimensions of 121 Psycho social function 4.19 Distribution of the respondents by various dimensions of 123 Quality of work life
ii Table Title Page No. No 4.20 Distribution of the respondents by various dimensions of 125 Awareness and Perception of Women with Disabilities 4.21 Association between the age of the respondents and various 128 dimensions of psycho-social functioning 4.22 Association between the age of the respondents and various 130 dimensions of quality of life 4.23 Association between the income of the respondents and 132 various dimensions of psycho-social functioning 4.24 Association between the income of the respondents and 134 various dimensions of quality of life 4.25 Association between the level of disability of the 136 respondents and various dimensions of psycho-social functioning 4.26 Association between the level of disability of the 137 respondents and various dimensions of quality of life 4.27 Association between the status of employment of the 139 respondents and various dimensions of psycho-social functioning 4.28 Association between the level of disability of the 140 respondents and various dimensions of quality of life 4.29 Association between the Age of the respondents and 142 various dimensions of Awareness and Perception of Women with Disabilities 4.30 Association between the Nature of disability of the 144 respondents and various dimensions of Awareness and Perception of Women with Disabilities 4.31 Association between the level of disability of the 147 respondents and various dimensions of Awareness and Perception of Women with Disabilities 4.32 One way Analysis of Variance among age of the 149 respondents and various dimensions of psycho-social function 4.33 One way Analysis of Variance among age of the 151 respondents and various dimensions of Quality of life 4.34 One way Analysis of Variance among educational 153 qualification of the respondents and various dimensions of psycho-social function 4.35 One way Analysis of Variance among Educational 155 qualification of the respondents and various dimensions of Quality of life
iii Table Title Page No. No 4.36 One way Analysis of Variance among domicile of the 157 respondents and various dimensions of Awareness and perception of WWDs 4.37 'Z' Test between the type of family of the respondents and 159 various dimensions of psycho-social function 4.38 'Z' Test between the type of family of the respondents and 161 various dimensions of quality of life 4.39 'Z' Test between the type of family of the respondents and 162 various dimensions of Awareness and perception of Women with Disabilities 4.40 Karl Pearson's Co-efficient of correlation between the age 164 of the respondents and various dimensions of psycho-social functioning 4.41 Karl Pearson's Co-efficient of correlation between the age 165 of the respondents and various dimensions of quality of life 4.42 Karl Pearson's Co-efficient of correlation between the 166 income of the respondents and various dimensions of psycho-social functioning 4.43 Karl Pearson's Co-efficient of correlation between the age 167 of the respondents and various dimensions of Awareness and perception of Women with Disabilities 4.44 Karl Pearson's Co-efficient of correlation between the 168 monthly income of the respondents and various dimensions of Awareness and perception of Women with Disabilities
iv LIST OF FIGURES
TITLE Page Figure No. No.
Bar diagram shows the Distribution of the respondents according 89 1 to their age. Bar diagram shows the Distribution of the respondents according 91 2 to their educational qualification. Bar diagram shows the Distribution of the respondents according 99 3 to their nature of disability. Pie diagram shows the Distribution of the respondents according 100 4 to their level of disability. Bar diagram shows the Distribution of the respondents according 108 5 to their social mobility and social Exclusion. Bar diagram shows the Distribution of the respondents according 122 6 to their psycho social function. Bar diagram shows the Distribution of the respondents according 124 7 to their quality of life. Bar diagram shows the Distribution of the respondents according 126 8 to their awareness and perception of women with disabilities on various aspects.
v LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
PWD People with Disabilities WWD Women with Disabilities CWD Children with Disabilities CEDAW Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women UNMDG United Nations Millennium Development Goal SSM Sarva Shiksha Mission AWW Anganwadi Worker ANM Auxiliary Nursing Midwife ICDS Integrated Child Development Scheme GO Government Organisation NGO Non-Government Organisation CBO Community Based Organisation DPO Disabled People's Organisation WO Women's Organisation WWDs Women With Disabilities IG Income Generation SHG Self Help Group DKCS Don't know/Can't Say
vi ^CHAPTER-I
INTRODUCTION SOCIAL EXCLUSION OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES INTRODUCTION India is a vast country with the human population of around1.26 billion and women form 48 percent of Indian population. They are fighting to get their rights constantly. As per the Census 2011 there are 11,824,355 women with disabilities in India. The situation of the women with disabilities is a pitiable one in India. They are ever struggling to fulfill the role of a wife, a mother and homemaker. With the launching of the disabled rights movement in 1990 and the unrelenting lobbing by Disability Rights Group, both Houses of Parliament passed the Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995 which was a landmark in the history of disability rights movement in India. In spite of the many positive provisions of this Act, the situation of women with disabilities has not improved much. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities has estimated that around 10 percent of the world's population lives with a disability. Though the disabilities are experienced by both the male and female, the women are discriminated very badly. The disabled women are discriminated and looked down by women themselves. They are treated as mere objects of our charity. This discrimination against the disabled women is not a recent origin but a miserable situation constantly faced by women for many centuries. The years-long effort by many women organizations to force the Indian Parliament to enact a bill to give 33% reservation for women in the Lower House itself speaks of the need for the constitutional protection for women and the different treatment experienced by women. This situation subjects them to as much discrimination as the job market (Eschel M.Rhoodie, 1989). Besides the ill-treatment experienced by women on the basis of gender (Margaret Thornton 2010) the disability is another cause of discrimination for them.
The social change movements have not done much to help the adolescent girls with disabilities. The legal system also has not done much in support of the women with disabilities. The existing disability movements too were paying much attention to
1 male with disabilities. This fact has increased the agony of the disabled women further. The government policies and principles were not adequately equipped to address the needs of the women with disabilities. Thanks to the well-organized effort of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities which addressed the specific needs of the women with disabilities.
Religion also plays a significant role in addressing the issue of disabilities. There is a strong conviction that only sinners in previous births are born disabled in this life. Another prevalent belief is that those who sin and deceive would beget disabled children. It is common to see or hear Indian women cursing the impostor by throwing handfuls of sand on him and predicting that his progeny would be blind or born with disabled arms and legs. There are also numerous rituals believed to be effective in making a person mentally unbalanced, including the use of the hair or nail of the target while praying to evil forces, and sticking pins in a doll made to look like the target. Many religious places and practices exist exclusively for the cure of people with mentally disabilities (Crawford & Ostrove, 2003).
There are a number of governmental and non-governmental agencies working for the welfare of the physically and the mentally disabled. Due to greedy intermediaries and the various biases of the government itself, the governmental agencies do not have as wide a reach as the NGOs. As a result, the beneficiaries of governmental welfare projects are always subject to manipulation by mercenary forces (Rousso, 1996). Women with disabilities come into the limelight mainly during election campaigns when candidates of political parties view with each other in offering them tricycles and sewing machines (Crawford, & Ostrove, 2003). Magazines and newspapers publish photos galore, showing these candidates posing with the women, to emphasize the generosity of the political parties. Another main reason for the regretful situation is that medical programmes are generally disease-oriented and not ability-oriented. Consequently, life-threatening or "serious" conditions receive the most attention while "natural" and "incidental" defects are to be endured with patience. Women being weaker and the walking symbols of tolerance are made to bear
2 the brunt of all these traditional notions regarding disabilities (Thomas & Thomas, 2007).
According to United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 8 percent of the world population suffers from different forms of physical, mental and sensor disorders. WHO estimates that 10 percent of the world's population experience some form of disability or impairment. There is growing evidence that women with special needs comprise between 4 and 8 percent of the Indian population (around 40-90 million individuals). The National Sample Survey Organisation 2011 indicates 73 percent persons with special needs are from rural areas. Disabled women are women who have one or more impairments and experience barriers in society.
Women with special needs are multiply disadvantaged through their status as women, as persons with special needs, and majority numbers as persons living in poverty. Much of the discrimination experienced by differently abled women is based on an implicit notion that they are not the same as other women and so cannot be expected to share the same rights and aspirations. The isolation and exclusion of disabled women even extends to mainstream women and women's movements, which deny them their rights and identity (Roeher, 2001). Isolation and confinement based on culture and traditions, attitudes and prejudices often affect disabled women more than men. This isolation of disabled women leads to low self-esteem and negative feelings. Lack of appropriate support services and lack of adequate education result in low economic status, which, in turn, creates dependency on families or care-givers. Some societies go so far as to assign fault to a mother who gives birth to a disabled child, especially so if the mother is a disabled woman. Differently abled women and men can experience different kinds of attitudes based on gender discrimination. While men are still seen as the major bread-winners and leaders of society, a disabled man, considered "less of a man", won't conform to that stereotype (Lonsdale, 1990).
This is the aspiration of every disabled woman - to be able to have friends, to go to school, to have the qualifications and skills for a good job and then do the job
3 well, to be independent, to be respected, to give and receive love. In other words, they want to have a life like other women. But most women with disabilities cannot live like others (Boylan, 1991). They are more likely to: be extremely poor have little or no schooling, be without vocational skills, be unemployed, have less access to public services, be unmarried or childless, be physically, sexually, or psychologically abused, They make up, without doubt, one of the most excluded and isolated groups of people in every society, being triply disadvantaged by their disabilities, by their sex, and by poverty. Like all other disabled people, women with disabilities are often treated as if their particular disability has affected all their other abilities. In society's eyes they are not capable of earning an income and let alone of living independently.
A woman's main role, in most communities, is still to be a wife, mother, and homemaker while the man is the main decision-maker and income-earner. Since education and vocational training are seen as investments for higher-value employment, a woman is less likely to have the opportunity to receive them. While public attitudes are changing, illiteracy rates among women worldwide are falling, and more and more women are entering the labour market, the situation has changed little for women with disabilities (Douglas, 2001). The general attitude is still that a disabled woman has little hope of becoming a wife or a mother, or of getting a real job. She therefore is a burden to her family or the state - a dependant for the rest of her life. Excluded from opportunities, disabled women are on the whole desperately poor. While poverty is a result of discrimination, it is also a cause of further discrimination. Poverty is the lack of resources: not just money, but also skills, knowledge, and social connections. Without those resources, disabled women have very limited access to institutions, services, markets, and employment.
The extensive discrimination against women with disabilities violates the principle of equality of rights and their human dignity. They are denied equal opportunities in social, economic, and political life. The specially difficult situation of women with disabilities has been recognized nationally and internationally. However, there is as yet not enough action or results, at least to the extent that women with
4 disabilities everywhere are able to experience a tangible improvement in their lives. Where disabled women have been given opportunities for training and work, they have shown that they can be loyal and reliable workers. They are highly motivated because, while for most people work is a means of gaining financial independence, for women with disabilities having a job also means becoming part of society - something others take for granted (Coley, & Marler, 2004).
Similarly, women with disabilities tend to be more vulnerable to exploitation of various kinds, such as sexual harassment, domestic violence and exploitation in the workplace. According to the 2010 UNDP Human Development Report, women with special needs are twice as prone to divorce, separation, and violence as able-bodied women. Disabled women also tend to be relatively easy targets of sexual exploitation, particularly if they are mentally retarded (Rieve, 1989). In general, differently abled women tend to be in a state of physical, social and economic dependency. This can lead to increased vulnerability to exploitation and violence. Because of the relative isolation and anonymity in which women with special needs live, the potential for physical and emotional abuse is high.
It is estimated that having a disability doubles an individual's likelihood of being assaulted. At the same time, and because of their isolation, women with special needs are likely to have less resource to turn to for help. Women with disabilities are multiply disadvantaged through their status as women, as persons with disabilities, and majority numbers as persons living in poverty. Around the world, women make up just over 51 percent of the population.
Women with disabilities are the most marginalized in Indian society. They are deprived of political, social, economic and health opportunities. The problems of women with disabilities become very complex with other factors such as social stigma and poverty (Coley, & Marler, 2004). Forming part of two disadvantaged and minority groups (disabled people, and within these "women"), they find themselves up against a double discrimination, as well as various barriers which make accomplishing
5 objectives essential in everyday life very difficult. Higher unemployment rates, lower salaries, less access to medical care, lack of education, poor or no access to programmes and services aimed at women, and a higher risk of suffering physical and/or sexual abuse are just some of the social aspects which women with sensorial, physical or mental disabilities must face. This discrimination is the worsening of the age-old discrimination women have always suffered, more severe but harder to fight, which affects aspects such as education, employment, marriage, family, economical status, rehabilitation (Stace, 1986).
It is important to remember that women with special needs do not form a homogeneous group. Women with different kinds of disabilities have different requirements and problems, which need to be addressed accordingly through specific interventions in areas like education, accessibility, training & employment, social security and protection and the like. No single stakeholder can bring positive changes in the situation and status of women with special needs (Clare, 999).
A combined effort - more sensitivity, awareness, willingness, initiative - of women with special needs themselves, the government and non government organizations, common people, media personnel, law-makers and law-protectors, teachers, educators and trainers, can empower women with special needs in true sense and ensure their societal mainstreaming. This research study would be helpful to policy makers, government and Non-governmental organization for framing an appropriate policy to improve the quality of life and retention of women with special needs into mainstream stream of social life (Thomas & Thomas, 2007).
This study was interested to concentrate on to identify the status and social exclusion of women with special needs in Tiruchirappalli district. The researcher also focused on to analyze the impact of disability on their marital status, emotional disturbance, social attitude, abuse and violence against women with special needs, family adjustment and quality of life of women with special needs. This study would be of great help to the Disabled Rehabilitation Centers, organizations and policy
6 makers for improving and preparing appropriate policies & welfare programmes to improve the social inclusion and quality of life of women with special needs.
DEFINITION FOR SOCIAL EXCLUSION According to Peace (1999) "social exclusion" is a concept that can be defined and deployed in two ways: It can be defined narrowly - in which case it is used as a synonym for income poverty and refers specifically to either those people who are not attached to the paid labour market (exclusion from the paid workforce) or to those people in low-wage work. It is often used alongside the concept of "social cohesion" in the sense that a cohesive society is one in which (political, social and economic) stability is maintained and controlled by participation in the paid workforce. It can be defined broadly - in which case it refers to much more than poverty, income inequality, deprivation or lack of employment.
The psycho-social effects of exclusion may be psychological problems, relational problems, loss of identity, loss of cultural affiliations, de-integration from work relations, problems of mental depression, internal de-structuring of the person, loss of purpose, de-integration from family ties, processes of subjective implication, the inner dimension of poverty, and de-integration from social relations.
A widely cited definition in early European Union commentaries identified that social exclusion has three faces: i. Economic: The excluded are ... the unemployed, ... those deprived of access to assets such as property or credit, ii. Social: The loss of an individual's links to mainstream society, iii. Political: Certain categories of the population - such as women, ethnic and religious minorities, or migrants - are deprived of part or all of their political and human rights (Bhalla and Lapeyre quoted in Bessis 1995).
7 DEFINITION FOR WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES According to Disability Awareness in Action (1994), "Disabled women and girls are of all ages, all racial, ethnic, religious, and socioeconomic backgrounds and sexual orientations; they live in rural, urban and suburban communities; they have one or more impairments and experience barriers to their independence and opportunity at home, school, work and in the community."
According to the World Health Organisation, a disability is "any restriction or lack (resulting from any impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being." A disability includes those that: i. Are present, or ii. Once existed but don't any more, for example, a person who has had a back injury, a heart attack or an episode of mental illness, or iii. May exist in the future, for example, a person with a genetic predisposition to a disease, such as Huntington's disease or heart disease or a person who is HIV positive, or iv. Someone thinks or assumes a person has.
NATURE OF DISABILITY Disability may be defined in terms of three aspects: i. Impairment is any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological or anatomical structure or function. This could include blindness or deafness, loss of limb and so forth. ii. Disability is any functional restriction or lack (resulting from an impairment) of ability to perform an activity within the range considered normal for a human being. This could include walking, stretching, lifting, feeding and so on. iii. Handicap is the relationship between impaired and/or disabled people and their surroundings affecting their ability to participate normally in a given activity and which puts them at a disadvantage.
8 Who Do We Mean by "Disabled Women"? Disabled women are women who have one or more impairments and experience barriers in society. We include disabled girls and women of all ages, in rural and urban areas, regardless of the severity of the impairment, regardless of sexual preference and regardless of cultural background, or whether they live in the community or an institution.
An overview of women with disabilities Disabled people are known to be the poorest of the poor in every country. The problems of women are compounded by disability. For example, women are not targeted for prevention information campaigns on HIV infection. Disabled women are doubly ignored. Many disabled people, especially elderly disabled women, lead isolated lives - unable to go out of their own homes or even move around adequately inside them. Disabled people are often denied access to public places because of architectural barriers or discriminatory attitudes.
Most public transport is inaccessible to disabled people. In most countries, at least two-thirds of disabled people are unemployed. Disabled women find it four times harder than disabled men to get work. Access to communication and information, especially for those with visual, hearing or learning impairments, is limited. The situation of women with disabilities can be summarized as follows: i. 10 per cent of the world's population, 650 million people, lives with a disability. ii. 30 per cent of families live with a family member who has a disability. iii. 80 per cent of persons with disabilities live in developing countries. iv. 20 per cent of the poor in developing countries live with disabilities. v. In countries with life expectancies of more than 70 years, people spend an average of eight years with disabilities. vi. Persons with disabilities are as likely as persons without disabilities to be sexually active. vii. Persons with disabilities are at increased risk of HIV/AIDS.
9 viii. Persons with disabilities are up to three times more likely to be victims of physical and sexual abuse and rape and have less access to physical, psychological and judicial interventions. ix. Persons with disabilities often experience forced sterilization, forced abortion and forced marriage.
TYPES OF DISABILITY
Hearing Impairment— Hearing impairment is a generic term including both deaf and hard of hearing which refers to persons with any type or degree of hearing loss that causes difficulty working in a traditional way. It can affect the whole range or only part of the auditory spectrum which, for speech perception, the important region is between 250 and 4,000 Hz. The term deaf is used to describe people with profound hearing loss such that they cannot benefit from amplification, while hard of hearing is used for those with mild to severe hearing loss but who can benefit from amplification.
Deaf (+/- Deafened)— Refers to those persons with hearing impairments with a loss so severe that it precludes the use of the auditory channel as the primary means of Speech/Language and information processing.
Hard of Hearing— Refers to those persons with hearing impairments with a permanent or fluctuating hearing loss which is permits the use of the auditory channel for a certain amount of speech/language and information gathering functions with the use of an aid.
Mobility Impairment — reduced function of legs and feet leads to users depending on a wheelchair or artificial aid to walking. In addition to people who are born with a disability, this group includes a large number of people whose condition is caused by age or accidents.
10 Visual Impairment can be explained in the following three subdivisions:
i. Blindness: Legally blindness indicates that a person has less than 20/200 vision in the better eye or a very limited field of vision (20 degrees at its widest point). Totally blind people cannot see at all. This makes it impossible to view a computer monitor and renders the computer inaccessible without adaptive assistance and non-visual media.
ii. Colour Blindness: Inability to perceive colours in a normal fashion. The most common colour scheme that is affected is red/green. Another common colour scheme is blue/yellow. Colour blindness almost exclusively affects men. Incidence is about 1 in 10. The primary implication on computer operation is colour scheming on the screen.
iii. Low Vision: Severely visually impaired after correction but can increase visual function with the use of adaptive aids. According to the World Health Organization, Low Vision corresponds to visual acuity of less than 6/18 (0.3) but equal to or better than 3/60 in the better eye with best correction. When ordinary eye glasses, contact lenses or intraocular lens implants cannot provide sharp sight and an individual is said to have low vision. Although reduced central or reading vision is common, low vision may also result from decreased side (peripheral) vision, a reduction of loss of color vision, or the eye's inability to properly adjust to light, contrast or glare.
Intellectual Disability: Intellectual disability is a broad concept that ranges from mental retardation to cognitive deficits too mild or too specific (as in specific learning disability) to qualify as mental retardation. Intellectual disabilities may appear at any age. Mental retardation is a subtype of intellectual disability, and the term intellectual disability is now preferred by many advocates in most English-speaking countries.
11 Mental Disorder: A mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern generally associated with subjective distress or disability that occurs in an individual, and perceived by the majority of society as being outside of normal development or cultural expectations. The recognition and understanding of mental health conditions has changed over time and across cultures, and there are still variations in the definition, assessment, and classification of mental disorders, although standard guideline criteria are widely accepted.
Mental Retardation: A condition of arrested or incomplete development of mind of a person, which is specially characterized by sub normality of intelligence (Kleeman & Wilson, 2007).
Area of study During the study survey mainly four categories of disability was found among the focused group: i. VI: Visually Impaired ii. HI: Hearing Impaired iii. PI: Physically Impaired iv. MI: Mild Mentally Illness DISCRIMINATION OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
Women with disabilities face discrimination on many areas: Education Many disabled women are deprived of their rights as citizens, and in this way the society is also deprived of their abilities and knowledge, when their access to education is prohibited or restricted. Due to the traditional views of women's roles, it is even more difficult to convince society, not to mention many families, that their disabled daughters must receive education in a normal way, as far as possible. In many societies it is understood that women do not need education, and if in addition they are disabled, the encouragement they receive from their family to obtain a normal education is practically non-existent, and as a result the level of illiteracy in disabled
12 women is higher than in disabled men (Stace, 1986). Traditionally, schools for disabled children are most commonly segregated institutions for those with visual, hearing and intellectual impairments. Girls with extensive physical disabilities have even less opportunity for schooling. A study of disabled girls, both in special (usually residential) schools and in regular schools, found that those in special schools were less proficient in basic literacy and numeracy skills, had lower expectations about their own capabilities and lacked confidence in social settings.
Workplace discrimination The labor market does not adequately accommodate women with disabilities, nor are there sufficient laws to prevent and punish harassment, either sexual harassment or harassment on the basis of disability. According the United Nations only one quarter of women with disabilities worldwide is in the workforce. They are twice as unlikely to find work as men with disabilities. Workplace harassment of employees with disabilities also is commonplace, and biases can be particularly severe with regard to people with "hidden disabilities," such as mental disabilities. Pervasive ignorance frequently leads potential employers to reject women with disabilities because they mistakenly assume that the women will not be able to fulfill job requirements or those reasonable accommodations will be extensive and costly. The unemployment rate for women with disabilities in developing countries is virtually 100%.
Marriage and Family Here, too, the majority of disabled women are also discriminated, as from the outset women are judged by their physical looks and not by their qualities as human beings. Disabled women do not meet the set standards, and their sexuality is barely recognised. The possibility of being considered asexual, and therefore of being deprived of their right of bringing up a family, childbirth, adoption, and housekeeping, etc, is directly proportional to how evident the disability is. There are permanent debates on the role women are supposed to play, and that assigned to disabled persons.
13 As a result, while women in general are pressured by society to motherhood, disabled women are forced into not having children, and this many times leads to unauthorized sterilization, or denial of adoption on the basis of the "incapacity of the mother" to take care of them adequately. A consequence of this situation is that the number of couples where the disabled partner is a woman is much lower as compared to where the disabled partner is a man.
Two-tiered and triple bind discrimination Throughout the world, women with disabilities are subject to two-tiered discrimination, based on their gender and disability. They are denied jobs, excluded from schools, are considered unworthy of marriage or partnership, and are even barred from certain religious practices. Women and girls with disabilities are often the last to receive the necessary support to enable them to overcome poverty and lead productive and fulfilling lives (e.g., education, employment, appropriate general health care services). They are at higher risk for abuse and violence, which can, in turn, aggravate existing disabilities or create secondary disabilities, such as psychosocial trauma.
The susceptibility of women with disabilities to discrimination is a global phenomenon, but how a society or culture understands and addresses this issue varies greatly. Women with disabilities in the developing world experience a triple bind: I. They are discriminated against because they are women; II. They are discriminated against because they have disabilities; III. They are discriminated against because they are from the developing world where they are more likely to be poor, where opportunities and accessibility for girls and women with disabilities are extremely restricted and where prejudice against this group is pervasive.
ATTITUDES AND WRONG IDEAS Attitudes and wrong ideas about what a disabled woman can or cannot do prevent a disabled woman from living a full and healthy life, or taking part in the life of her community. They add to her disability by creating barriers that can prevent her
14 from getting education or work, and from having a social life. A woman who cannot walk may be capable of having a very good career and be able to earn money to support her family. But if her family or community are ashamed of the way she moves and want her to stay hidden, then it is their feelings of shame that will make her disabled. All communities include people with impairments. That is normal. But it is not normal for a person to be discriminated against and excluded because she has impairment (Yuker, & Young, 1970).
FEWER RESOURCES AND PHYSICAL BARRIERS In many communities, women have fewer resources than men. This inequality between men and women is also true among people with disabilities. Wheelchairs, artificial limbs, sign language classes, Braille slates (which enable blind women to read) and other resources are often expensive and less available for disabled women than for disabled men. Without aids like these, girls and women with disabilities have a hard time getting education and doing things for themselves. As a result, they are less able to get jobs, to take control of their own lives, and to take an active part in the life of their communities (Stace, 1986).
Many women with disabilities cannot use community facilities, banks, or hospitals because most buildings have no ramps, handrails, elevators, or lifts. Physical barriers make it difficult for women with disabilities to move around by themselves. When women are stopped by these barriers, they are often unable to get good food, enough exercise, or the health care they need. Many people, including health workers, may believe that if a woman who uses a wheelchair cannot get into a building because there are only stairs, then she must learn to wear leg braces, or use crutches, or have someone carry her. It is not her disability, but the physical barriers that make it impossible for her to get into the building. If there was a ramp so she could roll her wheelchair into the building, there would not be a problem (Lonsdale, 1990).
15 The medical understanding of disability Many doctors and other health workers see only the disability someone may have. They do not see a person with a disability as a total person or woman. They think people with "impairments" have something "wrong" with them and must be cured, rehabilitated, or protected. When stairs or bad attitudes make hospitals and other public health facilities not useable by everyone, then it is the medical system which has something "wrong" with it and must be cured or rehabilitated. In those cases, it is not a woman's disability but the medical understanding of disability that makes it impossible for her to live a healthy and fulfilling life.
Another main reason for the regretful situation is that medical programmes are generally disease-oriented and not ability-oriented. Consequently, life-threatening or "serious" conditions receive the most attention while "natural" and "incidental" defects are to be endured with patience. Women being weaker and the walking symbols of tolerance (Indian women are compared to Mother Earth with insistence on their patience and docile nature) are made to bear the brunt of all these traditional notions regarding disabilities.
MYTH ABOUT WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES There are many myths surround the women with disabilities. Local customs and beliefs may include wrong and harmful ideas about disability. Some people think a woman gets a disability if she or her parents did something bad in a former life, or that they displeased their ancestors, or one of her parents had a sexual relationship outside their marriage. Usually people blame the mother. But mothers are not to blame for a child's disability. And blaming anyone for a disability does not help. Another harmful idea about disability is the belief that anybody who is 'different' should be excluded, mocked and criticized. Some people think a person with a disability is a bad omen or will bring bad luck. Women with disabilities are often abused, or forced to become beggars or do sex work for a living. Sometimes women with disabilities are sexually abused because people believe they are free of HIV/AIDS or that having sex with a disabled woman can cure HIV/AIDS. But the truth is that no woman with a
16 disability should ever be abused; disability is never a punishment; disability is not caused by witchcraft or a curse; disability is not infectious and cannot spread to other people. VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES: VULNERABILITY FOR ABUSE
Vulnerability for abuse is a product of the complex interaction of individual, intrapersonal, and societal/institutional factors. Abuse has been associated with depression and stress among women with disabilities in several of our recent studies. Other factors possibly contributing to increased vulnerability include the combined cultural devaluation of women with disabilities, often compounded by age-related devaluation, overprotection, and internalized societal expectations. Women with disabilities may have had fewer opportunities to learn sexual likes and dislikes and to set pleasing boundaries, perceiving celibacy or violent sexual encounters as their only choices, believing no loving person would be attracted to them.
They are often perceived to be powerless and physically helpless. Although women with severe disabilities face many barriers to the expression of their sexuality and, statistically, they are less likely to be married and more likely to live alone, many people mistakenly assume that all women with disabilities do not date, do not live with significant others, do not marry, do not have children, and do not desire such relationships, especially if they exhibit visible signs of disability such as disfigurement or use of a wheelchair. The assumption follows that an abnormal appearance makes such women undesirable to potential perpetrators of sexual assault.
Vulnerability associated with the need for personal assistance and the problem of social isolation deserves special attention (Yuker, & Young, 1970). The large majority of women who have significant functional limitations depend on family for personal assistance, since assistance from outside the family is often expensive and not very reliable. In the event that the person providing the assistance is the perpetrator of abuse, the disabled woman may perceive that this is her only option and that abuse is the price she must pay for survival (Sales, & Frieze, 1984).
17 The exposure to situations of violence possibly comes from attitudes and considerations towards women emerged from a masculine society, added to certain conditions due to disability itself, such as:
i. The fact of being less capable of self defence (physical). ii. Greater difficulties to report maltreatment due to difficulties in communicating. iii. Difficulties in accessing information and counselling places, due mainly to architectural and communication barriers. iv. A lower self-esteem and disregard of their image as women. v. The contradiction between the assignments of traditional roles to women with the lack of these roles in disabled women. vi. A greater amount of dependence on other people for care and less credibility. vii. Fear of reporting the abuse, as it might cause the breaking of bonds and loss of special care.
The women who suffer the most severe and frequent attacks are those with a multiple-disability, problems in mental development, problems in communication, and those disabled from birth. But, above all these circumstances that lead to ignorance and disregard of the situation, is the fact of discrimination and a heavy social prejudice towards disabled women. They have made previous reference to the cultural, religious, etc component which determines the way in which people, more specifically disabled women, are perceived by society. That is, as imperfect, dependent and weak beings. If we add to this portrait the taboos and motivations that surround, for example, sexual abuse, they have find powerful elements that permit the situation of aggressions, mainly against women, to continue (Stace, 1986).
In an attempt to explain why there is a general tendency to maltreat and abuse these women, D.Sobsey (1990) identified various myths with which society has surrounded people that do not fit in the common pattern of a "normal" being. So the myth of "dehumanisation" portrays disabled people as beings in a "vegetative state" and therefore members of an inferior society. Any violation or abuse committed
18 against these persons is not considered in the rapist's mind as a crime of the same magnitude.
TYPES OF VIOLENCE The following classification of different types of violence is based on declarations made within the frame of respect to human rights and non-violence. Starting from these definitions, we believe that a wider approximation to the different situations of violence and abuse that disabled women are liable to suffer is possible. When trying to classify the different shapes that violence against women can adopt, they must bear in mind two types of violence: "active violence" when the person that commits the aggression participates actively, and "passive violence " when an action is left undone (omitted). Furthermore there are signs that can indicate evidence of possible situations of violence (Krefting Eds. 1996).
Active Violence The epicenter of active violence is in carrying out the abuse on the victim. This category is formed by other categories such as: i. Physical abuse
ii. Emotional sexual or Economical abuse
Passive Violence
In the category of "passive violence" they find: i. Physical neglect ii. Emotional neglect Active Violence The following is a brief description of the different kinds of active violence that can be performed against disabled women in their habitual environment, as well as the way they are usually practiced.
19 Physical Abuse Any direct or indirect action that can damage the life, welfare or health of disabled women, provoking pain, unnecessary suffering or health deficiency can be termed as active violence. Manifestations: i. Aggressions in different parts of the body. ii. Unjustified administration of drugs. iii. Restrictions of mobility. Alert Signs: i. To be found in sedative or nervous conditions. ii. Motor dysfunction not due to their disability. iii. Signs of physical violence: marks in wrists and ankles, fractures, bites, internal damages, burns, etc. iv. Detriment in their remains of physical capacity.
Emotional Abuse Behaviour model that results from damage to the welfare and emotional balance of a disabled woman can be emotional abuse. Manifestations: i. Isolation, prohibiting or limiting the access to means of communication (phone, mail.), to information and to keep in contact with other relatives and neighbours. ii. Oral cruelty, by means of insults, constant criticism, making fun of their body, punishments in the presence of others. iii. Over protection. iv. Speaking, deciding or giving opinions in her name. v. Intimidation, and /or emotional blackmail. Alert Signs: i. Depression. ii. Communication and interrelation difficulties. iii. Insecurity and low self-esteem.
20 Sexual Abuse Actions that are a sexual aggression towards disabled women, and can produce physical or emotional harm. Manifestations: i. Rape. ii. Sexual vexation or humiliation. Alert Signs: i. Marks or/and injuries in genitals. ii. Fear to relate with certain people. iii. Undesired pregnancies. iv. Venereal diseases.
Economical Abuse Actions that pursue the loss of control and rights on properties, money or family shared inheritances. The use of the image of a disabled woman against her will, to gain money for third persons, is also considered economic abuse. Manifestations: i. The use of disabled girls or women in mendacity. ii. Employing disabled women in poorly paid jobs usually linked to clandestine employment. iii. Limiting the access to information and management of personal economy. iv. The use of money as a sanction. v. The family denies the access to external economic resources (jobs, grants..). Alert Signs: i. Depending too much on others. ii. Little expectations regarding herself and her personal or professional projection.
21 Physical Neglect: It is understood as such, the denial or privation of the basic aspects to keep the body in good shape, in relation with health, hygiene and image. Manifestations: i. Negligence in feeding. ii. Personal carelessness. iii. Neglecting hygienic measures. iv. Lack of supervision. Alert Signs: i. Malnutrition. ii. Frequent illnesses not caused by disability. iii. Inadequate cloths regarding sex, climate, and the persons' handicaps. iv. Dirty clothes. v. Long periods of time without supervision. vi. Physical problems worsen due to lack of treatment. It is important to point out that in most cases, the conditions given by their own disability make it difficult to report the violent attack by the victims themselves. So may the associations of people with disabilities, professionals and society in general, be the echo of this problem and also give the voice of alarm about these violent practices against these women (Crawford, & Ostrove, 2003).
DISABLED WOMEN AND THE MEDIA Media, in the form of television, radio, print, movies and theatre is a uniquely powerful shaping tool. It shapes the way in which society views and understands the world. Whether one uses media on a micro or macro level, it has the unequalled capacity to examine, communicate, educate and inform about people, places and ideas. Mindful of its ever-expanding nature and role in shaping society's views of itself, they have to consider the way in which media communicates images of disadvantaged groups; minority groups; marginalized groups and in this instance one such group is the estimated 13% of disabled in India in particular, disabled women. I'd like us to examine the current status of disabled people in general but hone in on the
22 status of disabled women for a moment by looking at the following key gender issues and disability. They will also look at how the media can be instrumental in either perpetuating the situation or in redressing it (Brown, 1998).
Visual Media As it stands, visual media, including Television and movies, negate the existence of disabled people, by virtue of its portrayal. Disabled women do not buy products, fall in love or have careers. The sight of a disabled person thus becomes unusual and unusual sights are stared at often leaving disabled people feeling like outcasts in society. For example, have you ever seen a disabled woman buy detergents, give a child medicine or engage in any activities of daily living in advertising and commercials (Rousso, 1996).
Print Media - Language Upon examining the use of language in relation to disabled people in the print and electronic media we will discover the effect it has on society and how this impacts on the lives of disabled people. With the Internet and the electronic media, fast communication with the general public through the written word reaches extensive numbers of people. This means that the media is once again in a powerful position to shape attitudes and beliefs towards disabled people. With certain words and phrases, they are inclined towards certain action and behaviour towards a particular group of people. For example, if they say that a person who uses a wheelchair is "wheelchair bound" or "confined to a wheelchair", non-disabled people feel that they cannot socialize (ACTION) with that person as he/she will restrict their own movement. But, the fact of the matter is that a wheelchair is a liberating device not a binding/confining device.
If we say that a person who is physically disabled is "physically challenged", they imply that barriers (because barriers challenge) are good and that they exist to build a disabled person's character. Society will then make no effort to remove barriers. The media also likes to describe disabled people as extra-ordinary by using
23 phrases. In fact, the disabled person being described here only did what had to be done in much the same way, as any non-disabled person would have. Again, the media portrays disabled people as deserving of their circumstances by using words such as "victim", "afflicted" or "inflicted". These words also sensationalize disability and should be avoided. It is this type of word usage that makes disabled people to have the feelings of guilt and shame (Roeher, 2001).
The Effect of Negative Images and Language on society Being constantly fed a diet of negative images and language by the media results in a society that believes that disabled people are eternally sick and belong in hospital or an institution of some kind. This is true by evidence of the negligible numbers of disabled people we see interacting with non-disabled people in places of employment, in our schools, in our sports and social clubs, even in our places of worship. In this they can see that the potential of disabled people to achieve and succeed is not acknowledged by society because they have been socialized into believing that anything less than "normal" is useless. And this might be true, again by evidence, for, if we look around us in our communities and try to identify disabled people who have realised their potential, we will find that they are few and far between.
The Effect of Negative Images and Language on disabled people The reason that disabled people are not integrated into the activities of non- disabled people is because, like non-disabled people, we also are fed a constant diet of negative images and language by the media. Behavioural scientists will tell us that if you tell a person long enough that they are a certain way, or should behave in a particular manner, they will be just that! (In a nutshell, the labelling of disabled people through negative media makes them indulge in self-pity, act sickly and poverty- stricken and wait on mercy gifts of charity from some well meaning Samaritan. This can be no good for the mental, physical or spiritual well being of any person (Rieve, 1989).
24 WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES AND COMMUNITY BASED REHABILITATION (CBR)
Women with disabilities generally have less access to rehabilitation services than disabled men. In accordance with the traditional social and cultural norms in village societies, many women do not go out of their houses to seek help for health care, especially if the care-provider is a male. Most rehabilitation personnel, including Community Based Rehabilitation (CBR) workers in developing countries are men. Thus even home based services provided by male CBR workers, are out of reach for women with disabilities. Strangers, even if they are part of a service provider team, are usually not allowed inside the house in traditional societies.
If these strangers are male, it is next to impossible for them to even talk to the women in the house. Even if a traditional community accepts males as service providers in health care and rehabilitation to some extent, it still would be impossible for them to provide services to, or teach, the women in the community. Such a situation can only be improved if local women were to be trained as rehabilitation workers. While women rehabilitation workers are becoming more common in the sub¬ continent, cultural barriers continue to persist, preventing women from taking up rehabilitation work in the community setting, because it involves visits to houses of strangers. (Clare, 999)
The preponderance of male rehabilitation workers and the relative absence of trained women workers in a community setting are major barriers faced by women with disabilities in the sub-continent from accessing rehabilitation services. In the case of fitment of mobility aids in particular, women with disabilities experience a unique difficulty. A large majority of people with disabilities in the sub-continent, many of whom are women, require mobility aids because of polio and other physical disabilities. However, most trained technicians in orthotics and prosthetics are male, and women with disabilities who require mobility aids are unable to access the services of measurement and fitting of aids from male technicians due to the cultural taboo related to being examined by men.
25 Women with disabilities also have less access to other health care, education or vocational training opportunities than disabled men. But this situation is common to women in general in the traditional societies in the sub-continent, where women's health needs are usually relegated to the last place in the hierarchy of family needs, where women's education is considered as an 'unnecessary luxury', and where women are not expected to go out and work to earn a living. Hence the problem of access to services not unique to disabled women (McGrath, et al., 2000).
PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES IN COMMUNITY LIFE
Women with disabilities tend to have fewer opportunities to participate in community life than disabled men, mainly due to cultural reasons. Restricted mobility and absence of access provisions in the surrounding environment can also be a hampering factor in the participation of women with disabilities in community life, but this aspect is common to disabled men as well. Families of disabled women in general tend to be over-protective about them, and prevent them from going out much, for fear that they may be exploited in some way because of their disability.
Although well-intentioned, these anxieties can be stifling to women with disabilities. There are superstitions in village communities about the presence of disabled women being inauspicious in community gatherings. It is also believed that their presence in a family can block the chances of marriages of their female siblings. As a result, many women with disabilities remain confined to their parental homes, without being able to play the roles traditionally expected of women in society. This can lead to feelings of isolation, loneliness and low self esteem in women with disabilities. Families in traditional societies are generally supportive in terms of physical assistance to their disabled women, but often fail in providing emotional support which is a more complex issue. Many families ignore the existence of feelings, emotions and the need for emotional support in women, especially if they are also disabled (Lonsdale, 1990).
26 In recent years, many self help groups and associations of people with disabilities have been established in most countries in the sub-continent, but women with disabilities are under-represented in these groups. The leadership in disability groups at various levels tends to be dominated by disabled men. Likewise, women with disabilities are hardly represented in the women's movement that has grown in these countries over the last decade, because they are seen as 'different' or 'disabled', and not as 'women'. As a result, the concerns that are unique to women with disabilities have tended to remain neglected by both the disability movement and the women's movement (Coley, & Marler, 2004).
THE TWIN TRACK APPROACH TO ADDRESS MULTIPLE-
DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES The Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disability (CRPD) engages with the issue of multiple-discrimination by adopting the twin track approach. Twin track approach is addressing inequalities between disabled and non-disabled persons in all strategic areas of our work and supporting specific initiatives to enhance the empowerment of people with disabilities. This will ensure the equality of rights and opportunities for persons with disabilities. It incorporates a dedicated article on women with disabilities and simultaneously, gender concerns have been addressed in certain other articles of the CRPD on issues of special concern to disabled women. Article 6 of the CRPD provides that States parties must recognize that women and girls with disabilities face multiple discriminations and must take all appropriate measures to ensure their full development, advancement and empowerment, and for the enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedoms set forth in the CRPD. Apart form this special article, gender concerns find mention in the preamble and in articles relating to general principles, awareness-raising, freedom from exploitation, violence and abuse, health and adequate standard of living and social protection.
The twin track approach is a new strategy to address double discrimination. By providing both a special provision and incorporation of gender concerns in general provisions, it guarantees to disabled women both same and different. The same
27 approach should be adopted in the new domestic law. While the right is the same, certain issues may be distinct for women with disabilities, e.g. reproductive autonomy. Thus addressing this issue in the chapter on health would ensure that this specific concern is taken into account. Moreover, incorporating gender concerns at several places in the Act would facilitate implementation.
It is likely that an administrator whose main area of concern is, say, health would focus only on the chapter on health and may somewhat ignore the remaining provisions, even though a holistic reading of the legislation is desirable. Here, twin- tracking would ensure that specific concerns of women with disabilities are not ignored. At the same time, a dedicated provision is required to acknowledge that disabled women face marginalization and double discrimination generally, with respect to all rights. It would ensure that the mention of gender concerns in certain provision does not result in the freezing of enforcement measures for women with disabilities only with respect to those issues. The dedicated provision would ensure that all rights, entitlements and programmatic interventions throughout the legislation apply equally to women with disabilities (Walter, & Langdon, 2001).
HUMAN RIGHTS AND LAWS - WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES Women with disabilities everywhere contend with physical, cultural and social barriers, which constrain their lives and limit their opportunities, even if rehabilitation assistance and other supports are available. The UN Declaration of the Rights of Disabled Persons (1975) proclaims the right of all persons with disabilities to all human rights including the right to self-reliance and to "medical, psychological and functional treatment," the right to social security, to having special needs taken into account in social and economic planning, to protection from all forms of exploitation, and the right to be informed of their rights (Crawford & Ostrove, 2003).
The Women's Convention (CEDAW) is a valuable tool for advancing the rights of women with disabilities. Specifically, General Recommendation No.18 adopted by the Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination in 1991,
28 calls on States to "provide information on disabled women in their periodic reports, and on measures taken to deal with their particular situation." The Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities is the primary international mechanism for advancing the human rights of people with disabilities.
More generally, UN Declaration of the Rights of Disabled Persons (1975), the UN World Programme of Action concerning Disabled Persons (1982) and Towards a society for all: Long-term Strategy to Implement the World Programme of Action concerning Disabled Persons to the Year 2000 and Beyond are important documents in human rights advocacy by and for women with disabilities (Yuker, & Young, 1970).
CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES The Convention on the Rights of Persons with disabilities is a great milestone in the effort to protect the women with disabilities. The Preamble of the Convention in recognizes that women and girls with disabilities are often at greater risk, both within and outside the home of violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation (q). Article 3 insists on equality between men and women. Article 6 speaks exclusively on women with disabilities: 1. States Parties recognize that women and girls with disabilities are subject to multiple discriminations, and in this regard shall take measures to ensure the full and equal enjoyment by them of all their human rights and fundamental freedoms. 2. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure the full development, advancement and empowerment of women, for the purpose of guaranteeing them the exercise and enjoyment of the human rights and fundamental freedoms set out in the present Convention.
29 LEGISLATIONS TO PROMOTE AND PROTECT RIGHTS OF THE WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES The following legislations were enacted to help the women with disabilities: i. The Mental Health Act of India, 1987 is meant to protect the rights of persons with intellectual and psychological impediments as they are the most vulnerable and are discriminated both outside and within the families.
ii. The Rehabilitation Council of India Act 1992 led to the establishment of the Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI). The RCI is responsible for standardizing and monitoring training courses for rehabilitation professionals, granting recognition to institutions running courses, and maintaining a Central Rehabilitation Register of rehabilitation professionals. The RCI Act was amended in 2000 to give the RCI the additional responsibility of promoting research in rehabilitation and special education.
iii. The Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act 1995 for the first time provided a legal framework for persons with disabilities and protected their rights. It lays down what education and employment opportunities must be created for the disabled, stipulates the creation of barrier-free access to public places and public transport, and supports the right of disabled persons to live independent lives.
iv. The National Trust Act 1999 provides for the constitution of a national body for the welfare of people with autism, cerebral palsy, mental retardation, and multiple disabilities. The Act mandates the promotion of measures for the care and protection of persons with these disabilities in the event of the death of their parents, procedures for appointment of guardians and trustees for persons in need of such protection, and support to registered
30 organisations to provide need-based services in times of crisis to the families of the disabled. (Kleeman, & Wilson, 2007). In addition to the above legal frameworks, in February 2006 the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government of India, have released the National Policy for Persons with Disabilities, which says, "The National Policy recognises that persons with disabilities are valuable human resource for the country and seeks to create an environment that provides them equal opportunities, protection of their rights and full participation in society."
India is also a signatory to the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) declaration to extend of the Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons, 1993-2002, for another decade, 2003-2012. This declaration is also known as - Biwako Millennium Framework for Action - Towards an Inclusive, Barrier-Free and Rights-Based Society for Persons with Disabilities in Asia and the Pacific. Moreover, India is playing an active role in the ongoing consultations in drafting the Comprehensive and Integral International Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights and Dignity of Persons with Disabilities (McGrath, et al., 2000).
GOVERNMENT SCHEMES FOR EMPOWERNMENT OF WOMEN
WITH DISABILITIES
Assistance to Disabled Persons for Purchase / Fitting of Aids and
Appliances (ADIP Scheme) The main objective of the Scheme is to assist the needy disabled persons in procuring durable, sophisticated and scientifically manufactured, modern, standard aids and appliances that can promote their physical, social and psychological rehabilitation, by reducing the effects of disabilities and enhance their economic potential. The aids and appliances supplied under the Scheme must be ISI.
31 Deendayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme to promote Voluntary Action for Persons with Disabilities (Revised DDRS Scheme) To facilitate delivery of various services to persons with disabilities by voluntary organizations, the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment is administering DDRS scheme and providing grants-in-aid to NGOs for the following projects: i. Vocational Training Centres ii. Sheltered Workshops iii. Special Schools for the Persons with Disabilities iv. Project for Cerebral Palsied Children v. Project for Pre-School and Early Intervention and Training vi. Home based Rehabilitation Program / Home Management Programme vii. Project for Rehabilitation of Leprosy Cured Persons (LCPs) viii. Project relating to Survey, Identification, Awareness and Sensitization ix. Project for Community Based Rehabilitation x. Project for Human Resource Development xi. Seminars / Workshops / Rural Camps xii. Project for Legal Literacy, Including Legal Counselling, Legal Aid and Analysis and Evaluation of Existing Laws xiii. Environment Friendly and Eco-Promotive Projects for the Handicapped xiv. Grant for Purchase of Vehicle xv. Construction of Building xvi. Grant for Computer xvii. Project for Low Vision Centres xviii. Half Way Home for Psycho-Social Rehabilitation of Treated and Controlled Mentally Ill Persons xix. District Disability Rehabilitation Centres (DDRCs)
Scheme of National Awards for Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities Empowerment of persons with disabilities is an inter-disciplinary process, covering various aspects namely, prevention, early detection, intervention, education,
32 vocational training, rehabilitation and social integration etc. Apart from resources, it requires dedicated efforts of persons and institutions involved in the process of empowerment. In order to recognise their effort and encourage others to strive to achieve excellence in this field, separate awards are being presented to the most efficient/outstanding employees with disabilities, best employers, best placement agency/officer, outstanding individuals, outstanding institutions, role models, outstanding creative disabled individuals and for outstanding technological innovation and adaptation of innovation to provide cost effective technology.
Awards are also given to Government Sector, Public Sector Undertakings and private enterprises for creating barrier free environment for the persons with disabilities, the best district in the field of disability rehabilitation, best Local Level Committee of the National Trust and to the best State Channelising Agency (SCA) of the National Handicapped Finance and Development Corporation (NHFDC). Preference is given to the placement of women with disabilities, particularly, from the rural areas and self-employed women.
Scheme of National Scholarships for Persons with Disabilities Under the Scheme of National Scholarships for Persons with Disabilities, every year 500 new scholarships are awarded for pursuing post matric professional and technical courses of duration more than one year. However, in respect of students with cerebral palsy, mental retardation, multiple disabilities and profound or severe hearing impairment, scholarship are awarded for pursuing studies from IX Std. onwards. Advertisements inviting applications for scholarships are given in leading national/regional newspapers in the month of June and also placed on the website of the Ministry.
State Government/UT Administrations are also requested to give wide publicity to the scheme. The students who have 40% or more disability, whose monthly family income does not exceed Rs. 15,000.00, are eligible for scholarship. A scholarship of Rs. 700.00 per month to day-scholars and Rs. 1,000.00 per month to
33 hostellers is provided to the students pursuing Graduate and Post Graduate level technical or professional courses. A scholarship or Rs. 400.00 per month to day scholars and Rs. 700.00 per month to hostellers is provided for pursuing diploma and certificate level professional courses. In addition to the scholarship, the students are reimbursed the course fee subject to a ceiling of Rs. 10,000.00 per year. Financial assistance under the scheme is also given for computer with editing software for blind/ deaf graduate and postgraduate students pursuing professional courses and for support access software for cerebral palsied students.
Schemes arising out of the Implementation of the Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995 A number of schemes are being formulated under the Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities Protection of Rights and full participation) Act, 1995 also. Schemes under implementation at present are as under:- a. Incentives to Employers in the Private Sector for Providing Regular Employment to Persons with Disabilities: A Central Sector Scheme of providing one-lakh jobs per annum to the persons with disabilities, with a proposed outlay of Rs.1800 crore, during the 11th Plan Period has already been sanctioned from 1.4.2008 by the Government. Under the Scheme, the Government will make payment of the employer's contribution to the Employees Provident Fund and Employees State Insurance for the first three years, as an incentive, in return of employment of persons with disabilities with monthly wage up to Rs 25000/- per month. b. Models to promote awareness about accessibility features in public buildings: Funds are being provided to Universities / Administrative Training Centres in the States/UTs and State Secretariats etc. for installing lifts etc. to provided barrier free access to persons with disabilities. c. Composite Regional Centres for Persons with Disabilities (CRCs): Due to lack of adequate facilities for rehabilitation of Persons with Disabilities,
34 the Ministry has set up five Composite Regional Centres for Persons with Disabilities at Srinagar, Sundernagar (Himachal Pradesh), Lucknow, Bhopal and Guwahati to provide both preventive and promotional aspects of rehabilitation like education, health, employment and vocational training, research and manpower development, rehabilitation for persons with disabilities etc. d. District Disability Rehabilitation Centers (DDRCs): The Ministry with active support of State Governments is facilitating setting up District Disability Rehabilitation Centers (DDRCs) to provide rehabilitation services to persons with disabilities. Centres are being set up in unreached and unserved districts of the country in a phased manner. These centers are to provide services for prevention and early detection, referral for medical intervention and surgical correction, fitment of artificial aids and appliances, therapeutical services such as physiotherapy, occupational and speech therapy, provision of training for acquisition of skills through vocational training, job placement in local industries etc. at district headquarters as well as through camp approach. 100 new DDRCs are going to be set up by 2012, out of which 50 DDRCs are to be set up during current financial year and remaining 50 are set up during next financial year. e. Awareness Generation Programme: A pilot project for creation of awareness on prevention and early detection and intervention of various types of disabilities has been taken up. The project envisages dissemination of information in rural areas through Anganwadi workers and covers 30 districts (17 in Uttar Pradesh and 13 in Bihar). Recently a pilot project has been taken up in 13 districts of Assam also. The programme is under implementation. f. Technology Development Projects in Mission Mode: With a view to provide suitable and cost effective aids and appliances through the application of technology and to increase their employment opportunities and integration in society of the physically disabled, the above scheme was started during 1990¬ 91. Under the scheme, suitable R&D projects are identified and funded for developing aids and appliances. The scheme is implemented through the IITs.
35 Educational Institutes, Research Agencies and Voluntary Organisations etc. Financial assistance is provided on 100% basis. The four Technical Advisory Groups monitor the selection of the projects and also their progress at different stages in areas of disabilities, namely, Orthopaedic (including Cerebral Palsy), Visual, Speech and Hearing and Mental. All the projects those are recommended by the respective Technical Advisory Groups placed before the Apex Level Committee headed by Secretary, Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.
Scheme of Assistance to Disabled Persons for Purchase/Fitting of Aids/Appliances (ADIP Scheme) The Scheme aims at helping the disabled persons by bringing suitable, durable, scientifically-manufactured, modern, standard aids and appliances within their reach. The estimates, according to 58th Sample Survey conducted by NSSO in 2002, indicate that there are about18.04 million persons with various types of disabilities in the country. Their disabilities restrict the opportunity for their economic and social growth. In addition, about 3 % of the children below 14 years of age suffer from delayed development. Many of them are mentally retarded and cerebral palsied and require some aids/appliances to attain the capacity for self-care and independent living (District Disability Rehabilitation Office, Tamil Nadu).
ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS (NGOs) FOR
EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), have played a major role in disability services in India. There are a number of governmental and non¬ governmental agencies working for the welfare of the physically and the mentally disabled. Due to greedy intermediaries and the various biases of the government itself, the governmental agencies do not have as wide a reach as the NGOs. As a result, the beneficiaries of governmental welfare projects are always subject to manipulation by mercenary forces. Women with disabilities come into the limelight mainly during election campaigns when candidates of political parties vie with each other in offering
36 them tricycles and sewing machines. Magazines and newspapers publish photos galore, showing these candidates posing with the women, to emphasise the generosity of the political parties.
Over the years, many dedicated men and women have voluntarily given their time, wealth, skills and energies to provide caring services to add to or enhance already too-far-stretched statutory services. The history of the disability movement in India over the last 50 years is a testimony to the commitment and determination of these individuals. However, it is embarrassing to acknowledge that a vast number of NGOs remain starved for resources, staffed by extremely underpaid personnel who additionally perform services in very unsatisfactory conditions.
As a consequence of loose or non-existent organizational structures, the output of many of these organizations tends to be haphazard, uncoordinated and dependent on the goodwill of a few founding members. As the demand for services provided by the voluntary sector in India is increasing, it is facing serious challenges. The dedicated idealists are being expected to accomplish rather difficult professional tasks by the funding agencies, the government and the consumers of services. According to a recent count, there are over 1600 voluntary organizations in India working for the cause of disability services and engaged in the service of disabled people. These range from the very professional, well managed, high profile national organizations that are immensely successful, to the well-meaning, small neighborhood organizations, with much goodwill but lacking in hard resources.
These two diametric opposites continually compete for resources that are very scarce. The struggle for the survival for these organizations is fierce and although cooperation, coordination and a joint vision is the strongest need, it appears too many to be an unattainable dream. In order to create a caring society, as well as a comprehensive system of services for people with disabilities in India, networking and coordination have become a necessity and are no longer a matter of choice.
37 Social Workers' Interventions to improve attitudes to disability The social workers normally intervene in the following areas: i. Interventions that tackle negative attitudes directly e.g. through disability awareness training. ii. Interventions that legislate against discrimination and injustice. iii. Interventions that promote and support equality in education, employment and social sectors. iv. Interventions that promote support for the idea that the basic conditions for the development of each person's potential is a legitimate right and that these conditions should be provided to each person. These include initiatives that highlight the importance and richness of diversity.
National Information Center on Disability Research and Rehabilitation The government of India, with the assistance of the National Institute of Disability, Research and Rehabilitation (NIDRR), has set up the National Information Center on Disability and Rehabilitation in Delhi, an apex center for information relating to various aspects of disability. The Center collects, classifies and stores data on twelve different aspects of disability. The Center has the responsibility to undertake gathering, updating and disseminating information on the following: 0. Concessions and facilities provided to the disabled by the central and the state governments 1. Organizations and institutions working for the disabled ii. Professionals working for the disabled iii. Statistics about beneficiaries of various rehabilitation schemes and programs iv. Demographic statistics about the disabled v. Aids and appliances available for the disabled vi. Statistics about national awards and awardees vii. Scholarship-programs viii.Assistance program for purchase/fitting of aids/ appliances ix. Program of assistance to organizations working for the disabled x. Employment statistics
38 xi. Research and development projects In addition to national level voluntary organizations, literally hundreds of voluntary and non-profit organizations exist in all parts of the country. These organizations offer a whole gamut of services from counseling, day treatment, community education and referral networks for people with mental health problems to programs aimed at integrated education for children with disabilities and a focus on vocational training for all adults with disabilities. Mainstreaming is done by organizing integrated cultural and sports activities. The main emphasis of many of these organizations is on early intervention in the management of disabled children.
Vocational Rehabilitation Considerable emphasis is given to vocational rehabilitation and its pivotal role in comprehensive rehabilitation services with a focus on training and employment of women with disabilities. Although the words sheltered workshop is not used, it seems to be an implicit assumption that women with disabilities work directly for the institutions that provide the training rather than in a community based job. For example, in a training center for the blind in Bangalore, instruction is provided in producing corrugated packing boxes for a big tea company in India.
Training is also provided in silk weaving, and this unit is linked with the local silk industry corporation for the marketing of the finished goods. In New Delhi, there is a trust that has established a watch repair unit to train people with disabilities in watch repair. This unit is also linked with a major watch company. However, in all these instances, none of the people with disabilities work for the actual companies and again we see the lack of emphasis on community integration.
Community Care During the last two decades, in India, as well as in most other countries of the world, there has been a growing realization that institutional care for the disabled, as well as for other groups requiring long-term residential services, is not entirely suitable for their individual needs, dignity and independence. There has been
39 relentless advocacy for community care. It is generally recognized that those who have been in such institutions for a long time must be discharged, and those waiting to get admitted must be prevented from doing so. A number of governments have actually succeeded in achieving a noticeable reduction in the numbers of in-patients in institutions. These people however have now been sent into communities that do not have adequate provision of services and facilities. These help is provided by family members, friends, neighbors, colleagues in school/college and workplace, volunteers and lay members of society. This form of care implies care in community and not by the community. However, community care should include formal and professional arrangements, medical and surgical facilities and equipment, aids and appliances, medicines and drugs and other rehabilitation services. Without these services and supports, the concept of community care becomes reduced to non-professional and cost free help given by a set of self appointed and untrained caregivers in non-institutional settings without responsibility or accountability.
Community Based Rehabilitation Programs (CBRP) Community Based Rehabilitation is a "strategy for enhancing the quality of life for the disabled women by improving service delivery, by providing more equitable opportunities and by promoting and protecting their human rights." Community Based Rehabilitation additionally may be defined as "a strategy within community development for the rehabilitation, equalization of opportunities and social integration of all women with disabilities." Many of the voluntary and non-governmental programs that are in existence in India are organizations that have existed for a number of years and have received substantial funding and attention from within and outside the country. In developing countries like India, disability is strongly linked to poverty. The prevalence of disability, particularly polio and blindness, is at least four times more among those who are below the poverty line than those who are above it. The success of preventive and rehabilitative measures is largely dependent on the success of community development programs. In this context, improving the quality of life of women with disabilities and their families would also benefit a large disadvantaged section of society.
40 CHAPTER-II REVIEW OF LITERATURE REVIEW OF LITERATURE Literatures on women with disabilities are not many for those who searched for it few years back. But today the literature addressing the different aspects of women with disabilities are on the increase, though they are scattered across many disciplines. A substantial body of literature on this topic exists for those who want to make an in- depth study on this subject. The major characteristic of the literature on women with disabilities is its diversity. This literature crosses disciplines and politics, and is often interdisciplinary in nature. It reflects the diversity in the lives of women with disabilities presented by the type and severity of their disability. The largest part of the literature about women with disabilities has been written by themselves and a substantial part consists of their personal accounts of being female and having a disability. Some speak out in anger and bitterness of the isolation, despair, poverty, and powerlessness, while others celebrate achievements, strength, happiness, and fulfillment, despite their struggles.
The existing literature on women with disabilities is somewhat limited in scope because, with a few but significant exceptions, it has been overly focused on women who have physical disabilities. Women with developmental disabilities and mental health problems have been underrepresented in the literature. In addition, despite an attempt to incorporate diversity in terms of race, ethnicity, and class, women of color still remain underrepresented. Although somewhat limited, this new and exciting body of literature provides the basis for further advances, more refined theoretical analysis, and a better understanding of the lives of women with disabilities.
I. STUDIES RELATED TO GENERAL ASPECTS OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
Hanna (2001) in "Women with disabilities: Two handicaps plus" sought to understand the experiences of women with disabilities. Comparing these women to disabled men, non disabled men, and non disabled women, they found that women with special needs participate less in social relations, educational institutions, and the
41 labor force than expected when compared to their non disabled/disabled/male/female counterparts. They cite this isolation as being attributed to the nurturance and the attractiveness norms of the socio-cultural system. The study addresses the issue of self-concept, stating that women with disabilities often have poor self concepts, and they link this poor self concept in a circular causation to participation and socio- cultural influences.
Walter & Langdon (2001) compares the differences in how women with disabilities and women without disabilities learned about their sexuality and reproductive functioning. A written questionnaire was sent to a national sample of women with disabilities and their non-disabled woman friends recruited through independent living centers and announcements in the media. Responses were received from 504 women with disabilities and 442 women without disabilities. Participants were asked how old they were when they first learned about the physical aspects of sexual intercourse. Women with disabilities learned about the physical aspects of sexual intercourse at about the same age (M = 13.16) as women without disabilities (M = 12.93). The most commonly reported sources for learning about sexuality and sexual functioning for both groups were books and other printed material, having sex, partners, friends, and teachers in primary school. More women with disabilities received information from a woman with a disability and a rehabilitation counselor. Women in both groups indicated that sex was never or seldom the subject of general family conversation. On average the women with physical disabilities had their first date at age 16.6, which is later than women without physical disabilities (M = 14.91).
Women with physical disabilities who reported having acquired sexuality information at a later age reported having sexual intercourse at an older age (M = 20.37) than women without physical disabilities (M = 17.75). Age at acquiring sexuality information was neither associated with frequency of intimate touch nor frequency of sexual intercourse. The results of this study can be used to generate recommendations for health care professionals concerning ways to respond more effectively to the special needs for sexuality information of physically disabled women.
42 Becker, (2003) explore the reproductive health care experiences of women with physical disabilities and how reproductive health care experiences could be improved. Design: A qualitative interview study was conducted. Participants: Ten women, ages 28 to 47 years, with physical disabilities, including multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, and paralysis, were recruited through the investigators' contacts with local disability groups. Results: Interviewees encountered numerous barriers to quality reproductive health care services, including inaccessible equipment and facilities, limited contraceptive options, health care providers' insensitivity and lack of knowledge about disabilities, and limited information tailored to their needs.
Providers sometimes appeared surprised that they would be sexually active, and did not ask about contraceptive use or assess for sexually transmitted diseases. Although most interviewees had private health insurance, some had problems seeing preferred providers. Accessing reproductive health care services is so difficult that some women avoid regular gynecologic visits. Suggestions for improving services included involving women with disabilities in teaching health care providers about their special needs and self-advocacy training to help disabled women become more knowledgeable partners in their own health care.
Crawford & Ostrove (2003) explores the relation between societal representations of disability and the intimate relationships of women with disabilities. The study confirmed that views of people with disabilities as incompetent and helpless, intellectually challenged, super-capable and asexual, continue to influence the lives of women with disabilities. Most of these stereotypes were encountered by women with different types of disabilities, suggesting that these categories are fairly universally applied. With respect to intimate relationships, the women had had a wide variety of both positive and negative experiences. A common disability experience seemed to have an important positive influence on sustaining close intimate relationships. Relatedly, the lack of this similarity was, in many cases, perceived as a major impediment to relationships with the able-bodied.
Kralik & Eastwood (2003) outlines the understandings about the
43 construction of sexuality and the impact of a changing body for women living with multiple sclerosis (MS). They suggest that the process of transition towards incorporating the experience of chronic illness into one's life is influenced by the (re)construction of self-identity. A participatory action process guided the research. The women joined the authors for five group sessions that totaled 15 hours of contact time. In addition, we offered women the opportunity for one-to-one interviews at home. Nine women volunteered to participate. This allowed us to gain additional in- depth data about individual experiences.
The interpretive framework was guided by the self-identity literature. When reading the transcripts we questioned: What is going on here? What does this say about the construction of self? What does this say about the construction of identity? What influence does the body have in the construction of self-identity? Analysis was collaborative (with the women) and the resultant emerging construction of sexuality is shared in this paper. Data generated during one-to-one interviews are privileged and we include two accounts from women who live with MS. The women's stories focus on sexuality, however, within this sexual context, we observed shifts in self-identity which we contend may shape the illness transition experience. The rationale for privileging only two accounts is to expand understanding of Ordinariness and Extraordinariness with particular focus on the salience of the body in the 'sexual' lives of the women. Self-identity was shaped by how they felt about themselves as sexual beings, how they experienced their body, how they felt about sexual activities and by the way others reacted to them. Importantly, we view the women's sense of self, identity and the relationship to the body and find that shifts in self identity shape the woman's transition towards Ordinariness.
This exploration of illness experiences is a reminder that our bodies are vehicles for our sense of self and identity. Cultural, educational, social, religious and family contexts all impact on women's capacity to shape the consequences of illness and the choices available to them. Facilitating women towards an awareness of the choices available in order to sustain or reclaim self may in turn expedite transition towards Ordinariness so that illness may become a part of their life.
44 Coley & Marler (2004) seeks to define gender issues and explores the significance of these issues for challenging behaviour in the field of learning disability. It is argued that lack of awareness about these issues contributes to the development of challenging behaviour and to difficulties in identifying the needs expressed through these behaviours, whatever their origin. Specific areas examined include models of residential provision for adults, prioritization of service activities, attribution processes (needs identification), and the sexuality of people with learning disabilities. In each area issues are raised and the implications for service practice defined.
Chowdhury and Foley (2006) made a study on "Economics of disability: An empirical study of disability and employment in the Bangladesh district of Chuadanga". Depending on a range of social and economic factors, a person who is labeled with a disability and the household where s/he resides face transitions in their financial circumstances- changes that can topple their lives, depriving them of basic human necessities. This study examine that these circumstances for households in the Chuadanga district in Bangladesh. The impact of being labeled with a disability varies across households and individuals. One objective of this study is to determine which groups are more adversely affected and why. The authors analyze transitions in the lifestyles of other household members, e.g., spouse or dependent parents, owing to labeling of a disability, in order to present the overall change in economic activity of the household. Emphasis is placed on exclusion from full-time paid employment, the burdens of complete caring responsibilities and related opportunity costs, and how compromises are made between employment and care responsibilities.
Overall, the paper broadens the analysis from poverty and employment to other aspects of life, including economic responsibility, social participatory preoccupations or coping strategies influenced by being labeled with a disability. Based on this research, the authors find that even if the household is able to retain its previous earnings, increased expenditure resulting from the new situation reduces net earnings to an enormous extent. The labeling of a family member with a disability often hinders the economic well-being of the household.
45 Therefore, the structure of the household should be of great concern when analyzing the impact of disability. All members of an affected household experience a change in their daily activities are they other earners or dependents, like children, who forego education and may have to contribute to income as well. Having a spouse in these situations can serve as blessing, as income-earning responsibilities can be shared, but the abrupt changes in quality of life often yield tension between the couple, arising from frustration and helplessness. Often, transitions following the onset of impairment of the main earner being labeled with a disability result in intense poverty.
II. STUDIES RELATED TO SOCIAL STATUS AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
Barnartt (2000) studied on the "multiple minority status of disabled women". He examines the situation of women with special needs as a group with multiple minority status. The researcher draws upon the work of others who have attempted to draw parallels between the situation of women of color and women with disabilities, arguing that both of these groups can be considered doubly disadvantaged when compared to white, non-disabled women as well as to men of their own group. The researcher criticizes previous work in this area and clams she will attempt to remedy some of their deficiencies with her own study, which consists of a statistical comparison of three groups: two groups of disabled people and one group of non- disabled people. The study claims that the data presented in the article support the multiple minority status arguments but argues that women with disabilities are not a minority group, because they lack "groupness." Despite the author's fairly arrogant claims at the beginning of the article, her study does not add much to the previous analysis of the multiple minority status of women with disabilities.
Shree Ramana Maharishi Academy for the Blind (2001) carried out a study in 2000 on 200 disabled women working in various welfare factories and 119 women with disability registered in Taoranting Jiedao, a residential sub district of Xuanwu district, an inner city district of the Beijing municipality. The results of the
46 study were compared with the findings from a similar study carried out in 1990. The types of disability of the women, their marital status, employment status, education and characteristics of spouses were analysed. The findings suggest that women with disabilities in China have improved their status in many ways in the period between 1995 to 2000.
However, much more has to be done to integrate them into the main-stream of society. In the five years between 1995 to 2000 there has been considerable improvement in the situation of women with disabilities in China. However, they continue to be on the lower end of the scale with regard to their poor education and employment status. Prejudice and discrimination against them exists even today. The author suggests that proper implementation of the laws of the People's Republic of China on protection of disabled persons, rights and interests of women, better birth and health care for the mother and child, will help improve the status of women with disabilities. Besides these efforts, all possible conditions should be created to improve the quality of life, education, health and social integration of the women with disabilities in urban China. Special attention should be paid to those who have profound disabilities and who are very poor.
Barnartt (2003) examines the situation of women with disabilities as a group with multiple minority status. The author draws upon the work of others who have attempted to draw parallels between the situation of women of colour and women with disabilities, arguing that both of these groups can be considered doubly disadvantaged when compared to white, non-disabled women as well as to men of their own group. The author criticizes previous work in this area and clams she will attempt to remedy some of their deficiencies with her own study, which consists of a statistical comparison of three groups: two groups of disabled people and one group of non- disabled people. The author claims that the data presented in the article support the multiple minority status arguments but argues that women with disabilities are not a minority group, because they lack "groupness." Despite the author's fairly arrogant
47 claims at the beginning of the article, her study does not add much to the previous analysis of the multiple minority status of women with disabilities.
Thomas and Thomas (2003) observed that women with disabilities worldwide are emerging from their isolation to take their places in societal mainstream. However, the situation in developing countries is quite different. In the available literature on women with disabilities in developing countries, it is often stated that these women face a triple handicap and discrimination due to their disability, gender and developing world status. In the South Asian context, gender equity is an issue for a large majority of women, given the socio-cultural practices and traditional attitudes of society. Therefore, many of the issues that are faced by women in general in a male dominated society also have an impact on women with disabilities. In addition, women with disabilities from these countries face certain unique disadvantages compared with disabled men. This paper discusses some of these unique disadvantages that disabled women in developing countries face, and suggests possible strategies to overcome these disadvantages in a community based rehabilitation setting.
Nayak (2006) has emphasized on the conditions of women with disability, particularly in the state of Odisha (previously named as Orissa) in India. It is an All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) funded project under Research Promotion Scheme (RPS). This study explores to find out the present status of women with disability (WWD) in the state of Odisha, their economic status, social status, subject to rejection and domestic violence, educational status, health, reproductive health, sexuality and marriage, government provisions and the gaps there in. The study has emphasized to explore the ways out to bring them into the main stream. The study further tried to find out the relations between categorization of disability, economic standard, educational qualification, monthly income with women empowerment, satisfaction level, sexual abuse, mental/ physical harassment, husband's extra-marital affairs etc. It clearly shows that due to their disability, most of them are subject to violence, betrayed by husband; they are deprived of good education, livelihood for which they feel that they are being marginalized.
48 Thomas and Thomas (2007) observed that there is a world-wide trend towards women with disabilities emerging from their isolation to establish their own self help groups and rights groups, the situation in developing countries remains quite different. In the available literature on women with disabilities in developing countries, it is often stated that these women face a triple handicap and discrimination due to their disability, gender and developing world status. In the South Asian context, gender equity is an issue for a large majority of women, given the socio-cultural practices and traditional attitudes of society. Therefore, many of the issues that are faced by women in general in a male dominated society, also have an impact on women with disabilities. In addition, women with disabilities from these countries face certain unique disadvantages compared with disabled men.
This paper discusses some of these unique disadvantages that disabled women in developing countries face in comparison with disabled men, and suggests possible strategies to overcome these disadvantages in a community based rehabilitation setting. World-wide, women with disabilities are emerging from their secluded state to organize themselves, and to form their own self help and rights groups to address their concerns. In developing countries, there are a few women with disabilities who have overcome prejudices and negative social attitudes to become role models for others. Some countries in South Asia have formulated policies relating to health care, education and rehabilitation to include women with disabilities. Many non-governmental organisations in these countries are also beginning to include issues facing women with disabilities into their agenda. However, women with disabilities continue to face problems related to access to opportunities, negative attitudes and environmental barriers, which are problems that all disabled persons face.
These barriers, coupled with some of the unique disadvantages that women with disabilities face in traditional societies in developing countries, have contributed to keeping them marginalized, preventing them from taking their
49 rightful places in these societies. However, it is possible to bring about a change in their situation through specially planned community based rehabilitation programmes to overcome the disadvantages that they face and to make them integrated, contributing members of their societies, with the same opportunities and choices as anyone else.
Zhao Tizun (2008) carried out a survey in 1990 to identify the situation of women with disabilities in Jiedao. Following this survey, with the reforms and opening up, many changes have taken place in the status of women in urban communities. These changes have also affected the women with disabilities and hence a second survey was conducted in 1995 to identify the socio-economic status of women in urban communities five years after the first survey. Education is closely related to disabled women's marriage, employment, vocation, income and social life. It is an important factor determining the disabled women's socio-economic status in China. Table 2 shows the rate of increase in literacy of the disabled women. Due to the rapid development in education in urban areas, education of women above junior school has increased from 53.57% in 1990 to 63.03% in 1995. Some school aged disabled children receive compulsory education in ordinary schools. A majority of the deaf children study in schools specially set up for them until secondary education. In the past few years many disabled women have been undergoing adult education and vocational training to improve their status. Marriage has an impact on the life of the disabled women and also reflects their socio-economic status. A survey of 87 married couples showed that 73.56% of them got married to their partners after introductions by friends or relatives, as compared to 69.12% in 1990.
The remaining 26.44% had met on their own before marriage. Arranged marriages were not reported in 1995, in comparison to a few such marriages in 1990.The higher marriage rate reflects the numerous opportunities the disabled women now have, with regard to the social life in the community. In addition the increase in numbers of disabled women who are married is the result of the improved quality of their life. The comparatively lower divorce rate in 1995 suggests that the family lives of disabled women have become more stable. According to the survey,
50 173 women out of the 200 (86.5%) surveyed have a 'happy marriage' and 176 (88%) have a satisfactory sexual life. In this survey, 49% of the disabled women stated their preference to marry a non-disabled man or a person with mild disability, making it substantially more than the 30.05% who stated the same preference in 1990. This finding may reflect the improved self confidence and social position of disabled women in the community.
More women with disability now consider various aspects such as the economic status of the man, his education, profession, and the location of his permanent residence, before they decide on marriage. Only about one-third of them consider marriage as a form of financial support to themselves. However negative public opinions, misunderstandings of the spouses and frequent interventions from the family of origin, continue to negatively influence the marriages of women with disabilities in China.
III. STUDIES RELATED TO SOCIAL ATTITUDES, PERCEPTION AND DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
Women with disabilities are often seen as asexual, and hence, are denied sex education, access to reproductive information, and services including birth control and fertility. Women continue to need sexual information provided during rehabilitation through education, therapy, and guidance by peers.
Berkman & Syme (2003) explore that Women with disabilities often are not seen as fit parents, and this view shapes policies denying them custody and adoption. Accessing services related to education, health care, and other needs clearly poses challenges to women with disabilities and needs to be addressed through rehabilitation counseling. Because of the widespread discrimination they face in many social domains, women with disabilities experience multiple psychosocial challenges that impact their quality of life. Social connectedness has been found to be related to the development of self-worth, whereas isolation is related to health problems and mortality. Women with disabilities experience social isolation that may negatively
51 impact their self-esteem, levels of depression, and stress.
McGrath, Keita, Strickland, & Russo, 2000; Warren & McEachren, (2003) explain that stress levels for women with physical disabilities have been reported at higher levels than those of the general population. Women with disabilities appear to be at higher risk for depression in comparison to men with disabilities, women without disabilities, and the general population. Contributing to women's depression are a variety of factors that include low levels of perceived control, lack of social support, low income or poverty, and abuse.
Hosford (2000) made a study to examine the relationship between perceived employment opportunities for individuals with disabilities and managers' mental models, as impacted by managers' discomfort with disability, knowledge of diversity management, and of the ADA. Utilizing the conceptual components of mental modeling and integrating the sociological and psychological elements of cognition and perception, diversity management is defined. Organizational values, understanding of diversity management, and the practices and employment outcomes resulting from that understanding form the mental models. Conceptual discontinuities are coalesced and those most closely aligned with the consequences of mental models and decision- making are utilized. Emphasis on the integrative tenets of Follett and Golembiewski underscores the conceptual framework Methodology. This exploratory study used descriptive research methodology. Six critical components were identified and analyzed as determinants of managers' perceptions. Through a questionnaire and internationally validated attitudinal survey, public, quasi-public, and non-profit mid- level managers were queried as to their knowledge of the ADA, knowledge of diversity management concepts, and level of discomfort with individuals with disabilities. From a population of 309 managers, descriptive and inferential statistics were calculated from the surveys and questionnaires completed by the 253 respondents.
52 The study found out that ADA knowledge, diversity management knowledge, and level of discomfort with individuals with disabilities were identified. Disability was not perceived as included in diversity management, and only accommodation was perceived as the focus of the ADA. Training did not correlate with knowledge, and prior contact was only moderately correlated with level of discomfort. Exclusionary perceptions of diversity management clearly emerge from the data, as does the perception of disability as separate from diversity issues. Both these conditions present compelling indications of the need to discontinue fragmented approaches to diversity management, training, and theoretical analysis. Results also indicate that organizations are not preparing managers and supervisors for the responsibility of inclusive diversity management and ADA decision-making, nor requiring such preparation from them. Given rapidly increasing workforce diversity, and the employment and civil rights strengths of the ADA, it is important for researchers and theorists to provide managers with an inclusive knowledge foundation.
Balser (2000) examined factors that predicted perceptions of workplace discrimination by employees with disabilities. Individual level variables (education, race/ethnic origin, tenure, union membership) were combined with organizational level variables (disability-related organization, grievance procedures, accommodation procedure) in a single model of perceived inequality. Data came from surveys administered to employees with disabilities and their respective employers. Responses were analyzed for 524 employees (mean age 44.1 yrs) and 119 employers. Results show that these employees experienced discrimination over most terms/conditions of employment.
Blessing & Jamieson (2000) studied the effects of prior experience on employer attitudes and hiring decisions regarding people with developmental disabilities. In Canada, 20 employers who previously had hired or trained a person with a developmental disability were compared with 18 employers without such experience. Most Ss had personal interviews, and they completed (1) a modified version of the Attitudes toward the Employability of Persons with Severe Handicaps
53 Scale (L. P. Schmelkin and D. E. Berkell, 1989) and (2) 82 items on factors affecting hiring decisions. Both groups expressed favorable attitudes towards the employability of developmentally disabled workers, with experienced Ss perceiving more advantages than disadvantages of this employment. Inexperienced Ss rated negative worker characteristics as a stronger impediment to hiring than did experienced.
Dalal, (et al.,) (2001) investigated cultural beliefs and attitudes of a rural community toward physical disability. A sample of 64 persons with an equal number of persons from families with a disabled child and from families in which no member was disabled was interviewed to study their attitudes, perceptions, and practices relating to disability. The Disability Attitude Belief Behaviour (DABB) Survey Questionnaire was used for this purpose. Results revealed fatalistic attitudes and external dependence in families with disabled children. They also expected external agencies to cater to their rehabilitation needs. The findings have implications for developing rehabilitation programmes in rural areas.
Hanna & Rogovsky (2001) through surveys, sought to understand the experiences of women with disabilities. Comparing these women to disabled men, non disabled men, and non disabled women, they found that women with disabilities participate less in social relations, educational institutions, and the labor force than expected when compared to their non disabled/disabled/male/female counterparts. They cite this isolation as being attributed to the nurturance and the attractiveness norms of the American socio-cultural system. The authors address the issue of self- concept, stating that women with disabilities often have poor self concepts, and they link this poor self concept in a circular causation to participation and socio-cultural influences. Another one study shows that how women with physical disabilities experience the double discrimination of being both a woman and a disabled person in society. Placing physical disability in a social and political context rather than an individual one, she uncovers how women with disabilities have been rendered invisible, how they see their self image and body image, how physical disability often leads to dependence, and how women experience a loss of civil liberties and how they
54 face discrimination. Lonsdale also considers the ways in which these situations can change for women, specifically, how policy practices can change so that women can achieve greater independence. Chapters include subjects such as the social context of disability, invisible women, self image and sexuality, employment, financial consequences of disability, discrimination, and independence (Lonsdale, 1990).
Habib (2001) asserts the importance of understanding and addressing gender issues and how they impact on the experiences of women. She argues that this is important in order to develop strategies for establishing and enforcing the basic human rights of people with disabilities in order to fight double discrimination in such areas as family life, marriage, education, health care, and care for a disabled child.
Colella, et al., (2004) reviewed 37 studies and found that employers continue to express positive global attitudes toward workers with disabilities. However, they tend to be more negative when specific attitudes toward these workers are assessed. Although employers are supportive of the ADA as a whole, the employment provisions evoke concern. When appropriate supports are provided, employers express positive attitudes toward workers with intellectual and psychiatric disabilities. Affirming earlier reviews, employers with prior positive contact hold favorable attitudes toward workers with disabilities. Employers' expressed willingness to hire applicants with disabilities still exceeds their actual hiring, although this gap is narrowing. Workers with physical disabilities continue to be viewed more positively than workers with intellectual or psychiatric disabilities.
Stibbe (2004) observed that traditionally disabled women have been marginalized and invisible in Japanese society, often hidden away by shame-filled relatives. However, over the last ten years, there has been an unprecedented increase in disabled female characters appearing in television dramas. These dramas portray disabled women as attractive, gainfully employed and successful, albeit often due to the influence of a non-disabled male character. This article explores the extent to which these television dramas have inspired the imagination of the Japanese youth who watched them during their formative years. A case study was carried out where
55 50 Japanese university students wrote compositions about fictional characters, both disabled and non-disabled, of both genders. These 200 compositions are compared across gender and disability lines, and correlated with features of the TV dramas.
Randolph (2005) found that persons with disabilities who are also members of other minority groups or women encounter dual discrimination. This paper describes how women with disabilities who are in the workplace experience discrimination. In order to determine whether discrimination was a viable issue, theoretical contexts of feminist theory, disability theory, and attribution theory were examined as well as literature examining employment of women with disabilities. For this study, three women with various disabilities were interviewed regarding the effect of their disability on their typical workday, their employment and job seeking history, and employment opportunities. Qualitative data were also provided through mapping by the participants and pictorial data of worksites. Data were grouped into themes of pre-conceived notions of others, attitudes of others, accommodation issues, inclusion issues and exploitation issues. From these themes, definitions of discrimination and nondiscrimination in the workplace were developed. Conclusions include the need for more research on workplace experiences of other or more specific populations that experience discrimination as well as the need for ethical reflection on the part of the researcher regarding vulnerable populations
Chan, et al., (2006) wanted to know the determining factor which drives the workplace discrimination against people with disabilities. These findings are then compared to available literature on attribution theory, which concerns itself with public perceptions of the controllability and stability of various impairments. The sample included 35,763 allegations of discrimination filed by people with disabilities under the employment provisions of the Americans with Disabilities Act. Group A included impairments deemed by Corrigan et al. [1988] to be uncontrollable but stable: visual impairment (representing 13% of the total allegations in this study), cancer (12%), cardiovascular disease (19%), and spinal cord injuries (5%). The
56 controllable but unstable impairments in group B included depression (38%), schizophrenia (2%), alcohol and other drug abuse (4%), and HIV/AIDS (7%).
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission had resolved all allegations in terms of merit Resolutions (a positive finding of discrimination) and Resolutions without merit. Allegations of workplace discrimination were found to center mainly on hiring, discharge, harassment, and reasonable accommodation issues. Perceived workplace discrimination (as measured by allegations filed with EEOC) does occur at higher levels in Group B, especially when serious issues involving discharge and disability harassment are involved. With the glaring exception of HIV/AIDS, however, actual discrimination (as measured by EEOC merit Resolutions) occurs at higher levels for Group A.
Kleeman & Wilson (2007), initiated by the Scope CI&D unit, wanted to deepen the understanding of the evidence surrounding attitude change, particularly related to attitude change of community members towards people with a disability. In recognition of the explicit role of disability awareness programs to date as a mechanism of attitude change, the study also aimed to broadly determine the extent and type of disability awareness programs in Victoria, and to assess the outcomes of these. Finally, the study aimed to explore possible methods for better determining the outcomes of such programs in terms of their effect on attitude and behaviour change. The State Disability Plan and Scope's Strategic Plan both include the goal of making Victoria a more welcoming and inclusive community for all people regardless of their abilities. Community and individual attitudes can greatly affect how people with disabilities experience their lives within the community. Reducing negative or fearful attitudes towards people with disabilities in society is a key factor in creating inclusive communities and these can be addressed through community disability awareness programs. This study identifies thirteen Disability Awareness Programs operating in Victoria. Most already encompass the identified strategy of contact between people with and without a disability. Most focus on general awareness rising and most lack
57 the longevity identified here as critical to significant attitude change. That is not to suggest that these programs are not achieving outcomes.
The problem is that we are not able to determine neither the level of these nor which elements of the program are critical to their success. In order to further develop and increase their influence as agents of change towards inclusive community, Disability Awareness Programs are likely to require additional resourcing to further incorporate the elements suggested here as critical to attitude and behaviour change. Whilst most undertake some form of program evaluation, all would benefit from support to develop an appropriate research and evaluation approach to measure outcomes and key ingredients of success. Marshall (2008) made a study on "Attitudes to Women with Disabilities in Japan: The Influence of Television Drama." This study was designed to investigate the attitudes of young people towards disabled women in Japan, using a sample drawn from university students. By asking the students to write essays about disabled and non-disabled characters of both genders following an identical pattern, similarities and differences between descriptions across gender and disability are found. Several major differences are identified in the descriptions. Firstly, a number of non-disabled women are described as beautiful, but only a handful of students describe the physical appearance of disabled characters. Secondly, more than twice as many stories about non-disabled women end with finding a partner as compared to those of disabled women. Thirdly, the personality and emotions of non-disabled women are described mostly in positive terms, while disabled women are described as depressed, despairing and grief-stricken. Fourthly, many non-disabled women are described as 'kind' or 'popular', but only one disabled woman is described this way. Finally, the majority of non-disabled women are described as having regular jobs, but very few disabled women's jobs are mentioned, and these involve outstanding talent.
These facts indicate that the students in the group have difficulty in imagining disabled women in the roles of attractive partner, giver of kindness, popular member of society, or employed person. Instead, disabled women are portrayed as receivers of kindness, often by men, who solve their problems for them. The positive messages of
58 the dramas - that disabled women can be attractive partners and can be involved successfully in normal employment seem not have reached the students yet. However, he points out that the way people who are overcoming their disability in a very obvious physical manner are treated and the way ordinary disabled people are treated [in Japan] seems very different'. She calls for 'appreciation for all people with disabilities, whether or not they can ski down a mountain'. The focus on 'overcoming all odds', as well as cure, and transformation through the love of men all follow the medical model, showing a lack of awareness of the social and environmental components of disability. These students are part of the generation who will be the future leaders of Japan. If the rights of disabled people are to be protected in Japan in the future, leaders will have to understand the social model of disability and discard traditional negative stereotypes. The TV dramas are just bringing to eliminate some of the worst parts of the stereotypes, but assuming that viewers in general are like the 50 students taking part in this study, the dramas have not yet influenced the imaginations of their viewers in a positive way.
Monk and Wee (2008) studied "Factors shaping attitudes towards physical disability and availability of rehabilitative support systems for disabled persons in rural Kenya." This study examined the range of attitudes towards persons with physical disability in a rural community in western Kenya. It also evaluated the availability of services for persons with disabilities in the community. Qualitative data analysis of interview material led to the generation of a model describing the attitudes towards people with disabilities. Availability of services was explored through interview questions and document collection. Perceived cause of disability, perceived characteristics and activities of people with disabilities by the community and perceived role of society, appear to shape the attitudes towards people with disabilities in the community studied. The opinions within these categories contribute to enabling and disabling features of the environment in which people with disabilities live. It appears that services available are underused by disabled members of the community due to poor accessibility and financial barriers. The results yielded relatively enabling attitudes towards PWD. The responses suggest that this community may be ready to
59 support increased participation by its members, possibly through a community based rehabilitation programme.
Nayak (2009) has observed the attitude of society towards women with disabilities is very precarious across the world. More or less the same mindset also prevails in India. Because of high rate of illiteracy, ignorance and being a member of developing country in this twenty first century, no one come forward to sort out this issue totally from, personal, familiar, societal and governmental point of view. Many NGOs, Social activists and GOs are coming forward gradually to take up this issue as an important factor for the inclusive growth of the country, but it needs more thought process and rigor to include the disables in the main stream.
Most of the disabled women are subject to violence, betrayed by husband, misbehaved by nears and dears. They are deprived of good education, livelihood for which they feel that they are marginalized. This study has emphasized on the conditions and status of women with disability, particularly in the state of Odisha (previously named as Orissa) in India. This study is a part of an All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) funded project under Research Promotion Scheme (RPS). The study found out that there is association between age, educational qualification, family background and status, categorization of disability with women empowerment, satisfaction level towards life, sexual abuse, mental/ physical harassment, husband's extra-marital affairs etc.
Esmail (et al.,) (2010) studied about society's attitude and perception towards disabilities. He intended to describe current societal perceptions and attitudes towards sexuality and disability and how social stigma differs between individuals living with visible and invisible disabilities. A qualitative approach was used to explore attitudes and perceptions towards sexuality and disability. Focus groups were conducted with the following groups: service providers, people with visible disabilities, people with invisible disabilities and the general public. The focus group
60 participants viewed 'Sex ability' a documentary film on sexuality and disability to stimulate discussion midway through the session.
Findings suggest that individuals with disabilities are commonly viewed as asexual due to a predominant hetero normative idea of sex and what is considered natural. A lack of information and education on sexuality and disability was felt to be a major contributing factors towards the stigma attached to disability and sexuality. Stigma can lead individuals to internalize concepts of asexuality and may negatively impact confidence, desire and ability to find a partner while distorting one's overall sexual self-concept. Societal attitudes and perceptions are driven by education and knowledge, if there is no exposure to sexuality and disability, it follows suit that society would have a narrow understanding of these issues. Further research should focus on how best to educate and inform all members of society.
IV. STUDIES RELATED TO ABUSE & VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
WITH DISABILITEIS
Sexual abuse of women and children with disabilities is another area that has received an increasing amount of attention. Much of this literature is based on studies that show that women with disabilities are at a much greater risk of being sexually abused than other women. This is true in society in general, and within residential facilities in particular. The literature listed below reflects these studies, as well as writings that have attempted to explain the increased vulnerability of women and children with disability to sexual abuse, and suggestions about what preventive measures can be taken.
Sruti and Mihir (2000) studied domestic violence against disabled women in Orissa, India. Inquiry into domestic violence, especially sexual abuse, against women with disabilities is one of the most complex, controversial and disturbing challenges facing rehabilitation researchers. It raises a combination of many unresolved issues in the studies of abuse, disability and the status of women. As a dimension of the general study of abuse, disability has barely been acknowledged. As
61 a dimension of the general study of disability, abuse has only recently surfaced as a problem and has yet to be the subject of rigorous scientific inquiry.
To unveil the importance of this problem and to set forth some parameters for further investigation into its magnitude and impact, this study attempted a mapping of 12 districts of Orissa and makes an effort at presenting the findings of a qualitative study of 'Domestic Violence against Women with Disabilities.' This mapping of 12 districts documents the prevalence of abuse of women with physical disabilities compared to women with mental challenges. The research design was a case- comparison study using written questionnaires. A sample of 729 women, 595 with physical disabilities and 134 with mental challenges was compiled from women responding to a state level survey. The respondents were asked if they had ever experienced emotional, physical or sexual abuse. Physical abuse comprised denial of basic rights like access to food, education, social participation etc. Parents, husbands and close family members were the most common perpetrators of emotional or physical abuse for both groups.
Deaf women were sexually abused by family members and close friends as also those who were mentally challenged. Women with physical disabilities appear to be at risk for emotional, physical and sexual abuse to the same extent as women without physical disabilities. Unique vulnerabilities to abuse, experienced by women with disabilities, include social stereotypes of asexuality and passivity, acceptance of abuse as normal behaviour, lack of adaptive equipment, inaccessible home and community environments, increased exposure to medical and institutional settings, dependence on perpetrators for personal assistance and lack of employment options. In order to enable the identification of women with disabilities who are in abusive situations and their referral to appropriate community services, policy changes are needed to increase training for all types of service providers in abuse interventions, improve architectural and attitudinal accessibility to programs for battered women, increase options for personal assistance, expand the availability of affordable legal services, improve communication among community service providers and most importantly provide
62 skill development programs to make disabled women independent. Clearly, there is a need for services for disabled women to break free of all forms of violation and violence.
There is a need for shelters specifically designed and dedicated to disabled victims of domestic violence. A woman in a wheelchair will need accommodation that has doorways that are wide enough, a ramp to gain access to and from the building, hallways that are wide enough, a wheelchair will need to get within three feet of the toilet in the bathroom. A blind individual will need Braille throughout the facility. An individual who is deaf will need staff culturally sensitive to deaf issues. A deaf individual will also need a sign language interpreter. It is not always acceptable for a family member or friend to interpret for a deaf victim of domestic violence. This may lead to an inaccurate account of the issues. Police officers, psycho-social counselors and service providers need to be trained to assist disabled victims of domestic violence in meeting their needs. Domestic violence has a powerful impact on women with disabilities, not only physically, but both mentally and emotionally. Symptoms may include: depression, post traumatic stress disorder, self-destructive behavior or self mutilation and low self image. If community workers and service providers become adequately trained on the issue of domestic violence and disability, they will be better able to empower disabled victims of domestic violence to take control of their lives and break the cycle of power and control.
Clare (2000) Women with developmental disabilities face a myriad of barriers that prevent sexual expression. These include, but are not limited to, inadequate access to health care, limited choices regarding reproductive issues, and lack of sex education. The values and beliefs of support staff also represent potential barriers. A survey was conducted to determine the attitudes and knowledge of support staff at an agency serving individuals with developmental disabilities. Findings indicated that a majority of staff felt comfortable supporting women in expressing their sexuality, but few were trained to do so. Results also suggested that staff were guided more by their personal views than by agency policy.
63 Christian & Dotson (2001) addresses issues of female sexuality and describes the dramatic changes in attitudes and norms around female sexuality and sexual behavior which have occurred during this century. The author reviews the literature on female sexuality, female "sexual dysfunctioning," and effectiveness of sex therapy for women. Although researchers and sex therapists have begun to accept that women's sexual needs and desires are just as important as men's, there is still a danger for inappropriate treatment, based on stereotypical and outdated ideas of women's sexuality. The author therefore advises women, who seek sex therapy, to be careful when they select a sex therapist. This article concludes with a call for more research on female sexuality and claims that the little that is known is mostly based on samples of white, well-educated, middle-class, heterosexual American women. Our understanding of female sexuality must be based on the experiences of all women: women of color, single women, lesbian women, poor women, celibate women, and women with a variety of educational levels, as well as women of all ages.
Craine et al., (2001) studied the history of sexual abuse among women living in state psychiatric hospitals. A sample 105 women was randomly selected from 11 state hospitals serving mentally ill persons in Illinois. The women ranged in age from 13 to 81 and were of diverse racial and cultural backgrounds. The authors found that 51% of these 105 women had been sexually abused as children or adolescents, and that in the majority of cases hospital staff was unaware that these women had histories of sexual abuse. Only 20% of the 105 women believed they had been adequately treated for sexual abuse. The women who reported a history of sexual abuse were significantly more likely to have a range of symptoms commonly linked with sexual abuse. Despite this, 56% of the abused women had never been identified as victims of sexual abuse and were not being treated for the abuse.
A recent study of the prevalence of sexual abuse in the general population reported that 16% of women reported incestuous abuse and 38% reported extra familial abuse, before the age of 18. The authors conclude that their study suggests
64 that the prevalence of sexual abuse is much higher among women who become inpatients of psychiatric hospitals than among the general population, and call for increased awareness of sexual abuse from hospital staff and a more accurate diagnose, which would result in appropriate treatment of women who have histories of sexual abuse
Roeher (2001) this study focused on violent or abusive circumstances experienced by people with disabilities and the impact of this on their lives. These circumstances include physical, sexual, emotional, and verbal abuse; denial of rights, necessities, privileges, and opportunities; and failure to respond to complaints of abuse and violence. The information for this study came from a Canadian survey of people with disabilities, and from interviews and focus groups with service providers, police, advocates, and family members, review of the literature on this topic and Canadian case law and statutes.
The author identifies factors which can contribute to such abuse, such as negative social stereotypes concerning disability and having caregivers who may lack adequate support and training. Also considered are issues of disclosure and identification of violence and abuse as well as responses (legal and otherwise) to the problem after it has been disclosed. Recommendations are offered for policy, program reform, statutory reform, providing information to concerned parties about the issue, and increased support from communities.
Schriempf (2001) argues that both feminist theory and disability theory have failed to address the experiences and needs of women with disabilities, particularly around sexuality. Specifically, feminist theory's focus on the negative impact of the sexual objectification of women is ill equipped to address the negative experiences of women with disabilities that result from their social and cultural desexualization. Schriempf suggests that the social model of disability similarly fails to take into account the importance of the body in subjective and sexual experiences of women with disabilities.
65 Women with disabilities also face serious health risks due to their vulnerability and stigmatization from the larger society where patriarchal and discriminatory views still pervade. They are likely to be victimized and may be more susceptible to violence and abuse due to their dual minority status as women, and as people with disabilities. Abuse is five to eight times more likely among women with disabilities than men with disabilities, and more likely among women with than without disabilities (Nosek & Hughes, 2003). Women with disabilities are more likely than nondisabled women to experience abuse at the hands of attendants and physicians, as well as to experience abuse for longer periods of time. As primary advocates for many persons with disabilities, rehabilitation counselors need to be trained in how to assess and respond to the specific nuances of abuse in women with disabilities. Each of the previously mentioned unique experiences of women with disabilities must be included in rehabilitation counseling education (Hassouneh-Phillips & Curry,
2002).
Cole (2004) this article addresses causes, myths, and prevention of sexual abuse of people with disabilities. The author represents the view that sexual abuse has more to do with oppressive use of power than it have to do with sex. This leads her to examine the links between power structures, oppression and abuse, as well as the links between various forms of oppression. She states that it is essential to identify and change societal beliefs and norms which permit sexual abuse and exploitation to continue. The power structures in our society provide males with more power than females, able-bodied persons with more power than people with disabilities, and so on. This makes the less powerful, such as women, children, and people with disabilities likely candidates for sexual abuse. The author also draws parallels between incest within the family and sexual abuse of people living in residential facilities. Among the parallels are: (1) the abuser is usually someone the victim is physically or emotionally dependent on; (2) the perpetrators are frequently respected members of their communities; and (3) the victim can have confusing and conflicting feelings of love and hate towards the perpetrator. Among preventive measures the author recommends are increased public awareness of how common sexual abuse is, assisting
66 parents and staff to feel comfortable about all aspects of sexuality, identifying societal norms that contribute to abuse, and training and education for parents, caregivers, professionals, and individuals with disabilities.
V. STUDIES RELATED TO PSYCHO-SOCIAL FUNCTIONING OF THE WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
Lawthers (2001) studied on rethinking quality in the context of persons with disability. The Objectives of the study was to review the current health services literature related to quality of care for persons with disabilities and to highlight the need for a unique framework for conceptualizing quality and patient safety issues for this population. Drawing on quality measurement theory, he formulated a multi dimensional model of quality of care for persons with disability.
A review of health services research suggests several potential issues in the areas of clinical quality, access, client experience, and coordination. Physical barriers, transportation, communication difficulties, and client and provider attitudes present barriers to receiving appropriate client-centered care. Communication difficulties between provider and client may increase risk for accidental injury and decrease the quality of the client experience. Frequent contact with the health care system and the complexity of an individual's situation also increase the risk of accidental injury. Health care providers need to embrace a multi-disciplinary approach to quality to meet the needs of persons with disabilities. Funders and purchasers need to provide flexibility in funding to enable a comprehensive primary care approach, while health service researchers need to adopt a broad view of quality to capture issues of importance for persons with disabilities.
Margaret and Nosek (2003) studied Health Promotion for Women with Physical Disabilities. The concept of wellness in the context of physical disability among women has only recently been introduced into the field of health promotion. The purpose of this project was to develop an intervention to enhance wellness among women with physical disabilities that is based on expanded theoretical models and
67 measures of health promoting behaviors that accommodate some of the unique life circumstances experienced by this population. Findings from the investigators recently completed national survey indicate that segments of the population of women with physical disabilities are at higher risk for (1) certain acute and chronic conditions, (2) limited access to preventive health services, (3) negative social attitudes toward their potential for fitness and wellness, and (4) reduced motivational factors affecting health promotion behaviors, such as self-esteem, self-efficacy, and body image.
VI. STUDIES RELATED TO QUALITY OF LIFE OF WOMEN WITH
DISABILITIES
Monawar and Underwood (2002) examined the impact of disability on the quality of life of disabled people in rural Bangladesh. A primary healthcare specialist conducted a door-to-door survey in two villages in Bangladesh to collect socioeconomic and demographic information on the villagers and for identification of disabled people. Information on disability and how it affected their life was also obtained either from the disabled people or from their caregivers by interviewing them. The study revealed that disability had a devastating effect on the quality of life of the disabled people with a particularly negative effect on their marriage, educational attainment, employment, and emotional state. Disability also jeopardized their personal, family and social life. More than half of the disabled people were looked at negatively by society. Disabled women and girl children suffered more from negative attitudes than their male counterparts, resulting in critical adverse effects on their psychological and social health. A combination of educational, economic and intensive rehabilitative measures should be implemented urgently to make them self- reliant. Collaborative communication between professionals and parents, behavioural counselling, formation of a self-help group, and comprehensive support to families will reduce their suffering.
James, et al., (2003) has observed that disability is a concept most often associated with role dysfunction, and quality of life is most often associated with life
68 satisfaction, these terms are frequently used interchangeably in the literature. In contrast, this study proposes that disability and quality of life are independent but related constructs. Additionally, we propose that disability partially mediates the relationship between symptoms and quality of life. That is, greater symptoms are associated with more impairment, which is, in turn, associated with less satisfaction with one's life. Ninety-six individuals with social anxiety disorder were given measures of social anxiety symptoms, disability, and quality of life. The results of the study suggest that disability and quality of life are, in fact, distinct concepts, and the experience of disability partially mediates the relationship between a patient's experience of symptoms and his or her perceived life satisfaction.
Kalpakjian and Lequerica (2006) explored the quality of life (QOL) in a sample of postmenopausal women with physical disabilities due to polio contracted in childhood. A structural equation model was used to confirm that menopause symptoms will have a minimal effect on QOL when disability-related variables are taken into account. A sample of 752 women who were postmenopausal completed a written survey. The structural equation model contained two measured predictors (age, severity of post polio sequelae) and one latent predictor (menopause symptoms defined by four measured indicators). Functional status (defined by two measured indicators) was included as a mediator, with QOL (defined by three measured indicators) as the outcome. The original model yielded acceptable fit indices (CFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.055) but resulted in a number of unexpected relationships that proved to be artifacts after model respecification.
The respecified model yielded a non significant chi-square value, which indicated no significant discrepancy between the proposed model and the observed data (chi-square = 18.5, d/ = 13, p = 0.138). All fit indices indicated a good fit: CFI = 0.997, NNFI = 0.987, chi-square/d/ = 1.43, and RMSEA = 0.024. When the effects of post polio sequelae and functional status are included in the structural equation model, only the psychological symptoms of menopause play a prominent role in explaining QOL in this sample. The clinical implications of these findings suggest that attention
69 to psychological symptoms and an exclusive focus on the physical aspects of menopause to the exclusion of other midlife life stressors and influences on a woman's psychological well-being ignore the larger context of life in which they live. In particular, many women with disabilities may contend with additional or exacerbated stressors related to their disability.
Rukwong, et al., (2007) studied on the quality of life of middle-aged women with a disability and examine the association of their quality of life and socio- demographic factors. A cross-sectional study was applied. Thirty-two women with disabilities aged 40-60 years were selected by using stratified random sampling. The WHOQOL-BREF-THAI, Modified Barthel ADL Index (BAI), Chula ADL Index (CAI), and Estrogen hormone deficit syndrome questionnaires were applied. Data were analyzed by using descriptive analysis and Spearman's correlation. The level of their overall quality of life, when measuring all dimensions of WHOQOL, was moderate. Overall, QOL perceptions correlated positively and significantly with BAI (rs = 0.4848, p = 0.0048), CAI (rs = 0.5963, p = 0.0005), and their income balance (rs = 0.4124, p = 0.0150), while other factors such as marital status, educational level, occupation, duration of disability, disability level, health problem, and estrogen hormone deficit syndrome were not statistically significant correlated. The present study results revealed that independency and financial sufficiency are significant factors on quality of life of disabled middle-age women. Promoting independency and financial status may be crucial for enhancing their quality of life.
Tate, et al., (2007) wanted to assess quality of life (QOL) and life satisfaction among women with physical disabilities or breast cancer, and to identify factors predictive of QOL and life satisfaction for women and men. QOL and life satisfaction differences were examined between women and men with physical disabilities and cancer, and between women with traumatic and chronic physical conditions. A cross- sectional design employing several QOL and life satisfaction measures was used. Two hundred sixteen outpatient subjects (99 women, 117 men) with physical disabilities or cancer were studied.
70 Women with traumatic conditions (amputation, spinal cord injury) reported poorer physical functioning and well-being, whereas women in the chronic (post polio, breast cancer) group reported poorer health status. No significant gender differences were found with respect to QOL or life satisfaction. Whereas functional and emotional well-being were the strongest predictors of overall QOL for both men and women, self-perceived general health significantly predicted QOL for women (p < .05) and social well-being significantly predicted QOL for men (p < .01). Among men, life satisfaction was best predicted by marital status (p < .05), general health (p < .05), and social well-being (p < .01). The resulting QOL models had adjusted R2 values of .77 and .76 for women and men, respectively. Among women with traumatic conditions, functional well- being best predicted QOL (p < .01). Life satisfaction for women with chronic conditions was best predicted by age, education, and spiritual well-being. QOL as measured by the impact of illness on an individual is best predicted by physical and functional well-being. Satisfaction with one's life was best predicted by functional ability. Although functional and physical ability were the best predictors for both QOL and life satisfaction, social functioning made significant and substantive contributions to these constructs. Spinal cord injury had the most impact on physical functioning, whereas prostate cancer had the least. Psychosocial functioning was most affected by amputation and least affected by prostate cancer.
Brouwers (et al.,) (2011) studied on people with leprosy-related disabilities in Nepal. The objective of this study was to evaluate differences in socio-economic characteristics, quality of life (QOL), perceived stigma, activity and participation among people affected by leprosy as a group and between this group and the general population, and to identify prime determinants of QOL among the leprosy-affected people. People with leprosy-related disabilities (N=100; 54DGI/46DGII) and community controls (N=100) were selected from Morang district, South-East Nepal, using quota sampling.
71 QOL, perceived stigma and participation and activity limitations were measured using the Nepali abbreviated version of the World Health Organisation Quality of Life (WHOQOL) assessment and the Nepali versions of the Jacoby Scale, Participation Scale and Green Pastures Activity Scale (GPAS), respectively. Total QOL, participation and activity levels of people affected by leprosy were worse than those of the general population. Regression analysis showed that the ability to maintain a family, satisfaction with health, vocational training, sex, activity and participation limitations (the latter for QOL only), perceived stigma and living situation (i.e. joint family, type of house) were significantly associated with a deterioration in QOL and higher participation restriction in one or both of the grading groups. There is an urgent need for interventions focused on quick referral of people with leprosy, to minimize the development of visible impairments, and social rehabilitation. The latter can be achieved by creating more public awareness, providing (financial) support for income generating projects and /or vocational training to leprosy- affected people, and by encouraging them to be involved in all community development activities. The current results indicate that such measures would help improve the quality of life of people with leprosy-related disabilities.
Barisin, et al., (2011) compared the health-related quality of life of unemployed and employed women with disabilities and establish factors affecting their life satisfaction. The study included 318 women with disabilities, 160 of whom were employed and 158 unemployed, paired according to age and region of residence. The health-related quality of life was assessed by The World Health Organization Quality of Life questionnaire, and social demographics and factors affecting life satisfaction were collected by a general questionnaire. The factors affecting life satisfaction were defined according to respondents' statements. The findings of the study is unemployed women with disabilities had a lower mean score (±standard deviation) on all health-related QoL domains: psychological health (14.52±2.80 vs 15.94±2.55), social relationships (15.12±3.08 vs 16.06±2.69), environment (12.80±2.78 vs 13.87±2.49), as well as on a separate item of self-assessed health (3.33±1.16 vs 3.56±0.92) than their employed counterparts (P<0.01).
72 This disparity was not found only in the domain of physical health. The largest positive impact on life satisfaction in both groups was family. As disabled women are a particularly vulnerable population group, stressing the importance of employment and family as factors affecting their quality of life may help equalizing opportunities and upgrading the quality of life of all - particularly unemployed women with disabilities.
Pekkanen, et al., (2013) compared one-year-follow-up data on disability and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) between spinal fusion patients and age- and sex-matched general population. The data on fusion patients were collected prospectively using a spinal fusion data base in two Finnish hospitals. A general population sample matched for age, sex and residential area was drawn from the Finnish Population Register.
All participants completed a questionnaire and the main outcome measures were the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) and the Short Form-36 questionnaire (SF- 36). Altogether 252 (69% females) fusion patients and 682 (67% females) population sample subjects participated in the study. In general population the mean ODI was 15 (SD 17) in females and 9 (SD 13) in males. The corresponding preoperative ODI values were 47 (SD16) and 40 (SD 15) and one year follow-up values 22 (SD 17) and 23 (SD 20). In both sexes the ODI decreased significantly after surgery but remained higher than in the general population, p < 0.001. The physical component summary score (PCS) of the SF-36 was lower in the patients than general population sample both preoperatively and at one-year follow-up (p < 0.001). The mental component summary score (MCS) was lower preoperatively (p < 0.001), but reached the general population level after one year in both men (p = 0.42) and women (p = 0.61). Disability and HRQoL improved significantly after spinal fusion surgery during a one- year follow-up. However, the patients did not reach the level of the general population in the ODI or in the physical component of HRQoL at that time, although in the mental component the difference disappeared.
73 CHAPTER-HI
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY RESEARCH METHODOLOGY INTRODUCTION Research methodology is a systematic and scientific description of how the study has been carried out scientifically. It is a way of solving the research problem. It gives a clear-cut idea of the research conducted. In it, the researcher studies the various steps that are generally adopted by previous researchers studying their research problem-solving along with the logic behind them. This chapter describes the methods and techniques adopted to carry out the investigation and delineate how the entire study has been organized.
TITLE OF THE STUDY
"A STUDY ON THE SOCIAL EXCLUSION OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES IN TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU, INDIA."
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM According to United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 8 % of the world population suffers from different forms of physical, mental and sensor disorders. WHO estimates that 10% of the world's population experience some form of disability or impairment. There is growing evidence that people with special needs comprise between 4 and 8 percent of the Indian population (around 40-90 million individuals). The Census 2001 indicates 75% and the National Sample Survey Organization 2008 indicates 73% persons with special needs are from rural areas. Disabled women are women who have one or more impairments and experience barriers in society. Women with special needs are multiply disadvantaged through their status as women, as persons with special needs, and majority numbers as persons living in poverty. Much of the discrimination experienced by differently abled women is based on an implicit notion that they are not the same as other women and so cannot be expected to share the same rights and aspirations. The isolation and exclusion of disabled women even extends to mainstream women and women's movements, which
74 deny them their rights and identity. Isolation and confinement based on culture and traditions, attitudes and prejudices often affect disabled women more than men. This isolation of disabled women leads to low self-esteem and negative feelings. Lack of appropriate support services and lack of adequate education result in low economic status, which, in turn, creates dependency on families or care-givers. Some societies go so far as to assign fault to a mother who gives birth to a disabled child, especially so if the mother is a disabled woman. Differently abled women and men can experience different kinds of attitudes based on gender discrimination. While men are still seen as the major bread-winners and leaders of society, a disabled man, considered "less of a man", won't conform to that stereotype.
Similarly, Women with disabilities tend to be more vulnerable to exploitation of various kinds, such as sexual harassment, domestic violence and exploitation in the workplace. According to the 2006 UNDP Human Development Report, women with special needs are twice as prone to divorce, separation, and violence as able-bodied women. Disabled women also tend to be relatively easy targets of sexual exploitation, particularly if they are mentally retarded. In general, differently abled women tend to be in a state of physical, social and economic dependency. This can lead to increased vulnerability to exploitation and violence. Because of the relative isolation and anonymity in which women with special needs live, the potential for physical and emotional abuse is high. It is estimated that having a disability doubles an individual's likelihood of being assaulted. At the same time, and because of their isolation, women with special needs are likely to have less resource to turn to for help. The researcher want to concentrate his study on identify the status and social inclusion of women with special needs in Tiruchirappalli district. The researcher also focused to analyse the impact of disability on their marital status, emotional disturbance, social attitude, Abuse & violence against women with special needs, family adjustment and quality of life of women with special needs. This study would be of great helpful to the Disabled Rehabilitation centers, Organizations and policy makers for improving and preparing appropriate policies & welfare programmes to improve the social inclusion and quality of life of women with special needs.
75 AIMS OF THE STUDY The aims of the study are to identify the status and social inclusion of women with special needs in Tiruchirappalli district, Tamil Nadu, India. The study also indents to analyse the impact of disability on their marital status, emotional disturbance, empowerment of women with special needs social attitude, Abuse & violence against women with special needs, family adjustment and quality of life of women with special needs.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 1. To study the socio-demographic profile of women with disabilities 2. To know about the attitude and perception towards women with disabilities 3. To investigate the level of awareness about Non Governmental Organizations' interventions for women with disabilities 4. To know the level of awareness about laws and policies for women with disabilities 5. To find out the social mobility and inclusion of women with disabilities 6. To find out the quality of life of women with disabilities
HYPOTHESES
1) There is a significant association between the educational qualification of the respondents and overall quality of life. 2) There is a significant association between the level of percentage of disability of the respondents and overall quality of life. 3) There is a significant association between the employment status of the respondents and overall Psycho-social well being. 4) There is a significant association between the age of the respondents and overall level of Social mobility and social inclusion, Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards WWDs and Attitude and perception towards WWDs. 5) There is a significant association between nature of the disability of the respondents and overall level of Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Social
76 mobility and social inclusion, Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's and Perception of media about WWDs 6) There is a significant variance among educational qualification of the respondents and overall Psycho-social well being. 7) There is a significant variance among educational qualification of the respondents and overall quality of life. 8) There is a significant variance among domicile of the respondents and overall level of Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act, towards WWDs, Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's, Perception of media about WWDs. 9) A significant difference exists between the type of family of the respondents and overall Psycho-social well being. 10) A significant difference exists between the type of family of the respondents and overall quality of life. 11)Higher the age higher will be their level of perception on overall psycho-social well being.
RESEARCH DESIGN Good planning gives the researcher direction for the successful completion of the project. The plan of study is called research design. Research design is the blue print of the proposed study. It is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted "A research design is a logical and systematic planning and it helps directing a piece of research." The study dealt with the status and social exclusion of women with special needs in Tiruchirappalli district. The study also analyzed the impact of disability on their marital status, emotional disturbance, empowerment of women with special needs social attitude, abuse and violence against women with special needs, family adjustment and quality of life of women with special needs. Thus, the study described the existing status of the women with disabilities with regard to the above said variables, the present study is descriptive in nature and hence descriptive design has been established. Also it tested the relationships and associations of variables upon which hypotheses were formed (Royce et al., 1988).
77 The data collected by administering questionnaires were chosen and analyzed to enable the researcher to make estimates of the precision and generality of the findings. Hence, for this research descriptive design has been adopted.
UNIVERSE AND SAMPLING
Coverage
The study is under taken in Tiruchirappalli District of Tamilnadu. The study covered 16 blocks at Tiruchirappalli District namely, Manachanellur, Lalgudi, Pullambadi, Andanallur, Thriuverambur, Manikandam, Vaiyampatti, Thottiam, Tiruchy West and Tiruchy Urban, Manapari, Musri, Uppiliapuram, Turiyaur and Vaiyampatti. The universe consists of 1249 women with disabilities (Data from District Disabled Rehabilitation Office) at Tiruchirappalli District. The present descriptive study was conducted in 16 blocks of Tiruchirappalli district. The universe consisted of 1249 WWD in Tiruchirappalli District. The researcher selected 20 women with disabilities as a sample from each block of Tiruchirappalli District (N=320) through stratified disproportionate random sampling method. This study is taken with a view to understand the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents and to examine their empowerment on decision
78 making and social inclusion, and quality of life of women with disabilities in the study areas. The study also analysed the impact of disability on their marital status, emotional disturbance, Abuse & violence against women with special needs.
Sample List: S.No Name of the Block Types of Disability Total VI HI PI MI 1 Manachanellur 28 20 36 12 96 2 Lalgudi 37 11 20 10 78 3 Pullambadi 25 12 20 12 69 4 Andanallur 12 10 22 10 54 5 Thriuverambur 13 23 35 15 86 6 Manikandam 15 25 35 23 98 7 Vaiyampatti 11 10 22 10 53 8 Thottiam 20 12 20 10 62 9 Manapari, 35 13 25 05 78 10 Musri 18 12 27 12 69 11 Uppiliapuram 35 08 35 10 88 12 Turiyaur 12 25 35 21 93 13 Vaiyampatti 18 07 25 09 59 14 Marugapuri 18 09 26 12 65 15 Tiruchy West 26 23 40 09 98 16 Tiruchy Urban 32 16 45 10 103 Total 1249 (Source: Tiruchirappalli District Disabled Rehabilitation Office Survey - 2008) VI: Visually Impaired HI: Hearing Impaired PI: Physically Impaired MI: Mild Mentally Illness
Inclusion Criteria The study focused only on women with disabilities in the study areas and those who registered their name at Tiruchirappalli District Disabled Rehabilitation Office. The research was conducted by interviewing the women with mild disabilities like low vision, Hearing impaired, loco motor disability and mild mentally retarded. They are included in the study.
Exclusion Criteria The study is not focused on women with severe disability who are in home
79 based rehabilitation and residential based rehabilitation centers. They are excluded in the study. S.No Nature of Disability Percentage of Types of impairment impairment 1 Physically challenged Less than 40% Mild 40% - 50% Moderate 50% - 70% Severe Above 70% Profound 2 Visually impaired Less than 40% Mild 40% - 75% Moderate Above 75% Severe 100% (Blind) Profound 3 Hearing impaired Less than 40% Mild 40% - 50% Moderate 50% - 70% Severe Above 70% Profound 4 Learning disability There is no any There is no any measurement categories 5 Mentally retarded Less than 50-69 IQ Mild 35-49 IQ Moderate 20-34 IQ Severe Less than 20 IQ Profound (Source: A Hand Book for Field Workers: Community Base Rehabilitation for PWD, Tamil Nadu Voluntary Health Association, Chennai)
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
The purpose of the study was to identify the status and social exclusion of women with disabilities in Tiruchirappalli district. The study also indented to analyse the impact of disability on their marital status, emotional disturbance, empowerment of women with disabilities social attitude, abuse and violence against women with disabilities, family adjustment and quality of life of women with disabilities. The
80 participants for this study were drawn from women with special needs in Tiruchirappalli district. The universe consists of 1249 women with special needs in Tiruchirappalli district. Out of which the researchers selected 20 women with special needs in from each block (n=320) through stratified disproportionate random sampling technique. The researcher used primary method of data collection and made use of interview schedule for data collection, which includes three phases.
In the first phase, the researcher administered interview schedule, which focused on demographic characteristics of the women with special needs through semi-structured and open ended individual questionnaire. It also included questions on the empowerment of women with special needs on decision making and social inclusions and to find out the level of awareness on their rights, policies and welfare programmes. The unique features of this research also constituted Ethnography, which is a qualitative research method used to describe the impact of disability on marital status, emotional disturbance and changes in social attitude.
In the second phase the researcher employed the technique of structured focus groups to discussion on the issue of their rights, policies and welfare programmes available for them. The focus group approach was selected as an appropriate method to explore sensitive discussion areas with women with special needs. The introduction given by the researcher was designed to make people comfortable in sharing their views. It is the researchers' intention to do research in this area and to explore their problems through one-on-one interviews, problem tree analysis and participatory rural appraisal analysis with the respondents.
The purpose of these techniques was to explore the issue of abuse related to emotional and psychological domain of the respondents. All focus group sessions were audiotape recorded with the permission of participants and tapes were transcribed. A content analysis of the major themes in the transcripts was then undertaken using a computer that helps the process of coding long narratives for themes. Once coded, the findings sorted by theme. A group of initial codes were created based on major themes found in the literature and then supplemented with
81 additional themes drawn from reading the transcripts. The coding completed by a research assistant was then compared with coding done by the Deputy Director of this project to assure agreement in the application of codes and differences were discussed and resolved. Based on a reading of the transcripts, types of abuse were coded as physical, emotional, sexual, neglect, denial of rights, isolation and other.
In the third phase the researcher used structured scales to find out the impact of disability on the quality of life and psycho-social problems of women with disabilities.
PILOT STUDY
A pilot study was conducted to know the applicability of the interview schedule. The researcher made many visits to all study areas in the Tiruchirappalli district and to find out the feasibility of conducting the study. During the subsequent visits permission was sought from the authentic persons of each study block and District Rehabilitation Officer. Prior to the pilot study the researcher had a discussion with the research scholars and subject experts in disability areas to get more insight to the study. The researcher went through various journals and books to know more about the topic selected for the study.
The pilot study was helpful to the researcher in framing aims and objectives of the study, formulating working hypotheses and structured interview schedule prepared for the data collection. The researcher also had discussions with the concerned authorities and explained the purpose and the nature of instruments to be used for the present study. This enabled the researcher to establish rapport with women with disabilities (respondents) and later helped him to collect the required data in time.
TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION The researcher used primary method of data collection. The following instruments were used to collect data from the respondents: i. Self - prepared interview schedule used to find out the socio - demographic characteristics of respondents.
82 ii. In-depth interview and focused group discussion used to find out the problems faced by women with special needs from family and society. iii. Self - prepared interview schedule used to assess the level of Awareness on their rights, policies and programmes among women with special needs. iv. Self - prepared interview schedule used to assess the level of psycho-social problems of women with disabilities. v. Quality of Life of Scale developed by Mr. Bech P. (1996).
VARIABLES OF THE STUDY Reviewing the available literature and studies in the areas of women with disabilities the researcher identified the following variables for the present study.
Independent Variables Age, domicile, type of family, size of family, family income, duration and age of acquired disability, nature of disability, level of disability and impact of disability on well being of women with disabilities.
Dependent Variables
i. Status and social inclusion of women with disabilities
ii. Impact of disability on their marital status, emotional disturbance, empowerment of women with disabilities.
iii. Social attitude towards women with disabilities,
iv. Abuse and violence against women with disabilities
v. Psycho-social welling of women with disabilities
vi. quality of life of women with disabilities
PRE-TEST With the aim of deducting the discrepancies and removing them in the draft questionnaire constructed for the present study, pre-testing was administered. To
83 ascertain the suitability and adaptability of the tools of data collection, a pre-test was carried out among 32 respondents of children with special needs and school teachers in Trichy city (West and Urban block). The responses were carefully scrutinized and analyzed on the basis of pre-testing questionnaire was slightly structured and modifications were also made in each items of questionnaire. Based on the pre-testing modifications were made in the questionnaire pertaining to the personal and socio- demographic data. The item correlation was found out to administer all the tools as standardized.
ANALYTICAL STRATEGY All statistical analyses was done using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The statistics test like, 't' test, chi-square test, 'Z' test, and ANOVA were applied which clearly reveal the devastating effect of disability on the quality of life of the disabled women with a particularly negative effect on their marriage, educational attainment, employment, emotional state etc., Women with disabilities also have jeopardized their personal, family and social life.
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
Disability: "Any restriction or lack (resulting from an impairment) of ability to perform an activity in a manner or within the range considered normal for a human being". The term disability reflects the consequences of impairment in terms of functional performance and activity by the individual; disability thus represents disturbances at the level of the person.
Blindness: Refers to a condition where the person suffers from total absence of sight; Visual acuity not exceeding 6/60 or 20/200 (snellen) in the better eye with correcting lenses and limitations of the field vision subtending an angle of 20 degree or worse.
Low Vision: The total absence of visual function even after treatment or standard refractive corrective. A person who has low vision or no vision uses appropriate assertive devises or is potentially capable of using vision.
84 Hearing Impairment: Loss of sixty decibels or more in the better ear in the conversational range of frequencies.
Loco motor Disability: Disability of bones, joints or muscles leading to substantial restriction of the movement of the limbs or any form of cerebral palsy
Barrier Free: Building, facility or area that is completely accessible to persons having mobility problems.
Emotional Disorder/Emotional Disturbance: It is a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child's educational performance: (a) an inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors, (b) an inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with family members, (c) inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances, (d) a general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
Quality of life: This has assured special significance in the present day generation. It is in this climate that the concept of quality of life has taken root and gathered momentum of their position in life in the context of culture and value system in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations standards and concern. This is a broad ranging concept incorporating (i) Physical problem (ii) Cognitive problem (iii) Effective problem and (iv) Social problem.
Physical abuse: Physical abuse is defined in terms of physical acts committed against people with disabilities, including physical acts such as being hit, punched, pushed, dragged and beaten.
Adjustment: The term adjustment in gerontological literature refers to the internal and external equilibrium of human organism. It has been used mostly to refer to the state of harmony not only within itself but also with its environment on the other hand. Having Hurst has said that there is no difference between these two harmonies and the
85 meaning of the work "Adjustment" should be obtained as state of harmonies living.
Rehabilitation: The process of helping a person who has a disability to learn or re- learn the skills needed for daily living and work activities.
Attitude: Attitude is particularly enduring sets formed by past experience.
Sexual abuse: It included references to being fondled or touched inappropriately, having someone take off a person's clothing, and forced sex (attempted and actual).
CHAPTER SCHEME This study is divided into five chapters and the content of these chapters are as given below: Chapter I: This chapter provides the introductory part of thesis and nature and theoretical background of the topic in detail. Chapter II: The review of literature and the abstracts of previous research findings are explained in this chapter. Chapter III: In this chapter the researcher explains about the research methodology followed in the study. Chapter IV: Here the researcher analysis the data collection by interpretation and tabulation with graphical representation. Chapter V: In this chapter the researcher reveals the salient findings, social work interventions and suggestions. It is followed by references and appendices. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 1. The present study was based on a small sample size with women with disabilities who live in Tiruchirappalli district. Generalizations are not possible and study involving a larger sample is required. 2. The research in the areas of sexuality, reproductive health care and motherhood for women with disabilities is limited. 3. Some information was obtained from Disabled People's Organisations and individual activists and contact was limited by the nature of the study methods
86 4. Time constraints also limited opportunities to follow up on all leads identified, and the broad geographic scope of the study also meant that it was not possible to carry out in-depth searches on physical and sexual abuse among the women with disabilities. 5. The disabled women were hesitating to reveal the real trauma they were passing through in their day-to-day life in front of even their family members. So, suitable place was found out for every woman, more time was devoted and a conducive environment was searched for everyone. 6. Reaching marginalized sections of society, and especially women, is a problem for researchers. This study and its findings, particularly the emphasis it places on women and gender-related questions, are thus inevitably affected by the above limitations. 7. A little definitive information may be gleaned on underlying patterns and causality from available data beyond general inferences and broad estimates. Thus, little definitive information may be gleaned about underlying patterns and causality from available data beyond general inferences and broad estimates. 8. The survey provides a profile of social exclusion among disabled women. Exclusionary practices in the various interstices of society have become systematized and entrenched and work against the interests and goal of inclusive governance.
87 CHAPTER-IV A ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION INTRODUCTION This chapter attempts initially to portray the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents and various aspects of disability, which are responsible to influence the attitude to women towards their disability and society. It also focused to analyse the impact of disability on their marital status, emotional disturbance, social attitude, abuse and violence against women with special needs, family adjustment and quality of life of women with special needs. Later, the data were systematically analyzed and it was depicted as of simple tables, and diagrams which were administered with statistical applications. The researcher also conducted case studies and focused group discussion, which included sixty women with disabilities, six Government officials, six Directors of NGOs, six directors of Women organizations and six representatives from print media. It was interpreted in a detail manner and followed by discussion.
SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
Table No: 4.1 Distribution of the respondents according to their Socio-demographic characteristics
S. Socio-demographic No. of Percentage No. characteristics Respondents (n = 320) 1 Age Below 25 years 72 22.5 26-36 years 129 40.3 37-47 years 77 24.1 Above 47 years 42 13.1
2 Religion Hindu 211 65.9 Christian 50 15.6 Muslim 59 18.5
88 40.3 45
40
35 24.1 30
25 PERCENTAGE 20 13.1
15
10
5 AGE
0 Below 25 years 26-36 years 37-47 years Above 47 years
Figure 1: Age of the respondents
89 (Table No: 4.1 continued....) S. Socio-demographic No. of Percentage No. characteristics Respondents (n = 320) 3 Caste SC 105 32.8 ST 161 50.3 OBC 47 14.7 OC 7 2.2
4 Educational qualification Illiteracy 70 21.9 Below Primary 28 8.8 Completed Primary 50 15.6 Secondary school 68 21.2 Higher secondary 35 10.9 Graduate 69 21.6
5 Order of birth 1 107 33.4 2 110 34.4 3 56 17.5 4 23 7.2 5 22 6.9 8 2 .6
6 Domicile Rural 156 48.8 Urban 116 36.2 Semi urban 48 15.0
7 Type of family Joint 107 33.4 Nuclear 213 66.6
8 Marital status Unmarried 121 37.8 Married 183 57.2 Separated/Deserted 4 1.2 Divorced 5 1.6 Widow/W idower 7 2.2
90 25
21.9 21.2 21.6
20
15
10.9
10
5
Illiteracy Completed Secondary school Higher secondary \j I auuaic Primary
EDUCATION
Figure 2: Educational qualification of the respondents
91 (Table No: 4.1 continued....) S. Socio-demographic No. of Percentage No. characteristics Respondents (n = 320) 9 No of children (n= 198) 1 58 29.2 2 96 48.5 3 35 17.7 4 7 3.6 5 2 1.0
10 Occupation House wife 130 40.6 Works on own farm/Land 12 3.8 Self employed (home-based 51 15.9 work) Self-employed (Work place 28 8.8 outside home) Works as regular 11 3.4 wage/salaried employee Works as casual labour 6 1.9 (Non-agricultural) Does not work due to sickness though have 5 1.6 regular work(Any kind) Does not work due to other reasons though have regular 4 1.2 work(Any kind) Attending educational 11 3.4 institutions Attending to domestic duties 12 3.8 Not able to work owning to 9 2.8 disability 11 Monthly Family Income (in Rs) Below Rs. 3000 140 43.8 Rs. 3001-4000 62 19.4 Rs. 4001-5000 63 19.6 Above 5000 55 17.2
92 (Table No: 4.1 continued....) S. Socio-demographic No. of Percentage No. characteristics Respondents (n = 320) 12 Dreams/desires/aspirations of WWDs Provide education to their 170 53.1 children Improve their economic 90 28.1 conditions Fight for their rights 60 15.8
Table 4.1 shows that 40.3 percent of the respondents were 26-36 years of age, 24.1 percent were in 37-47 years, 22.5 percent were below 25 years and the remaining 13.1 percent were above 47 years. The mean age is 34.7 years. With regard to gender all the respondents are female. Regarding religion, 65.9 percent of the respondents belonged to Hinduism, 18.5 percent followed Islam and 15.6 percent belonged to Christianity.
Regarding caste, half (50.3 percent) of the respondents belonged to Schedule Castes and one third (32.8 percent) belonged to Schedule Castes. 14.7 percent belonged to Other Back ward Castes and the remaining 2.2 percent belonged to Other Castes. With regard to education qualification 21.9 percent of the respondents were illiterate, 21.6 percent graduated, 21.2 percent completed secondary school, 15.6 percent completed primary level of education, 10.9 percent completed higher secondary and the remaining 8.8 percent had below primary level of education.
With regard to order of birth, 34.4 percent were in second order of birth of their family, 33.4 percent were in the first order, 17.5 percent were in the third order, 7.2 percent were in the fourth order, 6.9 percent were in the fifth order and remaining 0.6 percent were in the sixth order of birth in their family. 48.8 percent were from rural area, 36.2 percent from urban area and 15 percent from semi-urban area. 66.6 percent of the respondents hailed from nuclear
93 family and the remaining 33.4 percent hailed from extended family system. With regard to marital status, 57.2 percent of the respondents were married, 37.8 percent of the respondents were unmarried, 1.6 percent of the respondents were divorced, 2.2 percent of the respondents were widow and remaining 1.2 percent were separated.
Regarding no of children, nearly half (48.5 percent) of the respondents had two children, 29.2 percent had only one children, 17.7 percent of the respondents had 3 children, 3.6 percent of the respondents had 4 children and remaining 1 percent of the respondents had 5 children. With regard to occupation, 40 percent of the respondents were home maker, 15.9 percent were self employed (home-based work), 8.8 percent were self-employed (work place outside home), 3.8 percent were works on own farm/land and the same percent also attending to domestic duties, 3.4 percent of the respondents were attending educational institutions, 2.8 percent were not able to work owning to disability, 1.9 percent were works as casual labour (Non-agricultural), 1.6 percent did not work due to sickness though have regular work and remaining 1.2 percent of the respondents didn't work due to other reasons.
With regard to monthly income, 43.8 percent of the respondents monthly income was below Rs. 3000/-, 19.6 percent of the respondents earned between Rs. 4001-5000, 19.4 percent earned between Rs. 3001-4000 and remaining 17.2 percent earned above Rs. 5000. Regarding their desire and aspiration, half (53.1 percent) of the respondents have had provided higher education to their children, 28.1 percent opined improved their economic conditions and remaining 15.8 percent of the respondents fight for their and others' rights for betterment of their life.
94 Table No: 4.2 Distribution of the respondents according to their Socio-economic and living conditions
S. No. Socio-economic and No. of Percentage living conditions Respondents (n = 320) 1 Monthly income Below Rs. 2500 30 9.3 2501-4000 183 57.2 4001-5500 80 25.0 Above 5500 27 8.5 2 Supplementary source of income Yes 47 14.7 No 273 85.3 3 Type of house Hut 82 25.6 Terraced 238 74.4 4 House in which you reside Own 159 49.7 Rent 161 50.3 5 Habits of savings Yes 172 53.8 No 148 46.2 6 Family Debt Yes 163 50.9 No 157 49.1
Table 4.2 explains that the monthly income 57.2 percent of the families fell in the range Rs. 2501-4000, 25 percent Rs. 4001-5500, 9.3 percent below Rs. 2500 and 8.5 percent above Rs. 5500. With regard to supplementary source of income 14.7 respondents' families have supplementary income from various sources and remaining 85.3 percent did not have any supplementary source of income. 74.4 percent lived in terraced houses, and 25.6 percent lived in huts. 50.3 percent lived in rented house and 49.7 percent in owned houses. In viewing their saving habits, 53.8 percent had saving habits and 46.2 percent didn't. Regarding debt, 50.9 percent had debts and 49.1 percent were free of debts. Almost all of the respondents usually borrowed money from the private
95 financial institutions at a high rate of interest and the respondents' families were economically deprived.
Table No: 4.3 Distribution of the respondents according to their Disability
S. No. About Disability No. of Percentage Respondents (n = 320) 1 Nature of disability VI 136 42.5 HI 48 15.0 Physically challenged 98 30.6 Mild MR 38 11.9 2 Acquire this problem From birth 99 30.9 After birth 221 69.1 3 Age for acquired this (n= 221) problem Below 2 years 77 24.1 3-6 years 121 37.8 Above 6 years 23 7.2 4 Level of disability Yes 164 51.2 No 156 48.8 5 Percentage of disability (n= 164) Below 50 percentage 22 6.9 51-75 percentage 70 21.9 Above 75 percentage 72 22.5 6 Causes of disability Accidents 48 15.0 Improper nutrition 96 30.0 Polio-attack 139 43.4 Virus fever 37 11.6 7 Treatment for their (n=220) impairment Allopathy 153 47.8 Ayurvethi 16 5.0 Siddha 6 1.9 English 45 14.1
96 (Table No: 4.3 continued....) S. No. About Disability No. of Percentage Respondents (n = 320) 8 Reasons for not taking (n=169) treatment* Economic problem 169 52.8 Fear 197 61.6 No proper guidance 128 40.0 9 Disabled in their family Yes 79 24.7 No 241 75.3 10 Disability in their family (n=79) Father 17 21.6 Mother 19 24.0 Sister 25 31.7 Brother 18 22.7 11 Have disability National ID card Yes 214 66.9 No 106 33.1 12 Received any kind of supportive service Yes 176 55.0 No 144 45.0 13 Service received from * Government 140 43.8 Non governmental 76 23.8 organizations Service clubs 68 21.2 14 Benefits from Government * Financial help for study 32 10.0 Financial help for earning 93 29.1 Home from government 93 29.1 Supportive devices 36 11.2 Vocational Training 62 19.4 Reserved seats in public 83 25.9 vehicles Medical services 64 20.0 Unemployed compensation 68 21.2 Marriage compensation 70 21.9
97 (Table No: 4.3 continued....) S. No. About Disability No. of Percentage Respondents (n = 320) 15 Satisfied with government programmes Yes 146 45.6 No 174 54.4 16 Reasons for not satisfaction * Corruption 128 40.0 Not regular service 62 19.4 Not in action 88 27.5 *(Non addictive percentage)
Table 4.3 shows that 42.5 percent of the respondents were visually impaired, 30.6 percent of the respondents were physically challenged, 15 percent of the respondents were hearing impaired and remaining 11.9 percent were mild mentally retarded. With regard to acquired disability, one third (30.9 percent) of the respondents were born differently abled and a majority 69.1 percent became differently abled after birth. In viewing age of acquisition of this problem, more than one third (37.8 percent) of the respondents acquired disability from 3-6 years, 24.1 percent of the respondents became disabled under 2 years and 7.2 percent above 6 years. A majority (51.2 percent) of the respondents were well aware of their own disability and 48.8 percent were not and they did not know the value of getting disability identity card from the District Disability Rehabilitation Office. One fifth (22.5 percent) of the respondents belong to above 75% category of disability, 21.9 percent of the respondent belong to 51%-75% category of disability and remaining 6.9 percent of them were in below 50% category of disability.
43.4 percent reported polio-attack as one of the major causes for disability. 30 percent had improper nutrition, 15 percent reported accident as the causes of disability after birth and 11.6 percent had disability due to virus fever. Furthermore, 68.7 percent underwent treatment for their disability and
98 42.5
VI HI Physically challenged Mild MR
NATURE OF DISABILITY
Figure 3: Nature of disability of the respondents
99 13%
44%
• Below 50 percentage
• 51-75 percentage
] Above 75 percentage
Figure 4: Level of disability of the respondents
100 31.3 percent didn't because of their low economic status and lack of awareness. In viewing treatment, nearly half (47.8 percent) took allopathy, 14.1 percent underwent English treatment, 5 percent took Ayurvethi treatment and 1.9 percent Siddha treatment. Fear of medicine and had belief in myth is a major reason for not receiving any treatment for their disability (61.6 percent), followed by economic problems was another major reason for not availing treatment for their disability and 40 percent of the respondents had no guidance for treatment.
75.3 percent of the respondents were the only differently abled persons in the family and for the remaining 24.7 percent there was another disabled member in the family. 31.7 percent of the respondents' sisters were differently abled, 24 percent of the respondents' mothers were differently abled, 22.7 percent of the respondents' brothers were differently abled and remaining 21.6 percent of the respondents' fathers were differently abled. In viewing the National Disability ID card, 66.9 percent of the respondents were having National Disability ID card and remaining 33.1 percent of them did not have this card because of lack of awareness on National Disability ID card.
With regard to receiving supportive service, more than half (55 percent) of the respondents received some kind of supportive service from the philanthropist and 45 percent of them were not interested to receive any kind of supportive service from anyone else because of their hesitation and confidence to fulfill their own needs by themselves. 29.1 percent of the respondents had received financial help for earning and housing facilities from the government, 25.9 percent of the respondents have had enjoyed sets of reservation in public vehicles, 21 percent received unemployed compensation, 20 percent received medical services, 19.4 percent attain vocational training organized by the government, remaining percent of the respondents availed financial help fro their study (Government Scholarship) and supportive devices. With regard to satisfaction of the government programmes, 45.6 percent of the
101 respondents had satisfied with government services and programmes and more than half (54.4 percent) of the respondents were not satisfied with government programmes because of corruption and not in long term services.
Table No: 4.4 Distribution of the respondents according to their Status of occupation
S. No. Status of occupation No. of Percentage Respondents (n = 320) 1 Registered in District employment office Yes 160 50.0 No 160 50.0 2 Employed at present Yes 194 60.6 No 126 39.4 3 Getting any specialized training for the present (n=194) job yes 90 46.4 No 104 53.6 4 Getting training from (n=90) NGO Based institution 44 48.9 Block/District office 15 16.7 Other institution 31 34.4 5 Perception: Whether WWDs should work yes 206 64.4 No 114 35.6 6 If yes, Why? (n=206) It will make WWDs economically independent 99 48.0 It will improve economic conditions of WWDs 51 24.8 It will help us for providing higher education to their children 56 27.2
102 (Table No: 4.4 continued....) S. No. Status of occupation No. of Percentage Respondents (n = 320) 7 If No, Why? (n=114) Deprived due to 60 53.1 impairment Social insecurity 42 32.6 Guardians do not permit 12 14.3 8 Perception: What does your family feel about (n=194) your work Encouraged me to work 151 77.9 Not encouraged me in any 43 22.1 work 9 Discrimination at the (n=194) place of work Yes 140 72.2 No 54 27.8 10 Support your family from (n=194) your earning yes 143 73.8 No 51 26.2 11 Perception: How do your (n=194) colleagues behave with you? Good relationship 56 28.9 Moderate level of 104 53.7 relationship Bad relationship 34 17.4 12 Get paid at par with (n=194) other employees yes 169 87.1 No 25 12.9
103 (Table No: 4.4 continued....) S. No. Status of occupation No. of Percentage Respondents (n = 320) 13 Barrier free environment (n=194) in your working place yes 56 28.9 No 138 71.1 14 Getting job under the (n=184) special reservation quota yes 43 27.3 No 141 72.7 15 If, yes do you face any (n=43) problems yes 33 76.8 No 10 23.2 16 If, yes what kind of (n=33) problems you faced Lack of educational 6 18.1 qualification /no training Level of disability 21 63.7 Disparity in gender 6 18.2 sensitive
The above table 4.4 depicts that half (50 percent) of the respondents have registered their educational qualification in the district employment registration office and remaining percent of the respondents did not do this. More than half (60.6 percent) of the respondents were presently working in various fields as a self employed and remaining 39.4 percent of the respondents did not get employed anywhere due to physical inability. Those who were working at present job did get special training for this job and 53.6 percent did not. In viewing perception towards working status of women with disabilities, 64.4 percent considered employment to be an important factor for development and only 35.6 percent felt negative attitude towards perception of employment of women with disabilities. Nearly half (48 percent) of the respondents felt that, if the women with disabilities are employed it will make them economically
104 independent. A majority (60 percent) of the respondents felt that due to impairment they can not work in any field. With regard to perception of family about job, a majority (77.9 percent) of the respondent's family encouraged the women with disabilities to go for job and remaining 22.1 percent did not like it.
72.2 percent of the respondents faced discrimination at work place. In viewing relationship with co-workers in the work place, half (53.7 percent) of the respondents have moderate relationship with their colleagues. A vast majority (87.1 percent) of the respondents got equal pay with other employees and 71.1 percent of the respondents opinioned that there was no barrier free environment in their working place.
Table No: 4.5 Distribution of the respondents according to their Educational attainment
S. No. Educational attainment No. of Percentage Respondents (n = 320) 1 Are you going school (n=132) now? yes 49 15.3 No 83 25.9 2 Have you ever attended (n=87) school? yes 71 22.2 No 16 5.0 3 Perception: Do you feel that disabled women (n=320) should study? yes 265 82.8 No 55 17.2
The table 4.5 explains that only 15.3 percent were going to the school. 82.8 percent of the respondents felt that women with disability should study and remaining 17.2 percent of them did not favourable about the education for women with disabilities.
105 Table No: 4.6 Distribution of the respondents according to their Decision making in house hold
S. No. Decision making in house No. of Percentage hold Respondents (n = 320) 1 Decision making in household Yes 125 39.1 No 195 60.9 2 Consulted for decision regarding her life Yes 151 47.2 No 169 52.8 3 Consulted for decision regarding her medical needs Yes 144 45.0 No 176 55.0
Table 4.6 indicates that 60.9 percent of women with disabilities were not consulted by other members in the family while taking important financial decisions in the household. Percentage of women with disabilities who were consulted while taking decisions concerning their own life is only 47.2 percent and 45 percent were consulted for making vital decisions regarding their medical needs.
106 Table No: 4.7 Distribution of the respondents according to their Social Mobility and Exclusion
S. No. Social Mobility and No. of Percentage Exclusion Respondents (n = 320) 1 Participation in other social gatherings Yes 57 17.9 No 263 82.1 2 Reasons for not joining (n=263) other social gatherings Deprived due to 190 72.2 impairment Guardians do not permit 30 11.4 Social insecurity 16 6.0 To avoid any 12 4.6 embarrassing moment Due to some bad 15 5.8 experiences 3 Discrimination in enjoying social status compared to other women Yes 242 75.7 No 78 24.3 4 Types of discrimination (n=242) Due to impairment 190 78.5 Get no benefit from panchayat/local 52 21.5 government body
The table 4.7 explains that 82.1 percent of the women with disabilities did not participate in the social gatherings and 17.9 percent only joining social gatherings outside home. Out of the 82.1 percent women with disabilities who do not participate in functions outside home, 72.2 percent said that disability was the main reason behind it. Lack of guardians' permission was also an important reason (11.4 percent). A majority (75.7 percent) of the women with disabilities said that they faced discrimination compared to others (non- disabled women) in enjoying social status. A large majority of women with
107 82.1
75.7
90
80
70
60
50 LT.O
40 CP
• 30
20
10
0 Discrimination in enjoying social status Participation in other social gatherings compared to other women
Figure 5: Social mobility and social inclusion of women with disabilities
108 disabilities (78.5 percent) face discrimination within family due to their impairement and around 21.5 percent did not get benefit from Panchayat/local government.
Table 4.8 Distribution of the respondents according to their Marriage of WWDs S. No. Marriage of WWDs No. of Percentage Respondents (n = 320) 1 Question of marriage raised by family members Yes 146 45.7 No 174 54.3 2 Reasons for question not (n=174) being raised Family cannot take 50 28.8 decision due to my disability Studying at present 21 12.0 Financial problems 39 22.4 Family members think 24 13.8 nobody will agree to marry me due to my disability Family members have 09 5.1 not yet tried Not of marriageable age 11 6.3 I want to be self-dependent 20 11.6 3 Perception: whether WWD should get married Yes 201 62.9 No 119 37.1 4 Family's perception about marriage WWDs should get married 64 20.0 WWDs should not get 121 37.9 married WWDs should get married 28 8.8 to disabled men No discussion in family 33 10.3 Financial problems 39 12.1 WWDs should not be 35 10.9 dependent on others
109 The table 4.8 expresses 45.7 percent of the respondent's family members had worried about the marriage of their daughters and 54.3 percent of the respondent's family members were not bothered about the marriage of their daughters. In viewing the reason for not raising question of marriage for women with disabilities, 28.8 percent were due to disability, 22.4 percent were due to financial problems and 13.8 percent opined negative attitude towards marriage for women with disabilities. With regard to focused group's perception of marriage for women with disabilities, 37.1 percent had negative attitude towards marriage and only 20 percent of the respondent's family perception was positive towards marriage of women with disabilities.
Table 4.9 Distribution of the respondents according to their Abuse and Harassment
S. No. Abuse and Harassment No. of Percentage Respondents (n = 320) 1 Awareness about abuse and sexual harassment Yes 210 65.7 No 110 34.3 2 Personal experience of sexual harassment Yes 189 59.0 No 131 41.0 3 Place of experience of (n= 189) harassment Home 25 13.2 Work place 84 44.5 Public Place 20 10.6 Rehabilitation centers 50 26.5 Medical institutions 10 5.2
110 (Table No: 4.9 continued....) S. No. Abuse and Harassment No. of Percentage Respondents (n = 320) 4 Possible action to (n=189 overcome/protect such situation Will Protest 60 31.8 Will shout 10 5.2 Will inform the family 60 31.8 member Can't protest due to 10 5.2 my impairment Will try to escape 35 18.6 The culprit should be 14 7.4 punished 5 Possible action in future (n=131) if she faces harassment Will Protest 37 28.2 Will shout 12 9.1 Will inform the family 30 23.0 member Can't protest due to 12 9.1 my impairment Will try to escape 20 15.3 The culprit should be 20 15.3 punished
The table 4.9 explains that it is quite surprising to find that 34.3 percent women with disabilities did not know what is meant by sexual harassment. The awareness level is very low. The level of knowledge regarding abuse and sexual harassment is high among women with disabilities (almost 65.7 percent). Out of 59 percent women with disabilities who experienced sexual abuse and harassment, 44.5 percent faced it at work place and 26.5 percent in rehabilitation centers. The percentage of women with disabilities who said that they would protest if they face sexual harassment in future (28.2 percent) which is followed by 23 percent will inform the family members regarding their abuse and harassment. A very few percent of the women with disabilities opined that cannot protest due to their disability.
111 Table 4.10 Distribution of the respondents according to their Awareness about Acts/Policies & Rights S. No. Awareness about No. of Percentage Acts/Policies & Rights Respondents (n = 320) 1 Awareness about policy/Act Yes 120 37.5 No 200 62.5 2 Awareness about Acts/ laws / polices related to women's right Yes 110 34.3 No 210 65.7 3 Awareness about CEDAW Yes 100 31.2 No 220 68.8 4 Awareness about Special provisions for disabled women through law* Treatment rehabilitation 50 15.6 Education 250 78.1 Training 40 12.5 Employment 240 75 Independent living 30 9.3 Safety and social security 100 31.2 Access to social services & 80 25 information Abuse: Physical, Social, 50 15.6 Mental and Sexual *(Non addictive percentage) Table 4.10 indicates that a majority (62.5 percent) of the women with disabilities was not aware of the policy and law related to persons with disabilities, 65.7 percent were not aware of the Acts / laws / polices related to women's right and 68.8 percent are not aware of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). 78.1 percent of the people who had the possibility for education to various levels
112 came to know about the special provisions for disabled women through education.
Table 4.11 Distribution of the respondents according to their Awareness about Government Benefits S. No. Awareness about No. of Percentage Government Benefits Respondents (n = 320) 1 Awareness about Government schemes for PWDs Yes 189 59.0 No 131 41.0 2 Availing of benefits of (n=189) government schemes by WWDs Yes 109 57.7 No 80 42.3 3 Kinds of benefits availed (n=109) Financial help for study 20 18.4 Financial help for earning 27 24.9 Home from government 10 9.1 Supportive devices 20 18.4 Provision of sewing 10 9.1 machines Training 22 20.1
Table 4.11 revealed that 41 percent of women with disabilities were not aware of government schemes for their benefits. 57.7 percent of the respondents availed government benefits. 24.9 percent women with disabilities received various benefits such as financial help for earning, financial help for study (18.4 percent) and supportive devices (18.4 percent) and getting training from government regarding self employment (20.1 percent). The researcher conducted focus group discussion among the women with disabilities.
113 Table 4.12 Distribution of the respondents according to their Awareness about NGO intervention for WWDs S. No. Awareness about NGO No. of Percentage Intervention for WWDs Respondents (n = 320) 1 Knowledge about NGO/CBO in the area Yes 88 27.5 No 232 72.5 2 Approach by NGO/CBO (n=88) to WWDs for support Yes 70 79.6 No 18 20.4
3 Membership of WWDs in (n=88) NGOs/CBO Yes 60 68.1 No 28 31.9 4 Decision making power (n=60) as an NGO member Yes 50 83.3 No 10 16.7 5 Kinds of benefits received from NGOs* Provides loans 21 23.9 Support for ID card 70 79.6 Provides supportive aids 40 45.4 Make arrangements of 50 56.8 doctors 6 Member of WWDs in Women's organisation yes 175 54.7 No 145 45.3 7 Participation in decisions (n=175) of the organisation yes 46 26.2 No 129 73.8
(* Non addictive percentage)
114 Table 4.12 explicit that only 27.5 percent of the women with disabilities were aware about the NGOs/CBOs who are working for women with disabilities. Out of them 79.6 percent were approached by those NGOs, 68.1 percent of the them were member in any one of the NGOs working for disabled women and they had capacity for decision making in their home (83.3 percent).
However 79.6 percent of the women with disabilities got support from NGOs about getting ID card, make arrangements of doctors for getting treatment to their problems (56.8 percent) and 45.4 percent received supportive aids. NGOs, CBOs and women organizations working in the field of disability have a very important role in the development and empowerment of Women with disabilities.
Table 4.13 Distribution of the respondents according to their perception on media
S. No. Awareness about No. of Percentage NGO Intervention Respondents for WWDs (n = 320)
1 Perception about media sensitivity Yes 79 24.7 No 241 75.3 2 Reasons for negative (n=241) representation in media Media does not 165 68.5 respond to the needs of disabled Media lacks 45 18.8 awareness about WWDs' problems Media does not pay 15 6.2 attention due to financial aspect More coverage on 16 6.5 political issues
115 (Table No: 4.13 continued....) S. No. Awareness about No. of Percentage NGO Intervention Respondents for WWDs (n = 320) 3 Media project the image on disabled women WWDs as vulnerable 110 34.3 Dependent and 90 28.1 helpless groups In order to draw 60 18.8 sympathy WWDs as a burden in 60 18.8 the society 4 Regularity of publicity on WWDs in media Yes 49 15.3 No 271 84.7 5 Expectations from media regarding equal representation of WWDs' issues Should reflect our 90 28.1 social condition Should give us 30 9.3 financial support Should create 110 34.3 awareness about our education Should depict our 40 12.6 social insecurity No expectation from 50 15.7 media
Table 4.13 shows that a majority 75.3 percent of women with disabilities felt that media does not represent them positively. The remaining 24.7 percent of women with disabilities gave a positive response, with more weightage on two reasons - lack of interest of media in women with disabilities' needs (68.5 percent) and media lacks awareness about women with disabilities' problems (18.8 percent). More than 84.7 percent of women with disabilities did not know whether there are discussions/articles on them in the
116 media regularly. 34.4 percent of women with disabilities expected media to create awareness about their education and 28.1 percent felt that media should reflect their social conditions.
Table 4.14 Distribution of the respondents according to their Attitude & Perception towards WWDs S. No. Attitude & Perception No. of Percentage towards WWDs Respondents (n = 320) 1 Disabled women face double discrimination Yes 243 75.9 No 77 24.1 2 If yes, then why?* (n=243) Deprived due to impairment nobody takes 200 82.3 me outside home Guardians do not allow to 158 65.0 go outside home Social insecurity 126 63.0 To avoid any embarrassing 216 88.8 moment Due to some bad 139 57.2 experiences Does not feel like going 163 67.0 3 If no, then why? (n= 77) Positive social condition 73 94.8 Financial support 42 54.5 Government Mass social services from 55 71.4 NGO's Mass awareness program 50 64.9 for our welfare Law and policies are support the women with 50 64.9 disabilities 4 Perception: Disabled women need special attention yes 265 82.81 No 55 17.19
117 The table 4.14 shows that a majority (75.9 percent) of the respondents faced double discrimination in availing basic human rights and services provided by government and non-governmental organizations for women with disabilities. A vast majority (82.81 percent) of the respondents said that women with disabilities need special attention to care them. Disabled women's life experiences are often described as 'double disadvantaged' or 'triple jeopardized' (Begum 1994).
Table 4.15 Distribution of the respondents according to problems faced by WWDs S. No. problems faced by No. of Percentage WWDs Respondents (n = 320) 1 Lack of independent mobility yes 239 74.7 No 81 25.3 2 Lack of education yes 222 69.4 No 98 30.6 3 Lack of appropriate vocational training yes 183 57.2 No 137 42.8 4 Lack of opportunities for gainful employment yes 205 64.1 No 115 35.9 5 Inaccessible physical environment yes 201 62.8 No 119 37.2 6 Unhelpful and negative social attitudes yes 239 74.7 No 81 25.3 7 Physical, mental and sexual abuse yes 199 62.2 No 121 37.8
118 The table 4.15 explicit that 74.7 percent had lack of independent mobility, 69.4 percent had lack of education, 57.2 percent had lack of appropriate vocation training, 64.1 percent had lack of opportunities for gainful employment, 62.8 percent experienced inaccessible physical environment, 74.7 percent experienced unhelpful and negative social attitudes and 62.2 percent experienced physical, mental and sexual abuse.
Table 4.16 Distribution of the respondents according to perception of which is need to be change in the lives of a disabled woman
S. No. Perception of which is No. of Percentage* need to be change in the Respondents lives of a disabled woman 1 Provision for appropriate 186 58.1
rehabilitation 2 Aids and appliances 207 64.7 3 Education 160 50.0 4 Appropriate Vocational 188 58.8 training 5 Opportunities for 224 70.0 gainful employment 6 Accessible environment 224 70.0 7 Social attitudes 208 65.0 *(Non addictive percentage) The table 4.16 explains about the perception which needs to be changed in the lives of a disabled woman. It was identified that more than half (58.1 percent) of the respondents expressed that provision for appropriate rehabilitation is needed for them to develop their quality of life, 64.7 percent were for aids and appliances, 50 percent were for
119 education, 58.8 percent were for appropriate vocational training, 70 percent were for opportunities for gainful employment, 70 percent were for accessible environment and 65 percent for social positive attitudes.
Table 4.17 Distribution of the respondents according to their Suggestion for improving the Positive attitude towards WWDs
S. No. Suggestion for No. of Percentage* improving the Positive Respondents attitude towards WWDs 1 Elected women with disabilities village 291 90.9 presidents and ward members 2 Need community awareness programmes 221 69.1 about WWDs' rights 3 Media can take a major role in creating public 252 78.8 awareness 4 Need for a scheme to support Self help groups of 190 59.4 WWDs 5 WWDs must be involved in all policy and decision 190 59.4 making processes 6 Career-oriented education 223 69.7 for disabled women 7 Accessible, well-equipped 217 67.8 resource centers and clinics *(Non addictive percentage)
The table 4.17 speaks about the suggestions for improving ones' positive attitude towards women with disabilities. A vast majority (90.9 percent) of the respondents felt that women with disabilities should be elected as village presidents and ward members; Need community based awareness programmes about women with disabilities ' rights (69.1 percent);
120 Media can take a major role in creating public awareness about women rights and their related problems (78.8 percent); Need for a scheme to support Self help groups of Women with disabilities (59.4 percent); Women with disabilities must be involved in all policy and decision making processes (59.4 percent); Career-oriented education for disabled women (69.7 percent) and accessible, well-equipped resource centers and clinics (67.8 percent).
Table No: 4. 18 Distribution of the respondents by various dimensions of Psycho social functions
S. No Various dimensions of No. of Percentage Psycho social functions Respondents (n =320) 1. Psychological symptoms Low 162 50.6 High 158 49.4 2. Family relationship Low 161 50.3 High 159 49.7 3. Relationship with husband (n=183) Low 107 58.5 High 76 41.5 4. Relationship with children (n=121) Low 59 48.8 High 62 51.2 5. Social relationship Low 167 52.2 High 153 47.8
6 Overall psycho social function Low 179 55.9 High 141 44.1
The table 4.18 depicts that nearly half (49.4 percent) of the respondents had high level of psychological symptoms, 50.3 percent had low level of family
121 4 High 55.9 Low Overall psycho social function 47.8 High r52.2 Low Social relationship 51.2 High Low 3f 48.8 Relationship with children 41.5 High Low 58.5 Relationship with husband High Low 3 Family relationship High J 49.4 Low ZZK 50.6 Psychological symptoms
0 60
Figure 6: Psycho social functions of women with disabilities
122 relationship, 58.5 percent had low level of relationship with husband, 48.8 percent of the respondents had low level of relation ship with their children, half (52.2 percent) of the respondents had low level social relationship and the overall psycho-social function of the women with disabilities was lowest to 55.9 percent.
Table No: 4. 19 Distribution of the respondents by various dimensions of Quality of work life
S. No Various dimensions of No. of Percentage Quality of work life Respondents (n =320) 1. Physical problems Low 150 46.9 High 170 53.1 2. Cognitive problems Low 157 49.1 High 163 50.9 3. Affective problem Low 137 42.8 High 183 57.2 4. Social Dysfunction Low 131 40.9 High 189 59.1 5. Economic Problem Low 111 34.7 High 209 65.3 6 Ego Problem Low 138 43.1 High 182 56.9 7 Overall quality of work life Low 165 51.6 High 155 48.4 The table 4.19 expressed that half (53.1 percent) of the respondents had high level of physical problems, half (50.9 percent) of the respondent had high level of cognitive problems, affective problem (57.2 percent), social dysfunction
123 48.4 Overall quality of work life 51.6
182 Ego Problem 138
65.3 Economic Problem
17 Social Dysfunction 0 c1/1 0 w c OJ E Affective problem 5 42.8
50.9 Cognitive problems 1 49.
Physical problems 46.9
200
Figure 7: Quality of women with disabilities
124 (59.1 percent), economic problem (65.3 percent), ego problem (56.9 percent) and the overall level of quality of work life is low to 51.6 percent.
Table No: 4. 20 Distribution of the respondents by various dimensions of Awareness and Perception of Women with Disabilities
S. No various dimensions of No. of Percentage Awareness and Perception of Respondents Women with Disabilities (n =320) 1. Decision Making in house holds Low 183 57.2 High 137 42.8 2. Social mobility and social inclusion Low 248 77.5 High 72 22.5 3. Opinion on marriage for (n=127) WWDs Low 112 88.1 High 15 11.9
4. Experience on sexual abuse and harassments Low 87 27.2 High 233 72.8 5. Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards WWDs Low 177 55.3 High 143 44.7 6 Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's Low 193 60.3 High 127 39.7 7 Perception of media Low 197 61.6 High 123 38.4 8 Attitude and perception towards WWDs Low 171 53.4 High 149 46.6
125 88.1 90
80
70 60.3 61,6 60 57.2 55.3 2 8 46.6 50 44.7 7t 38.4 PL- •3T PERCENTAGE 40
30 • Low 71 20 11.9 • High 10
0 Decision Social mobility Opinion on Experience on Awareness on Awareness Perception of Attitude and Making in and social marriage for sexual abuse Laws, Policy about NGO's media about perception house holds inclusion WWDs and and Act intervention WWDs towards harassments towards for WWD's WWDs WWDs
Variables
Figure 8: Awareness and perception of women with disabilities
126 The table 4.20 explains that more than half (57.2 percent) of the respondents had low level of decision making capacity in their house holds; Social mobility and social inclusion (77.5 percent); Opinion on marriage for women with disabilities (88.1 percent); Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards women with disabilities (55.3 percent); Awareness about NGO's intervention for women with disabilities' (60.3 percent); Perception of media about Women with disabilities (61.6 percent) and Attitude and perception towards Women with disabilities (53.4 percent).
127 Table No: 4.21 Association between the age of the respondents and various dimensions of psycho-social functioning
S. No Age Various Statistical dimensions of Inference Psycho-social functioning Low High 1. Psychological symptoms n: 162 n: 158 Below 25 years 38 34 X2 = 4.133 26-36 years 65 64 df = 3 37-47 years 33 44 P>0.05 Above 47 years 26 16 Not Significant
2 Relationship with Family n: 161 n: 159 Below 25 years 44 28 X2 = 17.256 26-36 years 58 71 df = 3 37-47 years 29 48 P<0.01 Above 47 years 30 12 Significant
3 Relationship with Husband n: 107 n: 76 Below 25 years 22 15 X2 = 4.395 26-36 years 39 37 df = 3 37-47 years 26 17 P>0.05 Above 47 years 20 7 Not Significant
4 Relationship with Children n: 99 n: 99 Below 25 years 22 20 X2 = 2.676 26-36 years 44 36 df = 3 37-47 years 21 24 P>0.05 Above 47 years 12 19 Not Significant
128 (Table No: 4.21 continued....) S. No Age Various Statistical dimensions of Inference Psycho-social functioning Low High 5 Relationship with Social n: 167 n: 153 Below 25 years 35 37 X2 = 5.347 26-36 years 74 55 df = 3 37-47 years 33 44 P>0.05 Above 47 years 25 17 Not Significant
6 Overall Psycho-social well n: 179 n: 141 being X2 = 6.202 Below 25 years 47 25 df = 3 26-36 years 72 57 P>0.05 37-47 years 35 42 Not Significant Above 47 years 25 17
It is inferred from the table 4.21 that there was a significant association between age of the respondents and relationship with society (X2 = 17.256, df = 3, P<0.01, Significant). However there was no significant association between age of the respondents and Psychological symptoms of the women with disabilities, Relationship with Husband, Relationship with Children, and Relationship with Society. Further there was no significant association between age of the respondents and Overall Psycho-social well being of the women with disabilities.
129 Table No: 4.22 Association between the age of the respondents and various dimensions of quality of life
S. No Age Various Statistical dimensions of Inference Quality of life Low High 1. Physical problems n: 170 n: 150 Below 25 years 21 51 X2 = 25.343 26-36 years 75 54 df = 3 37-47 years 43 34 P<0.01 Above 47 years 31 11 Significant
2 Cognitive problem n: 163 n: 157 Below 25 years 57 15 X2 = 32.441 26-36 years 58 71 df = 3 37-47 years 35 42 P<0.01 Above 47 years 13 29 Significant
3 Affective Problem n: 183 n: 137 Below 25 years 51 21 X2 = 13.415 26-36 years 61 68 df = 3 37-47 years 50 27 P<0.01 Above 47 years 21 21 Significant
4 Social Dysfunction n: 189 n: 131 Below 25 years 37 35 X2 = 9.369 26-36 years 84 45 df = 3 37-47 years 38 39 P<0.05 Above 47 years 30 12 Significant
130 (Table No: 4.22continued.. ) S. No Age Various Statistical dimensions of Inference Quality of life Low High 5 Economic problem n: 209 n: 111 Below 25 years 37 35 X2 = 10.264 26-36 years 84 45 df = 3 37-47 years 58 19 P<0.05 Above 47 years 30 12 Significant
6 Ego problem n: 182 n: 138 Below 25 years 36 36 X2 = 8.492 26-36 years 77 52 df = 3 37-47 years 38 39 P<0.05 Above 47 years 31 11 Significant
7 Overall Quality of work life n: 165 n: 155 Below 25 years 23 49 X2 = 19.621 26-36 years 74 55 df = 3 37-47 years 38 39 P<0.01 Above 47 years 30 12 Significant
It is inferred from the table 4.22 that there was a significant association between age of the respondents and various dimensions of quality of life of women with disabilities such as Physical problems (X2 = 25.343, df = 3, P<0.01, Significant), Cognitive problem (X2 = 32.441, df = 3, P<0.01, Significant), Affective Problem (X2 = 13.415, df = 3, P<0.01, Significant), Social Dysfunction (X2 = 9.369, df = 3, P<0.05, Significant), Economic problem (X2 = 10.264, df = 3, P<0.05, Significant), and Ego problem (X2 = 8.492, df = 3, P<0.05, Significant). However there was a significant association between age of the respondents and overall quality of life (X2 = 19.621, df = 3, P<0.01, Significant). It means that the age has influenced the level of quality of life. 26-36 years of age group of women with disabilities had favourable attitude towards quality of life.
131 Table No: 4.23 Association between the income of the respondents and various dimensions of psycho-social functioning
S. No Income Various Statistical dimensions of Inference Psycho-social functioning Low High 1. Psychological symptoms n: 162 n: 158 Below Rs. 3000 63 77 X2 = 12.686 Rs. 3001-4000 41 21 df = 3 Rs. 4001-5000 25 38 P<0.01 Above 5000 33 22 Significant
2 Relationship with Family n: 161 n: 159 Below Rs. 3000 60 80 X2 = 9.349 Rs. 3001-4000 39 23 df = 3 Rs. 4001-5000 37 26 P<0.05 Above 5000 25 30 Significant
3 Relationship with Husband n: 107 n: 76 Below Rs. 3000 50 31 X2 = 1.810 Rs. 3001-4000 22 15 df = 3 Rs. 4001-5000 17 18 P>0.01 Above 5000 18 12 Not Significant
4 Relationship with Children n: 99 n: 99 Below Rs. 3000 44 45 X2 = 0.723 Rs. 3001-4000 20 20 df = 3 Rs. 4001-5000 P>0.05 21 17 Not Significant Above 5000 14 17
5 Relationship with Social n: 167 n: 153 Below Rs. 3000 63 77 X2 = 6.320 Rs. 3001-4000 35 27 df = 3 Rs. 4001-5000 34 29 P>0.05 Above 5000 35 20 Not Significant
132 (Table No: 4.23 continued....) S. No Income Various Statistical dimensions of Inference Psycho-social functioning Low High 6 Overall Psycho-social well n: 179 n: 141 being 2 Below Rs. 3000 70 70 X = 6.261 Rs. 3001-4000 41 21 df = 3 Rs. 4001-5000 33 30 P>0.05 Above 5000 35 20 Not Significant
It is evident from the table 4.23 that there was a significant association between income of the respondents with regard to Psychological symptoms (X2 = 12.686, df = 3, P<0.01, Significant) and Relationship with Family (X2 = 9.349, df = 3, P<0.05, Significant). However there was no significant association between income of the respondents with regard to Relationship with Husband, Relationship with Children, Relationship with Social and Overall Psycho-social well being. It means that income has influenced the psychosocial well being and relation with family. Below 3000/- income group of the women with disabilities had more psychological symptoms and relationship problem with family members.
133 Table No: 4.24 Association between the income of the respondents and various dimensions of quality of life
S. No Income Various Statistical dimensions of Inference Quality of life Low High 1. Physical problems n: 170 n: 150 Below Rs. 3000 83 57 X2 = 11.536 Rs. 3001-4000 38 24 df = 3 Rs. 4001-5000 23 40 P<0.05 Above 5000 26 29 Significant
2 Cognitive problem n: 163 n: 157 Below Rs. 3000 67 73 X2 = 2.294 Rs. 3001-4000 30 32 df = 3 Rs. 4001-5000 37 26 P>0.05 Above 5000 29 26 Not Significant
3 Affective Problem n: 183 n: 137 Below Rs. 3000 84 56 X2 = 5.050 Rs. 3001-4000 32 30 df = 3 Rs. 4001-5000 41 22 P>0.05 Above 5000 26 29 Not Significant
4 Social Dysfunction n: 189 n: 131 Below Rs. 3000 90 50 X2 = 3.264 Rs. 3001-4000 32 30 df = 3 Rs. 4001-5000 36 27 P>0.05 Above 5000 31 24 Not Significant
5 Economic problem n: 209 n: 111 Below Rs. 3000 95 45 X2 = 0.719 Rs. 3001-4000 39 23 df = 3 Rs. 4001-5000 40 23 P>0.05 Above 5000 35 20 Not Significant
134 (Table No: 4.24 continued....) S. No Income Various Statistical dimensions of Inference Quality of life Low High 6 Ego problem n: 182 n: 138 Below Rs. 3000 94 46 X2 = 13.458 Rs. 3001-4000 34 28 df = 3 Rs. 4001-5000 32 31 P<0.01 Above 5000 22 33 Significant
7 Overall Quality of work life n: 165 n: 155 X2 = 4.488 Below Rs. 3000 80 60 df = 3 Rs. 3001-4000 31 31 P>0.05 Rs. 4001-5000 26 37 Not Significant Above 5000 28 27
It is inferred from the table 4.24 that there was a significant association between income of the respondents and various dimension of quality of life like Physical problems (X2 = 11.536, df = 3, P<0.05, Significant) and ego problem (X2 = 13.458, df = 3, P<0.01, Significant). However that there was no significant association between income of the respondents and various dimension of quality of life such as Cognitive problem, Affective Problem, Social Dysfunction, Economic problem and Overall Quality of work life.
135 Table No: 4.25 Association between the level of disability of the respondents and various dimensions of psycho-social functioning
S. No Level of Disability Various Statistical dimensions of Inference Psycho-social functioning Low High 1. Psychological symptoms n: 96 n: 68 X2 = 11.000 Below 50 percentage 17 5 df = 2 51-75 percentage 31 39 P<0.01 Above 75 percentage 48 24 Significant
2 Relationship with Family n: 88 n: 76 X2 = 7.134 Below 50 percentage 16 6 df = 2 51-75 percentage 30 40 P<0.05 Above 75 percentage 42 30 Significant
3 Relationship with Husband n: 53 n: 41 X2 = 3.648 Below 50 percentage 10 3 df = 2 51-75 percentage 20 22 P>0.05 Above 75 percentage 23 16 Not Significant
4 Relationship with Children n:57 n: 53 X2 = 0.509 Below 50 percentage 7 6 df = 2 51-75 percentage 28 23 P>0.05 Above 75 percentage 22 24 Not Significant
5 Relationship with Social n: 91 n: 73 X2 = 5.857 Below 50 percentage 16 6 df = 2 51-75 percentage 33 37 P<0.05 Above 75 percentage 42 30 Significant
6 Overall Psycho-social well n: 93 n: 71 X2 = 3.451 being df = 2 Below 50 percentage 13 9 P>0.05 51-75 percentage 34 36 Not Significant Above 75 percentage 46 26
It is evident from the table 4.25 that there was a significant association between level of percentage of the disability of the respondents with regard to Psychological symptoms (X2 = 11.000, df = 2, P<0.01, Significant),
136 Relationship with Family (X2 = 7.134, df = 2, P<0.05, Significant) and Relationship with Social (X2 = 5.857, df = 2, P<0.05, Significant). However there was no significant association between level of percentage of the disability of the respondents with regard to Relationship with Husband, Relationship with Children and Overall Psycho-social well being. It was concluded from the table level of percentage of the disability has influenced the psychological symptoms and relationship with family members.
Table No: 4.26 Association between the level of disability of the respondents and various dimensions of quality of life
S. No Level of Disability Various Statistical dimensions of Inference Quality of life Low High 1. Physical problems n: 64 n: 100 X2 = 27.065 Below 50 percentage 17 5 df = 2 51-75 percentage 33 37 P<0.01 Above 75 percentage 14 58 Significant
2 Cognitive problem n: 102 n: 62 X2 = 18.990 Below 50 percentage 9 13 df = 2 51-75 percentage 35 35 P<0.01 Above 75 percentage 58 14 Significant
3 Affective Problem n: 101 n: 63 X2 = 27.646 Below 50 percentage 7 15 df = 2 51-75 percentage 34 36 P<0.01 Above 75 percentage 60 12 Significant
137 (Table No: 4.26 continued....) S. No Level of Disability Various Statistical dimensions of Inference Quality of life Low High 4 Social Dysfunction n: 68 n: 96 X2 = 15.361 Below 50 percentage 14 8 df = 2 51-75 percentage 36 34 P<0.01 Above 75 percentage 18 54 Significant
5 Economic problem n: 98 n: 66 X2 = 1.670 Below 50 percentage 14 8 df = 2 51-75 percentage 45 25 P>0.05 Above 75 percentage 39 33 Not Significant
6 Ego problem n: 75 n: 89 X2 = 6.180 Below 50 percentage 15 7 df = 2 51-75 percentage 30 40 P<0.05 Above 75 percentage 30 42 Significant
7 Overall Quality of life n: 61 n: 103 X2 = 27.844 Below 50 percentage 16 6 df = 2 51-75 percentage P<0.01 33 37 Significant Above 75 percentage 12 60
It is inferred from the table 4.26 that there was a significant association between level of percentage of the disability of the respondents with regard to various dimensions of quality of life such as Physical problems (X2 = 27.065, df = 2, P<0.01, Significant) Cognitive problem (X2 = 18.990, df = 2, P<0.01, Significant), Affective Problem (X2 = 27.646, df = 2, P<0.01, Significant), Social Dysfunction (X2 = 15.361, df = 2, P<0.01, Significant) and Ego problem (X2 = 6.180, df = 2, P<0.05, Significant). Further there was a significant association between level of percentage of the disability of the respondents and overall quality of life (X2 = 27.844, df = 2, P<0.01, Significant). However there was no significant association between the levels of percentage of the disability of the respondents and economic problem.
138 Table No: 4.27 Association between the status of employment of the respondents and various dimensions of psycho-social functioning
S. No Status of Employment Various Statistical dimensions of Inference Psycho-social functioning Low High 1. Psychological symptoms n: 162 n: 158 X2 = 21.397 Employed 78 116 df = 1 P<0.01 Not Employed 84 42 Significant
2 Relationship with Family n: 161 n: 159 X2 = 4.832 Employed 88 106 df = 1 P<0.05 Not Employed 73 53 Significant
3 Relationship with Husband n: 107 n: 76 X2 = 0.209 Employed 64 48 df = 1 P>0.05 Not Employed 43 28 Not Significant
4 Relationship with Children n:99 n: 99 X2 = 0.336 Employed 57 61 df = 1 P>0.05 Not Employed 42 38 Not Significant
5 Relationship with Social n: 167 n: 153 X2 = 13.843 Employed 85 109 df = 1 P<0.01 Not Employed 82 44 Significant
6 Overall Psycho-social well n: 179 n: 141 X2 = 14.493 being df = 1 P<0.01 Employed 92 102 Significant Not Employed 87 39
It is evident from the table 4.27 that there was a significant association between status of employment of the respondents with regard to Psychological symptoms (X2 = 21.397, df = 1, P<0.01, Significant) Relationship with Family (X2 = 4.832, df = 1, P<0.05, Significant) and Relationship with Social (X2 =
139 13.843, df = 1, P<0.01, Significant). Further there was a significant association between status of employment of the respondents and overall psycho-social well being (X2 = 14.493, df = 1, P<0.01, Significant). However there was no significant association between status of employment of the respondents with regard to relationship with husband and children. It means that status of employment has influenced the level of psychological symptoms, relationship with family, and society. An employed woman with disabilities had more psychological symptoms and relationship problem with family and society.
Table No: 4.28 Association between the level of disability of the respondents and various dimensions of quality of life
S. No Level of Disability Various Statistical dimensions of Inference Quality of life Low High 1. Physical problems n: 170 n: 150 X2 = 1.853 df = 1 Employed 109 85 P>0.05 Not Employed 61 65 Not Significant
2 Cognitive problem n: 163 n: 157 X2 = 0.073 df = 1 Employed 100 94 P>0.05 Not Employed 63 63 Not Significant
3 Affective Problem n: 183 n: 137 X2 = 2.662 df = 1 Employed 118 76 P>0.05 Not Employed 65 61 Not Significant
140 (Table No: 4.28 continued....) S. No Level of Disability Various Statistical dimensions of Inference Quality of life Low High 4 Social Dysfunction n:189 n: 131 X2 = 0.109 Employed 116 78 df = 1 P>0.05 73 53 Not Employed Not Significant
5 Economic problem n:209 n: 111 X2 = 4.432 Employed 119 75 df = 1 90 36 P<0.05 Not Employed Significant
6 Ego problem n: 182 n: 138 X2 = 2.369 Employed 117 77 df = 1 P>0.05 Not Employed 65 61 Not Significant 7 Overall Quality of life n:165 n: 155 X2 = 1.482 Employed 97 97 df = 1 P>0.05 Not Employed 68 58 Not Significant
It is inferred from the table 4.28 that there is a significant association between status of employment of the respondents and economic problem (X2 = 4.432, df = 1, P<0.05, Significant). However there was no significant association between and various dimensions of quality of life such as Physical problems, Cognitive problem, Affective Problem, Social Dysfunction, Ego problem and Overall Quality of work life.
141 Table No: 4.29 Association between the Age of the respondents and various dimensions of Awareness and Perception of Women with Disabilities
S. No Age Awareness and Statistical Perception of Inference Women with Disabilities Low High 1. Decision Making in house n: 183 n: 137 holds Below 25 years 49 23 X2 = 5.987 26-36 years 66 63 df = 3 37-47 years 42 35 P>0.05 Above 47 years 26 16 Not Significant
2 Social mobility and social n: 248 n: 72 inclusion Below 25 years 53 19 X2 = 9.921 26-36 years 94 35 df = 3 37-47 years 61 16 P<0.05 Above 47 years 40 2 Significant
3 Opinion on marriage for n: 112 n: 15 WWDs Below 25 years 33 4 X2 = 2.514 26-36 years 43 5 df = 3 37-47 years 23 3 P>0.05 Above 47 years 13 3 Not Significant
4 Experience on sexual abuse n:87 n: 233 and harassments Below 25 years 18 54 X2 = 0.289 26-36 years 35 94 df = 3 37-47 years 22 55 P>0.05 Above 47 years 12 30 Not Significant
142 (Table No: 4.29 continued....) S. No Age Awareness and Statistical Perception of Inference Women with Disabilities Low High 5 Awareness on Laws, Policy and n:177 n: 143 Act towards WWDs Below 25 years 38 34 X2 = 8.632 26-36 years 61 68 df = 3 37-47 years 51 26 P<0.05 Above 47 years 27 15 Significant
6 Awareness about NGO's n: 182 n: 138 intervention for WWD's 2 Below 25 years 43 29 X = 0.657 26-36 years 79 50 df = 3 37-47 years 44 33 P>0.05 Above 47 years 27 15 Not Significant
7 Perception of media about n:197 n: 123 WWDs 2 Below 25 years 43 29 X = 2.106 26-36 years 75 54 df = 3 37-47 years 50 27 P>0.05 Above 47 years 29 13 Not Significant
Attitude and perception 8 n=171 n= 149 towards WWDs Below 25 years 48 24 X2 = 9.659 26-36 years 60 69 df = 3 37-47 years 37 40 P<0.05 Above 47 years 26 16 Significant
It is inferred from the table 4.29 that there was a significant association between age of the respondents with regard to Social mobility and social inclusion (X2 = 9.921, df = 3, .P<0.05, Significant), Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards WWDs (X2 = 8.632, df = 3, <0.05, Significant) and Attitude and perception towards WWDs (X2 = 9.659, df = 3, P<0.05,
143 Significant). However there was no significant association between age of the respondents with regard to Decision Making in house holds, Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Experience on sexual abuse and harassments, Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's and Perception of media about WWDs. It was concluded from the table 26-36 years of age group of women with disabilities had less social mobility and social inclusion, low level of awareness on Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards WWDs and attitude & perception towards WWDs.
Table No: 4.30 Association between the Nature of disability of the respondents and various dimensions of Awareness and Perception of Women with Disabilities
S. No Nature of disability Awareness and Statistical Perception of Inference Women with Disabilities Low High 1. Decision Making in house n: 183 n: 137 holds Visually Impaired 77 59 X2 = 11.054 Hearing Impaired 18 30 df = 3 Physically challenged 62 36 P<0.05 Mild MR 26 12 Significant
2 Social mobility and social n: 248 n: 72 inclusion Visually Impaired 114 22 X2 = 7.660 Hearing Impaired 33 15 df = 3 Physically challenged 70 28 P<0.05 Mild MR 31 7 Significant
144 (Table No: 4.30 continued....) S. No Nature of disability Awareness and Statistical Perception of Inference Women with Disabilities Low High 3 Opinion on marriage for n: 112 n: 15 WWDs Visually Impaired 53 5 X2 = 8.465 Hearing Impaired 14 4 df = 3 Physically challenged 34 3 P<0.05 Mild MR 11 3 Significant
4 Experience on sexual abuse n:87 n: 233 and harassments Visually Impaired 31 105 X2 = 2.854 Hearing Impaired 13 35 df = 3 Physically challenged 30 68 P>0.05 Mild MR 13 25 Not Significant
5 Awareness on Laws, Policy and n:177 n: 143 Act towards WWDs Visually Impaired 81 55 X2 = 3.725 Hearing Impaired 21 27 df = 3 Physically challenged 55 43 P>0.05 Mild MR 20 18 Not Significant
6 Awareness about NGO's n: 182 n: 138 intervention for WWD's 2 Visually Impaired 95 41 X = 9.442 Hearing Impaired 27 21 df = 3 Physically challenged 50 48 P<0.05 Mild MR 21 17 Significant
145 (Table No: 4.30 continued....) S. No Nature of disability Awareness and Statistical Perception of Inference Women with Disabilities Low High 7 Perception of media about n:197 n: 123 WWDs 2 Visually Impaired 80 56 X = 12.280. Hearing Impaired 21 27 df = 3 Physically challenged 67 31 P<0.01 Mild MR 29 9 Significant
8 Attitude and perception n=171 n= 149 towards WWDs Visually Impaired 81 55 X2 = 3.828 Hearing Impaired 25 23 df = 3 Physically challenged 47 51 P>0.05 Mild MR 18 20 Not Significant
It is evident from the table 4.30 that there was a significant association between nature of the disability of the respondents and Opinion on marriage for WWDs (X2 = 11.054, df = 3, P<0.05, Significant), Social mobility and social inclusion (X2 = 7.660, df = 3, .P<0.05, Significant), Opinion on marriage for WWDs (X2 = 8.465, df = 3, P<0.05, Significant), Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's (X2 = 9.442, df = 3, P<0.05, Significant) and Perception of media about WWDs (X2 = 12.280, df = 3, P<0.01, Significant). However there was no significant association between nature of the disability of the respondents and Experience on sexual abuse and harassments, Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards WWDs and Attitude and perception towards WWDs. It was concluded from the table that visually impaired women with disabilities has influenced the perception of Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Social mobility and social inclusion, Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's and Perception of media about WWDs.
146 Table No: 4.31 Association between the level of disability of the respondents and various dimensions of Awareness and Perception of Women with Disabilities S. No Level of Disability Awareness and Statistical Perception of Inference Women with Disabilities Low High 1. Decision Making in house n: 94 n: 70 holds Below 50 percentage 15 7 X2 = 1.329 df = 2 51-75 percentage 38 32 Above 75 percentage P>0.05 41 31 Not Significant
2 Social mobility and social n: 132 n: 32 inclusion Below 50 percentage 17 5 X2 = 1.124 51-75 percentage 59 11 df = 2 Above 75 percentage .P>0.05 56 16 Not Significant
3 Opinion on marriage for n: 67 n: 4 WWDs X2 = 1.367 Below 50 percentage 7 0 df = 2 51-75 percentage 29 1 P>0.05 Above 75 percentage 31 3 Not Significant
4 Experience on sexual abuse n:43 n: 121 and harassments Below 50 percentage 8 14 X2 = 2.091 51-75 percentage 15 55 df = 2 P>0.05 Above 75 percentage 20 52 Not Significant
5 Awareness on Laws, Policy and n:76 n: 88 Act towards WWDs Below 50 percentage 10 12 X2 = 1.424 51-75 percentage 29 41 df = 2 Above 75 percentage 37 35 P>0.05 Not Significant
147 (Table No: 4.31 continued....) S. No Level of Disability Awareness and Statistical Perception of Inference Women with Disabilities Low High 6 Awareness about NGO's n: 93 n: 71 intervention for WWD's 2 Below 50 percentage 15 7 X = 11.828 51-75 percentage 48 22 df = 2 Above 75 percentage 30 42 P<0.01 Significant
7 Perception of media about n:103 n: 61 WWDs 2 Below 50 percentage 11 11 X = 4.068 51-75 percentage 41 29 df = 2 P>0.05 Above 75 percentage 51 21 Not Significant
8 Attitude and perception n=84 n= 80 towards WWDs Below 50 percentage 11 11 X2 = 4.094 51-75 percentage 42 28 df = 2 P>0.05 Above 75 percentage 31 41 Not Significant
It is inferred from the table 4.31 that there was a significant association between the levels of percentage of disability of women with disabilities and Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's (X2 = 11.828, df = 2, P<0.01, Significant). However there was no significant association between the levels of percentage of disability of women with disabilities and Decision Making in house holds, Social mobility and social inclusion, Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Experience on sexual abuse and harassments, Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards WWDs Perception of media about WWDs and Attitude and perception towards WWDs.
148 Table No: 4.32 One way Analysis of Variance among age of the respondents and various dimensions of psycho-social function
S. No Source Df SS MS X Statistical Inference 1 Psychological symptoms G1= 89.8750 Between Groups 3 2089.045 696.348 G2= 89.6822 F= 3.667 G3= 94.8052 P<0.05 Within Groups 316 60010.327 189.906 G4= 86.8810 Significant
2 Relationship with Family G1= 40.9861 Between Groups 3 1397.670 465.890 G2= 43.5116 F= 6.775 316 21729.130 68.763 G3=46.9481 P<0.01 Within Groups G4=42.5952 Significant 3 Relationship with Husband G1= 20.6216 Between Groups 3 144.793 48.264 G2= 22.1184 F= 1.725 G3= 21.4884 P>0.05 Within Groups 179 5007.677 27.976 G4= 19.6296 Not significant 4 Relationship with Children G1= 23.1795 F= 1.402 Between Groups 3 24.345 8.115 G2= 22.4304 P>0.05 Within Groups 194 3920.246 20.207 G3= 23.0417 Not significant G4= 22.3438
149 (Table No: 4.32 continued....)
S. No Source Df SS MS X Statistical Inference 5 Relationship G1= 59.8750 with Social G2= 57.7287 F= 4.758 Between Groups 3 1182.097 394.032 G3= 62.2338 P<0.01 316 26166.790 82.806 Within Groups G4= 57.2381 Significant
5 Overall Psycho-social well being G1= 78.0232 Between Groups 3 8092.881 2697.627 G2= 79.0391 F= 4.887 Within Groups 316 372741.991 1179.563 G3= 83.1525 P<0.01 G4= 86.0514 Significant
G1= Below 25 years G2= 26-36 years G3= 37-47 years G4= Above 47 years
It is inferred from the table 4.32 that there was a significant variance among the age of the respondents and Psychological symptoms (F= 3.667, P<0.05, Significant), Relationship with Family (F= 6.775, P<0.01, Significant) and Relationship with Social (F= 4.758, P<0.01, Significant). Further there is a significant variance among the age of the respondents and Overall Psycho social well being (F= 4.887, P<0.01, Significant). However there was no significant variance among the age of the respondents and Relationship with Husband and Relationship with Children. It was concluded that age has influenced the level of psychological symptoms, relationship with family, relationship with society and overall psycho social well being. The mean score indicates that 37 -47 years of age group of women with disabilities had high level of psychological symptoms and unfavourable relationship with family and society and overall level of psycho-social well being of the respondents.
150 Table No: 4.33 One way Analysis of Variance among age of the respondents and various dimensions of Quality of life
S. No Source Df SS MS X Statistical Inference 1 Physical problems G1= 16.2500 Between Groups 3 206.634 68.878 G2= 14.6279 F= 3.370 G3= 15.5065 P<0.05 Within Groups 316 6459.362 20.441 G4= 13.8095 Significant 2 Cognitive problem 3 G1= 18.3056 F= 7.682 Between Groups 427.087 142.362 G2= 15.6977 P<0.01 316 5856.113 18.532 Within Groups G3= 16.2338 Significant G4= 14.8333 3 Affective Problem Between Groups 3 349.409 116.470 G1= 16.8194 F= 4.600 G2= 14.6977 P<0.01 Within Groups 316 8000.579 25.318 G3= 16.3896 Significant 4 Social G4= 14.1190 Dysfunction G1= 17.0694 Between Groups 3 272.935 90.978 G2= 15.2403 F= 5.705 Within Groups 316 5038.937 15.946 G3= 17.0260 P<0.01 G4= 15.0714 Significant 5 Economic problem G1= 14.4167 F= 2.168 3 113.512 37.837 Between Groups G2= 12.9302 P>0.05 Within Groups 316 5514.660 17.451 G3= 13.4675 Not G4= 12.9048 Significant 6 Ego problem G1= 15.1389 Between Groups 3 159.315 53.105 G2= 13.5814 F= 3.109 Within Groups G3= 14.6494 P<0.05 316 5396.872 17.079 G4= 13.3333 Significant
151 (Table No: 4.33 continued....)
S. No Source Df SS MS X Statistical Inference 7 Overall Quality of G1= 98.0000 life G2= 86.7752 F= 6.660 Between Groups 3 8167.433 2722.478 G3= 93.2727 P<0.01 G4= 84.0714 Significant Within Groups 316 129166.539 408.755 G1= Below 25 years G2= 26-36 years G3= 37-47 years G4= Above 47 years
It is proved from the table 4.33 that there was a significant variance among the age of the respondents and various dimensions of quality of life such as Physical problems (F= 3.370, P<0.05, Significant), Cognitive problem (F= 7.682, P<0.01, Significant), Affective Problem (F= 4.600, P<0.01, Significant), Social Dysfunction (F= 5.705, P<0.01, Significant) and Ego problem (F= 3.109, P<0.05, Significant). Further there is a significant variance among the age of the respondents and overall quality of life (F= 6.660, P<0.01, Significant). It is clear from the table that age has influenced the quality of life of women with disabilities in terms of physical problems, cognitive problem, affective problem, social dysfunction, ego problem and overall quality of life. The mean score indicates that below 25 years of age group of the respondents had more physical problems, cognitive problem, affective problem, social dysfunction, ego problem and low level of overall quality of life
152 Table No: 4.34 One way Analysis of Variance among educational qualification of the respondents and various dimensions of psycho-social function
S. No Source Df SS MS X Statistical Inference 1 Psychological G1=88.4714 symptoms G2= 88.0000 F= 1.091 Between Groups 5 1060.014 212.003 G3= 90.9800 P>0.05 G4= 91.7206 Not Within Groups 314 61039.358 194.393 G5= 94.2286 Significant G6= 90.5507 2 Relationship with Family G1= 43.6429 G2= 41.6071 F= 1.805 Between Groups 5 646.174 129.235 G3= 45.9600 P>0.05. G4= 43.5735 Not Within Groups 314 22480.626 71.594 G5= 45.2571 Significant G6= 42.0725 3 Relationship with Husband G1= 21.8049 G2= 20.0833 F= 1.266 Between Groups 5 177.921 35.584 G3= 20.5862 P>0.05 G4= 22.8293 Not Within Groups 177 4974.549 28.105 G5= 20.6364 Significant G6= 20.4211 4 Relationship with Children G1= 21.0444 G2= 22.8889 F= 3.073 Between Groups 5 201.993 40.399 G3= 22.8529 P<0.05 Within Groups 194 3742.598 19.493 G4= 22.8571 Significant G5= 23.2083 G6= 24.1143
153 (Table No: 4.34 continued....)
S. No Source Df SS MS X Statistical Inference 5 Relationship G1= 56.7571 with Social G2= 55.2857 F= 3.012 Between Groups 5 1182.097 250.370 G3= 60.2200 P<0.05 G4= 60.1765 Significant Within Groups 314 26166.790 83.112 G5= 60.9143 G6= 60.8406 6 Overall Psycho social well being G1= 90. 0053 Between Groups G2= 93.9718 F= 1.481 5 8772.469 1754.494 G3= 86.1050 P>0.05 Within Groups 314 372062.403 1184.912 G4= 92.1015 Not G5= 87.1423 Significant G6= 88.0565
G1= Illiteracy G2= Below Primary G3= Completed Primary G4= Secondary school G5 = Higher secondary G6= Graduate
It is proved from the table 4.34 that there was a significant variance among the educational qualification of the respondents and Relationship with Children (F= 3.073, P<0.05, Significant) and Relationship with society (F= 3.012, P<0.05, Significant). However there was no significant variance among the educational qualification of the respondents and Psychological symptoms, Relationship with Family, Relationship with Husband and Overall Psycho social well being. The mean score indicates that those who completed Graduation had relationship problem with children and society.
154 Table No: 4.35 One way Analysis of Variance among Educational qualification of the respondents and various dimensions of Quality of life
S. No Source Df SS MS X Statistical Inference 1 Physical problems G1= 14.2143 G2= 14.6429 Between Groups 5 160.441 32.088 G3= 15.7800 F= 1.549 Within Groups 314 6505.556 20.718 G4= 16.1029 P>0.05 G5= 14.9143 Not Significant 2 Cognitive G6= 14.7826 problem G1= 14.9571 G2= 15.5714 Between Groups 5 222.855 44.571 F= 2.309 G3= 16.7000 Within Groups 314 6060.345 19.300 P<0.05 G4= 17.2206 Significant 3 Affective Problem G5= 16.2571 G6= 16.7826
G1= 14.8429 Between Groups 5 197.132 39.426 G2= 14.5000 F= 1.518 Within Groups 314 8152.855 25.965 G3= 15.0800 G4= 16.8529 P>0.05 Not 4 Social G5= 15.2286 Significant Dysfunction G6= 15.7101
G1= 14.5286 Between Groups 5 421.086 84.217 G2= 15.1071 F= 5.407 Within Groups 314 4890.786 15.576 G3= 15.9000 P<0.01 G4= 17.6912 Significant G5= 17.2286 G6= 15.9130
155 (Table No: 4.35 continued.. )
S. No Source Df SS MS X Statistical Inference 5 Economic G1= 12.7000 problem G2= 12.9643 G3= 12.3800 F= 2.195 Between Groups 5 190.084 38.017 G4= 14.5000 P<0.05 Within Groups 314 5438.088 17.319 G5= 13.4286 Significant G6= 13.8841 6 Ego problem G1= 12.6714 G2= 13.1071 Between Groups F= 4.109 5 341.178 68.236 G3= 14.5200 Within Groups 314 5215.009 16.608 P<0.01 G4= 15.1324 Significant G5= 13.5429 7 Overall Quality G6= 15.1739 of life G1= 83.9143 G2= 85.8929 Between Groups 5 7174.076 1434.815 G3= 90.3600 F= 3.461 Within Groups 314 130159.896 414.522 G4= 97.5000 P<0.01 G5= 90.6000 Significant G6= 92.2464
G1= Illiteracy G2= Below Primary G3= Completed Primary G4= Secondary school G5 = Higher secondary G6= Graduate
It is inferred from the table 4.35 that there was a significant variance between the educational qualifications of the respondents and various dimensions of quality of life of women with disabilities such as Cognitive problem (F= 2.309, P<0.05, Significant), Social Dysfunction (F= 5.407, P<0.01, Significant), Economic problem (F= 2.195, P<0.05, Significant) and Ego problem (F= 4.109, P<0.01, Significant). Further there was a significant variance between the educational qualifications of the respondents and overall quality of life (F= 3.461, P<0.01, Significant). However there was no significant variance between the educational qualifications of the respondents and various dimensions of quality of life of women with disabilities such as Physical problems and Affective Problem. It is clear from the table that
156 education qualification of the respondents has influenced the qualification of life and they had high level of cognitive problem, social dysfunction, economic problem, ego problem and overall level of quality of life. The mean score indicates that those who completed secondary level of education had low level of quality of life. Table No: 4.36 One way Analysis of Variance among domicile of the respondents and various dimensions of Awareness and perception of WWDs
S. No Source Df SS MS X Statistical Inference 1 Decision Making in house holds G1= 4.3077 F= 0.109 Between Groups 2 0.235 0.117 G2= 4.2931 P>0.05 Within Groups 317 342.515 1.080 G3= 4.3750 Not Significant 2 Social mobility and social inclusion F= 2.108 G1= 7.5513 Between Groups 2 4.554 2.277 P>0.05 Within Groups 317 342.334 1.080 G2= 7.8103 Not G3= 7.7083 Significant 3 Opinion on marriage for WWDs G1= 2.9322 F= 4.022 Between Groups 2 2.812 1.406 G2= 2.6667 P<0.05 Within Groups 124 43.345 0.350 G3= 3.0500 Significant
157 (Table No: 4.36 continued....)
S. No Source Df SS MS X Statistical Inference 4 Experience on sexual abuse and harassments G1= 3.2885 F= 1.329 Between Groups 2 2.065 1.032 G2= 3.4138 P>0.05 Within Groups 246.157 0.777 G3= 3.5000 Not Significant 5 Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards 317 G1= 36.9231 WWDs F= 4.511 G2= 38.6552 Between Groups 325.250 162.625 P<0.05 G3= 39.4167 Within Groups 11426.950 36.047 Significant
6 Awareness about NGO's 2 intervention for WWD's 317 G1= 8.9231 F= 3.769 Between Groups 2 11.929 5.964 G2= 8.9655 P<0.05 Significant Within Groups 317 682.918 2.154 G3= 9.4792
7 Perception of media about F= 5.944 WWDs G1= 2.6026 P<0.01 Between Groups 2 4.981 2.491 G2= 2.3621 Significant Within Groups 317 132.819 0.419 G3= 2.3333
8 Attitude and perception F= 1.983 towards WWDs G1= 29.4167 P>0.05 Between Groups 2 75.693 37.846 G2= 29.9828 Not Within Groups 317 6051.195 19.089 G3= 30.8125 Significant
G1= Rural G2= Urban G3= Semi Urban
It is proved from the table 3.36 that there was a significant variance among the domicile of the respondents and Opinion on marriage for WWDs (F= 4.022, P<0.05, Significant), Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards WWDs (F= 4.511, P<0.05, Significant), Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's (F= 3.769, P<0.05, Significant) and Perception of media about
158 WWDs (F= 5.944, P<0.01, Significant). However there was no significant variance among the domicile of the respondents and Decision Making in house holds, Social mobility and social inclusion, Experience on sexual abuse and harassments and Attitude and perception towards WWDs. The mean score indicated that respondents from semi urban areas had positive attitude towards marriage for WWDs, High level of awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards WWDs, Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's and perception of media about WWD's.
Table No: 4.37 'Z' Test between the type of family of the respondents and various dimensions of psycho-social function
S. No Type of family Sample Statistical S.D. Size X Inference (n: 320) 1 Psychological symptoms Joint 107 89.6542 13.82649 Z = 0. 851 Nuclear P>0.05 213 91.0610 14.02394 Not Significant
2 Relationship with Family Joint 107 42.6636 7.81139 Z = 1.472 Nuclear P>0.05 213 44.1455 8.82281 Not Significant
3 Relationship with Husband Joint 61 20.7213 5.41027 Z = 1.042 Nuclear P>0.05 122 21.5902 5.27391 Not Significant
159 (Table No: 4.37 continued....) S. Type of family Sample Statistical X S.D. No Size Inference (n: 320) 4 Relationship with Children Z = 2.350 Joint 64 23.7812 4.28904 P<0.05 Nuclear 134 22.2015 4.48687 Significant
5 Relationship with Social Joint 107 58.2336 9.88097 Z = 1.368 Nuclear P>0.05 213 59.7324 8.91251 Not Significant
5 Overall Psycho-social well being Z = 2.449 Joint 107 60.0521 36.87000 P<0.05 Nuclear 213 79.0706 33.39990 Significant
It is evident from the table 4.37 that there was a significant difference between the type of family and relationship with children (Z = 2.350, P<0.05, Significant) and overall level of psycho-social well being of women with disabilities (Z = 2.449, P<0.05, Significant). However there was no significant difference between the type of family and Psychological symptoms, Relationship with Family, Relationship with Husband and Relationship with Society. The mean score indicates that nuclear followed respondents had high level of relationship with family an overall psycho-social well being of women with disabilities.
160 Table No: 4.38 'Z' Test between the type of family of the respondents and various dimensions of quality of life
S. No Type of family Sample Statistical S.D. Size X Inference (n: 320) 1 Physical problems Joint 107 15.9159 4.11422 Z = 2.287 Nuclear 213 14.6854 4.74039 P<0.05 Significant 2 Cognitive problem Joint 107 17.0000 4.21140 Z = 2.009 Nuclear 213 15.9484 4.51644 P<0.05 Significant 3 Affective Problem Joint 107 15.6542 3.88954 Z =0 366 Nuclear 213 15.4319 4.12919 P>0.05 Not Significant 4 Social Dysfunction Joint 107 16.8224 3.97046 Z = 2.388 Nuclear 213 15.6761 4.23470 P<0.05 Significant 5 Economic problem Joint 107 14.3738 3.42612 Nuclear 213 12.8967 4.41971 Z = 3.005 P<0.01 6 Ego problem Significant Joint 107 15.1869 3.42612 Z = 3.175 Nuclear 213 13.6385 4.41971 P<0.01 Significant 7 Overall Quality of life Joint 107 94.9533 18.59975 Z = 2.743 Nuclear 213 88.2770 21.44416 P<0.05 Significant It is proved from the table 4.38 that there was a significant difference between the type of family of the respondents and various dimension of quality of life of respondents such as Physical problems (Z = 2.287, P<0.05, Significant), Cognitive problem (Z = 2.009, P<0.05, Significant), Social Dysfunction (Z = 2.388, P<0.05, Significant), Economic problem (Z = 3.005, P<0.01, Significant), Ego problem (Z = 3.175, P<0.01, Significant). Further
161 there is a significant difference between the type of family of the respondents and overall quality of life (Z = 2.743, P<0.05, Significant). However there was no significant difference between the type of family of the respondents and Affective Problem. It is clear from the table there type of family of the respondents has influenced the quality of life of women with disabilities. The mean score indicates that those who are followed joint family system had more Physical problems, Cognitive problem, Social Dysfunction, Economic problem and ego problem. It also indicates that those who are followed joint family system had low level of quality of life.
Table No: 4.39 'Z' Test between the type of family of the respondents and various dimensions of Awareness and perception of Women with Disabilities
S. No Type of family Sample Statistical X S.D. Size Inference (n: 320) 1 Decision Making in house holds Joint 107 4.3084 1.05876 Z =0.050 Nuclear 213 4.3146 1.02774 P>0.05 Not Significant 2 Social mobility and social inclusion Z = 0.507 Joint 107 7.6729 1.13915 P>0.05 Nuclear 213 7.6667 0.99369 Not Significant
3 Opinion on marriage for WWDs Z =0.312 Joint 47 2.8723 0.64663 P>0.05 Nuclear 80 2.8375 0.58339 Not Significant
162 (Table No: 4.39 continued....) S. No Type of family Sample Statistical X S.D. Size Inference (n: 320) 4 Experience on sexual abuse and harassments Joint 107 3.3271 0.88782 Z = 0.553 Nuclear 213 3.3850 0.88069 P>0.05 Not Significant 5 Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards WWDs Z = 0.507 Joint 107 38.1682 6.47271 P>0.05 Nuclear 213 37.8028 5.86874 Not Significant
6 Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's Joint 107 9.4393 1.37482 Z = 3.654 Nuclear 213 8.8122 1.48338 P<0.01 Significant 7 Perception of media about WWDs Joint 107 2.5234 0.71830 Nuclear 213 2.4507 0.62470 Z = 0.933 P>0.05 Not Significant 8 Attitude and perception towards WWDs Joint 107 30.2430 4.30629 Z = 1.192 Nuclear 213 29.6244 4.41586 P>0.05 Not Significant It is evident from the table 4.39 that there was a significant difference between the type of family of the respondents and Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's (Z = 3.654, P<0.01, Significant). However there was no significant difference exist between the type of family of the respondents and other variables above mentioned.
163 Table No: 4.40 Karl Pearson's Co-efficient of correlation between the age of the respondents and various dimensions of psycho-social functioning S. Age Correlation Statistical No Value Inference 1. Psychological symptoms 0.851 P<0.01 Significant
2 Relationship with Family 0.701 P<0.01 Significant
3 Relationship with Husband 0.226 P<0.05 Significant
4 Relationship with Children 0.002 P>0.05 Not Significant
5 Relationship with Social 0.792 P<0.01 Significant
6 Overall Psycho-social well being 0.768 P<0.01 Significant
It is inferred from the table 4.40 that there was a positive significant relationship between the age of the respondents and psychological symptoms, relationship with family, husband and society and overall level of psycho social well being. The age has influenced the overall level of psycho-social well being.
164 Table No: 4.41 Karl Pearson's Co-efficient of correlation between the age of the respondents and various dimensions of quality of life S. No Age Correlation Statistical Value Inference 1. Physical problems 0.054 P<0.05 Not Significant
2 Cognitive problem 0.103 P<0.05 Not Significant
3 Affective Problem 0.127 P<0.05 Not Significant
4 Social Dysfunction 0.184 P>0.05 Significant
5 Economic problem 0.047 P<0.01 Not Significant
6 Ego problem 0.120 P<0.05 Not Significant
7 Overall Quality of life 0.135 P<0.05 Not Significant
It is inferred from the table 4.41 that there was a positive significant relationship between age of the respondents and social dysfunction. However there was no significant relationship between age of the respondents and various dimensions of quality of life such as Physical problems, Cognitive problem, Affective Problem, Economic problem, Ego problem and overall quality of life.
165 Table No: 4.42 Karl Pearson's Co-efficient of correlation between the income of the respondents and various dimensions of psycho-social functioning S. No Income Correlation Statistical Value Inference 1. Psychological symptoms 0.766 P<0.01 Significant
2 Relationship with Family 0.696 P<0.01 Significant
3 Relationship with Husband 0.239 P<0.05 Significant
4 Relationship with Children 0.027 P>0.05 Not Significant
5 Relationship with Social 0.793 P<0.01 Significant
6 Overall Psycho-social well being 0.767 P<0.01 Significant
It is evident from the table 4.42 that there was a positive significant relationship between income of the respondents and Psychological symptoms, Relationship with Family, Relationship with Husband, Relationship with Social and Overall Psycho-social well being.
166 Table No: 4.43 Karl Pearson's Co-efficient of correlation between the age of the respondents and various dimensions of Awareness and perception of Women with Disabilities S. No Age Correlation Statistical Value Inference 1. Decision Making in house holds 0.148 P>0.05 Not Significant 2. Social mobility and social inclusion 0.106 P>0.05 Not Significant 3. Opinion on marriage for WWDs 0.255 P<0.01 Significant 4. Experience on sexual abuse and 0.136 P>0.05 harassments Not Significant
5. Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act 0.277 P<0.01 towards WWDs Significant
6. Awareness about NGO's intervention 0.125 P>0.05 for WWD's Not Significant
7. Perception of media about WWDs 0.131 P>0.05 Not Significant 8. Attitude and perception towards 0.51 P>0.05 WWDs Not Significant
It is evident from the table 4.43 that there was a positive significant relationship between the age of the respondents and Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Awareness on Laws and Policy and Act towards WWDs.
167 Table No: 4.44 Karl Pearson's Co-efficient of correlation between the monthly income of the respondents and various dimensions of Awareness and perception of Women with Disabilities
S. No Monthly Income Correlation Statistical Value Inference 1. Decision Making in house holds 0.116 P>0.05 Not Significant 2. Social mobility and social inclusion 0.251 P<0.01 Significant 3. Opinion on marriage for WWDs 0.102 P>0.05 Not Significant 4. Experience on sexual abuse and 0.228 P<0.05 harassments Significant
5. Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act 0.180 P>0.05 towards WWDs Not Significant
6. Awareness about NGO's intervention 0.125 P>0.05 for WWD's Not Significant
7. Perception of media about WWDs 0.032 P>0.05 Not Significant 8. Attitude and perception towards 0.186 P<0.05 WWDs Significant
It is inferred from the table 4.44 that there was a positive significant relationship between the income of the respondents and Social mobility and social inclusion and Attitude and perception towards WWDs.
168 TESTING OF HYPOTHESES
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS: 01 There is a significant association between the educational qualification of the respondents and overall quality of life. Null Hypothesis: There is no significant association between the educational qualification of the respondents and overall quality of life. Inference: Chi-square test was used to test the above hypothesis and it has been revealed that there was a significant association between the educational qualification of the respondents and overall quality of life. Hence, the Null hypothesis is rejected (Table No: 4.22)
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS: 02 There is a significant association between the level of percentage of disability of the respondents and overall quality of life. Null Hypothesis: There is no significant association between the level of percentage of disability of the respondents and overall quality of life. Inference: Chi-square test was used to test the above hypothesis and it has been revealed that there was a significant association between the level of percentage of disability of the respondents and overall quality of life. Hence, the Null hypothesis is rejected (Table No: 4.26)
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS: 03 There is a significant association between the employment status of the respondents and overall Psycho-social well being. Null Hypothesis: There is no significant association between the employment status of the respondents and overall Psycho-social well being.
169 Inference: Chi-square test was used to test the above hypothesis and it has been revealed that there was a significant association between the employment status of the respondents and overall Psycho-social well being. Hence, the Null hypothesis is rejected (Table No: 4.27)
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS: 04 There is a significant association between the age of the respondents and overall level of Social mobility and social inclusion, Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards WWDs and Attitude and perception towards WWDs.
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant association between the age of the respondents and overall level of Social mobility and social inclusion, Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards WWDs and Attitude and perception towards WWDs.
Inference: Chi-square test was used to test the above hypothesis and it has been revealed that there was a significant association between the age of the respondents and overall level of Social mobility and social inclusion, Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards WWDs and Attitude and perception towards WWDs. Hence, the Null hypothesis is rejected (Table No: 4.29)
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS: 05 There is a significant association between nature of the disability of the respondents and overall level of Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Social mobility and social inclusion, Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's and Perception of media about WWDs.
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant association between nature of the disability of the respondents and overall level of Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Social
170 mobility and social inclusion, Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's and Perception of media about WWDs Inference: Chi-square test was used to test the above hypothesis and it has been revealed that there was a significant association between nature of the disability of the respondents and overall level of Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Social mobility and social inclusion, Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's and Perception of media about WWDs Hence, the Null hypothesis is rejected (Table No: 4.30)
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS: 06 There is a significant variance among educational qualification of the respondents and overall Psycho-social well being. Null Hypothesis: There is no significant variance among educational qualification of the respondents and overall Psycho-social well being. Inference: 'ANOVA' was used to test the above hypothesis and it has been found out that there was a significant variance among educational qualification of the respondents and overall level of Psycho-social well being. Hence, the Null hypothesis is rejected (Table No: 4.32) RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS: 07 There is a significant variance among educational qualification of the respondents and overall quality of life. Null Hypothesis: There is no significant variance among educational qualification of the respondents and overall quality of life. Inference: 'ANOVA' was used to test the above hypothesis and it has been found out that there was a significant variance among educational qualification of the respondents and overall level of quality of life. Hence, the Null hypothesis is rejected (Table No: 4.33)
171 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS: 08
There is a significant variance among domicile of the respondents and overall level of Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act, towards WWDs, Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's, Perception of media about WWDs. Null Hypothesis: There is no significant variance among domicile of the respondents and overall level of Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act, towards WWDs, Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's, Perception of media about WWDs. Inference: 'ANOVA' was used to test the above hypothesis and it has been found out that there was a significant variance among domicile of the respondents and overall level of Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act, towards WWDs, Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's, Perception of media about WWDs. Hence, the Null hypothesis is rejected (Table No: 4.36)
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS: 09 A significant difference exists between the type of family of the respondents and overall Psycho-social well being. Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the type of family of the respondents and overall Psycho-social well being. Inference: 'Z' test was used to test the above hypothesis and it has been found out that there was a significant difference between the type of family of the respondents and overall Psycho-social well being. Hence, the Null hypothesis is rejected (Table No: 4.37)
172 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS: 10 A significant difference exists between the type of family of the respondents and overall quality of life. Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the type of family of the respondents and overall quality of life. Inference: 'Z' test was used to test the above hypothesis and it has been found out that there was a significant difference between the type of family of the respondents and overall quality of life. Hence, the Null hypothesis is rejected (Table No: 4.38)
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS: 11
Higher the age higher will be their level of perception on overall psycho-social well being. Null hypothesis: There is no significant positive relationship between the age of the respondents and overall psycho-social well being. Inference: Correlation was used to test the above hypothesis and it has been revealed that there was a significant positive relationship between the age of the respondents and overall psycho-social well being. Hence, the Null hypothesis is rejected (Table No: 4.40)
173 CHAPTER-lV B
CASE STUDIES CASE STUDIES Case study as one of the means of research has been adapted from sociology and anthropology, where it is a method of observing human interactions in social settings and activities. It can also be described as the observation of people in their cultural context. A culture is defined by Massey (1998) as being "...made up of certain values, practices, relationships and identifications." Thus, one can describe a workplace as a culture, filled with work standards, business practices (both formal and informal), and relationships between coworkers and between workers and managers. Visual observation is not the only way to gather data in ethnographic studies. For an in-depth understanding of the user culture, the researcher should watch, participate in and inquire about the users' normal activities. The goal of ethnography study is to understand an individual's or group's interactions within the culture. The data gained from ethnographical research is almost entirely qualitative. The goal of ethnography for systems designers, on the other hand, is the improvement of a system in use in the culture by finding the problems in the way it is currently used. This involves observing users' interactions with the system as well as the effects the system has on the culture of the workplace.
Focus groups had to discuss the issue of abuse experienced by women with disabilities who were a part of a self-advocacy or support group. Though we were asking people to discuss a very sensitive issue using a public format, we felt that engendering a general discussion in a self-support group where participants felt supported by one another as they offered ideas was an appropriate methodology to use as a first step in the process of exploring this issue with women with disabilities. According to Krueger (1988) a focus group is a carefully planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a permissive, non-threatening environment.
It was conducted with approximately seven to ten participants by a skilled interviewer. The discussion was relaxed, comfortable, and often enjoyable for participants as they shared their ideas and perceptions. Group members influenced
174 each other by responding to ideas and comments in the discussion. The focus group approach was selected as an appropriate method to explore a sensitive topic with women with disabilities. The introduction by the moderator was designed to make people comfortable in sharing their views. It is our intention to continue our research in this area and next explore this issue in one-on-one interviews with people who have self-identified themselves as victims of abuse.
In the second phase the researcher employed the technique of structured focus groups to discussion on the issue of their rights, policies and welfare programmes available for them. It was the researchers' intention to do research in this area and to explore their problems through one-on-one interviews, problem tree analysis and participatory rural appraisal analysis with the respondents. The purposes of these techniques were to explore the issue of abuse related to emotional and psychological domain of the respondents.
A group of initial codes were created based on major themes found in the literature and then supplemented with additional themes drawn from reading the transcripts. The themes were then applied to code each transcript. The coding completed by a graduate student was then compared with coding done by the principal investigator to assure agreement in the application of codes and differences were discussed and resolved. Based on a reading of the transcripts, types of abuse were coded as physical, emotional, sexual, financial, neglect, denial of rights, isolation and other. Certain examples were offered that could have been cross categorized in several ways, in particular, some examples of neglect and emotional abuse could be coded into either category.
Focus group data are primarily qualitative data, not quantitative data, where the respondent selects from pre-established response options. As Krueger suggests (1988), the open-ended questions allow participants to choose the manner in which they respond and the group interaction allows people to change their opinions throughout the discussion. The researcher primarily seeks to identify evidence or themes that are
175 repeated and common to several participants or more. At the same time, the range and diversity of opinions offered in a focus group is vital: hence opinions offered only once are enlightening in demonstrating the range of ideas, but they are not used to form the crux of the findings.
We conducted six focus group discussions in different place of Tiruchirappalli district such as Urban and west block, Lalgudi block, Manikandam block, Manapari block and Musiri block. The focus group discussion based on the following themes such as knowledge and information on Acts / policies/laws, Government programmes, attitude toward and perception about women with disabilities, role of media towards women with disabilities, scope of improvement, programmes for women with disabilities, abuse and harassment.
Women with disabilities: Six focus groups, 10 members for each group (n= 60 Women with disabilities). It was covered in Urban west block, Manikandam block, Manapari block, Lalgudi block, Musiri block, and Turiyaur block.
Government officials: District Disability Rehabilitation Officer, Social Welfare Officer, Block development officer, Project Coordinator (Women development programme), Panchayat leaders, and Community based Rehabilitation officer (Women with disability).
Non-Governmental organizations: SEVAI, UDHAYAM, WE Trust, Gramodhaya, SCOPE, and SCOPOT.
Women organizations: Poornothaya, Mahaliar Mandram, Women's club, Penkal Nalla Sangam, Annai Asramam and Women's Rights Association.
Media: DailyTthanthi, Dhanamalar, Malai Malar, The Hindu, The Indian Express and Raj TV.
176 Emotional Abuse Disabled people experience high levels of abuse of all kinds - physical, emotional and sexual. Abuse of disabled people is often carried out by women on whom the person is more likely to be dependent.
Emotional abuse included being threatened or intimidated or being hurt by name calling or ridicule, or being stared at in public. Participants gave many examples of situations involving name calling. Participants gave examples of times when they had been threatened or intimidated as examples of abuse. One individual told the following story: "This guy said that what he wanted to do was to tie me up and drag me around the area... I was then abused very badly mention the defects I have in my body... He went on to shout in public that I remain as a useless person in the society..." Another participant described a situation: "I was abused in public with the words... you retarded, you're stupid ... you are an idiot.. .you don't know how to do something ... you're no good, you know, you'll never amount to anything." A young woman narrated how her mother always told her: ".you'll never add up to anything because you're disabled.you'll never meet anyone because you're disabled."
Physical Abuse Participants defined abuse in terms of physical acts committed against women with disabilities, including physical acts such as being hit, punched, pushed, dragged and beaten. One of the participants explained that: " .my mother would take an extension cord and she would beat me, and beat me and beat me... or she would use a wire hanger, or she would use a wooden spoon . whatever she came in contact with . she beat me with it... " Another person narrated that: ".my father took me by my shirt . threw me against the wall, practically,
177 and he knew I was having seizures at the time" One participant described abuse in terms of being gagged. One participant described: ".. .my sister used to put something over my mouth and would say, I do so that you won't scream loud." Sexual Abuse In several of the focus groups, women gave examples of sexual abuse situations involving friends of the family and when they told a family member, they were not believed. Though many of the participants had experienced sexual abuse, they were very reluctant to share it but one participant explained: "I was sexually abused. One was my mother's relative... the next incident was by my friend ... My mother didn't want to believe me..."
Financial Abuse Financial abuse included more obvious examples of having one's money or other personal items taken by someone. One participant explained that: I had a small saving for many years.I used to keep safely all that I get from my friends.but my father used to steal the money little by little now and then and use it to drink alcohol.when I asked him.he replied in the negative and started to beat me and use abusive languages." Another participant witnessed that: "I started collecting some money to undergo medical treatment for my disability.I planned to go for it as soon as I reach a good amount.after few years the money was quite sufficient but my mother took away the total amount telling that she needs it to meet the marital expenses of my younger sister."
Denial of Rights Several participants gave examples of situations where the rights of women with disabilities were denied. One participant described: ".when I wanted to do something, my brother would tell me not to do it.when I wanted to go and participate in the village festival.my mother would tell me not to go as the people may think bad about my disability.. "
178 Another participant narrated that: "I wanted to get married but my mother objected tooth and nail and never allowed me.. .threatening that if married I may beget disabled children."
Someone else explained that: "I wanted a share in the income from the agricultural land which belonged to my family. but I was told that.you have no right to ask for as we have spent more money on your treatment and the entire lands now belong to the sons in the family." Another participant said: "I wanted to continue my high school studies in the school.but my father negatively answered me saying that . studying after middle school is a waste and you have known to read and write which is sufficient for you. more studies will financially and physically burden the family in making arrangements for you to go over there.so could not proceed with my studies which I loved very much."
RECOMMENDATIONS Issue of discriminations and denial of rights faced by women with disabilities remain mostly hidden from the civil society. There is a lack of serious discourse among the Government Orders, NGOs and civil society around rights of disabled girls and women. This study unveils the utterly poor status of Women with Disabilities in all important areas of development and the need of focused attention to improve the same. Attempts need to be taken for effective participation in education at all level not merely enrollment in primary section. Long term campaign is needed to stop abuse and violence against disabled girls and women, raising awareness about their rights and families to take proactive role to encourage and allow the disabled girls to take part in education and all other important activities.
The role of state, GOs and NGOs working for rights of women & girls and civil society in general is very important. State has the responsibility to ensure the
179 implementation of Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act 1995 towards building up a barrier free environment in education, employment, rehabilitation services and social securities. The state must ensure that disabled girls and women are included in all the poverty alleviation and development program and policies. The Commission for disability in each state must see that women and girls with disabilities have access to all the benefits under the said Act.
180 CHAPTER-lV C
DISCUSSION DISCUSSION
Women with disabilities suffer a double discrimination, both on the grounds of gender and of impairment. The social status of disabled women varies according to individual circumstances and to the community in which they live. There is ample evidence that women with disabilities experience major psycho social problems and they have been restricted to home-based activities, while men are likely to be supported in more public and outward-looking avenues. Being a woman they do not have access to better education or find a suitable job. The society thinks that she cannot be a "good wife", or a "good mother". This is because of the capitalistic attitude of the society.
Regarding education, boys with disabilities attend school more frequently than girls with disabilities. The women with disabilities are twice to three times more likely to be victims of physical and sexual abuse than non-disabled women. Their access to reproductive health care is minimal and as a result they suffer greater vulnerability to reproductive health problems and sexually transmitted diseases. There is a lack of awareness regarding women with disabilities and reproductive health needs. More often than not, it is assumed that they do not form part of the target groups because being disabled is associated with being sexless or asexual.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND LIVING CONDITIONS
The study depicts that the monthly income 57.2 percent of the families fall in the range Rs. 2501-4000, 85.3 percent do not have any supplementary source of income and half of the respondents have had debts. Almost all of the respondents usually borrowed money from the private financial institutions at a high rate of interest and the respondents' families are economically deprived. This result corroborates the findings of Chowdhury and Foley (2006) based on this research,
181 the authors find that even if the household is able to retain its previous earnings, increased expenditure resulting from the new situation reduces net earnings to an enormous extent. The labeling of a family member with a disability often hinders the economic well-being of the household. Therefore, the structure of the household should be of great concern when analyzing the impact of disability.
The results of this study are consistent with those of other study by Zhao Tizun (2008) a survey was carried out in 1990 to identify the situation of women with disabilities in Jiedao. It was observed that education is closely related to disabled women's marriage, employment, vocation, income and social life. It is an important factor determining the disabled women's socio-economic status in China. Some school aged disabled children receive compulsory education in ordinary schools.
A majority of the deaf children study in schools specially set up for them until secondary education. In the past few years many disabled women have been undergoing adult education and vocational training to improve their status. Marriage has an impact on the life of the disabled women and also reflects their socio-economic status. A survey of 87 married couples showed that 73.56% of them got married to their partners after introductions by friends or relatives, as compared to 69.12% in 1990. The remaining 26.44% had met on their own before marriage. In addition the increase in numbers of disabled women who are married is the result of the improved quality of their life. The comparatively lower divorce rate in 1995 suggests that the family lives of disabled women have become more stable. According to the survey, 173 women out of the 200 (86.5%) surveyed have a 'happy marriage' and 176 (88%) have a satisfactory sexual life. In this survey, 49% of the disabled women stated their preference to marry a non-disabled man or a person with mild disability, making it substantially more than the 30.05% who stated the same preference in 1990. This finding may reflect the improved self
182 confidence and social position of disabled women in the community. More women with disability now consider various aspects such as the economic status of the man, his education, profession, and the location of his permanent residence, before they decide on marriage. Only about one-third of them consider marriage as a form of financial support to themselves. However negative public opinions, misunderstandings of the spouses and frequent interventions from the family of origin, continue to negatively influence the marriages of women with disabilities in China. These finds were corroborated with the study of Brouwers (et al.,) (2011).
STATUS OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
The table 4.4 depicts that more than half (60.6 percent) of the respondents are presently working in various fields as a self employed and remaining 39.4 percent of the respondents did not get employed anywhere due to physical inability. Those who are working at present received special training for this job and 53.6 percent were not. In respect to the view on working status of women with disabilities, 64.4 percent of WWD considered employment to be an important factor for development and only 35.6 percent felt on the contrary. Nearly half (48 percent) of the respondents felt that, if the women with disabilities are employed it will make them economically independent. A majority (60 percent) of the respondents felt that due to impairment they can not work in any field. With regard to perception of family about job, a majority (77.9 percent) of the respondent's family encourage the women with disabilities to go for job and remaining 22.1 percent not like that. 72.2 percent of the respondents faced discrimination at work place. In viewing relationship with co-workers in the work place, half (53.7 percent) of the respondents have moderate relationship with their colleagues. A vast majority (87.1 percent) of the respondents got equal pay with other employees and 71.1 percent of the respondents opinioned that there is no barrier free environment in their working place.
183 This result corroborates the findings of Colella, et al., (2004) this review of 37 studies found that employers continue to express positive global attitudes toward workers with disabilities. However, they tend to be more negative when specific attitudes toward these workers are assessed. When appropriate supports are provided, employers express positive attitudes toward workers with intellectual and psychiatric disabilities (Barnartt, 2003). Affirming earlier reviews, employers with prior positive contact hold favorable attitudes toward workers with disabilities. Employers' expressed willingness to hire applicants with disabilities still exceeds their actual hiring, although this gap is narrowing. Workers with physical disabilities continue to be viewed more positively than workers with intellectual or psychiatric disabilities (Walter & Langdon, 2001). This is validated by the responses of Panchayat members (secondary respondents) who could hardly mention the percentage of Women with disabilities getting employment from Income Generation schemes. It is important to note that this 3 percent target of reservation in PWD Act has no gender dimension (i.e. no separate quota for Women with disabilities in this 3 percent). Therefore the employment status of Women with disabilities is quite miserable (Hanna, 2001).
SOCIAL MOBILITY AND EXCLUSION OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
The table 4.7 explains that majority 82.1 percent of the women with disabilities not participate in the social gatherings and 17.9 percent only joining social gatherings outside home. This indicates mobility of Women with disabilities within and outside home is very low. Out of the 82.1 percent Women with disabilities who do not participate in functions outside home, 72.2 percent said that disability is the main reason behind it. Lack of guardians' permission is also an important reason (11.4 percent). A majority (75.7 percent) of the Women with disabilities said that they face discrimination compared to others (non-disabled women) in enjoying social status. A large majority of Women with disabilities
184 face discrimination within family, among friends and in the community at large in terms of social behaviour. It was observed from the survey data that the factor of 'independent' accessibility and mobility is very crucial for Women with disabilities to be a part of mainstream society. Surprisingly, a large percentage of Women with disabilities in all the block of study areas said that their homes are accessible and have low mobility in terms of attending social gatherings outside home. Most of their homes have not been modified according to their needs. This seems to be a little contradictory. May be the Women with disabilities interpreted accessibility and mobility in a different way, where they can move around within and outside home with the help of family members.
The qualitative findings highlight that the participation of persons with disabilities in activities within the community was limited. In our study area 47 per cent of persons with disabilities attended both social and religious functions, of which 53 per cent attended only religious functions. Persons with disabilities are discouraged from attending social functions like a marriage, while most of them take part in religious functions. The group discussion revealed that there were cases where friends have stopped visiting the persons with disabilities and since mobility is limited they find it difficult to visit others.
Relatives usually take them to temples and mosques during religious celebrations. This could also be due to the fact that most villages (65 per cent) had at least one temple and many had 5-6 temples and some (6 per cent) had mosques also. They do not visit religious places outside their communities because of the physical hurdles (staircase leading to temple) they have to face. Sometime the non- disabled carried the persons with disabilities to the temple but this did not happen in the case of other social occasions. Women with disabilities are found to be socially insecure. The study highlighted several situations in which women were abused and exploited. To protect them, girls are not sent outside the village and in
185 homes for the mentally retarded; women are sterilized to avoid pregnancies (Barnartt, 2000).
Results from the similar study of Thomas and Thomas (2007) shows that there is a world-wide trend towards women with disabilities emerging from their isolation to establish their own self help groups and rights groups, the situation in developing countries remains quite different. In the available literature on women with disabilities in developing countries, it is often stated that these women face a triple handicap and discrimination due to their disability, gender and developing world status. In the South Asian context, gender equity is an issue for a large majority of women, given the socio-cultural practices and traditional attitudes of society.
ABUSE AND HARASSMENT OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
The table 4.9 experienced that it is quite surprising to find that 34.3 percent Women with disabilities do not know what is meant by sexual harassment. The awareness level is very low. The level of knowledge regarding abuse and sexual harassment is high among Women with disabilities (65.7 percent). The percentage of Women with disabilities who said that they would protest if they face sexual harassment in future (28.2 percent) which is followed by 23 percent will inform the family members regarding their abuse and harassment. A very few percent of the women with disabilities opined that cannot protest due to their disability.
The rate of crime and violence against women in general is increasing in India every year (Kralik & Eastwood, 2003). National Crime Records Bureau and several research studies and surveys have records of such cases, but there are hardly any data on abuse/sexual harassment faced by girls and women with disabilities in India. However, the data in the above table reveals that majority of
186 the Women with disabilities have personal experience of sexual harassment or any form of abuse. It is a known fact that women usually do not disclose their experience of sexual abuse at home/public place/work place out of social stigma, a sense of fear and lack of support from within the family. In case of Women with disabilities, the situation is understandably much worse as most of such cases go unreported/undisclosed by the victims.
AWARENESS ABOUT ACTS/POLICIES & RIGHTS Table 4.10 indicates that a majority of the Women with disabilities were not aware of the policy and law related to them (62.5 percent) and awareness about CEDAW (68.8 percent) too not found among them. However, majority of the women with disabilities were not aware of the various special provisions for disabled women through law such as treatment rehabilitation, education, training, employment, independent living, safety and social security, access to social services and information about abuses like, physical, social, mental and sexual (Becker, 2003). It was understood from the focus group discussion among the 60 women with disabilities in Tiruchirappalli district. These finds were consistent with the study of (Walter & Langdon, 2001) and in line with Hanna (2001).
AWARENESS ABOUT GOVERNMENT BENEFITS
Table 4.11 revealed that 41 percent of Women with disabilities were not aware of government schemes for their benefits. Out of 41 percent of Women with disabilities are experienced 57.7percent of the respondents availed government benefits. In order to make the programmes more successful they suggested organizing awareness campaign by the government. In order to make the programmes gender-sensitive, more weightage and incentives should be given to women candidates. The bureaucrats and policy-makers should be aware of the problems faced by girls with disabilities, in order to frame policies accordingly.
187 There should be equal opportunities for men and women regarding vocational rehabilitation. The Women with disabilities suggested some issues that should be focused upon by government and NGOs:
i. Awareness programme i i. Training for income generation and empowerment iii. Reservation as a special category depending on educational qualification iv. Proper treatment and rehabilitation v. Preference to choose own employment means vi. Vital role of Women with disabilities in family and society; focus on their leadership skills vii. Sensitization of policy makers about problems of Women with disabilities viii. Security in workplace
AWARENESS ABOUT NGO'S INTERVENTION FOR WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
Table 4.12 brings out that only 27.5 percent of the women with disabilities were aware about the NGOs/CBOs who are working for Women with disabilities. Out of them 79.6 percent were approached by those NGOs for support, 68.1 percent of the them were member in any one of the NGOs working for disabled women and they had capacity of decision making in their home (83.3 percent).
The focus group discussion revealed that very few Women with disabilities were approached by CBOs and NGOs working in their area for any kind of support/assistance. However, very few Women with disabilities have received training from NGOs. The general level of awareness of Women with disabilities
188 has been found to be very low, though almost all of the NGOs and CBOs mentioned 'awareness programme' as one of their support-services for PWDs. Through the discussion among the women with disabilities, it was explained that a moderate proportion of NGOs have programmes for PWDs. It included support services such as: i. Counseling ii. Special education iii. Pre-vocational and vocational training iv. Legal aid with help of Disability Law Unit/counseling cell v. Day rehabilitation and residential rehabilitation vi. Arrangement of supportive devices vii. Health check-up and medication All these services reach out to both men and women with disabilities. The percentage of Women with disabilities included in the programmes ranges from 10 to 75. One third of the respondents said that NGOs have programmes for Women with disabilities. This includes services like corrective surgery, distribution of medicine for mentally retarded, awareness, education, and resource mobilization in collaboration with government agencies, public and private sectors (Shakila, 2008).
PERCEPTION OF MEDIA ON WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
Table 4.13 shows that a majority 75.3 percent of Women with disabilities who said media does not represent Women with disabilities positively. The remaining percentage of Women with disabilities gave a positive response, with more weightage on two reasons - lack of interest of media in PWDs' needs (68.5 percent) and media lacks awareness about Women with disabilities' problems (18.8 percent). These findings were corroborated with the study of Barnartt (2000).
189 It is observed from the focus group discussion regarding media's role in portrayal of the disability issue, most of the Women with disabilities in Tiruchirappalli district could not say whether media is at all sensitive and responsive to the needs of the disabled. They expect media to reflect their social condition more widely and create mass awareness about women's disability through articles and programmes. However, the awareness level of media about specific provisions for Women with disabilities in acts/policies is found to be quite low in all the study areas. The degree of coverage on disability issues through published articles and specific audio-visual programmes is moderate, with problems like lack of interest, awareness, planning and initiative. The researcher noted that it is important to remember that Women with disabilities do not form a homogeneous group. Women with different kinds of disabilities have different requirements and problems, which need to be addressed accordingly through specific interventions in areas like education, accessibility, training & employment, social security and protection and the like. No single stakeholder can bring positive changes in the situation and status of Women with disabilities. A combined effort - more sensitivity, awareness, willingness, initiative - of Women with disabilities themselves, the government and nongovernmental organizations (CBOs, WOs), common people, media personnel, law-makers and law-protectors, teachers, educators and trainers, can empower Women with disabilities in true sense and ensure their societal mainstreaming (Thomas and Thomas, 2003).
Those who participated in the focus group discussion opined that media do not represent Women with disabilities in a positive manner and the reasons for such a representation are:
i. Media pays no attention to disability issue because it is not a source of revenue generation ii. Media highlights only abuse related news
190 iii. In today's consumerist world media wants to highlight only the negative aspects of society iv. Women with disabilities are portrayed by media in a wrong way as very poor and needy v. Issues concerning Women with disabilities are rarely highlighted in newspapers
Women with disabilities feel that media projects Women with disabilities as an unfortunate and helpless community highlighting only their abuse and trauma. Their perception about how media should represent Women with disabilities is:
i. More coverage on facts, incidents and issues ii. More articles in key newspapers on ongoing programmes and existing acts for PWDs iii. In a manner, which encourages Women with disabilities to get organized and pressurize government machineries to deliver better for them iv. As key target groups in State and National programmes
These findings were in line with the study of Marshall (2008) on "Attitudes to Women with Disabilities in Japan: The Influence of Television Drama." This study is designed to investigate the attitudes of young people towards disabled women in Japan, using a sample drawn from university students. By asking the students to write essays about disabled and non-disabled characters of both genders following an identical pattern, similarities and differences between descriptions across gender and disability were found. Several major differences were identified in the descriptions.
Firstly, a number of non-disabled women were described as beautiful, but only a handful of students describe the physical appearance of disabled characters.
191 Secondly, more than twice as many stories about non-disabled women end with finding a partner as compared to those of disabled women. Thirdly, the personality and emotions of non-disabled women were described mostly in positive terms, while disabled women are described as depressed, despairing and grief-stricken. Fourthly, many non-disabled women were described as 'kind' or 'popular', but only one disabled woman is described this way. Finally, the majority of non-disabled women are described as having regular jobs, but very few disabled women's jobs are mentioned, and these involve outstanding talent. The findings were in line with that of (McGrath, Keita, Strickland, & Russo, 2000; Warren & McEachren, 2003).
ATTITUDE & PERCEPTION TOWARDS WWDs
The table 4.14 shows that a majority (75.9 percent) of the respondents was faced double discrimination in availing basic human rights and services provided by government and non-governmental organizations for women with disabilities. A vast majority (82.81 percent) of the respondents said that women with disabilities need special attention to care them.
These findings were in line with Begum (1994) who indicates that disabled women are discriminated in education, higher education in particular. Education is the key to their advancement as it provides access to information, enables them to communicate with others, and enables them to assert their rights. However, the prejudice surrounding their ability continues to perpetuate the view that educating them is futile. This discrimination reflects on their opportunity to find employment and also castes a shadow on their personal income and consequently inferior quality of life. This validated by previous study supports the view that more than half of the disabled people in our study stated that they were viewed negatively by society, and only a few felt that they were viewed positively. As in other studies, it was found that the outward appearance (for example, cerebral palsy, loss of a limb, burn deformity) of a disabled person has a
192 significant effect on this negative attitude. Negative attitudes resulted from the commonly-held belief that some disabilities, such as mental retardation, cerebral palsy, etc., were the result of divine punishment, and they blamed their fate. This fear and lack of understanding about disease processes exposed them to social segregation, leading to considerable emotional distress. As a result, they lost interest and became more isolated. These negative attitudes towards women with special needs are a significant obstacle to their successful integration in society. Most disabled persons viewed their disability simply as a fact of life and accepted themselves as they are. It is only at the stage when poor health becomes associated with death or fear of death that their happiness becomes difficult or impossible.
The researchers also observed from the focus group discussion that many disabled people were not only quite happy, but even derived some happiness from their ability to cope with their difficulty which can be seen in the case report. During the study time in the study area, it was also observed that women were more sympathetic and considerate to disabled persons than males. It was also seen that people with learning disabilities (mental retardation) and strange behaviour (mental disorders) were the most common targets of prejudice and discriminatory practices. This finding is in line with that of Pal et al. (2000), in India. Many respondents reported that adjusting to societal attitude was the most difficult. It was also observed that non-disabled people avoided contact with disabled people (Altman 2005). Several studies provide evidence about the ingredients of attitude change in the context of disability awareness. Some of these studies reinforce theories of contact or exposure, whilst others engage with a wider range of factors influencing attitude change. Some studies have dealt with the program ingredients affecting outcomes of attitude change activities. On the basis of existing research, Murfitt (2006) argues that there is well established evidence that direct contact with people who have a disability is a key factor in fostering positive attitudes towards them.
193 PROBLEMS FACED BY WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
The table 4.15 explicit that problem faced by women with disabilities, 74.7 percent has lack of independent mobility, lack of education (69.4 percent), lack of appropriate vocational training (57.2 percent), lack of opportunities for gainful employment (64.1 percent), inaccessible physical environment (62.8 percent), unhelpful and negative social attitudes (74.7 percent) and physical, mental and sexual abuse (62.2 percent).
From the participation observation it was noted that only 20% of the respondents opined that suitable and gainful employment could be found. More than 30% did not agree that suitable and gainful employment facilitates the mainstreaming of the women with disabilities. Barrier-free environment enables people with disabilities to move about safely and freely, and use the facilities within the built environment. The goal of barrier free design is to provide an environment that supports the independent functioning of individuals so that they can participate without assistance, in every day activities. Therefore, to the maximum extent possible, buildings/ places/transportation systems for public use should be made barrier free. Over all, only about 26% of the respondents affirmed of a barrier friendly work site.
To be a disabled woman is generally considered unable to fulfill the role of homemaker, wife and mother, and unable to conform to the stereotype of beauty and femininity in terms of physical appearance. Also, being a disabled woman fits well into the stereotype of passivity, dependency and vulnerability. The disabled women are more vulnerable to physical and mental abuse. Only 73% of the
194 women stated that they have to face sexual harassment, some times. These women were mainly from rural areas of study areas.
According to these women, there is no mechanism put in place to redress such grievances. However, 27% of the women affirmed that they have never faced any sexual harassment. The persons with disabilities, however, are the last identity group to enter the workforce. Disabled people are not out of a job because their disability comes in the way of their functioning. It is social and practical barriers that prevent them from joining the workforce, such as lack of proper access to and around the workplace, lack of education, and the reluctance of employers to hire people with disabilities (Dalai, (et al., 2001).
As a result, many disabled people live in poverty and are often reduced to begging on the streets of cities. They are denied the right to make a useful contribution to their own lives and to the lives of their families and community. Employment is a key factor in the empowerment and inclusion of people with disabilities. They remain disproportionately undereducated, untrained, unemployed, underemployed and poor -- especially women. Women with disabilities are further disadvantaged by negative attitudes towards disability. Like all other disabled individuals, women with disabilities are often treated as if their particular disability has affected all their other abilities. In society's eyes they are not capable of earning an income, let alone of living independently. Although efforts have been made in India to integrate the persons with disabilities into the workforce, there is a need: i. To create economic independence for persons with disabilities mainstream them into all walks of life. ii. To design appropriate training programmes for them. iii. To break physical and attitudinal barriers, and iv. To make the issue of employment for disabled people more visible.
195 Physical access to the workplace from home, easy access within the workplace, and access to education are critically linked to the ability to earn a livelihood. Education and training equips disabled people with the skills necessary for employment. Though both are provided for under the Persons with Disabilities Act, 1995, outside of the major cities only few persons with disabilities have access to education or training. The following steps need to be taken to enhance the employment opportunities for the women with disabilities: i. The government may initiate a dialogue with private sector organizations to help the women with disabilities in getting employment. ii. Develop appropriate home-based income generation programmes for the women with disabilities. The system of coaching for employment may also be encouraged for persons with disabilities and their caregivers. iii. Facilitate modifications in the design of machinery, workstation and work environment necessary for the disabled women to operate without barriers in training centers/ factories/ industries/ offices etc. iv. Provide assistance through appropriate agencies—such as Marketing Boards, District Rural Development Agencies (DRDAs), Private Agencies and Non Governmental Organizations in marketing of goods and services produced by women with disabilities. v. Coverage of women with disabilities in poverty alleviation programmes may be thoroughly monitored so that they get their due share of 3 percent as provided under statutory provisions.
The results of this study are consistent with those of other study by Abera, (2002) he argued that the community in Wolayitta ethnic group has enough information and knowledge towards disability and they are aware of types and causes of disabilities. Even if the community has information and knowledge towards disabilities, the society has misconceptions, negative perceptions and attitudes towards females with disabilities.
196 The results indicated statistically significant agreement differences between urban and rural dwellers regarding females with disabilities are useless and unproductive. It could be that urban dwellers have accessibility of mass-media and other technological development influences and interventions of some organizations in urban areas to have information and knowledge towards females with disabilities are productive and valuable. But there were no significance differences between male and female respondents regarding females with disabilities are useless and productive. The result also indicates that there were statistically significant disagreement differences among religion subgroups in favour of Protestants regarding females with disabilities are productive and useful. This could be that religion had brought attitudinal changes towards humanity. In most cases females with disabilities are isolated, neglected and segregated in Wolayitta ethnic group. It was concluded that the attitude towards females with disabilities was negative due to other variables that influence the community differently. Agitation and public education, intervention of governmental and non¬ governmental organizations through community-based activities are recommended and suggested to create awareness and to bring attitudinal changes towards females with disabilities.
This result corroborates the findings of Sruti, and Mihir (2000) inquiry into domestic violence, especially sexual abuse, against women with disabilities is one of the most complex, controversial and disturbing challenges facing rehabilitation researchers. It raises a combination of many unresolved issues in the studies of abuse, disability and the status of women. The respondents were asked if they had ever experienced emotional, physical or sexual abuse. Physical abuse comprised denial of basic rights like access to food, education, social participation etc. Parents, husbands and close family members were the most common perpetrators of emotional or physical abuse for both groups. Deaf women were sexually abused by family members and close friends as also those who were mentally challenged.
197 Women with physical disabilities appear to be at risk for emotional, physical and sexual abuse to the same extent as women without physical disabilities. Unique vulnerabilities to abuse, experienced by women with disabilities, include social stereotypes of asexuality and passivity, acceptance of abuse as normal behaviour, lack of adaptive equipment, inaccessible home and community environments, increased exposure to medical and institutional settings, dependence on perpetrators for personal assistance and lack of employment options. In order to enable the identification of women with disabilities who are in abusive situations and their referral to appropriate community services, policy changes are needed to increase training for all types of service providers in abuse interventions, improve architectural and attitudinal accessibility to programs for battered women, increase options for personal assistance, expand the availability of affordable legal services, improve communication among community service providers and most importantly provide skill development programs to make disabled women independent. Clearly, there is a need for services for disabled women to break free of all forms of violation and violence. There is a need for shelters specifically designed and dedicated to disabled victims of domestic violence.
A woman in a wheelchair will need accommodation that has doorways that are wide enough; a ramp to gain access to and from the building, hallways that are wide enough, a wheelchair will need to get within three feet of the toilet in the bathroom. A blind individual will need Braille throughout the facility. An individual who is deaf will need staff culturally sensitive to deaf issues. A deaf individual will also need a sign language interpreter. It is not always acceptable for a family member or friend to interpret for a deaf victim of domestic violence. This may lead to an inaccurate account of the issues. Police officers, psycho-social counselors and service providers need to be trained to assist disabled victims of domestic violence in meeting their needs.
198 Domestic violence has a powerful impact on women with disabilities, not only physically, but both mentally and emotionally. Symptoms may include: depression, post traumatic stress disorder, self-destructive behavior or self mutilation and low self image. If community workers and service providers become adequately trained on the issue of domestic violence and disability, they will be better able to empower disabled victims of domestic violence to take control of their lives and break the cycle of power and control (Abera, 2002).
PSYCHO SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
The table 4.18 depicts that nearly half (49.4 percent) of the respondents had high level of psychological symptoms, 50.3 percent had low level of family relationship, 58.5 percent had low level of relationship with husband, 48.8 percent of the respondents had low level of relation ship with their children, half (52.2 percent) of the respondents had low level social relationship and the overall psycho-social function of the women with disabilities is low (55.9 percent). Similar findings were found in previous study of Shakila (2008) he argues that women with disabilities have historically faced stigma associated with their disability.
As in other study on disability conducted by Crawford & Ostrove, (2003) the relation between societal representations of disability and the intimate relationships of women with disabilities were studied in depth. The study confirmed that views of people with disabilities as incompetent and helpless intellectually challenged, super-capable and a sexual continue to influence the lives of women with disabilities. Most of these stereotypes were encountered by women with different types of disabilities, suggesting that these categories are fairly universally applied. With respect to intimate relationships, the women had a wide variety of both positive and negative experiences. A common disability
199 experience seemed to have an important positive influence on sustaining close intimate relationships. Relatedly, the lack of this similarity was, in many cases, perceived as a major impediment to relationships with the able-bodied.
The present investigation confirms the findings of the study by Barnartt (2000) who examined the situation of women with special needs as a group with multiple minority status. The researcher draws upon the work of others who have attempted to draw parallels between the situation of women of color and women with disabilities, arguing that both of these groups can be considered doubly disadvantaged when compared to white, non-disabled women as well as to men of their own group. The researcher criticizes previous work in this area and clams she will attempt to remedy some of their deficiencies with her own study, which consists of a statistical comparison of three groups: two groups of disabled people and one group of non-disabled people. The study claims that the data presented in the article support the multiple minority status arguments but argues that women with disabilities are not a minority group, because they lack "groupness." Despite the author's fairly arrogant claims at the beginning of the article, the study does not add much to the previous analysis of the multiple minority status of women with disabilities.
Women with disabilities experience social isolation that may negatively impact their self-esteem, levels of depression, and stress (Berkman & Syme, 1979). For example, stress levels for women with physical disabilities have been reported at higher levels than those of the general population. Women with disabilities appear to be at higher risk for depression in comparison to men with disabilities, women without disabilities, and the general population. Contributing to women's depression are a variety of factors that include low levels of perceived control, lack of social support, low income or poverty, and abuse (McGrath, Keita, Strickland, & Russo, 1990; Warren & McEachren, 1983).
200 The present investigation confirms the findings of the study by Margaret and Nosek (2001) they examine the psychosocial influence that physical disability has on the development of intimate relationships and the abilities of women with physical disabilities to pursue behaviors typically taken for granted by women without disabilities, including dating, physical intimacy, marriage, and parenting. The specific aims of this research was to (1) develop, test, and refine an instrument for describing the sexual functioning of women with physical disabilities; (2) characterize the socio-sexual behaviors of women with physical disabilities as compared to women without disabilities; (3) identify disability, environmental. psychological, and social factors which influence the socio-sexual behaviors of women with physical disabilities and examine the relationships among them (4) employ the research findings in developing and/or modifying counseling and educational programs for women with physical disabilities and rehabilitation professionals; and (5) disseminate, using a variety of methods, the research results and their application in clinical and educational settings.
In a study on disability conducted by Margaret and Nosek (2003) it was observed that concept of wellness in the context of physical disability among women has only recently been introduced into the field of health promotion. The purpose of this research was to develop an intervention to enhance wellness among women with physical disabilities based on expanded theoretical models and measures of health promoting behaviors that accommodate some of the unique life circum-stances experienced by this population.
Findings from the recently completed national survey indicate that segments of the population of women with physical disabilities are at higher risk (1) for certain acute and chronic conditions, (2) have limited access to preventive health services, (3) negative social attitudes towards their potential for fitness and wellness, and (4) reduced motivational factors affecting health promotion behaviors, such as self-esteem, self-efficacy, and body image. Thus, there is a
201 pressing need for the development of health promotion programming that is responsive to the needs of women with significant functional limitations and an accompanying research protocol to measure the effectiveness of such programming.
It was observed that there is an urgent need to (1) Identify the psychological, physical, social, and environmental factors that contribute to health promoting behaviors of women with physical disabilities, (2) Develop and test methods for measuring the health promoting behaviors of women with physical disabilities and their attitudes toward improving those behaviors, (3) Develop and pilot test an intervention to inform and motivate women with physical disabilities to take action to improve their psychological, social, and physical health and (4) Develop and pilot test a theory-driven, multi-component program to promote wellness among women with physical disabilities that targets increased self- efficacy related to health promoting behaviors.
A study by Shyam (2004) has shown that women with disabilities gave a wide range of reasons for their emotional disturbance arising from disability. Emotional problems, such as grief, depression, suicidal tendency, and economic dependency were related either to disability itself or to their own or other people's reaction to disability. These people needed psychosocial rehabilitation which is a relatively new approach for assisting people with disabilities, particularly when there is an emotional problem to adjustmental living.
QUALITY OF WORK LIFE OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
The table 4.19 expressed that half (53.1 percent) of the respondents had high level of physical problems, half (50.9 percent) of the respondent had high level of cognitive problems, affective problem (57.2 percent), social dysfunction (59.1 percent), economic problem (65.3 percent), Ego problem (56.9 percent) and the overall level of quality of work life is low (51.6 percent). This result
202 corroborates the findings of Monawar and Underwood (2002) who observed that a primary healthcare specialist conducted a door-to-door survey in two villages to collect socioeconomic and demographic information on the villagers and for identification of disabled people. Information on disability and how it affected their life was also obtained either from the disabled people or from their caregivers by interviewing them.
The research revealed that disability had a devastating effect on the quality of life of the disabled people with a particularly negative effect on their marriage, educational attainment, employment, and emotional state. Disability also jeopardized their personal, family and social life (Stibbe, 2004). More than half of the disabled people were looked at negatively by society. Disabled women and girl children suffered more from negative attitudes than their male counterparts, resulting in critical adverse effects on their psychological and social health. A combination of educational, economic and intensive rehabilitative measures should be implemented urgently to make them self-reliant. Collaborative communication between professionals and parents, behavioural counselling, formation of a self-help group, and comprehensive support to families will reduce their suffering.
This research analyzed the situation of social status of disabled people of rural people through four months of close observations on the villagers. It was thought that quantitative data along with some qualitative observations would bring out important issues that need to be identified to satisfy the research questions. The findings of the study showed that the working disabled people were earning much less, and some of them were even dismissed from their jobs. This result corroborates the findings of Keir who has shown that disabled people are often targets of prejudice and discriminatory practices in areas of employment.
203 Modern rehabilitative services with proper training and appropriate remedial education are generally aimed at bringing them back into the work force. The improved economic productivity of a group of disabled people might change people's perceptions about disability in general. Special employment programmes in the form of cottage industries could be implemented through local government or by NGOs to rehabilitate them. Disability had considerable devastating effect on the marriage prospects of disabled people. The situation was worse for females. In our study, females were more likely to suffer from problems, such as 'cannot marry' and 'breakdown of marriage' than their male counterparts. We also observed that, in some cases, a huge dowry was paid to some bridegrooms. A study by Palgi (2005) has shown that spouses of eastern origin were more rejected by their husbands after a disability than spouses of western origin. Females in Bangladesh generally have a lower status and are not as actively involved in income generating activities as males, and neither do they control family resources. Thus, disability, apart from being negative, is also a potential barrier to marriage, especially for women. Disabled people gave a wide range of reasons for their emotional disturbance arising from disability. Emotional problems, such as grief, depression, suicidal tendency, and economic dependency, were related either to disability itself or to their own or other people's reaction to disability. These people needed psychosocial rehabilitation which is a relatively new approach for assisting people with disabilities, particularly when there is an emotional problem to adjust to living. People with disabilities have individual physical, emotional, social and intellectual needs and different personal bases.
AWARENESS AND PERCEPTION OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
204 The table 4.20 explains that more than half (57.2 percent) of the respondents had low level of decision making capacity in their house holds; Social mobility and social inclusion (77.5 percent); Opinion on marriage for Women with disabilities (88.1 percent); Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards Women with disabilities (55.3 percent); Awareness about NGO's intervention for Women with disabilities (60.3 percent); Perception of media about Women with disabilities (61.6 percent) and Attitude and perception towards Women with disabilities (53.4 percent).
Further a majority (72.8 percent) of the respondents experienced that they have faced sexual abuse and harassments. It was concluded from the table that gender plays a major role in the lives of people with hearing impairment as women face more harassment than their male counterparts. Women with disabilities have been largely ignored by social movements. Social restrictions generated by negative attitudes have aggravated the oppression they face by virtue of both sexism and 'disablism'. It is well known that both disabled people and women constitute the weaker and vulnerable section of most societies and that gender plays a significant role in determining a person's social status.
Hence, a woman with disabilities is multiply disadvantaged both in terms of her physical or mental disabilities as well as gender. It can be safely assumed she is in a worse condition than those who are disadvantaged by only one of these factors. Ours being a patriarchal society, household decisions are usually taken by the (male) head of the family. Women in general are either considered insignificant or even if their views are taken into account, the final decision is always made by the male members.
205 Among the study areas, the percentage of Women with disabilities consulted while taking household-decision is found to be the highest in urban block of Tiruchirappalli district. Hence it was evident that views of women were given more importance in this block compared to the rest of the study areas. From the focused group discussion it was understood that the factor of 'independent' accessibility and mobility is very crucial for Women with disabilities to be a part of mainstream society. A majority of the Women with disabilities in all the block of study areas said that their homes are not accessible and have low mobility in terms of attending social gatherings outside home. But most of their homes have not been modified according to their needs. However less percentage of the respondents may be the Women with disabilities interpreted accessibility and mobility in a different way, where they can move around within and outside home with the help of family members.
206 CHAPTER-Y
FINDINGS, SUGGESTIONS & CONCLUSION FINDINGS AND SUGGESTIONS
SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
It is shown that 40.3 percent of the respondents were 26-36 years of age, 24.1 percent 37-47 years, 22.5 percent below 25 years and remaining 13.1 percent above 47 years. The mean age was 34.7 years. With regard to gender all the respondents were female. Regarding religion, 65.9 percent of the respondents belonged to Hinduism, 18.5 percent followed Islam and 15.6 percent belonged to Christianity. Regarding caste, half (50.3 percent) of the respondents belonged to Schedule Castes and one third (32.8 percent) belonged to Schedule Castes. 14.7 percent belonged to Other Back ward Castes and the remaining 2.2 percent belonged to Other Castes. With regard to education qualification 21.9 percent of the respondents were illiterate, 21.6 percent graduated, 21.2 percent completed secondary school, 15.6 percent completed primary level of education, 10,9 percent completed higher secondary and the remaining 8.8 percent had below primary level of education. From the above table it was clear that education was the key to the advancement of women and girls with disabilities as it provides access to information, enabled them to communicate their needs, interests and experiences, brought them into contact with other students, increased their confidence and encouraged them to assert their rights. Without a basic education, their chances for employment were almost absent. The Women with disabilities felt, as suggested by the table, they have the right to get education as well as engaged in gainful employments.
With regard to order of birth, 34.4 percent were in second order of birth of their family, 33.4 percent were in the first order, 17.5 percent were in the third order, 7.2 percent were in the fourth order, 6.9 percent were in the fifth order and remaining 0.6 percent were in the sixth order of birth in their family. 48.8 percent were from rural area, 36.2 percent from urban area and 15 percent from semi-urban area. 66.6 percent of the respondents hail from nuclear family and the remaining 33.4 percent hail from extended family system. With regard
207 to marital status, 57.2 percent of the respondents were married, 37.8 percent of the respondents were unmarried, 1.6 percent of the respondents were divorced, 2.2 percent of the respondents were widow and remaining 1.2 percent were separated. Regarding no of children, nearly half (48.5 percent) of the respondents have two children, 29.2 percent have only one children, 17.7 percent of the respondents have 3 children, 3.6 percent of the respondents have 4 children and remaining 1 percent of the respondents have 5 children. With regard to occupation, 40 percent of the respondents were home maker, 15.9 percent were self employed (home-based work), 8.8 percent were self- employed (work place outside home), 3.8 percent were works on own farm/land and the same percent also attending to domestic duties, 3.4 percent of the respondents were attending educational institutions, 2.8 percent not able to work owning to disability, 1.9 percent were works as casual labour (Non- agricultural), 1.6 percent does not work due to sickness though have regular work and remaining 1.2 percent of the respondents doesn't work due to other reasons though have regular work. With regard to monthly income, 43.8 percent of the respondents monthly income is below Rs. 3000/-, 19.6 percent of the respondents earn between Rs. 4001-5000, 19.4 percent earn between Rs. 3001-4000 and remaining 17.2 percent earn above Rs. 5000. Regarding their desire and aspiration, half (53.1 percent) of the respondents have had provide higher education to their children, 28.1 percent opined improve their economic conditions and remaining 15.8 percent of the respondents would like to fight for their and others' rights for betterment of their life.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND LIVING CONDITIONS
It explains that the monthly income 57.2 percent of the families fall in the range Rs. 2501-4000, 25 percent Rs. 4001-5500, 9.3 percent below Rs. 2500 and 8.5 percent above Rs. 5500. With regard to supplementary source of income 14.7 respondents' families have supplementary income from various sources and remaining 85.3 percent do not have any supplementary source of income. 74.4 percent live in terraced houses, and 25.6 percent live in huts. 50.3
208 percent live in rented house and 49.7 percent own houses. In viewing their saving habits, 53.8 percent had saving habits and 46.2 percent didn't. Regarding debt, 50.9 percent have debts and 49.1 percent were free of debts. Almost all of the respondents usually borrowed money from the private financial institutions at a high rate of interest and the respondents' families were economically deprived.
ABOUT DISABILITY
42.5 percent of the respondents were visually impaired, 30.6 percent of the respondents were physically challenged, 15 percent of the respondents were hearing impaired and remaining 11.9 percent were mild mentally retarded. With regard to acquired disability, one third (30.9 percent) of the respondents was born differently abled and a majority 69.1 percent became differently abled after birth. In viewing age of acquired this problem, more than one third (37.8 percent) of the respondents acquired disability from 3-6 years, 24.1 percent of the respondents became disabled under 2 years and 7.2 percent above 6 years. A majority (51.2 percent) of the respondents was well aware of their own disability and 48.8 percent were not and they did not know the value of getting disability identity card from the District Disability Rehabilitation Office. One fifth (22.5 percent) of the respondents belonged to above 75% category of disability, 21.9 percent of the respondent belonged to 51%-75% category of disability and remaining 6.9 percent of them were in below 50% category of disability.
43.4 percent reported polio-attack as one of the major causes for disability. 30 percent had improper nutrition, 15 percent reported accident as the causes of disability after birth and 11.6 percent had disability due to virus fever. Furthermore, 68.7 percent underwent treatment for their disability and 31.3 percent didn't because of their low economic status and lack of awareness. In viewing treatment, nearly half (47.8 percent) of the study population made use of allopathy, 14.1 percent underwent English treatment, 5 percent
209 underwent Ayurvethi treatment and 1.9 percent Siddha treatment. Fear of medicine and belief in myth was a major reason for not receiving any treatment for their disability for 61.6 percent, followed by economic problem as another major reason for not availing treatment for their disability and 40 percent of the respondents had no guidance for treatment. They thought that if they have any children with special needs, it is a punishment by God for their sins in the earlier birth and when God forgives them, the child's disability can be cured automatically. This belief was observed during the case studies. 75.3 percent of the respondents were the only differently abled persons in the family and for the remaining 24.7 percent there was another disabled member in their family. 31.7 percent of the respondents' sisters were differently abled, 24 percent of the respondents' mothers were differently abled, 22.7 percent of the respondents' brothers were differently abled and remaining 21.6 percent of the respondents' fathers were differently abled.
In viewing the National Disability ID card, 66.9 percent of the respondents were having National Disability ID Card and remaining 33.1 percent of them did not have this card because of lack of awareness on National Disability ID card. With regard to receiving supportive service, more than half (55 percent) of the respondents received some kind of supportive service from the philanthropist and 45 percent of them were not interested to receive any kind of supportive service from anyone else because of their hesitation and confidence to fulfill their own needs by themselves.
29.1 percent of the respondents had received financial help for earning and housing facilities from the government, 25.9 percent of the respondents have had enjoyed sets reservation in public vehicles, 21 percent received unemployed compensation, 20 percent received medical services, 19.4 percent attended vocational training organized by the government, remaining percent of the respondents availed financial help for their study (Educational Scholarship) and supportive devices. With regard to satisfaction about the government programmes, 45.6 percent of the respondents were satisfied with government
210 services and programmes and more than half (54.4 percent) of the respondents not satisfied with government programmes because of corruption and not in long term services.
STATUS OF OCCUPATION OF THE WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
Half (50 percent) of the respondents had registered their educational qualification in the district employment registration office and the remaining percent of the respondents did not do this. More than half (60.6 percent) of the respondents were presently working in various fields as self employed and remaining 39.4 percent of the respondents were not employed anywhere due to physical inability. In viewing perception towards working status of women with disabilities, 64.4 percent of them considered employment to be an important factor for development and only 35.6 percent felt negative attitude towards perception of employment of women with disabilities. Nearly half (48 percent) of the respondents felt that, if the women with disabilities were employed it will make them economically independent. A majority (60 percent) of the respondents felt that due to impairment they can not work in any field. With regard to perception of family about job, a majority (77.9 percent) of the respondent's family encourage the women with disabilities to go for job and remaining 22.1 percent not like that. 72.2 percent of the respondents faced discrimination at work place. In viewing relationship with co-workers in the work place, half (53.7 percent) of the respondents have moderate relationship with their colleagues. A vast majority (87.1 percent) of the respondents got equal pay with other employees and 71.1 percent of the respondents opinioned that there is no barrier free environment in their working place.
211 EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF THE WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
A majority (82.8 percent) of the respondents felt that women with disability should study and the remaining 17.2 percent of them did not favour the education of women with disabilities. DECISION MAKING IN HOUSE HOLD
More than half (60.9 percent) of women with disabilities were not consulted by other members in the family while taking important financial decisions in the household. Percentage of women with disabilities who were consulted while taking decisions concerning their own life was 47.2 percent and 45 percent Women with disabilities were consulted for making vital decisions regarding their medical needs.
SOCIAL MOBILITY AND INCLUSION
A majority 82.1 percent of the women with disabilities did not participate in the social gatherings and 17.9 percent only joined social gatherings outside home. This indicates the low mobility of women with disabilities within and outside home. Out of the 82.1 percent Women with disabilities who do not participate in functions outside home, 72.2 percent said that disability is the main reason behind it. Lack of guardians' permission is also an important reason (11.4 percent). A majority (75.7 percent) of the women with disabilities said that they face discrimination compared to others (non-disabled women) in enjoying social status.
PERCEPTION ABOUT MARRIAGE OF WWDs
In viewing the perception of marriage of women with disabilities, 45.7 percent of the respondent's family members have worried about the marriage of their daughters and 54.3 percent of the respondent's family members were not bothered about the marriage of their daughters. In reason for not raising the question of marriage for women with disabilities, 28.8 percent were due to disability, 22.4 percent were due to financial problems and 13.8 percent opined
212 negative attitude towards marriage for women with disabilities. With regard to perception of marriage for women with disabilities, 37.9 percent had negative attitude towards marriage for women with disabilities and 20 percent of the respondents had positive attitude towards marriage of women with disabilities.
ABUSE AND HARASSMENT
It was surprising to find that 34.3 percent women with disabilities were not aware of what is meant by sexual harassment. The level of awareness regarding abuse and sexual harassment is high among women with disabilities (almost 65.7 percent). Out of 59 percent women with disabilities who experienced sexual abuse and harassment, 44.5 percent faced it at work place and 26.5 percent in rehabilitation centers. The percentage of women with disabilities said that they would protest if they face sexual harassment in future (28.2 percent), which is followed by 23 percent will inform the family members regarding the abuse and harassment. A very few percent of the women with disabilities opined that they cannot protest due to their disability.
AWARENESS ABOUT ACTS/POLICIES & RIGHTS
A majority of the women with disabilities were not aware of the policies and laws related persons with disabilities (62.5 percent), awareness about Acts/laws/polices related to women's right (65.7 percent) and awareness about CEDAW (68.8 percent). The majority of the women with disabilities were not aware of various special provisions for disabled women such as treatment rehabilitation, education, training, employment, independent living, safety and social security, access to social services, information and physical, social, mental and sexual abuses.
AWARENESS ABOUT GOVERNMENT BENEFITS
It revealed that 41 percent of women with disabilities were not aware of government schemes for their benefits. 57.7percent of the respondents availed government benefits. 24.9 percent women with disabilities earned various
213 benefits such as financial help for earning, financial help for study (18.4 percent) and supportive devices (18.4 percent) and getting training from government regarding self employment (20.1 percent).
AWARENESS ABOUT NGO INTERVENTION FOR WWDs
27.5 percent of the women with disabilities were aware of the NGOs/CBOs who were working for women with disabilities. Out of them 79.6 percent were approached by those NGOs for support, 68.1 percent of the them were member in any one of the NGOs working for disabled women and they expressed their capacity for decision making in their home (83.3 percent). However 79.6 percent of the women with disabilities got support from NGOs about getting ID card, make arrangements of doctors for getting treatment to their problems (56.8 percent) and 45.4 percent received supportive aids. NGOs, CBOs and WOs working in the field of disability have a very important role in the development and empowerment of women with disabilities.
AWARENESS ABOUT NGO INTERVENTION FOR WWDs
A majority of 75.3 percent of women with disabilities expressed that media did not represent women with disabilities positively. The remaining percentage of women with disabilities gave a positive response, with more weightage on two reasons - lack of interest of media in women with disabilities' needs (68.5 percent) and media lacks awareness about women with disabilities' problems (18.8 percent). More than 84.7 percent of women with disabilities did not know whether there were discussions/articles on them in the media regularly. 34.4 percent of women with disabilities expected media to create awareness about their education and 28.1 percent felt that media should reflect their social conditions.
ATTITUDE & PERCEPTION TOWARDS WWDs
A majority (75.9 percent) of the respondents faced double discrimination in availing basic human rights and services provided by
214 government and non-governmental organizations for women with disabilities. A vast majority (82.81 percent) of the respondents said that women with disabilities need special attention to care them.
PROBLEMS FACED BY WWDs
It is explicit from the problems faced by women with disabilities, 74.7 percent had lack of independent mobility, 69.4 percent had lack of education, 57.2 percent had lack of appropriate vocation training, 64.1 percent had lack of opportunities for gainful employment, 62.8 percent experienced inaccessible physical environment, 74.7 percent experienced unhelpful and negative social attitudes and 62.2 percent experienced physical, mental and sexual abuse.
PERCEPTION OF WHICH IS NEED TO BE CHANGE IN THE LIVES OF A DISABLED WOMAN
Regarding the perception which needs to be changed in the lives of a disabled woman, it was identified that more than half (58.1 percent) of the respondents expressed that provision for appropriate rehabilitation is needed for them to develop their quality of life, 64.7 percent were for aids and appliances, 50 percent were for education, 58.8 percent were for appropriate vocational training, 70 percent were for opportunities for gainful employment, 70 percent were for accessible environment and 65 percent for social positive attitudes. The researcher suggests that considerable emphasis is given to vocational rehabilitation and its pivotal role in comprehensive rehabilitation services with a focus on training and employment of people with disabilities.
SUGGESTION FOR IMPROVING THE POSITIVE ATTITUDE TOWARDS WWDs Regarding the suggestion for improving the positive attitude towards women with disabilities, a vast majority (90.9 percent) of the
215 respondents felt that women with disabilities should be elected as village presidents and ward members, need community based awareness programmes about women with disabilities' rights (69.1 percent), media can take a major role in creating public awareness about women rights and their related problems (78.8 percent), need a scheme to support Self Help Groups of women with disabilities (59.4 percent), women with disabilities must be involved in all policy and decision making processes (59.4 percent), career- oriented education for disabled women (69.7 percent) and accessible, well- equipped resource centers and clinics (67.8 percent).
PSYCHO SOCIAL FUNCTION OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
Nearly half (49.4 percent) of the respondents had high level of psychological symptoms, 50.3 percent had low level of family relationship, 58.5 percent had low level of relationship with husband, 48.8 percent of the respondents had low level of relation ship with their children, half (52.2 percent) of the respondents had low level social relationship and the overall psycho-social function of the women with disabilities is low (55.9 percent).
QUALITY OF WORK LIFE OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
Half (53.1 percent) of the respondents had high level of physical problems, half (50.9 percent) of the respondent had high level of cognitive problems, affective problem (57.2 percent), social dysfunction (59.1 percent), economic problem (65.3 percent), ego problem (56.9 percent) and the overall level of quality of work life is low (51.6 percent).
AWARENESS AND PERCEPTION OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES
More than half (57.2 percent) of the respondents had low level of decision making capacity in their house holds; Social mobility and social inclusion (77.5 percent); Opinion on marriage for women with disabilities (88.1 percent); Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards women with disabilities
216 (55.3 percent); Awareness about NGO's intervention for women with disabilities (60.3 percent); Perception of media about women with disabilities (61.6 percent) and Attitude and perception towards women with disabilities (53.4 percent). Further a majority (72.8 percent) of the respondents experienced that they have faced sexual abuse and harassments.
FINDINGS RELATED TO STATISTICAL TESTING
Psycho-social functioning of WWDs
There exists significant association between age of the respondents and relationship with society. However there is no significant association between age of the respondents and psychological symptoms of the women with disabilities, relationship with husband, relationship with children and relationship with society. Further there is no significant association between age of the respondents and overall psycho-social well being of the women with disabilities.
There exists significant association between income of the respondents with regard to psychological symptoms and relationship with family. However there is no significant association between income of the respondents with regard to relationship with husband, relationship with children, relationship with society and overall psycho-social well being.
There exists significant association between level of percentage of the disability of the respondents with regard to psychological symptoms, relationship with family and relationship with society. However there is no significant association between level of percentage of the disability of the respondents with regard to relationship with husband, relationship with children and overall psycho-social well being.
There exists significant association between status of employment of the respondents with regard to psychological symptoms, relationship with family and relationship with society. Further there is a significant association between
217 status of employment of the respondents and overall psycho-social well being. However there is no significant association between status of employment of the respondents with regard to relationship with husband and children.
There is a significant variance among the age of the respondents and psychological symptoms, relationship with family and relationship with society. Further there is a significant variance among the age of the respondents and overall psycho-social well being. However there is no significant variance among the age of the respondents and Relationship with husband and relationship with children.
There exists significant variance among the educational qualification of the respondents and relationship with children and relationship with society. However there is no significant variance among the educational qualification of the respondents and psychological symptoms, relationship with family, relationship with husband and overall psycho-social well being.
There exists significant difference between the type of family and relationship with children and overall level of psycho-social well being of women with disabilities. However there is no significant difference between the type of family and psychological symptoms, relationship with family, relationship with husband and relationship with society.
There is a positive significant relationship between the age of the respondents and psychological symptoms, relationship with family, husband and society and overall level of psycho-social well being. There is a positive significant relationship between income of the respondents and psychological symptoms, relationship with family, relationship with husband, relationship with society and overall psycho-social well being.
218 Quality of life of Women with Disabilities There exists significant association between age of the respondents and various dimensions of quality of life of women with disabilities such as physical problems, cognitive problem, affective problem, social dysfunction, economic problem, and ego problem. However there is a significant association between age of the respondents and overall quality of life. There exists significant association between income of the respondents and various dimension of quality of life like physical problems and ego problem. However that there is no significant association between income of the respondents and various dimension of quality of life such as cognitive problem, affective problem, social dysfunction, economic problem and overall quality of work life.
There exists significant association between level of percentage of the disability of the respondents with regard to various dimensions of quality of life such as physical problems cognitive problem, affective problem, social dysfunction and ego problem. Further there is a significant association between level of percentage of the disability of the respondents and overall quality of life. However there is no significant association between the levels of percentage of the disability of the respondents and economic problem.
There exists significant association between status of employment of the respondents and economic problem. However there is no significant association between and various dimensions of quality of life such as physical problems cognitive problem, affective problem, social dysfunction and ego problem and overall quality of work life.
There exists significant variance among the age of the respondents and various dimensions of quality of life such as physical problems cognitive problem, affective problem, social dysfunction and ego problem. Further there is a significant variance among the age of the respondents and overall quality of life. It is clear from the table that age has influenced the quality of life of
219 women with disabilities in terms of physical problems, cognitive problem, affective problem, social dysfunction, ego problem and overall quality of life.
There exists significant variance between the educational qualifications of the respondents and various dimensions of quality of life of women with disabilities such as cognitive problem, affective problem, social dysfunction, ego problem. Further there is a significant variance between the educational qualifications of the respondents and overall quality of life. However there is no significant variance between the educational qualifications of the respondents and various dimensions of quality of life of women with disabilities such as physical problems and affective problem.
There exists significant difference between the type of family of the respondents and various dimension of quality of life of respondents such as physical problems cognitive problem, affective problem, social dysfunction and ego problem. Further there is a significant difference between the type of family of the respondents and overall quality of life. However there is no significant difference between the type of family of the respondents and affective problem. It is clear from the table there type of family of the respondents has influenced the quality of life of women with disabilities. The mean score indicates that those who were followed joint family system had more physical problems cognitive problem, affective problem, social dysfunction and ego problem.
There exists positive significant relationship between age of the respondents and social dysfunction. However there is no significant relationship between age of the respondents and various dimensions of quality of life such as physical problems cognitive problem, affective problem, social dysfunction and ego problem and overall quality of life.
220 Awareness and Perception of Women with Disabilities
There exists significant association between age of the respondents with regard to social mobility and social inclusion, awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards women with disabilities and attitude and perception towards women with disabilities. However there is no significant association between age of the respondents with regard to decision making in households, opinion on marriage for women with disabilities, experience on sexual abuse and harassments, awareness about NGO's intervention for women with disabilities' and perception of media about women with disabilities.
There exists significant association between nature of the disability of the respondents and opinion on marriage for women with disabilities, social mobility and social inclusion, opinion on marriage for women with disabilities, awareness about NGO's intervention for women with disabilities' and perception of media about women with disabilities. However there is no significant association between nature of the disability of the respondents and experience on sexual abuse and harassments, awareness on laws, policy and Acts towards women with disabilities and attitude and perception towards women with disabilities.
There exists significant association between the levels of percentage of disability of women with disabilities and awareness about NGO's intervention for women with disabilities'. However there is no significant association between the levels of percentage of disability of women with disabilities and decision making in households, social mobility and social inclusion, opinion on marriage for women with disabilities, experience on sexual abuse and harassments, awareness on laws, policy and Acts towards women with disabilities perception of media about women with disabilities and attitude and perception towards women with disabilities.
There exists significant variance among the domicile of the respondents and opinion on marriage for women with disabilities, awareness on laws,
221 policy and Acts towards women with disabilities, awareness about NGO's intervention for women with disabilities and perception of media about women with disabilities. However there is no significant variance among the domicile of the respondents and decision making in households, social mobility and social inclusion, experience on sexual abuse and harassments and attitude and perception towards women with disabilities.
There exists significant difference between the type of family of the respondents and awareness about NGO's intervention for women with disabilities. However there is no significant difference exist between the type of family of the respondents and other variables above mentioned.
There is a positive significant relationship between the age of the respondents and opinion on marriage for women with disabilities, awareness on laws and policy and Acts towards women with disabilities. There exists positive significant relationship between the income of the respondents and social mobility and social inclusion and attitude and perception towards Women with disabilities.
FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESES
1. There was a significant association between the educational
qualification of the respondents and overall quality of life.
2. There was a significant association between the level of percentage of
disability of the respondents and overall quality of life.
3. There was a significant association between the employment status of
the respondents and overall psycho-social well being.
4. There was a significant association between the age of the respondents
and overall level of social mobility and social inclusion, awareness on
222 laws, policy and Acts towards women with disabilities and attitude and
perception towards women with disabilities.
5. There was a significant association between nature of the disability of
the respondents and overall level of opinion on marriage for women
with disabilities, social mobility and social inclusion, opinion on
marriage for women with disabilities, awareness about NGO's
intervention for women with disabilities and perception of media about
women with disabilities.
6. There was a significant variance among educational qualification of the
respondents and overall level of psycho-social well being.
7. There was a significant variance among educational qualification of the
respondents and overall level of quality of life.
8. There was a significant variance among domicile of the respondents and
overall level of opinion on marriage for women with disabilities,
awareness on laws, policy and Acts, towards women with disabilities,
awareness about NGO's intervention for women with disabilities',
perception of media about women with disabilities.
9. There was a significant difference between the type of family of the
respondents and overall psycho-social well being.
10. There was a significant difference between the type of family of the
respondents and overall quality of life.
11. There was a significant positive relationship between the age of the
respondents and overall psycho-social well being.
223 FINDINGS (PARAMETRIC TESTS)
S.No Hypothesis Test Accepted / Administered Rejected 1 There is a significant association between the Chi-square test Accepted educational qualification of the respondents and overall quality of life. 2 There is a significant association between the Chi-square test Accepted level of percentage of disability of the respondents and overall quality of life. 3 There is a significant association between the Chi-square test Accepted employment status of the respondents and overall Psycho-social well being. 4 There is a significant association between the Chi-square test Accepted age of the respondents and overall level of Social mobility and social inclusion, Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act towards WWDs and Attitude and perception towards WWDs. 5 There is a significant association between nature Chi-square test Accepted of the disability of the respondents and overall level of Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Social mobility and social inclusion, Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's and Perception of media about WWDs. 6 There is a significant variance among ANOVA Accepted educational qualification of the respondents and overall Psycho-social well being 7 There is a significant variance among ANOVA Accepted educational qualification of the respondents and overall quality of life. 8 There is a significant variance among domicile 'ANOVA' Accepted of the respondents and overall level of Opinion on marriage for WWDs, Awareness on Laws, Policy and Act, towards WWDs, Awareness about NGO's intervention for WWD's, Perception of media about WWDs. 9 A significant difference exists between the type 'Z' test Accepted of family of the respondents and overall Psycho social well being. 10 A significant difference exists between the type 'Z' test Accepted of family of the respondents and overall quality of life. 11 Higher the age higher will be their level of Correlation Accepted perception on overall psycho-social well being.
224 SUGGESTIONS Based on the findings the following suggestions were given to various sectors in a separate way: Suggestions for Women with Disabilities 1. Attempt need to be taken for effective participation in education at all levels not merely enrollment in primary section. 2. Vocational Skill Training and support for income generation activities for those who can not go for formal education or employment in organized sectors. 3. Access to rehabilitation services at all level to raise their functional ability and take part in activities required for living daily life. 4. A barrier free environment in terms of infrastructure, transport, support services and attitude of the family and civil society as well is urgently required for building up capacity of the women and girls with disabilities. 5. Long term campaign is needed to stop abuse and violence against disabled girls and women, raising awareness about their rights and families need to take proactive role to encourage and allow the disabled girls to take part in education and all other important activities. 6. Women with disabilities must be involved in all policy and decision making processes, at every level of the scheme: as staff, volunteers, participants, and evaluators. 7. Education, vocational training and rehabilitation programs must include women with disabilities, to prepare women and girls for careers and gainful employment. 8. The women with disabilities should be included in all the policy making bodies from Panchayat to parliament levels.
225 9. In order to improve the quality of life of women with disabilities in the rural and urban India, district CBR Societies for women with disabilities should function in cooperation with CBR. 10. All organizations working for women with disabilities and all organizations of women with disabilities and Self-Help Groups of parents of adolescent girls with disabilities should become members of the society. 11. Mainstream organizations must support and work in partnership with organizations led by women with disabilities. 12. Rehabilitation and adaptive technology must be available for women with disabilities, and women with disabilities must be involved in the development and production of adaptive devices. 13. Women with disabilities need to be assisted in: i. Providing them with advocacy and leadership training. ii. Conducting needs assessments and skills training in the area of information and communications technology (ICT). iii. Assisting them in obtaining loans and implementing initiatives under a government micro-credit program that includes health micro- insurance. iv. Integrating the women with disabilities into community structures through their participation in village self-help groups. v. Creating a virtual network in each state among women with disabilities to exchange information on health issues; and vi. Promoting access to the government's reproductive health care program through inclusion in health awareness programs. 14. Women with disabilities should take forward steps towards improving their situation and demand for equal rights and opportunities in: i. Rehabilitation ii. Health iii. Employment iv. Social Security
226 v. Participation in decision making processes
Suggestions for Government
1. Government of India, disability organizations, leadership training projects and independent living services must collect data on involvement of women and girls with disabilities and conduct specific outreach efforts to include women with disabilities. 2. The role of State, Government Organizations and NGOs working for rights of women and girls and civil society in general is very important. State has the responsibility to ensure the implementation of Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act 1995 towards building up a barrier free environment in education, employment, rehabilitation services and social securities. 3. The State must ensure that disabled girls and women were included in all the poverty alleviation and development program and policies. The Commission for disability in each state must see that women and girls with disabilities have access to all the benefits under the said Act such as rehabilitation, education or income generation activities and were able to exercise their rights by taking part in decision making process and express their choice which affects their life and well being. 4. The Governments should ensure anti-discrimination measures by forming special task forces to protect women with disabilities. 5. Set up state wise task force to prepare white paper on the quality of services available for girls/women with disabilities and all the institutions managed or supported by the government and other donors.
227 Suggestions to NGOs:
1. The non-governmental organizations need to adopt policies to promote full representation of women with disabilities. 2. Health service personnel must be trained by NGOs to offer informed and sensitive service and education addressing the health needs of girls and women with disabilities. 3. Non-governmental organizations must work with women with disabilities to pressure governments to effectively implement the recommendations, which have been made over the years by various UN bodies and non-governmental organizations, particularly at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995. 4. Entrepreneurship development cum pre vocational training cum placement multipurpose centers to promote self and group employment (with a cross disability approach) for women need to be established at least one in each Taluk/block level with hostel facilities. After successful training and placement in the open employment, self or group employment, independent living houses need to be supported by the government. Such houses should be identified from the government housing schemes and houses in the ground floor with accessibility should be provided in addition to providing loans to purchase accessible taxi/auto rickshaw/cycle rickshaws for commuting to the work place. NGO's who were interested in building such housing facility for working women with disabilities need to be supported with grants.
CONCLUSION In general, the level of response of government officials regarding the programmes for women with disabilities, were above average. They could specify the services provide the impact on the beneficiaries and the budgetary allocation for the services. The programmes can be designed in a more gender sensitive way. Almost all the officials need to be aware of the State and National policies/laws related to PWDs in India. Women with disabilities need
228 special provision and attention as they face more discrimination than others. The media can play an important role in generating mass awareness about disability. The general awareness level of GOs regarding disability-related laws/acts/policies/rights can be brought to the attention of the focused group. The levels of response regarding double discrimination faced by women with disabilities were mixed but it was uniformly positive in case of special attention needed by women with disabilities. Though they believe that, their departments do not have allotted budget for sponsoring disability-related programmes in the media.
An average number of NGOs (including WOs) have programme for the Women with disabilities. Most of them were aware of PWD-related state/national policies in India. 33 percent of WOs, however, feel that there is no need of special provisions for women with disabilities in policies. 50 percent of the NGOs were aware of CEDAW. Almost all the NGOs agree that women with disabilities face more discrimination than others, and thus need special attention. In the NGO sector, a good number of organizations have programmes for PWDs. They were aware of acts/laws related to disability, but only less than 50 percent of WOs were aware of state/national policies for PWDs in India.
All the NGOs and WOs think that there should be special provisions for women with disabilities in acts/policies on disability. In comparison to the government officials, WOs and other NGOs have a very good knowledge level regarding international conventions and principles. Only, this awareness level is little low among the WOs. Though the entire non-government sector has knowledge about the above conventions, it does not have much knowledge about provisions for women with disabilities' rights in them. The general opinion is that women with disabilities face more discrimination in society and therefore require special attention.
229 All the NGOs (including WOs) feel that media does not portray women with disabilities in a positive light, and show them as a helpless and vulnerable group. In contrast to the government sector, the NGO sector came up with very thoughtful and meaningful measures to improve Women with disabilities' status and situation in the society.
In general, media have a good level of knowledge about PWD-related state/national laws/policies. But they don't find them to be gender-sensitive. Compared to print media, coverage on women with disabilities-related programmes is better in case of electronic media. General awareness level of print media is much better than that of electronic media regarding acts/polices/laws related to PWDs. Similarly, the electronic media lack knowledge about protection of women's rights through legislations. Print media gives comparatively more coverage on disability issues and policies. On a positive note, those who (both print and electronic media) do not have disability related publication or programme, have future plans to take such initiatives. A good percentage of media personnel were aware of laws/policies for PWDs in India. They have poor knowledge about laws, which lay out special provisions for women with disabilities in terms of basic facilities. Their coverage on disability issues/laws can be said to be moderate.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
1. Future research will include women with disabilities as an integral part of the research team in addressing these issues. Health care providers, researchers, and women with disabilities must work together to create solutions for improving reproductive health care services. 2. Collecting broader demographics for survey respondents, such race/ethnicity, age, disability and contact/exposure to women with disabilities; 3. The study needed in the area of comparing attitudes towards men who were disabled versus women who were disabled.
230 4. The research need to be conducted on the effect of physical disabilities on pregnancy, reproductive control, and motherhood and mental distress in context: social and personal circumstances in relation with women with disabilities.
5. Research gaps were identified in relation to women with disability and such knowledge of disabilities in health care professionals and facilitators are to be shared to overcome accessibility challenges for women with physical disabilities. 6. Due to lack of comprehensive investigative work concerning maternity care for women with intellectual disabilities, an extensive programme of exploratory research is required to ascertain their views and experiences as they journey through pregnancy, childbirth and early motherhood. 7. Research gaps have been identified in the areas of: i. The physical environment in maternity hospitals and its effect on women with any disability ii. Knowledge, attitudes and behaviours of health care staff towards women with any disability. iii. Women's knowledge of the existence of mental health difficulties in pregnancy and the postnatal period and of the services available to them are to be given. iv. Study can be done on how to bring the disabled women in to the main stream and rescue them from being marginalized. v. Study can be done on treatment/ therapy development in separate sections like leprosy, locomotors, hearing, brail, psychiatric treatment etc. vi. More emphasis can be given towards their sustainability and livelihood
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VI ANNEXURE Annexure - 1 A STUDY ON SOCIAL EXCLUSION OF WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES IN TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU, INDIA
QUESTIONNAIRE (RESPONDENT - WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES)
S. No: Note: All the information you give here will be used for only research purpose. All the information will be kept confidential.
Identification: Name of the Block: Name of the place: I. PROFILE OF THE RESPONDENT Eligible respondent will be a women/girl member who is above 18 years old in the selected HH (House hold) Tick mark put in the appropriate answer 1. Age : 2. Sex : 1. Female 3. Religion : 1. Hindu / 2. Christian / 3. Muslim 4. Caste : 1. SC / ST / 2. BC 3. MBC / 4. OC 5. Others 5. Level of Education : 1. Illiterate 2. Below primary 3. Completed primary 4. Secondary school 5. Higher secondary 6. Graduate 7. Post graduate and above 8. Any others ( specify) 6. Order of birth : 1. First 2. Second 3. Third 4. Fourth 5. Others 7. Domicile : 1. Rural / 2. Urban / 3. Semi Urban 8. Type of family : 1. Joint / 2. Nuclear 9. Marital status : 1. Unmarried 2. Married 3. Separated/Deserted 4. Divorced 5. Widow/widower (If, married then ask the next question...) 9.a No of children 10. Occupation : 1. House wife 2. Works on own farm/Land 3. Self employed (home-based work) 4. Self-employed (work place outside home) 5. Works as regular wage/salaried employee 6. Works as casual labour (non-agricultural) 7. Does not work due to sickness though have regular work (any kind)
VII 8. Does not work due to other reasons though have regular work (any kind) 9. Attending Educational Institutions 10. Attending to domestic duties 11. Not able to work owing to disability 12. Retired 13. Others, Specify 11. Education of husband / Father 1. Illiterate 2. Below primary 3. Completed primary 4. Secondary school 5. Higher secondary 6. Graduate 7. Post graduate and above 8. Any others ( specify). 12. Occupation of husband / Father 1. Works on own farm/Land 2. Self employed (home-based work) 3. Self-employed (work place outside home) 4. Works as regular wage/salaried employee 5. Works as casual labour (non-agricultural) 6. Does not work due to sickness though have regular work (any kind) 7. Does not work due to other reasons though have regular work (any kind) 8. Attending Educational Institutions 9. Attending to domestic duties 10. Not able to work owing to disability 11. Retired 12. Other Specify . 13. Monthly Family Income (in Rs) 14. What are your dreams/desires/aspirations?
II. SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND LIVING CONDITIONS 15. If your family have any kind of supplementary source of income? 1. Yes / 2. No 16. If yes, what are the sources? Specify 17. What is your type of house? 1. Hut / 2. Terraced / 3. Pacca 18. The house in which you reside is: 1. Own / 2. Rent 19. Did your family have habits of savings? 1. Yes / 2. No 20. Did your family have debt? 1. Yes / 2. No III ABOUT DISABILITY 21. Nature of disability: (1) Visually Impaired (2) Hearing Impaired (3) Orthopaedically Disabled (4) Mild Mentally Retarded (5) Any other 22. When did you acquire this problem? 1. From birth / 2. After birth 23. If after birth, which is the age for acquired this problem? Specify yrs 24. Do you know the level of percentage of your disability? 1. Yes / 2. No
VIII 25. If yes, what is your level of disability? Specify 26. What are the Causes for disability? (1) Accidents (2) Improper Nutrition (3) Polio-attack (4) Any other 27. Did you take any treatment? 1. Yes / 2. No 28. If yes, what type of treatment? (1) Allopathy (2) Ayurvethi (3) Siddha (4) Any other 29. If no, why? (1) Economic problem (2) Fear (3) No proper guidance (4) Any other 30. Any one else disabled in your family? 1. Yes / 2. No 31. If yes, who? (1) Father (2) Mother (3) Sister (4) Brother 32. Do you have disability National ID card? 1. Yes / 2. No 33. If No, why? Specify 34. Are you received any kind of supportive service? 1. Yes / 2. No 35. If yes, from whom? (1) Government (2) Non-governmental organization (3) Service club (Rotary / Leo etc.,) (4) Any other Specify 36 If yes, what kinds of benefits availed from Government? 1. Financial help for study 2. Financial help for earning 3. Home from government 4. Supportive devices 5. Vocational Training 6. Reserved seats in public vehicles 7. Medical services 8. Unemployed compensation 9. Marriage compensation 1. Any other 37. If no benefit, why? Specify 38. Are you satisfied with government programmes? 1. Yes / 2. No 39 If No, what is the reason for it? (1) Corruption (2) Not regular service (3) Not in action (4) any other IV. STATUS OF OCCUPATION
40. Are you registered in District employment registration office? 1.Yes / 2. No 41. Are you employed at present? 1.Yes / 2. No (If yes, ask questions from 42 to 55 If No skip to question 56) 42. Do you employed before acquired this problem? 1.Yes / 2. No
IX 42 a. If No Why? Specify 43. Did you get any specialized training for the work you do? l.Yes / 2. No 44. Where did you get the training? 1. NGO Based institution 2. Block/District office 3. Other institution Specify 45. Do you feel disabled women should work? 1. Yes 2. No 45. a) If yes ,why ? 45 b) If no, why ? 46. What does your family feel about your work? 1. Encouraged me to work 2. Not encouraged me in any work 3. Any other (Specify). 47. Do you face any kind of discrimination at the place of work? 1.Yes / 2. No 48. Do you support your family from your earning? 1.Yes / 2. No 49. How do your colleagues behave with you? 1.Good relationship / 2. Moderate relationship / 3. Bad relationship 50. Do you get paid at par with other employees doing the same kind of work? 1. Yes / 2. No 51. Is no barrier free environment in your working place? 1.Yes / 2. No 52. Are you aware about list of below poverty line? 1.Yes / 2. No 53. If, yes are you in that list? 1.Yes / 2. No 54. Are you get job under the special reservation quota? 1.Yes / 2. No 55. If, yes do you face any problems? 1.Yes / 2. No 55. a If, yes what kind of problems you faced? 1) No educational qualification / No training 2) Level of disability 3) Disparity in Religion/Race/ Gender Sensitive V. EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT (If, school going women with disability ask questions ) 56. Are you going school now? 1. Yes 2. No (If yes skip to Q. 58) 57. Have you ever attended school? 1. Yes 2. No (If, Yes skip to Q. 54.b) 57. a If no, why? 57. b If you dropped out then what were the reasons behind dropping out?
58. Do you feel that disabled women should study? 1. Yes 2. No
X VI. DECISION MAKING IN THE HOUSE HOLD 59. At home, are you consulted when any important financial decision concerning the family is to be taken? 1. Yes 2. No 60. If it is any decision regarding your life are you consulted? 1. Yes 2. No 61. If it is regarding your medical needs and condition are you consulted or deferred to? 1. Yes 2. No VII SOCIAL MOBILITY AND INCLUSION 62. When there are special functions at home, do you participate in them? 1. Yes 2. No 63. Do you regularly go out of the home? 1. Yes 2. No 64. Do you go alone or accompanied by someone? 1. Yes 2. No 65. Do you go with your family to social gatherings? 1. Yes 2. No 65 .a If no why? 1. Deprived due to impairment 2. Guardians do not permit 3. Social insecurity 4. To avoid any embarrassing moment 5. Due to some bad experiences 66. Do you face discrimination in enjoying social status compared to other women? 1. Yes 2. No 66 a. If yes, what is it? 1. Due to impairment 2. Get no benefit from panchayat/local government body 3. No benefit from colleges 4. Financial problems 5. Others VIII. MARRIAGE FOR WOMEN WITH DISABILITY 67. Has anyone raised the question of your marriage? (If of marriageable age and still single) 1. Yes 2. No 67. a) If no, why? 1. Family cannot take decision due to my disability 2. Studying at present 3. Family members think no body will agree to marry me due to my disability 4. Family members have not yet tried for my marriage 5. I want to be self-dependent 68. Do you feel that disabled women should get married? 1. Yes 2. No 69. What does your family feel? 1. WWDs should get married 2. WWDs should not get married 3. WWDs should get married to disabled men 4. No discussion in family 5. Financial problems 6. WWDs should not be dependent on others
XI IX. ABUSE AND HARASSMENT 70. Do you know what is meant by abuse or sexual harassment? 1. Yes 2. No 71. Do you have any personal experience of such behaviour? 1. Yes 2. No (If no, Skip to Q 73) 72. Where was it? 1. Home 2. Work place 3. Public place 4. Rehabilitation centres 5. Medical institutions 6. Others 73. What do you do if you unfortunately face such an event? 1. Will Protest 2. Will shout 3. Will inform the family member 4. Can't protest due to my impairment 5. Will try to escape 6. The culprit should be punished 74. Have you ever faced abuse from any rehabilitation centre/ medical personnel you have been attended by? 1. Yes 2. No (If no, Skip to Q 76) 75. What did you do to overcome/protect such situation? 1. Will Protest 2. Will shout 3. Will inform the family member 4. Can't protest due to my impairment 5. Will try to escape 6. The culprit should be punished
X. AWARENESS ABOUT LAWS AND POLICIES FOR PWDS 76. Are you aware of the Acts/ Laws for securing equal rights & opportunities for people with disabilities? 1. Yes 2. No 77. Are you aware of the State & National Policy for People with Disabilities? 1. Yes 2. No 78. Do you feel that these Act / Policy is gender sensitive? 1. Yes 2. No 79. Do you agree that provisions need to be kept for disabled women in the above mentioned Act / Policy? 1. Yes 2. No 80. Have you ever raised your voice for inclusion of vulnerable group of women in all Acts / Legislations for their rights? 1. Yes 2. No
XII 81. Are you aware of Legislation protecting rights of women? 1. Yes 2. No 82. Does this legislation have special focus on Women with disability (WWD)? 1. Yes 2. No 83. Do you know about any Policy/Act/Law for the Disabled People? 1. Yes 2. No (If no, skip to Q 86) 84. Have you heard about PWD Act? 1. Yes 2 . No 85. Do you know if the law lays out any special provisions for disabled women for the following? Please read out the option and then take response description YES NO 1. Treatment/Rehabilitation 1 2 2. Education 1 2 3. Training 1 2 4. Employment 1 2 5. Independent Living 1 2 6. Safety and Social Security 1 2 7. Access to Social Services & Information 1 2 8. Abuse: physical, social, mental and sexual 12 86. If such a policy/law was drafted, what kinds of provisions would you like to have for the following? YES NO 1. Treatment/Rehabilitation 2 2. Education 2 3. Training 2 4. Employment 2 5. Independent Living 2 6. Safety and Social Security 2 7. Access to Social Services & Information 2 8. Abuse: Physical, Social, Mental and Sexual 2 87. What do you understand by Women's Right?
88. Do you aware of Act/Laws/Policies related to Women's Right? 1. Yes 2. No 89. Have you heard about the International Women's Rights Convention called CEDAW? 1. Yes 2. No 90. Do you see other women in your family/community enjoying special scheme meant for women? 1. Yes 2. No XI AWARENESS ABOUT NGO INTERVENTIONS FOR PWDS 91. Is there any NGO/CBO working in your area for women? 1. Yes 2. No 92. Did they approach you for any support? 1. Yes 2. No 93. Do you feel that the DPO/NGO/Women's Organisation is sensitive to the needs of disabled women? 1. Yes 2. No 94. Are you member of any NGO for disabled people or DPO? 1. Yes 2. No
XIII 94 a. If yes, do you play a part in any kind of decision making of the DPO/NGO? 1. Yes 2. No 95. What kind of benefits you have received from them? 1. Training on handicrafts 2. Provides loans 3. Support for ID card 4. Provides supportive aids 5. Make arrangements of doctors 6. Does not help 96. Are you member of any Women's organisation? 1. Yes 2. No 96 a. If yes, do you play a part in any kind of decision making of the organisation? 1. Yes 2. No
XII PERCEPTION ON MEDIA 97. Do you feel that the media represents disabled people, especially women, positively? 1. Yes 2. No 97. a) If no, why? 1. Media does not respond to the needs of disabled 2. Media lacks awareness about WWDs' problems 3. Media does not pay attention due to financial aspect 4. More coverage on political issues 98. What kind of an image do the media project of disabled women? 1. WWDs as vulnerable 2. Dependent and helpless groups 3. In order to draw sympathy 4. WWDs as a burden in the society 99. Are there discussions/ articles on disabled women in the media regularly? 1. Yes 2. No 100. What are your expectations from the media to ensure the equal representation towards disability issues of disabled women in your state? 1. Should reflect our social condition 2. Should give us financial support 3. Should create mass awareness programme for our welfare 4. Should create awareness about our education 5. Should create awareness about our all-round development 6. Should depict our social insecurity 7. No expectation from media
XIII ATTITUDE & PERCEPTION TOWARDS WWD 101. Do you agree that disabled women face double discrimination in compare to disabled men and non-disabled women? 1. Yes 2. No 101. a) If yes, then why? Please specify 1. Deprived due to impairment nobody takes me outside home 2. Guardians do not allow to go outside home 3. Social insecurity 4. To avoid any embarrassing moment 5. Due to some bad experiences
XIV 6. Does not feel like going
101. b) If no, then why? Please specify 1. Positive social condition 2. Financial support Government 3. Mass social services from NGO's 4. Mass awareness program for our welfare 5. Law and policies are support the women with disabilities 102. Do you think that disabled women need special attention? 1. Yes 2. No 103. What kinds of discriminations are you aware of which are faced by disabled women? Please Specify. 1.Treatment/Rehabilitation 2. Education 3. Training 4. Employment 5. Independent Living 6. Safety and Social Security 7. Access to Social Services & Information 8. Abuse : physical, social, mental and sexual 104. Which of the following, according to you affects a disabled woman the most? Yes No 1. Lack of independent mobility 1 2 2. Lack of education 1 2 3. Lack of appropriate vocational training 1 2 4. Lack of opportunities for gainful employment 1 2 5. Inaccessible physical environment 1 2 6. Unhelpful and negative social attitudes 1 2 7. Physical, mental and sexual abuse 1 2 105. Which of these, do you think will bring a change in the lives of a disabled woman? Yes No 1. Provision for appropriate rehabilitation 1 2 2. Aids and appliances 1 2 3. Education 1 2 4. Appropriate Vocational training 1 2 5. Opportunities for gainful employment 1 2 6. Accessible environment 1 2 7. Social attitudes 1 2 106. Any other information/ thought you would like to share with us to create / improve the Positive attitude towards women with disabilities (WWD)? 1. Elected women with disabilities village presidents and ward members 2. There should be more community awareness programmes about WWDs' rights 3. Media can take a major role in creating public awareness
XV 4. There is a need for a scheme to support Self help mutual aid groups of women with disabilities 5. Women with disabilities must be involved in all policy and decision making processes 6. Career-oriented education for disabled women 7. Accessible, well-equipped resource centers and clinics that will provide information on issues affecting disabled women 1. Others XIV. PSYCHO-SOCIAL FUNCTIONING INVENTORY
Please circle the number which best describes how often you felt or behaved this way. 1 Never 2 Sometimes 3 Time 4 Often 5 Always
S. No Statement 1 2 3 4 5 Psychological symptoms 1 2 3 4 5 1 I keep on trying until I succeed 1 2 3 4 5 2 I keep on doing my work you until it is done 1 2 3 4 5 3 I complete my work even if it is difficult 1 2 3 4 5 4 It is important for me to do better and better 1 2 3 4 5 5 I work hard 1 2 3 4 5 6 I am satisfied 1 2 3 4 5 7 I feel cheerful 1 2 3 4 5 8 I feel happy 1 2 3 4 5 9 I enjoy living 1 2 3 4 5 10 I don't things that I enjoy 1 2 3 4 5 11 I like my life the way it is 1 2 3 4 5 12 I make good decisions 1 2 3 4 5 13 I handle problems effectively 1 2 3 4 5 14 Failure makes me try harder 1 2 3 4 5 15 I feel afraid 1 2 3 4 5 16 My sleep was restless 1 2 3 4 5 17 I talked less than usual 1 2 3 4 5 18 I feel lonely 1 2 3 4 5 19 I feel sad 1 2 3 4 5 20 I feel that people disliked me 1 2 3 4 5 21 I feel depressed 1 2 3 4 5 22 I feel hopeful about the future 1 2 3 4 5 23 I thought my life had been a failure 1 2 3 4 5 24 I feel self-confident 1 2 3 4 5 Family relationship 25 I am avoiding talking with family members or friends 1 2 3 4 5 26 I feel my family or friends upset about me 1 2 3 4 5 27 I feel upset, angry, or disappointed with the way people did 1 2 3 4 5 things 28 I feel my family or my friends did not trust me 1 2 3 4 5 29 I feel anxious or afraid when I was with other people 1 2 3 4 5 30 I feel that what I do things that upset my family and friends 31 My family helps me out of trouble 1 2 3 4 5 32 I can be honest with my family members 1 2 3 4 5
XVI 33 I share my secrets with my family members 1 2 3 4 5 34 I can share what happens to me with my family members 1 2 3 4 5 35 I share my feelings with my family members 1 2 3 4 5 36 My family and I spend time together 1 2 3 4 5 Relationship with husband: Complete questions 37 to 52 with regard to your relationship you're your partner if there is no such persons leave this blank and start at question number 43 37 My husband and I have fun together 1 2 3 4 5 38 I share my secrets with my husband 1 2 3 4 5 39 I am be honest with my husband 1 2 3 4 5 40 I share my feelings with my husband 1 2 3 4 5 41 My husband and I do things together 1 2 3 4 5 42 I spend time with my husband 1 2 3 4 5 Relationship with children: Complete questions 43 to 48 if you have children. If you do not have children leave this blank and start at question number 49 43 My children frustrate me 1 2 3 4 5 44 I spend time with my children 1 2 3 4 5 45 My children and I have fun together 1 2 3 4 5 46 My children share their secrets with me 1 2 3 4 5 47 My children strive to be like me 1 2 3 4 5 48 My children and I do things together 1 2 3 4 5 Social relationship 1 2 3 4 5 49 I am involved in my community 1 2 3 4 5 50 I have meaningful relationship with people in my community 1 2 3 4 5 51 My community supports me 1 2 3 4 5 52 I enjoy prestige in my community 1 2 3 4 5 53 I care about my community 1 2 3 4 5 54 I have a positive bond with my community 1 2 3 4 5 55 I enjoy respect in my community 1 2 3 4 5 56 I can easy to acquire friends. 1 2 3 4 5 57 I hesitate to meet people in high position. 1 2 3 4 5 58 I believe that the differently abled are inferior. 1 2 3 4 5 59 I organize public meeting and takes leadership in social 1 2 3 4 5 functioning. 60 I always feel that I can do something useful to my society. 1 2 3 4 5 61 I volunteer to take up social responsibilities. 1 2 3 4 5 62 Friends like my presence very much 1 2 3 4 5 63 I like to talk to my co-passengers in buses and trains 1 2 3 4 5
XVII XV. QUALITY OF LIFE OF WOMENWITH DISABILITIES PCASEE Questionnaire (Mr, Becg P. 1996)
Group - P I Physical Problems 1. I Sleep. Badly Well 0 2 3 4 5 2. I feel physically. Unwell Well 0 2 3 4 5 3. My appetite is. Poor Good 0 2 3 4 5 4. I experienced physical pain. Severe No 0 2 3 4 5 5. My strength is. Lacking Full 0 2 3 4 5 Group - C II Cognitive Problems 6. I concentrate. Badly Well 0 2 3 4 5 7. My memory is. Poor Good 0 2 3 4 5 8. I am able to make decisions. Poorly Well 0 2 3 4 5 9. I feel in control of life. Badly Well 0 2 3 4 5 10 My thinking is. Unclear Clear 0 2 3 4 5 Group - A III Affective Problems 11 I am anxious. Severely No 0 2 3 4 5 12 I am able to getaway fro it all. Definitely No 0 2 3 4 5 13 I feel comfortable with my self. No Definitely 0 2 3 4 5 14 I am sad. Severely No 0 2 3 4 5 15 I am irritable. Severely No 0 2 3 4 5 Group - S IV Social Dysfunction 16 For my work I get. No Much Appreciation Appreciation 0 1 2 3 4 5
XVIII 17. I am doing household work. Definitely No 0 2 3 4 5 18. I perform at my work. No Definitely 0 2 3 4 5 19. My interest in daily activities is. Severely No 0 2 3 4 5 20. My social life is. Severely No 0 2 3 4 5 Group - E V Economic Problems 21. I am worried about money. Definitely No 0 2 3 4 5 22. I am able to make ends meet. Poorly Well 0 2 3 4 5 23. I am able to buy what I want. No Definitely 0 2 3 4 5 24. I am able to buy what I need. No Definitely 0 2 3 4 5 25. I need financial assistance. Definitely No 0 2 3 4 5 Group - E VI Ego Problems 26. My self confidence is. Poor Good 0 2 3 4 5 27. I feel sexually. Unattractive Attractive 0 2 3 4 5 28. My feelings are hurt. Too easily Not easily 0 2 3 4 5 29. I can forgive myself. Not easily Easily 0 2 3 4 5 30. What I want from life is. Unclear Clear 0 2 3 4 5 The sum of each column for the each group can be multiplied by 4 to give a percentage score in which 100% means the best possible quality of life.
XIX Annexure - 2 STATISTICS ON WOMEN WITH DISABILITIES, CENSUS 2011 The thorough study on the population scenario of women with disabilities, Census 2011 brings out that the: i. Percentage of disabled persons in India has increased both in rural and urban areas during the last decade. ii. Proportion of disabled population is higher in rural areas iii. Decadal increase in proportion is significant in urban areas iv. Slight increase in disability among both the sexes over the decade v. Proportion of disabled population is higher among males vi. Decadal Increase in proportion is higher among females These facts can be proved by the tables listed below: Disabled Population by Sex and Residence in India: 2011 Residence Persons Males Females Total 26,810,557 14,986,202 11,824,355
Rural 18,631,921 10,408,168 8,223,753
Urban 8,178,636 4,578,034 3,600,602 Source: C-Series, Table C-20, Census of India 2011
Decadal Change in Disabled Population by Sex and Residence, India, 2001-11
Percentage Decadal Absolute Increase Growth Residence Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Total 4,903,788 2,380,567 2,523,221 22.4 18.9 27.1
Rural 2,243,539 997,983 1,245,556 13.7 10.6 17.8
Urban 2,660,249 1,382,584 1,277,665 48.2 43.3 55.0 Source: C-Series, Table C-20, Census of India 2011
XX Percentage of Disabled to total population India, 2011 Residence Persons Males Females
Total 2.21 2.41 2.01
Rural 2.24 2.43 2.03
Urban 2.17 2.34 1.98
Source: C-Series, Table C-20, Census of India 2011 Percentage of Disabled to total population India, 2011
Residence Persons Males Females
Total 2.13 2.37 1.87
Rural 2.21 2.47 1.93
Urban 1.93 2.12 1.71
Source: C-Series, Table C-20, Census of India 2011
Disabled Population by Type of Disability India: 2011
Type of Disability Persons Males Females Total 26,810,557 14,986,202 11,824,355 In Seeing 5,032,463 2,638,516 2,393,947 In Hearing 5,071,007 2,677,544 2,393,463 In Speech 1,998,535 1,122,896 875,639 In Movement 5,436,604 3,370,374 2,066,230
Mental Retardation 1,505,624 870,708 634,916
Mental Illness 722,826 415,732 307,094
Any Other 4,927,011 2,727,828 2,199,183
Multiple Disability 2,116,487 1,162,604 953,883 Source: C-Series, Table C-20, Census of India 2011
Proportion of Disabled Population by Type of Disability in India : 2011
XXI Type of Disability Persons Males Females
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
In Seeing 18.8 17.6 20.2
In Hearing 18.9 17.9 20.2
In Speech 7.5 7.5 7.4
In Movement 20.3 22.5 17.5
Mental Retardation 5.6 5.8 5.4
Mental Illness 2.7 2.8 2.6
Any Other 18.4 18.2 18.6
Multiple Disability 7.9 7.8 8.1 Source: C-Series, Table C-20, Census of India 2011
Proportion of Disabled Population in the Age Groups in India: 2011
Age Group Persons Males Females All Ages 2.21 2.41 2.01
0-4 1.14 1.18 1.11 5-9 1.54 1.63 1.44 10-19 1.82 1.96 1.67 20-29 1.97 2.22 1.70 30-39 2.09 2.41 1.77 40-49 2.31 2.66 1.94
Age Group Persons Males Females 50-59 2.83 3.16 2.47 60-69 4.15 4.41 3.89 70-79 6.22 6.26 6.19
XXII 80-89 8.41 8.33 8.48 90+ 8.40 7.88 8.85 Age Not Stated 3.07 3.21 2.91 Source: C-Series, Table C-20, Census of India 2011 Disabled Population by Type of Disability in India State-wise, 2011 S. India/ State/ Visual Speech Hearing Locomotor Mental Total No. Union Territory Disability Disability Disability Disability Disability only India 10634881 1640868 1261722 6105477 2263821 21906769 1. Andhra Pradesh 581587 138974 73373 415848 155199 1364981 2. Arunachal 23079 2429 3072 3474 1261 33315 Pradesh 3. Assam 282056 56974 51825 91970 47475 530300 4. Bihar 1005605 130471 73970 512246 165319 1887611 5. Chhattisgarh 160131 30438 34093 151611 43614 419887 6. Delhi 120712 15505 8741 64885 26043 235886 7. Goa 4393 1868 1000 4910 3578 15749 8. Gujarat 494624 66534 70321 310765 103221 1045465 9. Haryana 201358 24920 27682 151485 49595 455040 10. Himachal Pradesh 64122 12762 15239 46512 17315 155950 11. Jammu & Kashmir 208713 16956 14157 37965 24879 302670 12. Jharkhand 186216 39683 28233 138323 55922 448377 13. Karnataka 440875 90717 49861 266559 92631 940643 14. Kerala 334622 67066 79713 237707 141686 860794 15. Madhya Pradesh 63614 75825 85354 495878 115257 1408528 16. Maharashtra 580930 113043 92390 56945 213274 1569582 Continued... S. India/ State/ Visual Speech Hearing Locomotor Mental Total No Union Territory Disability Disability Disability Disability Disability only 17. Manipur 11713 2769 2994 6177 4723 28376 18. Meghalaya 13381 3431 3668 5127 3196 28803 19. Mizoram 6257 2006 2421 2476 2851 16011 20. Nagaland 9968 4398 5245 4258 2630 26499 21. Orissa 514104 68673 84115 250851 103592 1021335 22. Punjab 170853 22756 17348 149758 63808 424523 23. Rajasthan 753962 73147 75235 400577 109058 1411979 24. Sikkim 10790 3174 3432 2172 799 20367 25. Tamil Nadu 964063 124479 72636 353798 127521 1642497 26. Tripura 27505 5105 5699 13970 6661 58940
XXIII 27. Uttarakhand 85668 16749 15990 56474 19888 194769 28. Uttar Pradesh 1852071 255951 128303 930580 286464 3453369 29. West Bengal 862073 170022 131579 412658 270842 1847174 Union Territories 30. Andaman & 3321 652 545 1870 669 7057 Nicobar Islands 31. Chandigarh 8422 882 607 3828 1799 15538 32. Dadra & Nagar 2346 295 337 795 275 4048 Haveli 33. Daman & Diu 1898 189 120 690 274 3171 34. Lakshadweep 603 207 147 505 216 1678 35. Puducherry 10646 1818 2277 8830 2286 25857 Source: Census of India 2011
XXIV C-20 Disabled Population by type of Disability,Age and Sex - 2011 Area Name Total/Rural/ Age-group Total number of disabled persons In seeing |n Heaniig In Speech |n Movement Mental Retardation Mental Illness Any Other Multiple Disability Urban
Persons | Males | Females Per4ons | Males | Females Persons | Males | Females Persons | Males | Females Persons | Males | Females Persons | Males | F males Persons | Males | Females Persons Males | Females Persons | Males | F males 1 1 2 3 5 6 7 9 10 12 13 15 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 State-TAMITotal Total 1179963 657418 522545 127405 67744 59661 220241 109879 110362 80077 44512 35565 287241 177476 109765 100847 55854 44993 32964 17707 15257 238392 131150 107242 92796 53096 39700 State-TAMITotal 0-4 38538 20766 17772 3680 1907 1773 9561 4873 4688 864 530 334 4183 2494 1689 3543 2004 1539 121 71 50 13231 6992 6239 3355 1895 1460 State-TAMITotal 5-9 66459 37425 29034 5463 2944 2519 11288 5860 5428 7093 4181 2912 8063 4889 3174 10356 6145 4211 410 247 163 14810 7922 6888 8976 5237 3739 State-TAMITotal 10-19 173297 97267 76030 15890 8761 7129 30464 15679 14785 16216 9227 6989 24923 15286 9637 28610 16433 12177 1786 1022 764 34825 18805 16020 20583 12054 8529 State-TAMITotal 20-29 215111 116308 98803 17129 9249 7880 33769 16478 17291 16717 8911 7806 57182 32945 24237 22990 12593 10397 4975 2769 2206 44503 23359 21144 17846 10004 7842 State-TAMITotal 30-39 198406 110061 88345 17531 9502 8029 32100 15784 16316 13692 7324 6368 56962 34825 22137 15985 8423 7562 8194 4576 3618 40649 22276 18373 13293 7351 5942 State-TAMITotal 40-49 167506 96731 70775 17878 10007 7871 31235 15855 15380 11118 6157 4961 44487 29049 15438 10365 5561 4804 8256 4495 3761 34041 19624 14417 10126 5983 4143 State-TAMITotal 50-59 128846 74231 54615 16394 8793 7601 25966 12835 13131 6982 4005 2977 37664 24679 12985 4966 2667 2299 4885 2521 2364 25070 14574 10496 6919 4157 2762 State-TAMITotal 60-69 105818 59434 46384 16603 8376 8227 23199 11203 11996 4724 2736 1988 31707 20459 11248 2546 1321 1225 2628 1243 1385 18704 10738 7966 5707 3358 2349 State-TAMITotal 70-79 58214 31622 26592 11168 5594 5574 15142 7670 7472 1889 1037 852 15519 9458 6061 947 469 478 1160 514 646 8821 4941 3880 3568 1939 1629 State-TAMITotal 80-89 21689 10786 10903 4578 2140 2438 6108 2988 3120 588 300 288 5302 2822 2480 286 107 179 349 152 197 2728 1431 1297 1750 846 904 State-TAMITotal 90+ 4533 1998 2535 966 406 560 1141 532 609 110 55 55 1074 475 599 72 39 33 67 29 38 520 239 281 583 223 360 State-TAMITotal Age Not Stat 1546 789 757 125 65 60 268 122 146 84 49 35 175 95 80 181 92 89 133 68 65 490 249 241 90 49 41 State-TAMIRural Total 621745 346846 274899 71650 37833 33817 107621 53739 53882 47160 26156 21004 158624 98242 60382 52522 28518 24004 17344 9009 8335 113844 63088 50756 52980 30261 22719 State-TAMIRural 0-4 19945 10812 9133 1843 942 901 4262 2178 2084 521 309 212 2599 1544 1055 2032 1146 886 57 35 22 6589 3499 3090 2042 1159 883 State-TAMIRural 5-9 36427 20531 15896 2921 1551 1370 5395 2792 2603 4257 2499 1758 4957 3013 1944 5795 3392 2403 199 117 82 7428 3975 3453 5475 3192 2283 State-TAMIRural 10-19 94480 53284 41196 8658 4844 3814 14892 7895 6997 10007 5744 4263 14981 9163 5818 15481 8675 6806 966 545 421 17524 9464 8060 11971 6954 5017 State-TAMIRural 20-29 112410 61495 50915 9091 4930 4161 15520 7717 7803 10139 5402 4737 31970 18612 13358 11864 6330 5534 2784 1521 1263 20844 11179 9665 10198 5804 4394 State-TAMIRural 30-39 97506 54342 43164 9060 4954 4106 14680 7070 7610 7834 4148 3686 28777 17988 10789 7856 4011 3845 4296 2296 2000 17904 9935 7969 7099 3940 3159 State-TAMIRural 40-49 84294 48541 35753 9492 5294 4198 14874 7448 7426 6348 3476 2872 23381 15261 8120 5025 2655 2370 4192 2201 1991 15621 9054 6567 5361 3152 2209 State-TAMIRural 50-59 66670 37922 28748 9123 4731 4392 12921 6303 6618 3889 2214 1675 20283 13177 7106 2393 1247 1146 2506 1220 1286 11822 6826 4996 3733 2204 1529 State-TAMIRural 60-69 59879 33281 26598 10505 5191 5314 12680 6068 6612 2700 1563 1137 18338 11672 6666 1322 696 626 1381 643 738 9632 5541 4091 3321 1907 1414 State-TAMIRural 70-79 34014 18586 15428 7299 3651 3648 8384 4283 4101 1042 576 466 9342 5694 3648 473 238 235 635 283 352 4601 2626 1975 2238 1235 1003 State-TAMIRural 80-89 12551 6419 6132 2978 1446 1532 3247 1625 1622 309 164 145 3226 1757 1469 119 51 68 191 83 108 1381 751 630 1100 542 558 State-TAMIRural 90+ 2739 1216 1523 618 273 345 668 307 361 62 34 28 670 308 362 39 20 19 33 16 17 262 119 143 387 139 248 State-TAMIRural Age Not State 830 417 413 62 26 36 98 53 45 52 27 25 100 53 47 123 57 66 104 49 55 236 119 117 55 33 22 State-TAMI Urban Total 558218 310572 247646 55755 29911 25844 112620 56140 56480 32917 18356 14561 128617 79234 49383 48325 27336 20989 15620 8698 6922 124548 68062 56486 39816 22835 16981 State-TAMI Urban 0-4 18593 9954 8639 1837 965 872 5299 2695 2604 343 221 122 1584 950 634 1511 858 653 64 36 28 6642 3493 3149 1313 736 577 State-TAMI Urban 5-9 30032 16894 13138 2542 1393 1149 5893 3068 2825 2836 1682 1154 3106 1876 1230 4561 2753 1808 211 130 81 7382 3947 3435 3501 2045 1456 State-TAMI Urban 10-19 78817 43983 34834 7232 3917 3315 15572 7784 7788 6209 3483 2726 9942 6123 3819 13129 7758 5371 820 477 343 17301 9341 7960 8612 5100 3512 State-TAMI Urban 20-29 102701 54813 47888 8038 4319 3719 18249 8761 9488 6578 3509 3069 25212 14333 10879 11126 6263 4863 2191 1248 943 23659 12180 11479 7648 4200 3448 State-TAMI Urban 30-39 100900 55719 45181 8471 4548 3923 17420 8714 8706 5858 3176 2682 28185 16837 11348 8129 4412 3717 3898 2280 1618 22745 12341 10404 6194 3411 2783 State-TAMI Urban 40-49 83212 48190 35022 8386 4713 3673 16361 8407 7954 4770 2681 2089 21106 13788 7318 5340 2906 2434 4064 2294 1770 18420 10570 7850 4765 2831 1934 State-TAMIUrban 50-59 62176 36309 25867 7271 4062 3209 13045 6532 6513 3093 1791 1302 17381 11502 5879 2573 1420 1153 2379 1301 1078 13248 7748 5500 3186 1953 1233 State-TAMIUrban 60-69 45939 26153 19786 6098 3185 2913 10519 5135 5384 2024 1173 851 13369 8787 4582 1224 625 599 1247 600 647 9072 5197 3875 2386 1451 935 State-TAMIUrban 70-79 24200 13036 11164 3869 1943 1926 6758 3387 3371 847 461 386 6177 3764 2413 474 231 243 525 231 294 4220 2315 1905 1330 704 626 State-TAMIUrban 80-89 9138 4367 4771 1600 694 906 2861 1363 1498 279 136 143 2076 1065 1011 167 56 111 158 69 89 1347 680 667 650 304 346 State-TAMIUrban 90+ 1794 782 1012 348 133 215 473 225 248 48 21 27 404 167 237 33 19 14 34 13 21 258 120 138 196 84 112 State-TAMIUrban Age Not State 716 372 344 63 39 24 170 69 101 32 22 10 75 42 33 58 35 23 29 19 10 254 130 124 35 16 19 J C-20 Disabled Population by type of Disability,Age and Sex Area Name Total/Rural/ Age-group Total number of disabled persons In seeing |n Heaniig In Speech |n Movement Mental Retardation Mental Illness Any Other Multiple Disability Urban
Persons | Males | Females Per4ons | Males | Females Persons | Males | Females Persons | Males | Females Persons | Males | Females Persons | Males | F males Persons | Males | Females Persons Males | Females Persons | Males | F males 2 3 5 6 7 9 10 12 13 15 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 District-TiriTotal Total 40276 22368 17908 4460 2308 2152 5427 2610 2817 2949 1587 1362 11139 6791 4348 4381 2418 1963 1283 692 591 7157 3927 3230 3480 2035 1445 District-TiriTotal 0-4 1106 579 527 96 49 47 139 75 64 35 22 13 167 96 71 134 73 61 6 4 2 399 190 209 130 70 60 District-TiriTotal 5-9 2239 1291 948 166 95 71 218 113 105 259 150 109 340 210 130 460 270 190 17 4 13 446 236 210 333 213 120 District-TiriTotal 10-19 6107 3441 2666 621 301 320 635 319 316 607 340 267 976 581 395 1342 800 542 68 44 24 1062 583 479 796 473 323 District-TiriTotal 20-29 7494 4095 3399 623 329 294 699 364 335 589 307 282 2359 1333 1026 996 525 471 194 117 77 1340 725 615 694 395 299 District-TiriTotal 30-39 6703 3679 3024 648 337 311 679 306 373 502 254 248 2227 1348 879 656 348 308 303 158 145 1213 653 560 475 275 200 District-TiriTotal 40-49 5830 3246 2584 693 368 325 759 352 407 437 221 216 1764 1113 651 422 212 210 323 176 147 1040 579 461 392 225 167 District-TiriTotal llli50-59 4370 2562 1808 549 303 246 729 328 401 293 179 114 1389 935 454 222 122 100 188 96 92 738 437 301 262 162 100 District-TiriTotal 60-69 3619 2014 1605 549 285 264 770 356 414 157 84 73 1165 744 421 101 45 56 128 67 61 558 322 236 191 111 80 District-TiriTotal 70-79 1959 1049 910 336 160 176 552 278 274 54 26 28 539 325 214 34 16 18 38 18 20 278 153 125 128 73 55 District-TiriTotal 80-89 659 325 334 135 62 73 205 100 105 12 3 9 167 86 81 9 3 6 12 6 6 62 36 26 57 29 28 District-TiriTotal 90+ 149 62 87 39 16 23 38 16 22 1 0 1 39 16 23 2 2 0 4 1 3 10 6 4 16 5 11 District-TiriTotal Age Not Stat 41 25 16 5 3 2 4 3 1 3 1 2 7 4 3 3 2 1 2 1 1 11 7 4 6 4 2 District-TiriRu ral llliTotal 20453 11193 9260 2198 1152 1046 2785 1326 1459 1780 951 829 5769 3473 2296 1998 1051 947 691 338 353 3222 1741 1481 2010 1161 849 District-TiriRu ral llli0-4 607 302 305 42 19 23 86 44 42 20 12 8 96 57 39 68 35 33 3 1 2 211 90 121 81 44 37 District-TiriRu ml llli5-9 1226 724 502 92 57 35 112 62 50 159 90 69 209 132 77 225 131 94 10 1 9 204 107 97 215 144 71 District-TiriRu ral llli10-19 3201 1823 1378 264 161 103 307 174 133 400 229 171 581 345 236 622 340 282 24 16 8 509 277 232 494 281 213 District-TirlRu ml llli20-29 3830 2039 1791 295 150 145 330 163 167 359 176 183 1276 711 565 443 223 220 113 62 51 624 335 289 390 219 171 District-TirlRu ral llli30-39 3229 1755 1474 271 146 125 358 154 204 288 148 140 1068 654 414 297 145 152 162 80 82 531 270 261 254 158 96 District-TirlRu ral llli40-49 2758 1503 1255 300 151 149 367 160 207 254 121 133 855 529 326 176 95 81 175 91 84 421 244 177 210 112 98 District-TiriRu ral llli50-59 2167 1225 942 284 149 135 372 157 215 162 103 59 680 447 233 106 56 50 97 41 56 316 180 136 150 92 58 District-TirlRu ral llli60-69 1920 1037 883 333 171 162 437 202 235 96 52 44 597 366 231 43 21 22 75 34 41 243 142 101 96 49 47 District-TirlRu ml llli70-79 1051 569 482 207 100 107 289 150 139 33 18 15 293 177 116 15 5 10 23 9 14 119 69 50 72 41 31 District-TirlRu ral llli80-89 358 173 185 80 37 43 107 52 55 6 1 5 89 44 45 3 0 3 8 3 5 31 19 12 34 17 17 District-TirlRu ral llli90+ 89 33 56 29 11 18 17 5 12 0 0 0 23 10 13 0 0 0 1 0 1 7 4 3 12 3 9 District-TiriRu ral llliAge Not State 17 10 7 1 0 1 3 3 0 3 1 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 4 2 2 1 1 District-TirlUrt)an llliTotal 19823 11175 8648 2262 1156 1106 2642 1284 1358 1169 636 533 5370 3318 2052 2383 1367 1016 592 354 238 3935 2186 1749 1470 874 596 District-TirlUrt)an llli0-4 499 277 222 54 30 24 53 31 22 15 10 5 71 39 32 66 38 28 3 3 0 188 100 88 49 26 23 District-TirlUrt)an llli5-9 1013 567 446 74 38 36 106 51 55 100 60 40 131 78 53 235 139 96 7 3 4 242 129 113 118 69 49 District-TirlUrban llli10-19 2906 1618 1288 357 140 217 328 145 183 207 111 96 395 236 159 720 460 260 44 28 16 553 306 247 302 192 110 District-TirlUrt)an llli20-29 3664 2056 1608 328 179 149 369 201 168 230 131 99 1083 622 461 553 302 251 81 55 26 716 390 326 304 176 128 District-TirlUrt)an llli30-39 3474 1924 1550 377 191 186 321 152 169 214 106 108 1159 694 465 359 203 156 141 78 63 682 383 299 221 117 104 District-TirlUrt)an llli40-49 3072 1743 1329 393 217 176 392 192 200 183 100 83 909 584 325 246 117 129 148 85 63 619 335 284 182 113 69 District-TirlUrt)an llli50-59 2203 1337 866 265 154 111 357 171 186 131 76 55 709 488 221 116 66 50 91 55 36 422 257 165 112 70 42 District-TiriUcrrbirlln llli60-69 1699 977 722 216 114 102 333 154 179 61 32 29 568 378 190 58 24 34 53 33 20 315 180 135 95 62 33 District-TiriUcrrbirlln llli70-79 908 480 428 129 60 69 263 128 135 21 8 13 246 148 98 19 11 8 15 9 6 159 84 75 56 32 24 District-TiriUcrrbirlln llli80-89 301 152 149 55 25 30 98 48 50 6 2 4 78 42 36 6 3 3 4 3 1 31 17 14 23 12 11 District-TiriUcrrbirlln llli90+ 60 29 31 10 5 5 21 11 10 1 0 1 16 6 10 2 2 0 3 1 2 3 2 1 4 2 2 District-TiriUcrrbirlln llliAge Not State 24 15 9 4 3 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 5 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 1 5 3 2 4 3 1 Area Name Total/Rural/ Age-group Total number of disabled persons In seeing In Hearing In Speech In Movement Mental Retardation Mental Illness Any Other Multiple Disability Urban Persons | Males | Females Persons | Males | Females Persons | Males | Females Persons | Males | Females Persons | Males | Females Persons | Males | Females Persons | Males | Females Persons | Males | Females Persons | Males | Females
17908 4460 2308 2152 5427 2610 2817 2949 1587 1362 11139 6791 4348 4381 2418 1963 1283 692 591 7157 3927 3230 3480 2035 1445 0-4 1106 579 527 96 49 47 139 75 64 35 22 13 167 96 71 134 73 61 6 4 2 399 190 209 130 70 60 5-9 2239 1291 948 166 95 71 218 113 105 259 150 109 340 210 130 460 270 190 17 4 13 446 236 210 333 213 120 10-19 6107 3441 2666 621 301 320 635 319 316 607 340 267 976 581 395 1342 800 542 68 44 24 1062 583 479 796 473 323 20-29 7494 4095 3399 623 329 294 699 364 335 589 307 282 2359 1333 1026 996 525 471 194 117 77 1340 725 615 694 395 299 30-39 6703 3679 3024 648 337 311 679 306 373 502 254 248 2227 1348 879 656 348 308 303 158 145 1213 653 560 475 275 200 40-49 5830 3246 2584 693 368 325 759 352 407 437 221 216 1764 1113 651 422 212 210 323 176 147 1040 579 461 392 225 167 50-59 4370 2562 1808 549 303 246 729 328 401 293 179 114 1389 935 454 222 122 100 188 96 92 738 437 301 262 162 100 60-69 3619 2014 1605 549 285 264 770 356 414 157 84 73 1165 744 421 101 45 56 128 67 61 558 322 236 191 111 80 70-79 1959 1049 910 336 160 176 552 278 274 54 26 28 539 325 214 34 16 18 38 18 20 278 153 125 128 73 55 80-89 659 325 334 135 62 73 205 100 105 12 3 9 167 86 81 9 3 6 12 6 6 62 36 26 57 29 28 90+ 149 62 87 39 16 23 38 16 22 1 0 1 39 16 23 2 2 0 4 1 3 10 6 4 16 5 11 Total 40276 22368 Annexure - 3
List of Papers published in international Journal Publications:
1) "Social Exclusion of Women with Disabilities," International Journal of Research in Economics and Social Sciences, ISSN 2249-7382, Volume 2, Issue 11 (November 2012), www.euroasiapub.org
2) "Exclusion of women with disabilities in the social institution of marriage in Tiruchirappalli district, Tamil Nadu, India" International Journal of Research in Economics and Social Sciences, ISSN 2249-7382, Volume 3, Issue 9 (September 2013), www.euroasiapub.org
3) "Social work practices in the matrimonial prospect of Women with disabilities in Tiruchirappalli district," Indian Social Science Journal ISSN 2319 - 3468 Volume 2, No.2 (October-November, 2013), www.issj.in
4) "An Attitudinal study on differently abled women in Tiruchirappalli district" International Journal of Research in Engineering and Applied Sciences, ISSN 2249-3905, Volume 3, Issue 10 (October 2013), www.euroasiapub.org
5) "Psycho Social Function of Women with Disabilities in Tiruchirappalli District, Tamil Nadu, India" IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845 Volume 16, Issue 6 (November - December 2013), PP 53-57, www.Iosrjournals.org
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