Global overview I

GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 EUROPE

1

EUROPE

ITALY SPAIN Lesvos Balikesir Chios Izmir TURKEY Sicily Samos Lampedusa GREECE Tangier Ceuta Melilla

MOROCCO Sabratha

Land 0 1,000 2,000 km Sea

The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on Thethe partdesignations of the Secretariat employed of and the theUnited presentation Nations concerning of material the on legal this statusmap do of not any imply country, the territory, expression city of or any area opinion or of its whatsoever authorities, on the partor concerning of the Secretariat the delimitation of the United of its frontiersNations orconcerning boundaries. the Final legal boundary status of betweenany country, the Republicterritory, ofcity Sudan or area and or the of Republicits authorities, of South or concerningSudan has not the yet delimitation been determined. of its frontiers or boundaries.

Profile of migrants: PATTERNS AND TRENDS OF Along the Central Mediterranean route, most smuggled MIGRANT SMUGGLING TO AND migrants are from the Horn of Africa and West Africa. ACROSS EUROPE Along the Eastern Mediterranean route, many people from South-West Asia, mainly the Syrian Arab Republic, Since 2014, Europe has seen a significant increase in the as well as Afghans and Iraqis. Most of those using the number of arrivals of irregular migrants and refugees com- Western Mediterranean route are West Africans, plus Syr- pared to the first few years of this decade. Flows along ians and Moroccans. Most of the smuggled migrants are some traditional migratory routes have increased and some men. new routes have emerged. Human cost: Although so far no accurate and comprehensive statistics on migrant smuggling to and within Europe have been Thousands of smuggled migrants have died during the produced, there is extensive evidence that many of the sea passage, mostly along the Central Mediterranean irregular migrants and refugees arriving in European coun- route. Deaths have also been reported along the other European routes. Exploitation of migrants and gross tries have been smuggled. Europol has reported that more human rights violations have been recorded in origin, than 90 per cent of irregular migrants use facilitation ser- transit and destination countries. vices – usually migrant smugglers - at some point during their journey to Europe.1 In early 2016, Europol launched Profile of smugglers: the European Migrant Smuggling Centre in response to Smugglers are often citizens of the countries of departure the unprecedented increase in the number of irregular or of the same citizenship as the smuggled migrants. Some migrants arriving in the European Union since 2014. high-level smuggling organizers are based in destination There are currently three major smuggling routes into countries. Europe. The Central Mediterranean route departs from Organization: North Africa, most commonly Libya, and arrives in Italy, Depending on the route, a mix of local smugglers facili- usually in Sicily. The Eastern Mediterranean route con- tating short legs of the journey and larger transnational nects the Turkish coast to various Greek islands, and the networks. Sea journeys generally require more organiza- Western Mediterranean route departs from Morocco and tion than overland travel. arrives in Spain, either by sea or overland. For most of the migrants and refugees who make use of these routes, being smuggled across the Mediterranean is only one part of a longer journey that may have started in South-West Asia, the Horn of Africa, West Africa or elsewhere.

143 144 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 a smuggling alsooccurselsewhere in Europe. Irregular The three Mediterranean routes dominate,butmigrant origins ofmigrantssmuggledintotheEuropean Union. decreased to23percent,alongsideadiversification ofthe from the Syrian ArabRepublic, in2016,thisshare had and before. of arrivals remained above thenumberrecorded in 2014 decrease compared totheyear 2015,however thenumber terranean route. The years 2016and2017sawastark million peoplearrived, mostlyalong the Eastern Medi even more dramaticincrease in2015,whenmore than1 Central Mediterranean route. This was followed by an nificantly, driven by more than 170,000 arrivals on the In 2014, however, the number of arrivals increased sig- these years. numbers oneitherroute never exceeded 65,000during sharply between 2009and2013,although yearly arrival the CentralandEasternMediterranean routes fluctuated a sharprisetonearly40,000arrivals in2006. and 20,000peryear from between 1999and2016,apart the lowest arrival numbers,rangingbetween some4,000 The Western Mediterranean route hasconsistentlyseen Source: Frontex. Fig. 69:

1 1 2 2 0 5 0 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 agencies, butthesevariations donotaffectoverall trends. and regularly report data. between somewhat The exactfigures vary tination countries,monitorarrivals alongtheMediterranean routes Commission forRefugees, aswell asnational authoritiesinsomedes- national Organization forMigration and theUnited Nations High Several internationalorganizations, includingFrontex, theInter- , , , , , 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C ern Mediterraneanroutes,2009-2016 crossings alongtheCentralandEast- Number ofdetectedirregularborder e a 3 While nearlyhalfofthearrivals in2015 were

n 11,043 t

r 2009 a 39,975 l

M 4,448 e

d 2010

i 55,688 t e r

r 64,261

a 2011 n 57,025 e a

n 10,379 2012 37,224 E

a 40,304 s 2013 t

e 24,799 r n

170,664 M 2014 e 50,834 d 2 Arrivals on i t

e 153,946

r 2015 r

a 885,386 n e

a 2016 181,459 n 182,277 - 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 45,000 Source: SpanishMinistryofInterior. Fig. 70: b 11,000 in 2013, been decreasing inrecent years. From apeakofmore than from third countriesintotheEUorSchengenarea has number ofdetectionsfraudulentdocumentsonentry in Europe, oftenusingfraudulentdocuments. The Migrants are alsosmuggledtoarangeofmajorairports and meansoftransport. gling asirregular migrantsuseavariety ofmodioperandi how many ofthe‘secondary movements’ involve smug ments’ over 130,000. 764,000. By 2016,thesedetectionshaddecreased tojust with detectionsofirregular border crossings ofmore than The useofthe Western Balkans route peakedin2015, migrants andrefugees alongthe Western Balkans route. small compared tothe othersearoutes. across theBlack Sea increased, althoughthenumberswere 2017, detectionsofmigrantswhohadbeensmuggled detected alongtheEasternBorders route. In 2016,some1,350irregular border crossings were how manyofthoseare facilitatedby migrantsmugglers. borders year, every althoughitisdifficulttodetermine entries are reported through the European Union’s eastern Moreover, smugglersfacilitatesomeofthemovements of 5,000 EU asylumsystem,Briefing, October 2017). (European Parliament, movements Secondary ofasylum-seekersinthe first arrived, toseekprotection or permanentresettlement elsewhere. ers, who forvarious reasons move in which they from the country The phenomenonofmigrants,including refugees andasylumseek- 0 b

within theEuropean Union. It is difficulttogauge

1999 4,859 Canary Islands,1999-2016 in continentalterritoryandthe grants arrivedatSpanishcoasts, Trend inthenumberofirregularmi- 15,025 6 Smugglers alsofacilitate‘secondary move 18,517

8 2001 there has been a gradual decline to just 16,670 2003 19,176 7

15,675 2005 11,781 39,180 2007 18,057 13,424 2009 7,285 5

3,632 2011 5,443 4 In autumn 3,804 2013 3,237

4,552 both 2015 5,312 - - 8,162 Regional overviews - Europe II

Fig. 71: Shares of citizenships among people who arrived in the European Union along the three Mediterranean routes, by country of citizenship, 2015 and 2016

Others, 13% Syrian Arab Others , 15% Republic, Syrian Arab Nigeria, 2% 48% Republic, 23% Pakistan, 2% Somalia, 2% Sudan, 3% Iraq, 9% Mali, 3% Senegal, 3% 2015 2016 Somalia, 2% Gambia, 4% Afghanistan, Eritrea, 4% Côte d'Ivoire, 4% 12%

Guinea, 4% Iraq, 8% Eritrea, 6% Afghanistan, 20% Pakistan, 3% Nigeria, 10% Bangladesh, 2% Source: UNHCR. more than 8,000 in 2016. The most frequently detected those using the Central Mediterranean route to reach Italy type of fraudulent document is passports (34 per cent in depart from Libya.11 Smuggled migrants usually leave 2016), followed by visas.9 from Tripoli and its surroundings, including Zawiyah and Zuwara to the west of the capital and Misrata to the east. THE CENTRAL MEDITERRANEAN Some migrants also leave from Benghazi, which is some ROUTE 1,000 km east of Tripoli.12

The Central Mediterranean route – from North Africa to Libyan departure points to Europe change quickly Italy (and Malta) – is a common entry point to Europe depending on a number of factors, including the actions for irregular migrants and refugees travelling by sea. Apart of local communities, the local security situation and the from the year 2015, when arrivals in Greece on the East- presence of checkpoints. For example, in 2016, smuggling ern Mediterranean route surpassed those in Italy, most departures moved eastwards along the Libyan coast, with migrants who travel by sea use the Central Mediterranean departures from Zuwara decreasing significantly. One of route. The route’s arrival and departure points, the mag- the drivers of this decrease was the capsizing of a boat and nitude, and the profiles of the people comprising the flows subsequent drowning of 183 migrants off the coast of along this route have changed considerably over time. For Zuwara. This sparked a wave of public outrage, and many many migrants smuggled across the Mediterranean, this locals turned against the smugglers.13 Sabratha – some 40 is but one leg in a longer journey. km to the east of Zuwara – then became the main depar- ture point along the Libyan coast. Accurate data specific to migrant smuggling is not avail- able. Nevertheless, according to the extensive literature Egypt is much less significant as a transit and departure available, it can be concluded that virtually all migrants point. Until 2013, people departing from Egypt were travelling along this route depend on smugglers for the mainly Syrian refugees. After 2013, the majority of sea crossing.10 Such a crossing, by boat, is far more diffi- migrants departing from the northern Egyptian coast were cult to accomplish alone than traversing a land border. It people claiming to be Sudanese, Eritreans and Somalis.14 can thus be assumed that data about irregular migration According to Frontex, in 2017, the migrant smuggling along the Central Mediterranean route also broadly depict flow from the Horn of Africa to Europe via Egypt virtu- the migrant smuggling situation. ally stopped.15 When the route was still active, departures The main smuggling hubs, departure and mainly took place between Damietta to the east of Alex- arrival points andria and El-Hamam to the west.16 Libya has traditionally been and is still the main departure The route connecting Tunisia to Sicily was popular among point for this route. The exact share is difficult to deter- Moroccan, Tunisian and Algerian seasonal workers in the mine and may also fluctuate, but up to 90 per cent of 1990s. Since 1998, the signing of a readmission agreement

145 146 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 c and Libya. Lampedusa, asmallislandbetween thevastly largerSicily of arrivals takeplaceontheislandofSicily, including recorded inItaly dropped to119,369. 153,842 arrivals in2015.In 2017,thenumberoflandings 2016; anincrease ofnearly 18percentcompared tothe in Italy, where 181,436migrantsandrefugees landedin Most oftheCentralMediterranean route arrivals occur Italy. and 569in2015whousedthisdeparture pointtoreach increase compared tothe999migrantsrecorded in2016 Tunisia country. asdeparting This represents alarge than 5,900migrantswere smuggledby seatoItaly with gling route is,tosomeextent,active again.In 2017,more Data from theItalian authoritiesindicatesthatthissmug andtheareain thenorth-east southofMonastir. Boats wouldleave from several areas, includingCapBon contributed toreduce thenumberandsize oflandings. between Italy and Tunisia Source: ItalianPolice,Direzione CentraleAnticrimine,ServizioOperativo. Fig. 72: 1 1 1 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 UFFICIALE. autorizzazione allaratifica.. Supplemento ordinario allaGAZZETTA nel periodo16settembre -15dicembre 1999nonsoggettialeggedi ana, January 15, 2000 on September 23,1999.See: Gazzetta Ufficiale dellaRepubblica Itali- their respective nationalterritories. The agreement entered intoforce tion ofthenationalsArabMaghreb Union) whotransitedfrom their own nationalsaswell nationals(withtheexcep asthird-country - cooperation in August 1998. The countries committed to readmitting Tunisia andItaly signedanagreement onboth readmission andpolice 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 ,0 ,0 ,0 ,0 ,0 ,0 ,0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sea arrivalsinItaly, bypointofarrival,2016-2017 1 2 3 ,7 S 0 i c 6 7 i Atti internazionali entratiAtti internazionali in vigore per l’Italia l 9 y ,7 9 8 c andincreased controls have 1 2 19 ,1 The vast majority A 6 p 4 u 6 l i ,4 a 4 4 17 2 0 1 6 - 3 1 C ,6 a 1 about 120,000seaarrivals. some decrease compared totheprevious three years, with relatively stablein2015and2016. The year 2017marked reaching more than170,000. This highlevel remained number of arrivals marked order a new of magnitude, ugees arrivinginItaly andMalta. Three years later, the sharp increase, withmore than64,000migrantsandref- level ofless than40,000peryear. In 2011,there wasa tral Mediterranean route fluctuated, but remained at a and refugees entering the European Union along the Cen Between 2002and2010, the numberof irregular migrants the CentralMediterraneanroute The magnitudeofmigrantsmugglingalong involve migrantsmuggling. Europe. Those legs of the journey do not necessarily Middle EastorAsia,andoftencontinuestonorthern a longer journey, in which starts West or East Africa, the Mediterranean route, theseacrossing toEurope of ispart For mostofthemigrantstravelling alongtheCentral not foresee disembarkation inMalta either. replacement by theFrontex Operation Triton, whichdoes in 2015, afterfurther the end of Mare Nostrum and its only. October 2013, which envisaged disembarkation in Italy to the Operation Mare Nostrum, by Italy started in Malta. Some research hasattributed thisdecrease mainly decreased, andin2016,IOMreported noarrivals in As of2014,seaarrivals inMalta have significantly l a 7 b 2 r , i 6 a 2 20 3 0 3 The numberofarrivals inMalta decreased even 1 7 9 , S 0 a 7 r 8 d i 5 n , i 5 a 4 1 4 C , 8 a 7 m 1 p 6 a , n 9 i 5 a 3 - Regional overviews - Europe II

Fig. 73: Trend in the number of sea arrivals in Italy and Malta*, 2002-2017

200,000 180,000 160,000 140,000 120,000 100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Italy 23,719 14,331 13,635 22,939 22,016 20,165 36,951 9,573 4,406 62,692 13,267 42,925 170,100 153,842 181,436 119,369 Malta 1,639 520 1,388 1,822 1,780 1,702 2,775 1,475 47 1,579 1,890 2,008 568 104

* Data on Malta for 2016 and 2017 was not available. Source: IOM and Italian Police.

The profile of the smuggled migrants of Africa along the routes described in other sections of this report. The vast majority of the smuggled migrants making use of the Central Mediterranean route are originally from The citizenship profiles of the smuggled migrants arriving Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East or Asia, but among in Italy via the Central Mediterranean route are broadly them are also a few citizens of North African countries.21 stable, though with some significant fluctuations. Whereas Many have been smuggled from West Africa or the Horn in 2015, Eritreans (or people claiming to be Eritreans)

Fig. 74: Shares of arrivals in Italy by the Central Mediterranean route, by citizenship declared at landing, 2015-2017

Nigeria, 15% Other, Nigeria, Other, 22% 21% 29% Bangladesh, 8% Somalia, 4% Total 2017: Guinea, Total 2016: Eritrea, 119,369 171,309 11% 8% Bangladesh, Sudan,5% 4% Guinea, Sudan, 5% Morocco, Côte d'Ivoire, 7% 5% 8% Mali, 6% Eritrea,6% Tunisia, 5% Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, 6% Senegal, 6% Senegal, 5% Gambia, 7% 7%

Other, Eritrea, 22% 25% Morocco, 3% Total 2015: Bangladesh, 3% 153,842 Mali, 4% Senegal, 4% Nigeria, 14% Syrian Arab Republic, 5% Gambia, Somalia, 6% Sudan, 6% 8% Source: Italian Police, Direzione Centrale Anticrimine, Servizio Centrale Operativo.

147 148 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 rians, in2016,thesituationwasopposite.In theyear comprised thelargestshare ofarrivals, followed by Nige- stable relationships. route, butthetwotypesoforganizationtend toestablish land to the departure points of the Central Mediterranean different from those that recruit andmove migrants by the organizationswhichsellseacrossing toEurope are highly structured andhierarchical organizations. different localandtransnationalnetworks, ratherthanon on flexibleandadhocagreements andinteractionsamong Migrant smugglingintoEurope seemstobelargelybased The smugglers’profileandorganization their families. where theylookforajobinorder tosendmoneyback for exampleEgyptians are more likelyto settle inItaly, transit country, moving assoontheycan,whereas north cantly in2016. Africa. The numberofAfricanUAMs increased signifi in Italy come from countries in West, North and East Nearly all the unaccompanied minors (UAMs) who arrive more thanadoubling ofthetotalforprevious year. minors –nearlyallteenageboys –reached Italy in 2016; of unaccompaniedminors.Some 26,000unaccompanied significant changehasbeentherecent increase inarrivals nearly 15percentofarrivals in2015and2016. The most involve men. The share ofwomenremained stableat The vast majorityofarrivals inItaly, more than7in10, in themonthofMay. in arrivals ofBangladeshi noticeable citizens; particularly reported citizenships. Moreover, in2017,there was a surge Eritreans noteven amongthefive mostcommonly 2017, Nigerians were more frequently reported, with (UNHCR). Source: Fig. 75: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 % % % % % % % % % 1 1 United NationsHighCommissionerforRefugees 6 5 and sex,2015-2016 Central Mediterraneanroutebyage Share ofarrivalsinItalyalongthe 7 7 M 24 1 5 e % % n 23 Eritrean UAMs tendtoseeItaly asa 26 This allows for easy geographical W 1 1 o 3 4 m % % e n C h 2 3 i l % % d r e n Unaccomp- separated anied and children 25 1 8 4 Usually, % % 22 - 10% 15% 20% functioning ofsmugglingnetworks operatingtowards Some uniqueinformationabouttheorganizationand turnover ofnetwork components. shifts and adjustments, as well as fast replacement and Source: UNHCR. Fig. 76: for saleinNorth Africa.Since thenthere have beenreports across the desert drugs reportedly made money by carrying trafficking. Since themid-2000ssomemigrants have Mediterranean Sea alsoappearstobelinkeddrug The smugglingofmigrantsacross North Africaandthe gesting thatdifferent illicitactivitiesare oftenlinked. Sub-Saharan AfricatoLibya andthere isevidencesug ditionally usedby smugglersofdifferent goodsfrom routes usedby migrantsmugglersare thesameroutes tra numerous commoditiesto,withinandfrom Libya. The migrant smugglingand illicit trade and trafficking of The available literature alsoidentifiesalinkbetween North America. originating from 10different countriesinEurope and smuggling. The financialtransactionsrevealed payments journeys ortomakefinancialtransactionslinkedthe order ofthemigrants’ forthemtoorganize thelastpart would contactassociatesinotherEuropean countries in countries. Italy, andthentootherEuropean andNorth American and refugees from Libya toSicily, onwards tomainland composed ofEritrean nationalsinItaly, smuggledmigrants along theroute. The criminalgroup, whichincludedcells an organized criminalgroup operatingin smugglinghubs Glauco IIandIII Italian authorities (such as the Glauco I case, followed by gleaned from criminalinvestigations carried out by the Libya andalongtheCentralMediterranean route canbe 0% 5% 15% Eritrea The celloperatinginNorth AfricaandinItaly sea, 2016(n=25,846) panied minorswhoarrivedinItalyby Top tencitizenshipsamongunaccom- 13% Gambia 28 12% 27

). These casesrevealed theexistenceof Nigeria 10% Egypt 9% Guinea 7% Côte d'Ivoire 6% Somalia 5% Mali 5% Senegal 4% 29

Bangladesh - - Regional overviews - Europe II of significant quantities of cocaine being transported Migrants reported that smugglers came to their neigh- across the desert from West Africa to North Africa.30 bourhood and asked them if they wanted to board a boat Although it is not clear who the key intermediaries in to Europe.37 these cocaine trades are, the prominence of the main When migrants look for smugglers, diaspora communities passeurs involved in migrant smuggling and their relations often play a key role in facilitating contact. These with the security forces suggest that it is quite likely that, communities can also often recommend or advise against at the very least, their businesses intersect those of the particular smugglers. While much information is shared major drug traders.31 by word of mouth, social media is also widely used for At the same time, Italian investigators highlight that no pre-departure research. Syrians, in particular, make structured connections are recorded between transnational extensive use of technology such as Facebook, Viber, Skype smuggling networks and the traditional Italian mafia-like and WhatsApp, to share comments and reviews of organized crime groups.32 smugglers.38 According to a 2015 study, the heads of smuggling orga- The smuggling fees depend on the services included in nizations are usually older than 35, whereas guides and the package, but also on the migrants’ citizenship, sex and other actors operating on the ground are usually younger. age. Along the different Central Mediterranean sub- Migrant smuggling is a male dominated business, but routes, smugglers tailor the prices to the – real or perceived women - often the smugglers’ girlfriends and wives - are - economic means of the migrants. Syrians, who are usu- also involved to a certain extent. For instance, women ally wealthier than African migrants, pay more for safer may be tasked with the recruitment of migrants, handling journeys. Negotiations are possible and the prices may 39 payments, and women may also receive and escort vary significantly. migrants to temporary accommodation between different One study reported that migrants from sub-Saharan Africa legs of the route.33 would pay around US$1,000 to be smuggled below deck Citizenship and ethnicity seem to play crucial roles in the on a boat from Libya to Europe, whereas a Syrian would pay $2,500 or more for a safer seat.40 In February 2015, internal organization of the networks, in their cross-border new arrivals to Italy from Libya reported having paid connections and in smuggler-migrant relations. Smug- smugglers between US$700 and 1,000 per person to gling networks operating transnationally generally include undertake the journey. Some reported having paid as little members with different citizenships, usually involving as $400 for the journey to Lampedusa.41 The EUNAV- citizens of the countries where the organization is operat- FOR MED Operation in the Mediterranean Sea estimated ing and/or smugglers who share migrants’ citizenships.34 that smuggling businesses generate between 250 and 300 Smugglers involved in recruitment and communication million euros in annual revenue for smugglers in Libya.42 with the migrant’s family generally share the same citizen- ship as the migrants. Departures from Egypt are fewer and appear to be some- what pricier. Migrants leaving from Alexandria reported According to RMMS, in Libya migrants refer to smugglers having paid US$2,500 in advance to board a boat to Italy of their own national or ethnic community, the so-called in 2015.43 According to IOM, Syrians departing from the “connection men”, at all stages of the smuggling process. Egyptian shores paid around US$3,000, whereas for Pal- 35 These “connection men” work for Libyan smugglers. estinians, the sea crossing cost around US$2,000.44 Other Other research points to the role played by migrants them- sources reported fees ranging between US$2,000 and selves in the smuggling business: they operate as recruiters, 4,000.45 liaise with other migrants and collect information relevant to their business from them.36 When it comes to sea crossings, the contact between the smuggler who will facilitate the sea crossing and the The smugglers’ modus operandi and travel migrant usually takes place along the Libyan coast, close arrangements to the boat departure points. This smuggler is the migrant’s Migrants proactively engage smugglers, but smugglers link with the Libyan smugglers or other intermediaries, may also approach migrants to offer them their services. with whom the price and travel arrangements will be dis- Smugglers advertise their services in places where migrants cussed. Migrants usually pay the full amount in advance. can typically be found, such as railway stations, cafes or Some migrants travelling along this route pay for the bazaars. One example is the neighbourhood of Abu Salim entire journey from their country of departure or hub to in Tripoli, an area with a large Somali community. their country of destination. This payment method is

149 150 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 liest migrationroute intheworld. The CentralMediterranean isconsidered tobethedead- The humancost fickers are protected by well-known militias. in Libya is the fact thatmanyofthesmugglersandtraf- ties ofthethousandsrefugees andmigrantsindetention or exploited in forced labour. Compounding the difficul reportedly soldasslaves, whereas othersare tortured, raped smuggled toEurope are appalling.Some migrantsare Conditions formigrantsinLibya whoare waitingtobe risk ofdrowning formigrants. Mediterranean route isclearlyimbuedwithasignificant numbers ofdeathsfluctuate,travelling alongtheCentral North Africa andEurope in2017. While themonthly persons had lost their lives at sea on the way between to 2,876deathsregistered in2015. 4,581 personsdiedalongthisroute in2016,compared but usedonlyonce. tion. The boatsare usuallynotreturned tothesmugglers, display anyflag,numberornametoimpedeidentifica apprehension by the Libyan authorities. Boats usually leave the coast at night in order to avoid protect theactualdriver. all migrantsclaimthattheydrove thevessel, inorder to for hisservices. by Libyan smugglers.He mayeven receive somemoney departure, lodgedwithintermediariesandbrieflytrained sometimebefore is usuallychosenby theintermediary driven by professionals. When thedriver isamigrant,he in exchange travel forfree, whereas thelatterare generally ships. inflatabledinghiestolargerwooden boatsorrubber The vessels usedfortheseacrossings rangefrom small widespread inmanymigrantholdingfacilitiesLibya. to leave. Sexual violence and forced labour are reportedly facilities.Migrants areand sanitary generallynotallowed houses.’ These are oftencrowded andhave limitedkitchen accommodationreferredin temporary toas‘connection from one day toseveralvary months, migrants are hosted search operations.During thewaitingperiod, whichcan smugglers andtheactivitiesofborder control and weather conditions,thenumberofclientsgathered by the The departure timedependsonseveral factors,including journey across Europe. with someoneinthesmuggler’s network tofacilitatetheir just toItaly. Once theyreach Italy, theyare putintouch buy theirjourneytoaspecificdestinationinEurope, not called “integratedsystem”. 49 The formerare usuallydriven by migrants,who 50 Sometimes, whenquestioned onarrival, 53

47

51 46 In thiscase,migrantsoften 55 54 Asof30June, 2,232 According toIOM, 52 They do not 56 48 - -

are usuallynotprovided andlifejacketsmaynotbedis and overcrowded,unseaworthy sufficient food and water refugees asahorrificexperience. The boatsusedare often The seacrossing isgenerallydescribedby migrantsand Source: IOMMissingMigrantsProject. Fig. 77: d unprecedented growth inthenumberofarrivals in2015, The EasternMediterranean route, whichsawan ROUTE THE EASTERNMEDITERRANEAN tion conditionsandlackofaccesstojustice. migrants mayfacecollective expulsions,inadequaterecep non-refoulement. Moreover, incountriesofarrival, security may be at risk, in violation of the principle of tothirdorigin ordeported countrieswhere theirlifeand and refugees are sometimesreturned to their countriesof ugees. According totheavailable literature, asylumseekers violations ofthefundamentalrightsmigrantsandref- Sometimes border control measures mayalsoresult in lems, losetheirwayatseaorfillupwithwater. common that vessels out of fuel, have run engine prob have little information about the journey. tributed. People smuggledonboard oftheseboatsoften 1,000 1,200

200 400 600 800 health problems, maybeoverlooked (EUFRA,op. cit.,p. 95). vulnerabilities, such as victims of trafficking or people with mental the identificationofvulnerablemigrants: personswith“non-visible” detentionpoliciescomplicate by theEU FRA,mandatory As observed onthehuman rightsofmigrants,porteur François Crépeau, pp. 13-14). smuggled migrants(A/HRC/29/36/Add.3, Report by theSpecial- Rap detentionofexpressed concernsaboutthepracticeofmandatory United Nations Special onthehuman rightsofmigrants Rapporteur rights at Europe’s sea borders southern , 2013: 49). In his 2015 report, the back practice(EUFundamental RightsAgency(FRA),Fundamental countries violated international law for high sea interception and push- In 2012, the European of Human Court Rights found different EU 0 90 Jan-16 by month,January2016–June2017 the CentralMediterraneanroute, Trend inthenumberofdeathsalong 7 258

Mar-16 611 1,130

May-16 388 208 Jul-16 40 341

Sep-16 431 703

Nov-16 374 225

Jan-17 217 290 d 57

It is very Mar-17 58 610

279 May-17

537 - - - Regional overviews - Europe II connects Turkey to the European Union by sea and land. Greek islands. The sea close to the town of Çeşme – close Many of those making use of this route have been to both the large Turkish city of Izmir and the Greek island smuggled along the South-West Asian route. The Eastern of Chios – saw the largest number of apprehended Mediterranean route comprises two major sub-routes: a migrants.59 Other towns, such as Balikesir or Edirne are sea route leaving from the Turkish shores and heading to also transits for smuggling to the Greek islands60. the Greek islands, and a land route departing from Turkey The main landing point for boats departing from the and arriving in north-eastern Greece or Bulgaria. Western shores of Turkey is the Greek island of Lesvos. In The main smuggling hubs, departure and 2015, when arrivals skyrocketed, this island was the epi- arrival points centre of events with more than half a million arrivals, according to UNHCR data. The island of Chios is the Many Turkish coastal towns serve as departure points for second most common landing point, albeit with far fewer migrants heading to the nearby Greek islands. During the arrivals than Lesvos throughout 2015 and 2016. first half of 2017, IOM reported that most migrants were apprehended along the western Turkish coast facing the Smuggling activity is also recorded along the land sub- route. The Greek-Turkish land border is approximately Fig. 78: Number of irregular sea arrivals in 200 km long and follows almost entirely the Maritsa/Evros Greece, by port of arrival, 2014-2016 river. Crossing this river is extremely difficult due to the enhanced surveillance on both sides. Migrants travelling 2016 along the land route between Turkey and Bulgaria usually cross the border at the Kapitan Andreevo - Kapikule checkpoint.61 Migrants and refugees coming from Greece 2015 often cross the land border in the area of the Kulata-Pro- mahon border crossing point or via routes in the Petrich region.62 2014 The magnitude of migrant smuggling along the Eastern Mediterranean route

0 Over the period 2009–2014, the number of migrants irregularly entering the EU through the Eastern Mediter- 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 ranean route ranged between 25,000 and 57,000 per year. Other islands Kalymnos Agathonisi Leros In 2015, the flow skyrocketed, with more than 850,000 Samos Chios irregular border crossings; making the Eastern Mediter- Kos Lesvos ranean route the main entry point to Europe for irregular Source: UNHCR. migrants and refugees. In 2016, the flow declined rapidly; Fig. 79: Numbers and shares of irregular sea a decline that has continued into 2017. In addition to the arrivals in Greece, by port of arrival, 1 Jan – 6 Aug 2017 Fig. 80: Trend in the number of irregular arrivals along the Eastern Mediterra- Kos nean route, 2009-2016 202 Leros 2% 1,000,000 316 Other 900,000 3% 1,196 Kastellorizo 10% Lesvos 800,000 723 3,917 700,000

6% 33% 600,000 885,386 500,000 Samos 400,000 300,000

2,291 182,534 19% 200,000 57,025 55,688 50,834 39,975 37,224 100,000 24,799 Chios 0 3,274 27% 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Source: UNHCR. Source: Frontex.

151 152 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 arrivals ontheGreek islands,somemigrantsalsodepart Syrians comprisethelargestshare ofcitizenships among The profileofthesmuggledmigrants mixed migrationroutes where young malestendtodom families travel alongthisroute thanalongmostother fleeing warorleavingtheircountries offirstrefuge, more Since of the flow a large part is made up of Syrian refugees and Afghans. group of irregular arrivals in Greece, followed by Pakistani citizens comprisingthesecondmostcommonlyreported early 2017,thesituationseemstohave reversed, withIraqi prised alargershare ofthetotalthanIraqis in2016, also comprisesizableshares. While Afghanarrivals com- and 57percentin2015.Citizens ofAfghanistanandIraq of arrivals inGreece, compared to45percentin2016 of 2017, Syrian citizens accounted for some 38 per cent their share amongarrivals hasdeclined.In thefirsthalf those crossing the Turkish borders toGreece, although EU from Turkey directly (1:1mechanism)’. returned to Turkey, anotherSyrian will be resettled to the line withEUandinternationallaw. For Syrian being every after anindividualassessmentoftheirasylumclaimsin Turkey to the Greek islands will be returned to Turkey, ‘all irregular new migrantsorasylumseekerscrossing from government on18March 2016.Under thisagreement, Statement agreed by theEUheadsofstateand Turkish ascribed totheimpactofEuropean Union - Turkey The suddendrop inarrivals ontheGreek islandshasbeen hundred migrantshave usedthislandroute eachmonth. According to information from Frontex, in 2017, a few from Turkey border viathenorthern withBulgaria. Source: Frontex. Fig. 81: Land from Turkey to Greece to Turkey from Land Turkeyto from Sea islands Greek sea route,byquarter, 2015–Q12017 Trend inthenumberofirregularbordercrossingsfromTurkey totheEU,bylandor 64 and Bulgaria and 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 0 12,646 1,506 2015 Q1 63

65,996 2,182 2015 Q2 - 319,146 4,746 2015 Q3 100% 2016, among Syrian arrivals ontheGreek islandsinFebruary inate. According conductedby UNHCR toasurvey Source:UNHCR Fig. 82: contrast tothesituationinItaly, thevast majority-92per als inGreece in2016,and38percentwere children. In Women made up 22 per cent of the total number of arriv- ling). Only 7percenttravelled alone. close familymember(child,spouse,parent and/orsib- 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 0% 483,910 Afghanistan Eritrea Somalia Other 3,773 2015 65 Q4 01/2015 the vast majority - 88 per cent - travelled with a 03/2015 2017 in Greece,bymonth,Jan2015–Jun Shares ofcitizenshipsamongarrivals 151,490 2,477 2016

05/2015 Q1 07/2015 1,737 09/2015 7,067 2016 11/2015 Q2 01/2016 1,736 9,372 2016

03/2016 Q3 Syrian Arab Republic Arab Syrian Iraq Pakistan Iran (Islamic Republic of) 05/2016 1,722 07/2016 7,284 2016 09/2016 Q4 11/2016 1,130 4,928 2017

01/2017 Q1 03/2017 05/2017 Regional overviews - Europe II

Fig. 83: Profiles of arrivals in Greece by the provide information on asylum processes in destination Eastern Mediterranean route by age countries as well as forged documentation. The highest and sex, 2015-2016 demand is for Syrian passports, identification cards, birth certificates and residence permits, which illustrates how smugglers cynically profit from the Syrian crisis.70 2016 22% 40% 38% The smugglers’ modus operandi and travel arrangements Like in other parts of the world, in the major hubs along this route the smuggling business appears to be carried 2015 20% 45% 35% out publicly. In certain districts of major cities, people can easily find a smuggler or wait to be found by one in the street, in crowded squares, in coffeehouses. Migrants and 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% refugees usually meet with intermediaries who inform 71 Women Men Children them about the smuggling conditions. Source: UNHCR; Greek national authorities. While waiting for their departure to Greece, smugglers may place migrants and refugees in substandard accom- cent - of the children who arrived in Greece were accom- modation without heating, running water or sanitation, panied. Some 8 per cent - more than 5,000 children - were and with little food.72 When a sufficiently large number unaccompanied; many of them teenage boys from the of passengers has been gathered, drivers take the migrants Syrian Arab Republic, Afghanistan or Pakistan.66 Many of the Afghan unaccompanied adolescents travel in groups, to the departure point, whilst other members of the group sometimes accompanied by a non-family member adult.67 look for a way to evade the security forces. Migrants undertake the crossing aboard a broad spectrum of vessels, The smugglers’ profile and organization although the most common vehicles are inflatable boats In addition to the general observation that most migrants and speedboats.73 The boat trip from Turkey to Greece travelling along sea routes rely on smugglers, there are usually takes a few hours.74 strong indications that most migrants travelling along the The price for the journey from Turkey’s coasts to any of Eastern Mediterranean route make use of at least one the Greek islands on the smallest inflatable boat reportedly smuggler during their journey. The actual number of ranges between €1,000 and 2,000 per person. The same smugglers used seems to vary depending on the migrants’ route could be offered at €900 or up to €7,000 according citizenship as well as other factors (number of borders to the demand, method of transportation or the season crossed, enforcement measures along the way, climate and of the year75. According to some sources, the fee for the terrain, and so on). For example, a 2015 survey targeting crossing from Turkey into Bulgaria and the onward travel irregular migrants arrested in Istanbul by the local author- to Sofia amounts to €2,500 - 3,000 per person76. ities found that nearly all the respondents (96 per cent) used at least three smugglers from their country of origin On the Eastern Mediterranean route, when advance pay- (mainly South and South-West Asia) in order to reach ment is required, the ‘package’ may include several Istanbul.68 Smugglers are key sources of information for attempts. In case the first crossing fails, the migrant is many migrants and refugees. About 73 per cent of 779 entitled to travel again for free. Sometimes migrants pay Afghanse interviewed in February 2016 reported that half of the fee in advance and the other half upon arrival. smugglers provided information about their travel.69 When relatives or friends make the payment, smugglers may supply pictures of the migrant in the destination Frontex reported in 2016 that smugglers operated in net- country as proof of safe arrival.77 works along the Turkish coast, with each network con- trolling a specific departure area and often serving The hawala system is widely used along the Eastern Med- migrants of specific origins. Beyond offering passage to iterranean route, which makes it practically impossible to Greece, or in some cases across the Turkish land border trace the money flow.78 Alternatively, migrants may use a with the Syrian Arab Republic, smugglers also reportedly formal money transfer service that secures the fee by issu- ing the migrant with a code. Once the migrant has safely e A similar set of interviews among Syrian refugees showed that only 16 per cent relied on information from smugglers, with most of them arrived at the agreed destination, the smuggler will then obtaining information from family or friends. receive the security code to release the money.79

153 154 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 migrants inseveral countriesalongtheroute. exploitative practices. dents hadpersonalexperience withtraffickingandother nean route indicatedthatsome7percentoftherespon- among migrantstravelling alongtheEasternMediterra- abuse andexploitation. dren totrafficking,recruitment by criminalgangs,sexual same sources emphasized thevulnerabilityofthosechil- selves strandedontheGreek islandsandinAthens. The financial resources to continue their journey, found them arrivals in2015includedsomechildren who,lacking IOM andUNICEFhave highlightedthatthewave ofnew migrants. ing with Turkey. They were of a group a part of 19 Afghan had frozen todeathneartheMalko Turnovo border cross garian policefoundthebodiesofagirlandwomanwho to theelements.In February 2016,forexample,theBul- who are oftennotproperly equippedmaydieofexposure could drop well below zero, andmigrantsrefugees be far less dangerous. Still, during winter, temperatures The land crossing from Turkey into Bulgaria appears to board. threaten the migrants with guns in order to make them they were designed for, or even more. Smugglers may even twice the number of passengers boarding dinghies carrying ofrefugeessources report andmigrants observations migrantsare oftenovercrowded.Boats carrying Several smuggled migrantsthere. reflecting thefactthat children makeupalargeshare of 30 percentofthedeceasedonthisroute were children; 2015. In 2015,IOMandUNICEFreported thatatleast reported fatalities,compared to434in2016and806 using theroute. In thefirsthalfof2017,there were 29 declined inlinewiththedecreasing numberofmigrants deaths alongtheEasternMediterranean route have According todatafrom IOM’s Missing Migrants project, The humancost which theycaneasilyescapetocontinuetheirjourney. they are transferred toanopenreception centre from in casetheylosetheirway, andtoapplyforasylumsothat themtocalltheBulgarianglers instruct policeforrescue containingstoredsmartphones pathstofollow. The smug assisted by smugglersuntiltheborder orequippedwith ugees cross thelandborder irregularly onfoot;either border onfoot.Afterreaching Edirne, migrantsandref- most irregular migrantsenterBulgaria from thegreen With regard tothelandroute, according totheIOM, denounced violence and mistreatments suffered by 82

83 85 84 81 Several sources have also A2015-2016IOMsurvey 86 80 - - - The overland crossing toMelilla typicallyoccursfrom arrival points The mainsmugglinghubs,departureand ing CeutaandMelilla. The operationalcooperationincludestheareas surround land andairborders andtheexchange ofliaisonofficers. law enforcement activities,suchasjointpatrolling ofsea, broad operationalcooperation,includingcoordination of Over theyears, Spain andMorocco have putinplacea Islands, Spain. and from AfricancoasttotheCanary thenorth-west the area around Tangier tothecoastofAndalucia,Spain acrossThe sea sub-routes the Strait run of Gibraltar from Melilla intheNorth situatedsome400kmapart ofAfrica. sub-routes head towards theSpanish citiesofCeutaand four sub-routes; twooverland andtwoby sea. The land and arrives inSpain. This route isbroadly comprisedof The Western Mediterranean from route Morocco departs ROUTE THE WESTERNMEDITERRANEAN siderably. In from 2017, theseacrossing departing Tangier, along the land and sea sub-routes, have fluctuated con and services. the forest, awayfrom thecity, withoutproper housing ney toEurope. In Oujda, migrants live in settlements in and refugees canfindsmugglersandarrangefortheirjour major citiesgeographicallycloseby. The mainsmugglinghubstoCeutaandMelilla are the cued atseaanddisembark ontheSpanish shores. ria. Most ofthemigrantsonboard theseboatswere res- Nador from Alge- boats also departed east.Afew further Asilah close to the Strait of Gibraltar, and El Hoceima and that departure pointsalongthisroute were Tangiers and the Strait of Gibraltar. AsofMay 2017, UNHCR reported routemost crossings across takingplacealongtheshorter be popularbutseemstolargelyinactive nowadays, with ofAndalusia,Spainlocations intheeasternparts usedto Moroccan coastto Almeria,Spain north-eastern and other The route crossing theAlboranSea andconnectingthe is oftenonlyonelegofalongerjourney. the other main smuggling routes into Europe, this passage toreach themby sea.Asfor cities, andsomemigrantstry inFnideq,Morocco.starts Bothdestinationsare coastal Nador, Morocco, whereas thepassagetoCeutausually Over theyears, thetotalflow along thisroute, aswell as the Western Mediterranean The magnitudeofmigrantsmugglingalong 90

87 89 There, migrants 88 - - - Regional overviews - Europe II

Fig. 84: Trends in the number of arrivals of irregular migrants in Spain, both in continental territory and the Canary Islands, 2012-2016 18,000 16,000 14,000 12,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Ceuta and Melilla 2,841 4,235 7,485 11,624 6,443 Spanish coasts (including the Canary 3,804 3,237 4,552 5,312 8,162 Islands)

Source: Spain, Ministry of Interior. Morocco and arriving in Spain, only 14 to 30 km long, ish and Moroccan authorities, for instance, has led to the was the most widely used sub-route among migrants and dismantling of smuggling rings operating along this route. refugees travelling in the Western Mediterranean. The profile of the smuggled migrants Between the two overland flows, that into Melilla is larger The Western Mediterranean used to be the most popular than the one into Ceuta. In 2016, 3,901 irregular migrants route among Algerians and Moroccans trying to reach entered Melilla, whereas 2,542 entered Ceuta.91 Moroccan Spain, either with the intention of staying or in order to passport holders who live near the two Spanish cities can move on to another European country. Since the late enter them for limited periods without a visa. There is a 1990s, increasing numbers of people from sub-Saharan trend of using Moroccan passports to cross the borders by Africa have also made use of this route. Many migrants car, or by hiding in the cars of Moroccans for the crossing. travelling along this route are from West Africa. Passport However, this is an expensive method, which puts it out holders from a number of West African countries can enter of reach of most people from sub-Saharan Africa. Previ- Morocco without a visa for a period of 90 days.95 ously, this method was mostly used by North Africans; in As of 2010-2011, people from the Horn of Africa and recent years, by Syrians.92 from the Syrian Arab Republic also started to use this The share of smuggled migrants among those travelling route to reach Spain. According to the Spanish authorities, along the Western Mediterranean route is not easy to in 2014, Syrians accounted for more than 3,300 irregular determine. Some migrants, who cross the land border to entries, mainly in the city of Melilla. In 2015, the number Ceuta and Melilla, Spain, do so with the help of smug- of Syrians increased to nearly 7,200, accounting for more glers, who provide them with fraudulent documents or than 78 per cent of irregular migrants arriving in Melilla. transportation. On the other hand, many of those opting The number of arrivals of non-Syrians rose just over 5 per 96 for the sea passage from Tangier to Tarifa, Spain are in a cent from 2014 to 2015. stronger financial position, allowing them to buy a small Between January 2016 and May 2017, the most common 93 boat and attempt the sea crossing on their own. citizenship among arrivals to Spain was Guinean. Citizens The route from Senegal, Mauritania and Morocco to the of Guinea made up some 19 per cent of all arrivals, fol- Spanish Canary Islands - located off the southern coast of lowed by nationals of Côte d’Ivoire with 15 per cent, and Morocco - was once the busiest irregular entry point to Syrians at some 12 per cent of arrivals. Syrian arrivals Europe, peaking at almost 32,000 arrivals in 2006. Fol- declined towards the end of 2015 and into 2016, but increased again as of late summer 2016. Arrivals of Gam- lowing the strengthening of border control and enforce- bians and Moroccans have also increased since early 2016. ment measures and the conclusion of bilateral agreements (including on repatriation) between Spain and the coun- The vast majority (81 per cent) of migrants and refugees tries of origin and transit, arrivals along this route had travelling along the Western Mediterranean route – as on significantly decreased as of 200894, and have remained other routes - are young men. Most of the land arrivals relatively low since then. Cooperation between the Span- originating in Sub-Saharan African countries were young

155 156 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 then, the borders have become increasingly Both fortified. cities ofCeutaandMelilla sincetheearly1990s. toreachMigrants Europe have been trying viatheSpanish arrangements The smugglers’modusoperandiandtravel broken up. Since 2002,more than 3,200suchnetworks have been 120 smugglingnetworks active along thisroute in2017. The Moroccan authorities reported having dismantled media. prominent sources ofinformationthaninternetandsocial recommendations from friendsorfamilyseemtobemore who work forthesmugglers.Personal connectionsand for thecrossing. They are oftenrecruited by fellow citizens migrants from Sub-Saharan Africarely onlocalsmugglers With regard totheseacrossing from Morocco toSpain, The smugglers’profileandorganization family. other times they are sent ahead as ‘pioneers’ of the they travel tojoinfamilymembersalready inEurope, and Gambia, Mali, Guinea, Cameroon and Ghana. Sometimes between 14 and 18 from countries such as Côte d’Ivoire, minors intoMorocco, however, tendtobeboys aged unaccompanied minorsinSpain. Flows ofunaccompanied There are noavailable statisticsregarding thearrival of inside vehicles tocross theborder. womenandchildrenfew travelling by landoftenhide men whohadjumpedover the border fences,whereas the Source: UNHCR(Spain:Arrivalsdashboard, May2017). Fig. 85: 600 100 200 300 400 500 0 98 99 Jan-16 Morocco Gambia Guinea arrivals inSpain,2016–May2017 mon citizenshipsamongseaandland Monthly trendofthefivemostcom- 100 Mar-16

May-16

Jul-16 290

Sep-16 97 Nov-16 Syrian Arab Rep. Arab Syrian d'Ivoire Côte 402 360 Jan-17 521

101 Mar-17 Since

May-17 border fencessawadecline. and Melilla, Spain, rose in2016.Attempts atscalingthe ders. Asaresult, apprehensions on thesearoute intoCeuta Spanish and Moroccan authorities heavily patrol the bor Source: UNHCR. Fig. 86: resources, oftenchoosesaferandfastertransportation. Moroccan migrants, who tend to have more financial play. Some 12-15 migrants may cram into these toys. set offinsmallinflatabledinghies usuallyusedinchildren’s those whocannotordonotwanttopaysmugglersmay doubled, from €500in2015to1,0002016.Some of average price paidby migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa With the increased popularityofthis route in 2016,the or Melilla, Spain. documents ofsomeoneelseinanattempttoenterCeuta of thedetectedallegedMoroccans usedthegenuinetravel 2016, the numbers seem to have remained stable. Most than 800whowere detectedin2015.In thefirsthalfof documents in2015;a15percentincrease from themore 950 allegedMoroccans were detectedwithfraudulent countries isfrequently reported alongthis route. Almost the useoffraudulentdocumentstoenterEuropean Union According to the Africa-Frontex Intelligence Community, and into2016. using thisapproach declinedsharplyattheend of2015 immediately applyforasylum. The numberofSyrians Melilla by posingastraders.Once inside,theywould idents of Tetuan andNador inorder toenterCeutaand pay smugglerstoobtainfakeMoroccan ofres passports - ‘rejections attheborder’. returnscities have and beenreported, includingsummary Melilla inSeptember 2014,difficultiestoaccessthesetwo Despite the opening of asylum border posts in Ceuta and 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 % % % % % % % % % % 2016 –May2017 sea arrival,bysexandage, Shares ofarrivalsinSpain,bylandor 7 4 M % 104 e 8 n 105 5 % 103 Syrian to citizens thenstarted 1 W 102 2 % o

m 8 e % n S L 1 a C e 4 n h a

% d i

a l

d r a 7 r r r e i % r v n i a v a l s l s 106 -

Regional overviews - Europe II

They may travel to the Spanish coasts on board inflatable The flow at the European Union eastern border is much boats with powerful engines, or even on jet skis. Crossing smaller than other flows into the EU. The number of ille- the Straits of Gibraltar on a jet ski can take around 30 gal border crossings detected in 2015 at the EU’s eastern minutes at a cost of some €3,000.107 border - less than 2,000 people - represented only 0.1 per The human cost cent of the total number of illegal border crossings into the EU that year. In 2016, this flow was even smaller, at The numbers of deaths seem to be increasing in line with some 1,350 detections.110 Frontex noted in 2017 that the growing use of this route. According to data from the detections of illegal border crossings might have been low IOM Missing Migrants Project, between 1 January and along this route because irregular migrants tend to make 11 August 2017, 121 migrants had lost their lives along use of visa fraud and counterfeit border-crossing stamps the Western Mediterranean route. In 2016, the figure for rather than attempting to cross the border irregularly.111 the entire year was 83.108 Most casualties occur at sea, but some also take place along the land route to Ceuta and There is no data regarding the prevalence of migrant Melilla, Spain, especially in connection with attempted smuggling along this route, but there are some indications crossings of the fence. However, it is difficult to assess that its use is decreasing. Frontex reports that the number whether there is a connection between these risks and the of detected smugglers (‘facilitators’) along the Eastern bor- smuggling activity along this route. ders route significantly decreased in early 2016, from 205 in the first quarter to 45 in the second quarter of that year. The risk of trafficking in persons also appears to be high The apprehended smugglers were from Eastern Europe among much of the migrant population along this route. and the European Union.112 The decreasing trend contin- According to IOM, many of the Nigerian and Cameroo- ued into early 2017.113 People from different countries nian women making use of this route have been trafficked seem to be smuggled across different sections of the EU 109 for the purpose of sexual exploitation. eastern border. OTHER SMUGGLING ROUTES IN The Polish-Ukrainian border appears to be particularly EUROPE attractive for irregular migrants using fraudulent docu- ments. According to Frontex, most of the detected docu- The three Mediterranean routes are not the only smug- ment fraud at the EU borders occurs at this border, which gling routes in Europe. Several other routes – with varying is largely attributable to Ukrainian citizens misusing fraud- 114 extents of smuggling activity – criss-cross the continent. ulently obtained Polish visas. As for most of the routes discussed in this report, the Not all the irregular border crossings at the EU’s eastern magnitude of these other European routes, the departure, border are associated with the purpose of irregular migra- arrival and transit point, the modes of travel and the tion. According to Frontex, in 2015, only half of the involvement of smugglers are all volatile and subject to detected border crossings between border crossing points sudden, drastic changes. were associated with irregular migration. A big share of The Eastern Borders route irregular border crossings were undertaken in order to smuggle goods or conduct illegal hunting or fishing.115 There is some migrant smuggling activity along the Euro- Moreover, irregular migrants may cross the border without pean Union’s 6,000 km-long eastern border. This includes the assistance of smugglers. parts of the eastern borders of Norway,f Finland, Estonia, The profile of migrants travelling along the EU Eastern Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria borders route has drastically changed over the last few and Romania. years. Until 2012, the route was mainly used by regional Broadly speaking, the Eastern borders route can be split migrants. As of 2011, the number of Vietnamese, Afghan into two sub-routes. The Baltic sub–route comprises the and Syrian citizens started to increase, and in 2016, Viet- crossing into one of the Baltic countries and the onward namese and Afghans were the two most frequently movement to the destination country via Poland. The detected citizenships, with Ukrainians comprising the second sub-route departs from Ukraine and enters any of third. Some of the detected Asians might have been smug- its neighbouring EU countries (Poland, Slovakia, Hungary gled by air prior to attempting to cross the EU eastern or Romania). border illegally. f Norway is not a European Union Member State, but is part of the Along the Baltic sub-route, the Latvian authorities report Schengen area of free movement. having detected some 50 smugglers in 2016. In the same

157 158 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 routes. Smuggling by airisgenerallyperceived as a safer in thefuture duetoincreased controls alonglandandsea rently lessfrequent, butislikelytobecomemore attractive According toEuropol, migrant smugglingby airiscur European airports Migrant smugglingflowsto Afghans andPakistanis. the boatsthatwere detectedin2017were Syrians, Iraqis, revive this route. Most ofthesmuggledmigrants aboard to 2017 couldbeanindicationthatsmugglersare trying smuggled migrantsbetween January andmid-September nearly600 small, theinterception ofsixboatscarrying Sea toRomania andBulgaria. Althoughthenumbersare migrantsareA few smuggled from Turkey across theBlack The BlackSearoute there issignificantsmugglingalongthisborder crossing. widespread useoffraudulentdocumentssuggeststhat number that remained broadly stable in2016. with Poland with fraudulent documents in 2015; a about 1,200 Ukrainians attempting to cross the border ferent EUcountries.Frontex reported thedetectionof Migrant smugglingisalsoreported from Ukraine todif- Viet Nam. ular migrantswere detained,including 309citizens of from Afghanistanand25from India. In 2015,463irreg 300 from Viet Nam, 44from theRussian Federation, 30 borders with the Russian Federation some and Belarus; year, about500irregular migrants were detained at Latvia’s Source: Frontex. Fig. 87: 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 Viet Nam Viet Republic Arab Syrian ships, 2009-2016 ern bordersamongselectedcitizen- der crossingsdetectedattheEUeast- Trends inthenumberofillegalbor 116 2009

2010

2011 118

2012

2013 Georgia Afghanistan 2014

2015

117 2016 The - - - than othersmugglingmethods. risk ofdetection.However, ittendstobemore expensive mode oftravel, offeringhighchancesofsuccessandlow Fig. 89: Source: Frontex. –mid-Septemberonly.* 2017datacoversJanuary Fig. 88: detected. residence permits,and Polish visas were frequently French Spanish passports, andItalian identitycards and appears tofluctuatebetween years. In 2016,fraudulent of issuance, and accordingment seems to vary tocountry identity cards andresidence permits. The typeofdocu (air, land andsearoutes combined),followed by visas, most frequently detected type of fraudulent document year, withadecliningtrend since2013.Passports are the documents have ranged between 3,500 and 7,000 per smuggled by air into the European Union using false travel Over years, the last few official detections of migrants Source: Frontex. 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0 0 120 to entertheEUbyair, 2009-2016 tected usingfalsetraveldocuments Trend inthenumberofpersonsde- 2012-2017 crossings ontheBlackSearoute, Number ofdetectedillegalborder 1 2009 6,544 2012

2010 7,151 148 2013 2011 3,652 433 2014 2012 4,401 119

68 2013 7,058 2015

2014 6,509 2016 1 2015 5,331 572 2016 4,368 2017* - Regional overviews - Europe II

In the EU, most detections of fraudulent documents take Greece and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.122 place on air routes. Large international transit airports are The exact travel routes vary and are subject to sudden and particularly at risk, but smaller airports with fewer offi- dramatic fluctuations according to changes in legislation cials, often not adequately trained in document control, and border controls in the countries concerned. According may also be targeted. to Frontex, in 2016, the main migratory movement across Changes to regularly scheduled flight routes may directly the Western Balkans flowed from Greece to the former impact detections of smuggling activities. Just as the open- Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, into Serbia and towards ing of a new air route can bring about smuggling, cancel- the Serbian-Hungarian border. Many irregular entry lations can have the opposite effect. For example, the detections also took place at the Romanian and Bulgarian cancellation of direct services between Lagos and Rome land borders with Serbia; mostly involving migrants who in March 2015 brought detections on this route to a had illegally entered Bulgaria from Turkey and were trying halt.121 to reach other EU countries.123 Smuggling of migrants within In Greece, the main exit point prior to the significant Europe reduction in the flow along this route in 2016 was Ido- meni, on the border between Greece and the former Yugo- Smuggling of migrants has also been widely documented slav Republic of Macedonia.124 Migrants would then reach within Europe. Migrants and refugees not only resort to the small town of Gevgelija in the former Yugoslav Repub- the services of smugglers to cross into the European lic of Macedonia and make their way through the country Union, but also to move within the EU or to countries to the border with Serbia. Once in Serbia, many migrants which do not belong to the Schengen area of free move- headed north, to the border with Hungary. The Serbi- ment. The Western Balkans route is the main one, but an-Hungarian border has been a key gateway from the there are also several others, which will be discussed Western Balkans into the European Union for several together in the section ‘secondary movements’. years. In spite of enhanced border controls, enforcement measures and legislative changes put into place by Hun- THE WESTERN BALKANS ROUTE gary since 2014, Frontex reported in 2017 that the high pressure at this border still persisted.125 Departing from Greece and Bulgaria, the Western Balkans Irregular border crossings undertaken by Albanians trying route leaves European Union territory and then enters it to irregularly enter Greece comprise a very different, again in Hungary, Croatia or Romania. Depending largely minor flow. This crossing is often carried out with fraud- on the changing border control measures adopted by the ulent travel documents; a method that implies the use of countries along the way, the route passes northward some smuggling services.126 Detections along this route through the countries of the Western Balkans. declined from nearly 9,000 in 2015 to just over 5,000 in 127 For migrants arriving in Greece and Bulgaria along the 2016. Eastern Mediterranean route, the Western Balkans route In terms of magnitude, the use of the Western Balkans is the natural continuation towards northern Europe, the route skyrocketed in 2015, reflecting the dramatic intended destination for most refugees and migrants. increases in arrivals along the Eastern Mediterranean While the vast majority resort to smugglers to move from route. The number of detections of irregular border cross- Turkey to Greece - at least for the sea crossing - it is dif- ings at the EU borders with Western Balkans countries ficult to determine how many are smuggled along the reached more than 764,000. This number - unprece- Western Balkans route. Moreover, regional migrants on dented and beyond comparison with any previous period their way to central and northern Europe also use this – was mainly determined by the influx of Syrian, Afghan route, and in fact undertook the majority of detected irreg- and Iraqi migrants and refugees travelling along the East- ular border crossings there until the first quarter of 2015. ern Mediterranean route.128 By 2016, these detections had decreased to just over 130,000; far lower than the year Although there is no data on the share of migrants who before, but high compared to the years prior to 2015.129 cover the Western Balkans route or part of it with the help of smugglers, the services of smugglers are perceived to be The citizenship composition among migrants travelling less needed there than along the Mediterranean routes, along the Western Balkans route has considerably changed and many migrants cross the borders on their own. This over the past few years. Arrivals from the Syrian Arab seems to be particularly true for the passage between Republic, Afghanistan and Iraq dominated in 2015 and

159 160 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 g companied minorsregistered between January andJuly Syrian ArabRepublic. in 2016;mostofthemfrom Afghanistan,Iraq andthe or separatedchildren appliedforasyluminthatcountry Statistics from Bulgaria reveal that2,768unaccompanied or separatedchildren withinthe Western Balkans flow. There isalsoaconsiderablenumberofunaccompanied of womenincreased inthecourseof2015. origins. The sameassessmentalsofoundthattheshares with someminorvariations dependingontheirnational some 18 per cent and children 24 per cent of migrants, 2015 by UN A situationassessmentundertaken Women in flowsshare passingthrough ofthemigratory Balkans. Women and children appeartocomprise asignificant Kosovars andAlbanians. crossings by people originating within the region, such as 2016. In 2014,however, there were more irregular border Source: Frontex, BalkansAnnualRiskAnalysis,2017. Western * ThereferencetoKosovoshouldbeunderstoodinthecontextofUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilresolution1244(1999). Fig. 90: Western Balkans route. 1 centers inSerbia andtheformer Yugoslav Republic ofMacedonia. from Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan andPakistan inreception andtransit withnearly30refugees NGOs, aswell assemi-structured interviews officials ofrelevant governments, international organizationsand The assessmentincluded a literature review, with in-depth interviews 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 found thatin November 2015, women comprised , , , , , , , , , , 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 States, 2013-2016* points, bymainorigins,reportedWestern BalkanandneighbouringEUMember Number ofpeopledetectedforillegalbordercrossingsbetweencrossing 6 5 4 3 S y R 7 r 5 1 e 0 2 i 3 2 a p 9 , , , n 7 u , 6 5 9 0

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9 141,536 6 P 3 1 a 5 2 1 5 k , , , 1 6 i 5 2 s 3 3 4 5 t 2 a 9 2 n Greece. cels andcouriers,provided toirregular migrants in documents. The documentswere delivered viasmallpar- orders from migrantsmugglingnetworks toproduce false theprintshop,main suspect,whowasrunning received activityinAlbania. of adocumentcounterfeiting The along the Western Balkan route, andthedismantlement documentstotravelhas reported theuseofcounterfeit of themcarriedoutby personsfrom theregion. relatively low. In 2016,there were 855such cases, most fraudulent travel documentuse,thoughtheprevalence is The Western Balkans countriesdoreport detectionsof also highlylikelytobemale. whereas Iraqis were ofsimilaraverage agetoSyrians and (average: 24years) andeven more likelyto bemale, family). The average Afghanrespondent wasyounger with a group (86 per cent; more than three with quarters ity ofrespondents were male (76 per cent) and travelled the average Syrian respondent was29years old,themajor Republic ofMacedonia, Croatia, Slovenia andHungary, ber 2015andMarch 2016inGreece, theformer Yugoslav According conductedby IOMbetween toasurvey Octo were from thesamethree origincountries. 2015 exceeded 4,000 people; also there, the vast majority A 1 1 1 7 l 0 1 2 b , 136 , , , 6 a 0 6 7 0 n 7 6 8 0 i 2 2 2 a I R r e a n 2 p 2 0 u

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Smugglers facilitating the passage from Greece to the applying for asylum, or by asylum seekers who choose to former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and onward to ignore the obligation under Dublin regulations to stay in Serbia often share a citizenship with their clients. Afghans, the first country of arrival - often just a transit - and move Pakistanis and nationals of countries in Sub-Saharan further to lodge an asylum application in their country of Africa reportedly operate along those routes. There are choice. The arrival country, where an asylum seeker first reports of well-structured smuggling groups operating entered the EU, is normally responsible for assessing that along this route. In 2016, the Hungarian Police disman- person’s application for international protection. Asylum tled a large, multinational criminal group that smuggled seekers should remain in their arrival country until the migrants from Serbia through Hungary and finally to refugee status determination procedure has been Austria. The group smuggled between 30 and 100 completed.i migrants per journey, using several minivans and a large number of drivers who worked in shifts. The smugglers The ‘Dublin system’ operates on the assumption that, as sent vehicles in advance on the highways, before the actual the asylum laws and practices of the EU States are based transportation process, to identify police presence and to on the same common standards, asylum seekers enjoy alert the actual drivers. A financial investigation into the similar levels of protection in all EU Member States. But crime group’s illegal activities revealed that large amounts in reality, asylum legislation and practice vary greatly from of generated profits had been transferred to Afghanistan, country to country. This, together with other factors where it was invested into real estate businesses.137 determining the migrant’s choice to move to another des- tination country - such as the presence of family members While deaths along the Western Balkans route are rela- or diaspora communities - push many asylum seekers to tively rare, they do occur. According to IOM data, 27 abscond during the asylum procedures and to continue migrants died along the Western Balkans route in 2015 their journey, often only a few days after having submitted 138 and 2016. Moreover, in August 2015, the bodies of 71 their application. migrants from the Syrian Arab Republic, Iraq and Afghan- istan were found in an abandoned truck alongside an Aus- Some asylum seekers resort to the services of smugglers trian motorway.139 Although it is not clear whether the to move irregularly across Europe. When smugglers are migrants had moved along the Western Balkans route, the involved, their role tends to differ from what is observed case still illustrates the risks migrants face and the smug- along the smuggling routes leading into Europe. When it glers’ unscrupulous behaviour in their hunt for profits. comes to secondary movements, it appears that the role of smugglers often includes the provision of fraudulent Women and children, traveling without male family mem- documents rather than transportation.141 bers, depending on smugglers, may be at increased risk of sexual exploitation or trafficking. The same applies to Secondary movements reached an unprecedented volume unaccompanied minors. Women and girls may also suffer in 2015, in the wake of the massive increases in arrivals sex and gender-based violence en route, as well as physical in Greece, as well as sustained high levels of arrivals in harm from robbery or police brutality.140 Migrants and Italy.142 In 2016, the level of secondary movements refugees travelling across the Western Balkans, including remained high. Border control and enforcement measures those assisted by smugglers, may also be victims of human seem to have reduced the visibility of some flows. There rights violations by some national authorities of the dif- may also have been some displacement of flows.143 ferent countries along the route. h It is not possible to determine how many migrants and Secondary movements across the refugees had their journeys facilitated by smugglers. How- European Union ever, a comparison between data on irregular arrivals and asylum application statistics can indicate where secondary In the context of the European Union migration dis- movements take place within the EU. The total number course, the term ‘secondary movements’ encompasses travel within the EU undertaken either by people who i This regime was introduced in 2003 by the Dublin Convention; later entered the EU territory irregularly with no intention of replaced by the Dublin II Regulation and amended in 2013 with the adoption of Dublin III Regulation. The aim was to establish criteria to determine which State is responsible for examining an asylum h The European Court of Human Rights has found different coun- application. The criteria for establishing responsibility run, in order tries along this route to be in breach of the ECHR in connection of priority, from family considerations, to recent possession of visa with the detention of asylum seekers. See, for instance, application or residence permit in a Member State, to whether the applicant has no. 10816/10, judgment of 20 September 2011, application no. entered EU irregularly, or regularly. For more details, see European 13058/11, and application no. 13457/11, judgments of 23 October Commission, DG Migration and Home Affairs, Country responsible 2012. for asylum application (Dublin), online briefing.

161 162 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 1 1 1 that many do not apply for asylum in their first country that manydonotapplyforasylumintheirfirstcountry and distributionofasylumseekersintheEU-28suggest j (2,459), followed by Eritrean (951)andAfghan(758). citizenship wasby farthemostfrequently detected internal borders between Member States orinland.Syrian during theoperationwere apprehended eitheratEU Almost halfofthe19,234irregular migrants detected Schengen Associate Country, Switzerland, participated. EU and the Schengen area. 26 Member States and one movementssecondary of irregular migrants within the between irregular EU external border crossings and out inOctober 2014,withthegoalofidentifyinglink The jointpoliceoperation‘Mos Maiorum’ wascarried pean countries. located atSchengenexternalborders Euro andnorthern - movements usually occur between countries of asylum analysis of recent Dublin requests shows that secondary shouldadjudicatetheasylumapplication.An country state can submit such arequest in order to assess which seeker has transited through another country, the member where amemberstatehasindicationsthatanasylum asylum seekersisthedataabout‘Dublin requests.’ movementsAnother indicatorofintra-EUsecondary by Malta isillustrative (seefigure). European country. The data on Syrian arrivals in Italy and upon arrival, move but soon afterwards on to another of entry, butinanother. Some othersdoapplyforasylum Source: European Commission. * Approximately. Fig. 91: 2 4 6 0 8 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ,0 ,0 ,0 ,0 ,0 ,0 ,0 previous application. in another country, inmost of the cases the request corresponds to a seeker had really submitted an application for international protection Although aDublin request doesnotnecessarilymeanthattheasylum 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I in Italy/Malta,2014 applications bySyriansintheEUand irregular bordercrossingsandasylum Comparison ofthenumber n t 7 c o r 9

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Dangerous travel conditionsare reported alongmany English Channel–ahigherpricethanever before. between £4,000and£5,500perpersontocross the April 2016,UNICEFreported thatsmugglerscharged taken eitherby boat,oninflatabledinghiesorby lorry. In The passagefrom France totheUnited Kingdomisunder back oncetheyreached mainlandEurope. orsomeone’sfake passport whichtheythenpost passport, around US$1,100 in2013.Sometimes migrantsusea RMMS reports thataboattripfrom Malta toItaly cost Migrants are alsosmuggledbetween Malta andItaly. Europe. movementssmuggling hubs for secondary within tres forasylumseekersinlargeEuropean as citiesserving railway stations,markets, squares andeven reception cen are smuggled across Europe. Smugglers can be found at (182), France (176)andHungary (145). of Germany (977),Austria (480),theUnited Kingdom Most detections at internal borders occurred attheborders transportation. migrants reside temporarilywhilewaiting for onward violence andexploitationinimprovised ‘camps’ where pay for their travels. gle othermigrants,especiallyiftheycontracteddebtto mulesortorecruit and/orsmug asdrug be forced toserve of experiencinglabourorsexualexploitation,theymay after theirarrival intheEU. They maybeatahigherrisk tion by criminals and criminal networks both prior to and and Europol, irregular migrantsare vulnerabletoexploita- insufficient ventilation. Moreover, according to Interpol littlespaceandwith goods,invery lorries transporting intra-European smugglingroutes. Migrants mayhidein There isevidencethatsomemigrantsandasylumseekers 145

149 148 There have also been reports of 144 146

147

- - - ENDNOTES - EUROPE Regional overviews - Europe II

1 Europol, Migrant smuggling in the EU, February 2016, p. 4. Med Research Network, Istituto Affari Internazionali, October 2015. 2 Spain, Ministry of Interior, Inmigración irregular: Balance 2016 lucha 26 Ibid. contra la inmigración irregular, online briefing, 2017 (and previous 27 Glauco I and II are available through the UNODC SHERLOC Case years). Law Database (https://www.unodc.org/cld/v3/sherloc/). 3 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017 (and previous years). 28 Ferrara, G., Prosecutor, Special Antimafia Directorate at Procura della 4 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 18. Repubblica di Palermo, Tackling the smugglers of migrants – a new approach: the ‘Glauco’ cases, Presentation at the Council of Europe, 5 Between January and mid-September 2017, six boats carrying nearly Strasbourg, 3 December 2015. 600 smuggled migrants were intercepted. (Frontex, Do the increased arrivals in Romania mean the opening of a new route via Black Sea ?, 29 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Going West: Contemporary hot topics online briefing, 20 September 2017.) Migration Trends from the Horn of Africa to Libya and Europe, June 2014, pp. 49-50; Toaldo, M., Migrations through and from Libya: a 6 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 19. Mediterranean challenge, New-Med Research Network, Istituto Affari Internazionali, May 2015, p. 8. 7 Ibid., pp. 28-29. 30 Shaw, M. and Mangan, F., Illicit trafficking and Libya’s transition: 8 Frontex, Annual Risk Analysis 2014, May 2014, p. 77. profits and losses, United States Institute of Peace, 2014, pp. 15, 23. 9 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 54. 31 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, The role of organized 10 See, for example, Europol, European Migrant Smuggling Centre: First crime in the smuggling of migrants from West Africa to the European Union, Year Activity Report, Jan 2016 – Jan 2017, 2017; Regional Mixed January 2011, pp. 32, 46-47. Migration Secretariat, Going West: Contemporary Migration Trends 32 Official information provided by the Italian Police, Direzione Central from the Horn of Africa to Libya and Europe, June 2014. Anticrimine, Servizio Central Operativo to UNODC. 11 UNHCR Libya webpage (available at: www.unhcr.org/libya.html). 33 European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs, A study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and 12 The Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, Smug- cooperation with third countries, Final Report, September 2015, pp. 52-53. gled Futures: The dangerous path of the migrant from Africa to Europe, 20 May 2014, p. 8; International Organization for Migration MENA 34 Ibid., p. 52. Regional Office and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the 35 Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Going West: Contemporary Mediterranean: Connecting the Dots, June 2015, p. 8. Migration Trends from the Horn of Africa to Libya and Europe, June 13 Molenaar, F. and El Kamouni-Janssen, F., Turning the tide: The politics 2014, p. 47. of irregular migration in the Sahel and Libya , Clingendael – Nether- 36 Reitano, T. and Tinti, P., Survive and advance: The economics of smug- lands Institute of International Relations, February 2017, pp. 60-61. gling refugees and migrants into Europe, Institute for Security Studies 14 Reitano, T. and Tinti, P., Survive and advance: The economics of smug- and The Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, gling refugees and migrants into Europe, Institute for Security Studies November 2015, p. 28. and The Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, 37 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and Altai Consulting November 2015. (2013), Mixed migration: Libya at the crossroads, November 2013, p. 53. 15 Frontex, FRAN Quarterly, Q2 April-June 2017, December 2017, p. 8. 38 European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs, A study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and 16 International Organization for Migration MENA Regional Office cooperation with third countries, Final Report, September 2015, p. 55. and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: Connecting the Dots, June 2015, p. 8. 39 European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs, Study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and 17 The Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, Smug- cooperation with third countries, Case Study 1: Syria/Lebanon – Egypt - gled Futures: The dangerous path of the migrant from Africa to Europe, Italy, 2015, p. 35. 20 May 2014. 40 European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home 18 Official data from the Direzione Centrale Anticrimine, Servizio Cen- Affairs, A study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and trale Operativo of the Italian Police. cooperation with third countries, Final Report, September 2015, p. 45. 19 Ibid. 41 International Organization for Migration, IOM Monitors Italy Arriv- 20 International Organization for Migration MENA Regional Office als During Busy Smuggling Week in Mediterranean, online briefing, February 2015. and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: Connecting the Dots, June 2015, p. 7. 42 United Kingdom, House of Lords, European Union Committee, Operation Sophia, the EU’s naval mission in the Mediterranean: an 21 International Organization for Migration MENA Regional Office impossible challenge, 14th Report of Session 2015–16, 13 May 2016. and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: Connecting the Dots, June 2015. 43 European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home Affairs, A study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and 22 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, United Nations cooperation with third countries, Final Report, September 2015, p. 46. Children’s Fund and International Organization for Migration, Ref- ugee and migrant children – including unaccompanied and separated 44 International Organization for Migration MENA Regional Office children – in the EU: overview of trends in 2016, April 2017. and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: Connecting the Dots, June 2015, p. 92. 23 Ibid. 45 Reitano, T. and Tinti, P., Survive and advance: The economics of smug- 24 International Organization for Migration MENA Regional Office gling refugees and migrants into Europe, Institute for Security Studies and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: and The Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, Connecting the Dots, June 2015, pp. 75-76. November 2015, pp. 15-16. 25 Monzini, P., Abdel Aziz, N., Pastore, F., The changing dynamics of 46 Monzini, P., Abdel Aziz, N., Pastore, F., The changing dynamics of cross-border human smuggling and trafficking in the Mediterranean, New- cross-border human smuggling and trafficking in the Mediterranean, New-

163 164 GLOBAL STUDY ON SMUGGLING OF MIGRANTS 2018 70 Frontex, 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 arrivals onGreek islandsinFebruary 2016,2016. United Nations High CommissionerforRefugees, Profiling ofAfghan human smugglersin Turkey’,, 5,2015. Advances inApplied Sociology Icli, T.G., Sever, H.andSever, M.,‘A studyontheprofile of survey dren’s Fund, Data brief:migration ofchildren toEurope, November 2015. International Organisation for Migration and United Nations Chil- children oftrends –intheEU:overview in2016,April 2017. ugee andmigrant children –includingunaccompaniedandseparated Children’s Fund andInternational Organization forMigration, Ref United Nations High CommissionerforRefugees, United Nations Greek islandsinFebruary 2016. Greece duringthatmonth.UNHCR,Profiling ofSyrian arrivals on this samplerepresentative oftheSyrian populationthat arrived in 736Syrians inFebruaryUNHCR interviewed 2016,andconsiders Official informationprovided toUNODCby theGreek authorities. 17 March 2017. European Commission,Factsheet EU-Turkey statement–oneyear, on 1Marchinformation, –31March 2017,April 2017. in theMediterranean andBeyond, Compilation ofavailable dataand International Organization forMigration, Mixed Migration Flows points, November 2014,p. 12. at land borders: findings from selected European Union border crossing European Union, Fundamental RightsAgency, Fundamental rights cooperation withthird countries,Final Report, September 2015,p. 30. Affairs, European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home 2017 –quarterly: June overview 2017. International Organization forMigration, Migration flows toEurope Europe’s seaborders southern , March 2013,p. 28. European Union, Fundamental RightsAgency, Fundamental rightsat ing, United Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- note, 17October 2017. and migrants heldcaptive by smugglersindeplorable conditions,briefing United Nations High CommissionerforRefugees, Libya: Refugees International Organization for Migration, Missing Migrants Project data. route: Migrant Fatalities, January 2014–July 2017,August 2017,p. 1. International Organization forMigration, TheCentral Mediterranean 2014, p. 79. Migration Trends from the Horn of Africa to Libya and Europe, June Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Going West:Contemporary ing, United Nations High CommissionerforRefugees andAltaiConsult- cooperation withthird countries,Final Report, September 2015,p. 40. Affairs, European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home bibliography ofrecent publications,2010,p. 23. into, through andfrom North Africa:Athematicreview andannotated United Nations Office on Drugs andCrime, challenge, 14thReport ofSession 2015–16,13May 2016,p. 3. ation Sophia,theEU’s naval missionintheMediterranean: animpossible United Kingdom,House ofLords, European Union Committee,Oper- note, 17October 2017. and migrants heldcaptive by smugglersindeplorable conditions,briefing United Nations High CommissionerforRefugees, Libya: Refugees Connecting theDots, June 2015,pp. 90,92. and AltaiConsulting,Migration Trends Across theMediterranean: International Organization forMigration MENARegional Office Med Research Network, Istituto AffariInternazionali, October 2015. Mixed migration: Libya at the crossroads, Mixed migration: Libya atthecrossroads, November 2013,p. 44. A studyonsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and A studyonsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and Profiting –how smugglersbringpeopletoEurope, from misery November 2013, p. 112. Smuggling of migrants - 94 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76 75 Ibid. 74 73 72 71 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Refugee protection Ibid., p. 39. Connecting theDots, June 2015,p. 40. and AltaiConsulting,Migration Trends Across theMediterranean: International Organization forMigration MENARegional Office contra lainmigración irregular, onlinebriefing,2017. Spain, ofInterior, Ministry Inmigración irregular: Balance 2016lucha region, December 2014. Morocco and Tunisia: overview ofthecomplexmigratory flows inthe International Organization forMigration, Migration inEgypt, Connecting theDots, June 2015,p. 37. and AltaiConsulting,Migration Trends Across theMediterranean: International Organization forMigration MENARegional Office dashboard May 2017,July 2017. United Nations High CommissionerforRefugees, Spain: Arrivals Official informationsenttoUNODCby theMoroccan authorities. in theEU,February 2016monthlyreport. See: EU FRA, Mediterranean andBeyond, Findings: Counter-trafficking Survey. 2015 and14March 2016.See IOM,Mixed Migration Flows inthe 2,385 migrantsandrefugees between were 7December interviewed migration ofchildren toEurope, November 2015. International Organisation forMigration andUNICEF, Data brief: report, 1-29February 2016,p. 30. on thecurrent migration situationintheEU:February 2016monthly European Union, Fundamental Rights Agency, Monthly datacollection nia, 2016,p. 7. and migrant crisis,Greece andtheformer Yugoslav Republic ofMacedo- ment Report: protection risks for women and girls in the European refugee Population Fund and Women’s Refugee Commission, Initial- Assess United Nations High CommissionerforRefugees, United Nations migration ofchildren toEurope, November 2015. International Organisation forMigration andUNICEF, Data brief: Maiorum”, 22January 2015,p. 35. Council oftheEuropean Union, Final report onJoint Operation “Mos cooperation withthird countries,Final Report, September 2015,p. 47. Affairs, European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home Greece, 2015,pp. 37-38. cooperation withthird countries,Case Study 3:Pakistan – Turkey - Affairs, European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home Ibid., p. 46. cooperation withthird countries,Final Report, September 2015,p. 45. Affairs, European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home cooperation withthird countries,Final Report, September 2015,p. 42. Affairs, European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home Greece, 2015,p. 33. cooperation withthird countries,Case Study 3:Pakistan – Turkey - Affairs, European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home Europe’s seaborders southern , March 2013,p. 24. European Union, Fundamental RightsAgency, Fundamental rightsat cooperation withthird countries,Final Report, September 2015,p. 56. Affairs, European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home online briefing,18February 2016. A studyonsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and A studyonsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and A studyonsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and A studyonsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and Study onsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and Study onsmugglingofmigrants: Characteristics, responses and Monthly data collection on the current migration situation Regional overviews - Europe II

and international migration: a review of UNHCR’s role in the Canary Republic of Macedonia – Serbia, 2015, pp. 24-25. Islands, Spain, April 2009, p. 1. 123 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 19. 95 International Organization for Migration MENA Regional Office and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: 124 International Organization for Migration, Mixed Migration Flows Connecting the Dots, June 2015, p. 23. in the Mediterranean and Beyond: Compilation of available data and information, 14 January 2016, p. 10. 96 Spain, Ministry of Interior, Inmigración irregular: Balance 2015 lucha contra la inmigración irregular, online briefing, September 2016. 125 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 20.

97 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Spain: Arrivals 126 Frontex, Western Balkans Annual Risk Analysis 2015, May 2015, pp. dashboard May 2017, July 2017. 21-23. 98 International Organization for Migration MENA Regional Office 127 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 18. and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: Connecting the Dots, June 2015, p. 24. 128 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2016, March 2016.

99 Frontex, Focus on Western Mediterranean route: Frontex in Spain, 129 Frontex, Western Balkans Annual Risk Analysis 2017, July 2017, p. 38. online briefing, 2 August 2017. 130 Frontex, Western Balkans Annual Risk Analysis 2017, July 2017. 100 Official information sent by the Moroccan authorities to UNODC. 101 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2010), The 131 UN Women, Gender assessment of the refugee and migration crisis in Globalization of Crime; A Transnational Organized Crime Threat Serbia and FYR Macedonia, January 2016, p. 13. Assessment, 2010, pp68-72. 132 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, United Nations 102 Frontex, Africa-Frontex Intelligence Community Joint Report 2016, Children’s Fund and International Organization for Migration, Ref- April 2017, p. 24. ugee and migrant children – including unaccompanied and separated children – in the EU: overview of trends in 2016, April 2017, p. 1. 103 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Spain country update #1, October 2015. 133 International Organization for Migration, Addressing Complex Migra- 104 Frontex, Africa-Frontex Intelligence Community Joint Report 2016, tion Flows in the Mediterranean: IOM Response Plan, Spotlight on April 2017, p. 29. South-Eastern Europe, October 2015, p. 5. 105 Frontex, Africa-Frontex Intelligence Community Joint Report 2016, 134 International Organization for Migration, Mixed Migration Flows in April 2017, pp. 25-26. the Mediterranean and Beyond: Analysis – Flow Monitoring Survey, data 106 Frontex, Focus on Western Mediterranean route: Frontex in Spain, collected 8 October 2015 – 21 March 2016, 25 March 2016. online briefing, 2 August 2017. 135 Frontex, Western Balkans Annual Risk Analysis 2017, July 2017, p. 29. 107 Ibid. 136 Europol, Migrant smuggling in the EU, February 2016, p. 11. 108 International Organization for Migration, Migrant deaths and disap- Hungary concludes investigation into the death of 71 migrants pearances worldwide: 2016 analysis, March 2017. 137 Europol, , press release, 12 October 2016. 109 International Organization for Migration MENA Regional Office and Altai Consulting, Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: 138 International Organization for Migration, Migrant deaths and disap- Connecting the Dots, June 2015, p. 44. pearances worldwide: 2016 analysis, March 2017. 110 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 18. 139 Brian, T. and Laczko, F. (eds.), Fatal Journeys, vol. 2: Identification and Tracing of Dead and Missing Migrants, International Organization for 111 Ibid., p. 20. Migration, June 2016, p. 2. 112 Frontex, Eastern Partnership Risk Analysis Network Quarterly, Q2 April-June 2016, October 2016, p. 7. 140 UN Women, Gender assessment of the refugee and migration crisis in Serbia and FYR Macedonia, January 2016, p. 15. 113 Frontex, Eastern Partnership Risk Analysis Network Quarterly, Q1 January-March 2017, July 2017, p. 7. 141 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2016, March 2016.

114 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 23. 142 Ibid., p. 32.

115 Frontex, Eastern European Borders Annual Risk Analysis 2015, May 143 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, pp. 28-29. 2015, p. 18. 144 Council of the European Union (2015), Final report on Joint 116 According to statistics from the Latvian Border Guard (available at: Operation “Mos Maiorum”, 22 January 2015: 10-12. http://www.rs.gov.lv). Migrant smuggling in the EU 117 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2016, March 2016; Frontex, Risk Analysis for 145 Europol, , February 2016, pp. 6-7. 2017, February 2017. 146 Ibid., p. 89.

118 Frontex, Do the increased arrivals in Romania mean the opening of a new 147 United Nations Children’s Fund, “Neither safe nor sound”: Sexual route via Black Sea ?, hot topics online briefing, 20 September 2017. exploitation, trafficking and abuse engulfing the lives of children in the 119 Europol, Migrant smuggling in the EU, February 2016, p. 6. camps of Calais and Dunkirk, press release, 16 June 2016.

120 Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2017, February 2017, p. 22. 148 Europol and INTERPOL, Migrant smuggling networks: Joint 121 Ibid., p. 22. Europol-INTERPOL Report, Executive Summary, May 2016, p. 10. 122 European Commission, Directorate General for Migration and Home 149 United Nations Children’s Fund, “Neither safe nor sound”: Sexual Affairs, Study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and exploitation, trafficking and abuse engulfing the lives of children in the cooperation with third countries, Case Study 5: Greece – Former Yugoslav camps of Calais and Dunkirk, press release, 16 June 2016.

165