On Finite-Dimensional Hopf Algebras

1 On ﬁnite-dimensional Hopf algebras

2 Dedicado a Biblioco 34

4 Nicolás Andruskiewitsch

5 Abstract. This is a survey on the state-of-the-art of the classification of finite-dimensional complex 6 Hopf algebras. This general question is addressed through the consideration of different classes of such 7 Hopf algebras. Pointed Hopf algebras constitute the class best understood; the classification of those 8 with abelian group is expected to be completed soon and there is substantial progress in the non-abelian 9 case.

10 Mathematics Subject Classiﬁcation (2010). 16T05, 16T20, 17B37, 16T25, 20G42.

11 Keywords. Hopf algebras, quantum groups, Nichols algebras.

12 1. Introduction

Hopf algebras were introduced in the 1950’s from three diﬀerent perspectives: algebraic groups in positive characteristic, cohomology rings of Lie groups, and group objects in the category of von Neumann algebras. The study of non-commutative non-cocommutative Hopf algebras started in the 1960’s. The fundamental breakthrough is Drinfeld’s report [25]. Among many contributions and ideas, a systematic construction of solutions of the quantum Yang-Baxter equation (qYBE) was presented. Let V be a vector space. The qYBE is equivalent to the braid equation: (c ⊗ id)(id ⊗c)(c ⊗ id) = (id ⊗c)(c ⊗ id)(id ⊗c), c ∈ GL(V ⊗ V ). (1.1)

13 If c satisfies (1.1), then (V, c) is called a braided vector space; this is a down-to-the-earth 14 version of a braided tensor category [54]. Drinfeld introduced the notion of quasi-triangular 15 Hopf algebra, meaning a pair (H,R) where H is a Hopf algebra and R ∈ H ⊗H is invertible 16 and satisfies the approppriate conditions, so that every H-module V becomes a braided vec- 17 tor space, with c given by the action of R composed with the usual flip. Furthermore, every 18 finite-dimensional Hopf algebra H gives rise to a quasi-triangular Hopf algebra, namely the ∗ 19 Drinfeld double D(H) = H ⊗ H as vector space. If H is not finite-dimensional, some pre- 20 cautions have to be taken to construct D(H), or else one considers Yetter-Drinfeld modules, 21 see §2.2. In conclusion, every Hopf algebra is a source of solutions of the braid equation. 22 Essential examples of quasi-triangular Hopf algebras are the quantum groups Uq(g) [25, 53] 23 and the finite-dimensional variations uq(g) [59, 60]. 24 In the approach to the classification of Hopf algebras exposed in this report, braided 25 vector spaces and braided tensor categories play a decisive role; and the finite quantum 26 groups are the main actors in one of the classes that splits off.

Proceedings of International Congress of Mathematicians, 2014, Seoul 2 Nicolás Andruskiewitsch

27 By space limitations, there is a selection of the topics and references included. Par- 28 ticularly, we deal with finite-dimensional Hopf algebras over an algebraically closed field 29 of characteristic zero with special emphasis on description of examples and classifications. 30 Interesting results on Hopf algebras either infinite-dimensional, or over other fields, un- 31 fortunately can not be reported. There is no account of the many deep results on tensor 32 categories, see [30]. Various basic fundamental results are not explicitly cited, we refer to 33 [1, 62, 66, 75, 79, 83] for them; classifications of Hopf algebras of fixed dimensions are not 34 evoked, see [21, 71, 86].

35 2. Preliminaries

36 Let θ ∈ N and I = Iθ = {1, 2, . . . , θ}. The base ﬁeld is C. If X is a set, then |X| is its 37 cardinal and CX is the vector space with basis (xi)i∈X . Let G be a group: we denote by 38 Irr G the set of isomorphism classes of irreducible representations of G and by Gb the subset x G 39 of those of dimension 1; by G the centralizer of x ∈ G; and by Ox its conjugacy class. 40 More generally we denote by Irr C the set of isomorphism classes of simple objects in an S 41 abelian category C. The group of n-th roots of 1 in C is denoted Gn; also G∞ = n≥1 Gn. 42 The group presented by (xi)i∈I with relations (rj)j∈J is denoted h(xi)i∈I |(rj)j∈J i. The 43 notation for Hopf algebras is standard: ∆, ε, S, denote respectively the comultiplication, 44 the counit, the antipode (always assumed bijective, what happens in the ﬁnite-dimensional 45 case). We use Sweedler’s notation: ∆(x) = x(1) ⊗ x(2). Similarly, if C is a coalgebra and 46 V is a left comodule with structure map δ : V → C ⊗ V , then δ(v) = v(−1) ⊗ v(0). If D,E 0 47 are subspaces of C, then D ∧ E = {c ∈ C : ∆(c) ∈ D ⊗ C + C ⊗ E}; also ∧ D = D and n+1 n 48 ∧ D = (∧ D) ∧ D for n > 0.

49 2.1. Basic constructions and results. The first examples of finite-dimensional Hopf alge- G 50 bras are the group algebra CG of a finite group G and its dual, the algebra of functions C . 51 Indeed, the dual of a finite-dimensional Hopf algebra is again a Hopf algebra by transpos- 52 ing operations. By analogy with groups, several authors explored the notion of extension of 53 Hopf algebras at various levels of generality; in the finite-dimensional context, every exten- 54 sion C → A → C → B → C can be described as C with underlying vector space A ⊗ B, 55 via a heavy machinery of actions, coactions and non-abelian cocycles, but actual examples 56 are rarely found in this way (extensions from a different perspective are in [9]). Relevant 57 exceptions are the so-called abelian extensions [56] (rediscovered by Takeuchi and Majid): 58 here the input is a matched pair of groups (F,G) with mutual actions ., / (or equivalently, an G 59 exact factorization of a finite group). The actions give rise to a Hopf algebra C #CF . The 60 multiplication and comultiplication can be further modified by compatible cocycles (σ, κ), G Gκ 61 producing to the abelian extension C → C → C #σCF → CF → C. Here (σ, κ) turns 62 out to be a 2-cocycle in the total complex associated to a double complex built from the 2 63 matched pair; the relevant H is computed via the so-called Kac exact sequence. 64 It is natural to approach Hopf algebras by considering algebra or coalgebra invariants. 65 There is no preference in the finite-dimensional setting but coalgebras and comodules are 66 locally finite, so we privilege the coalgebra ones to lay down general methods. The basic 67 coalgebra invariants of a Hopf algebra H are:

68 ◦ The group G(H) = {g ∈ H − 0 : ∆(g) = x ⊗ g} of group-like elements of H. On ﬁnite-dimensional Hopf algebras 3

69 ◦ The space of skew-primitive elements Pg,h(H), g, h ∈ G(H); P(H) := P1,1(H).

70 ◦ The coradical H0, that is the sum of all simple subcoalgebras. n S 71 ◦ The coradical ﬁltration H0 ⊂ H1 ⊂ ... , where Hn = ∧ H0; then H = n≥0 Hn.

72 2.2. Modules. The category H M of left modules over a Hopf algebra H is monoidal with H 73 tensor product deﬁned by the comultiplication; ditto for the category M of left comod- 74 ules, with tensor product deﬁned by the multiplication. Here are two ways to deform Hopf 75 algebras without altering one of these categories.

76 • Let F ∈ H ⊗H be invertible such that (1⊗F )(id ⊗∆)(F ) = (F ⊗1)(∆⊗id)(F ) and F 77 (id ⊗ε)(F ) = (ε ⊗ id)(F ) = 1. Then H (the same algebra with comultiplication F −1 78 ∆ := F ∆F ) is again a Hopf algebra, named the twisting of H by F [26]. The

79 monoidal categories H M and HF M are equivalent. If H and K are ﬁnite-dimensional 80 Hopf algebras with H M and K M equivalent as monoidal categories, then there exists F 81 F with K ' H as Hopf algebras (Schauenburg, Etingof-Gelaki). Examples of 82 twistings not mentioned elsewhere in this report are in [31, 65].

83 • Given a linear map σ : H ⊗H → C with analogous conditions, there is a Hopf algebra 84 Hσ (same coalgebra, multiplication twisted by σ) such that the monoidal categories H Hσ 85 M and M are equivalent [24].

86 A Yetter-Drinfeld module M over H is left H-module and left H-comodule with the 87 compatibility δ(h.m) = h(1)m(−1)S(h(3)) ⊗ h(2) · m(0), for all m ∈ M and h ∈ H. The H 88 category H YD of Yetter-Drinfeld modules is braided monoidal. That is, for every M,N ∈ H 89 H YD, there is a natural isomorphism c : M ⊗ N → N ⊗ M given by c(m ⊗ n) = H 90 m(−1) · n ⊗ m(0), m ∈ M, n ∈ N. When H is ﬁnite-dimensional, the category H YD is 91 equivalent, as a braided monoidal category, to D(H)M. 92 The deﬁnition of Hopf algebra makes sense in any braided monoidal category. Hopf H 93 algebras in H YD are interesting because of the following facts–discovered by Radford and 94 interpreted categorically by Majid, see [62, 75]: H 95 If R is a Hopf algebra in H YD, then R#H := R ⊗ H with semidirect product and 96 coproduct is a Hopf algebra, named the bosonization of R by H. ι

{ coπ 97 Let π, ι be Hopf algebra maps as in K π / / H with πι = idH . Then R = H := H 98 {x ∈ K : (id ⊗π)∆(x) = 1 ⊗ x} is a Hopf algebra in H YD and K ' R#H. H H 99 For instance, if V ∈ H YD, then the tensor algebra T (V ) is a Hopf algebra in H YD, by 100 requiring V,→ P(T (V )). If c : V ⊗ V → V ⊗ V satisﬁes c = −τ, τ the usual ﬂip, then H 101 the exterior algebra Λ(V ) is a Hopf algebra in H YD. H 102 There is a braided adjoint action of a Hopf algebra R in H YD on itself, see e.g. [12, 103 (1.26)]. If x ∈ P(R) and y ∈ R, then adc(x)(y) = xy − mult c(x ⊗ y).

104 2.2.1. Triangular Hopf algebras. A quasitriangular Hopf algebra (H,R) is triangular if 105 the braiding induced by R is a symmetry: cV ⊗W cW ⊗V = idW ⊗V for all V,W ∈ H M.A 106 finite-dimensional triangular Hopf algebra is a twisting of a bosonization Λ(V )#CG, where G 107 G is a finite group and V ∈ GYD has c = −τ [6]. This lead eventually to the classification 108 of triangular finite-dimensional Hopf algebras [29]; previous work on the semisimple case 109 culminated in [28]. 4 Nicolás Andruskiewitsch

G 110 2.3. Semisimple Hopf algebras. The algebra of functions C on a finite group G admits a G 111 Haar measure, i.e., a linear function ∫ : C → C invariant under left and right translations, 112 namely ∫ = sum of all elements in the standard basis of CG. This is adapted as follows: a 113 right integral on a Hopf algebra H is a linear function ∫ : H → C which is invariant under the 114 left regular coaction: analogously there is the notion of left integral. The notion has various 115 applications. Assume that H is finite-dimensional. Then an integral in H is an integral on ∗ 116 H ; the subspace of left integrals in H has dimension one, and there is a generalization of 117 Maschke’s theorem for finite groups: H is semisimple if and only if ε(Λ) 6= 0 for any integral 118 0 6= Λ ∈ H. This characterization of semisimple Hopf algebras, valid in any characteristic, 119 is one of several, some valid only in characteristic 0. See [79]. Semisimple Hopf algebras 120 can be obtained as follows:

121 A ﬁnite-dimensional Hopf algebra H is semisimple if and only if it is cosemisimple ∗ 122 (that is, H is semisimple).

123 Given an extension C → K → H → L → C, H is semisimple iﬀ K and L are. 124 Notice that there are semisimple extensions that are not abelian [40, 69, 74]. F 125 If H is semisimple, then so are H and Hσ, for any twist F and cocycle σ. If G is 126 a ﬁnite simple group, then any twisting of CG is a simple Hopf algebra (i.e., not a 127 non-trivial extension) [73], but the converse is not true [37].

128 A bosonization R#H is semisimple iﬀ R and H are.

129 To my knowledge, all examples of semisimple Hopf algebras arise from group algebras by 130 the preceding constructions; this was proved in [68, 70] in low dimensions and in [32] for di- a b 131 mensions p q , pqr, where p, q and r are primes. See [1, Question 2.6]. An analogous ques- 132 tion in terms of fusion categories: is any semisimple Hopf algebra weakly group-theoretical? 133 See [32, Question 2]. 134 There are only ﬁnitely many isomorphism classes of semisimple Hopf algebras in each 135 dimension [81], but this fails in general [13, 20].

136 Conjecture 2.1 (Kaplansky). Let H be a semisimple Hopf algebra. The dimension of every 137 V ∈ Irr H M divides the dimension of H.

138 The answer is aﬃrmative for iterated extensions of group algebras and duals of group 139 algebras [67] and notably for semisimple quasitriangular Hopf algebras [27].

140 3. Lifting methods

141 3.1. Nichols algebras. Nichols algebras are a special kind of Hopf algebras in braided ten- H 142 sor categories. We are mainly interested in Nichols algebras in the braided category H YD, H 143 where H is a Hopf algebra, see page 3. In fact, there is a functor V 7→ B(V ) from H YD to H 144 the category of Hopf algebras in H YD. Their first appearence is in the precursor [72]; they 145 were rediscovered in [85] as part of a “quantum differential calculus", and in [61] to present 146 the positive part of Uq(g). See also [76, 78]. H There are several, unrelated at the first glance, alternative definitions. Let V ∈ H YD. ⊗n The first definition uses the representation of the braid group Bn in n strands on V , given by ςi 7→ id ⊗c ⊗ id, c in (i, i + 1) tensorands; here recall that Bn = hς1, . . . , ςn−1|ςiςj = ςjςi, |i − j| > 1, ςiςjςi = ςjςiςj, |i − j| = 1i. Let M : Sn → Bn be the Matsumoto section On finite-dimensional Hopf algebras 5

⊗n ⊗n P ⊗n and let Qn : V → V be the quantum symmetrizer, Qn = M(s): V → s∈Sn V ⊗n. Then deﬁne

n n J (V ) = ker Qn, J(V ) = ⊕n≥2J (V ), B(V ) = T (V )/J(V ). (3.1)

n H 0 1 Hence B(V ) = ⊕n≥0B (V ) is a graded Hopf algebra in H YD with B (V ) = C, B (V ) ' V ; by (3.1) the algebra structure depends only on c. To explain the second deﬁnition, let H us observe that the tensor algebra T (V ) is a Hopf algebra in H YD with comultiplication determined by ∆(v) = v ⊗ 1 + 1 ⊗ v for v ∈ V . Then J(V ) coincides with the largest homogeneous ideal of T (V ) generated by elements of degree ≥ 2 that is also a coideal. Let n H 0 now T = ⊕n≥0T be a graded Hopf algebra in H YD with T = C. Consider the conditions T 1 generates T as an algebra, (3.2) T 1 = P(T ). (3.3)

147 These requirements are dual to each other: if T has finite-dimensional homogeneous com- n n n ∗ 148 ponents and R = ⊕n≥0R is the graded dual of T , i.e., R = (T ) , then T satisfies (3.2) 149 if and only if R satisfies (3.3). These conditions determine B(V ) up to isomorphisms, as H 1 150 the unique graded connected Hopf algebra T in H YD that satisfies T ' V , (3.2) and (3.3). 151 There are still other characterizations of J(V ), e.g. as the radical of a suitable homogeneous 152 bilinear form on T (V ), or as the common kernel of some suitable skew-derivations. See [15] 153 for more details. 154 Despite all these different definitions, Nichols algebras are extremely difficult to deal 155 with, e.g. to present by generators and relations, or to determine when a Nichols algebra has 156 finite dimension or finite Gelfand-Kirillov dimension. It is not even known a priori whether 157 the ideal J(V ) is finitely generated, except in a few specific cases. For instance, if c is 2 158 a symmetry, that is c = id, or satisfies a Hecke condition with generic parameter, then 159 B(V ) is quadratic. By the efforts of various authors, we have some understanding of finite- 160 dimensional Nichols algebras of braided vector spaces either of diagonal or of rack type, see 161 §3.5, 3.6.

162 3.2. Hopf algebras with the (dual) Chevalley property. We now explain how Nichols 163 algebras enter into our approach to the classification of Hopf algebras. Recall that a Hopf 164 algebra has the dual Chevalley property if the tensor product of two simple comodules is 165 semisimple, or equivalently if its coradical is a (cosemisimple) Hopf subalgebra. For in- 166 stance, a pointed Hopf algebra, one whose simple comodules have all dimension one, has 167 the dual Chevalley property and its coradical is a group algebra. Also, a copointed Hopf alge- 168 bra (one whose coradical is the algebra of functions on a finite group) has the dual Chevalley 169 property. The Lifting Method is formulated in this context [13]. Let H be a Hopf algebra 170 with the dual Chevalley property and set K := H0. Under this assumption, the graded coal- n 171 gebra gr H = ⊕n∈N0 gr H associated to the coradical filtration becomes a Hopf algebra co π 172 and considering the homogeneous projection π as in R = H / gr H o K we π / K 173 see that gr H ' R#K. The subalgebra of coinvariants R is a graded Hopf algebra in K YD 0 174 that inherits the grading with R = C; it satisfies (3.3) since the grading comes from the 0 1 0 175 coradical filtration. Let R be the subalgebra of R generated by V := R ; then R ' B(V ). 176 The braided vector space V is a basic invariant of H called its infinitesimal braiding. Let us 177 fix then a semisimple Hopf algebra K. To classify all finite-dimensional Hopf algebras H 178 with H0 ' K as Hopf algebras, we have to address the following questions. 6 Nicolás Andruskiewitsch

K 179 (a) Determine those V ∈ K YD such that B(V ) is finite-dimensional, and give an efficient 180 defining set of relations of these. K 181 (b) Investigate whether any finite-dimensional graded Hopf algebra R in K YD satisfying 0 1 182 R = C and P (R) = R , is a Nichols algebra. 183 (c) Compute all Hopf algebras H such that gr H ' B(V )#K, V as in (a).

184 Since the Nichols algebra B(V ) depends as an algebra (and as a coalgebra) only on the 185 braiding c, it is convenient to restate Question (a) as follows:

186 (a1) Determine those braided vector spaces (V, c) in a suitable class such that dim B(V ) < 187 ∞, and give an eﬃcient deﬁning set of relations of these.

188 (a2) For those V as in (a1), ﬁnd in how many ways, if any, they can be realized as Yetter- 189 Drinfeld modules over K.

190 For instance, if K = CΓ, Γ a ﬁnite abelian group, then the suitable class is that of braided 191 vector spaces of diagonal type. In this context, Question (a2) amounts to solve systems of 192 equations in Γ. The answer to (a) is instrumental to attack (b) and (c). Question (b) can be 193 rephrased in two equivalent statements:

K 0 194 (b1) Investigate whether any ﬁnite-dimensional graded Hopf algebra T in K YD with T = 1 195 C and generated as algebra by T , is a Nichols algebra. 196 (b2) Investigate whether any ﬁnite-dimensional Hopf algebra H with H0 = K is generated 197 as algebra by H1.

198 We believe that the answer to (b) is aﬃrmative at least when K is a group algebra. In 199 other words, by the reformulation (b2):

200 Conjecture 3.1 ([14]). Every ﬁnite-dimensional pointed Hopf algebra is generated by group- 201 like and skew-primitive elements.

202 As we shall see in §3.7, the complete answer to (a) is needed in the approach proposed 203 in [14] to attack Conjecture 3.1. It is plausible that the answer of (b2) is aﬃrmative for every 204 semisimple Hopf algebra K. Question (c), known as lifting of the relations, also requires the 205 knowledge of the generators of J(V ), see §3.8.

206 3.3. Generalized lifting method. Before starting with the analysis of the various questions 207 in §3.2, we discuss a possible approach to more general Hopf algebras [5]. Let H be a Hopf 208 algebra; we consider the following invariants of H:

209 ◦ The Hopf coradical H[0] is the subalgebra generated by H0. n+1 S 210 ◦ The standard ﬁltration H[0] ⊂ H[1] ⊂ ... , H[n] = ∧ H[0]; then H = n≥0 H[n].

211 If H has the dual Chevalley property, then H[n] = Hn for all n ∈ N0. In general, H[0] 212 is a Hopf subalgebra of H with coradical H0 and we may consider the graded Hopf algebra 213 gr H = ⊕n≥0H[n]/H[n−1]. As before, if π : gr H → H[0] is the homogeneous projection, co π H[0] 214 then R = (gr H) is a Hopf algebra in YD and gr H =∼ R#H . Furthermore, R = H[0] [0] n 215 ⊕n≥0R with grading inherited from gr H. This discussion raises the following questions.

216 (A) Let C be a finite-dimensional cosemisimple coalgebra and S : C → C a bijective 217 anti-coalgebra map. Classify all finite-dimensional Hopf algebras L generated by C, 218 such that S|C = S. On finite-dimensional Hopf algebras 7

219 (B) Given L as in the previous item, classify all ﬁnite-dimensional connected graded Hopf L 220 algebras R in LYD.

221 (C) Given L and R as in previous items, classify all deformations or liftings, that is, clas- 222 sify all Hopf algebras H such that gr H =∼ R#L.

223 Question (A) is largely open, except for the remarkable [82, Theorem 1.5]: if H is a 224 Hopf algebra generated by an S-invariant 4-dimensional simple subcoalgebra C, such that 2 225 1 < ord(S |C ) < ∞, then H is a Hopf algebra quotient of the quantized algebra of functions 226 on SL2 at a root of unity ω. Nichols algebras enter into the picture in Question (B); if 1 227 V = R , then B(V ) is a subquotient of R. Question (C) is completely open, as it depends 228 on the previous Questions.

229 3.4. Generalized root systems and Weyl groupoids. Here we expose two important no- 230 tions introduced in [51]. Let θ ∈ N and I = Iθ.A basic datum of type I is a pair (X , ρ), where X= 6 ∅ is 2 a set and ρ : I → SX is a map such that ρi = id for all i ∈ I. Let Qρ be the quiver x x x {σi := (x, i, ρi(x)) : i ∈ I, x ∈ X } over X , with t(σi ) = x, s(σi ) = ρi(x) (here t means target, s means source). Let F (Qρ) be the free groupoid over Qρ; in any quotient of F (Qρ), we denote

ρ (x) ρi ···ρi (x) σx σ ··· σ = σx σ i1 ··· σ t−1 1 ; (3.4) i1 i2 it i1 i2 it

231 i.e., the implicit superscripts are those allowing compositions.

3.4.1. Coxeter groupoids. A Coxeter datum is a triple (X , ρ, M), where (X , ρ) is a basic x x x datum of type I and M = (m )x∈X is a family of Coxeter matrices m = (mij)i,j∈I with

x x mij s((σi σj) ) = x, i, j ∈ I, x ∈ X . (3.5) The Coxeter groupoid W(X , ρ, M) associated to (X , ρ, M) [51, Deﬁnition 1] is the groupoid presented by generators Qρ with relations

x x mij (σi σj) = idx, i, j ∈ I, x ∈ X . (3.6)

3.4.2. Generalized root system. A generalized root system (GRS for short) is a collection x x R := (X , ρ, C, ∆), where C = (C )x∈X is a family of generalized Cartan matrices C = x x x I (cij)i,j∈I, cf. [57], and ∆ = (∆ )x∈X is a family of subsets ∆ ⊂ Z . We need the I x I following notation: Let {αi}i∈I be the canonical basis of Z and deﬁne si ∈ GL(Z ) by x x si (αj) = αj − cijαi, i, j ∈ I, x ∈ X . The collection should satisfy the following axioms:

x ρi(x) cij = cij for all x ∈ X , i, j ∈ I. (3.7) x x x x x I I ∆ = ∆+ ∪ ∆−, ∆± := ±(∆ ∩ N0) ⊂ ±N0; (3.8) x ∆ ∩ Zαi = {±αi}; (3.9)

x x ρi(x) si (∆ ) = ∆ ; (3.10) x mij x x (ρiρj) (x) = (x), mij := |∆ ∩ (N0αi + N0αj)|, (3.11) x x 232 for all x ∈ X , i 6= j ∈ I. We call ∆+, respectively ∆−, the set of positive, respec- x x 233 tively negative, roots. Let G = X × GLθ(Z) × X , ςi = (x, si , ρi(x)), i ∈ I, x ∈ 8 Nicolás Andruskiewitsch

x 234 X , and W = W(X , ρ, C) the subgroupoid of G generated by all the ςi , i.e., by the im- x x x 235 age of the morphism of quivers Qρ → G, σi 7→ ςi . There is a Coxeter matrix m = x x x x mij 236 (mij)i,j∈I, where mij is the smallest natural number such that (ςi ςj) = id x. Then x 237 M = (m )x∈X ﬁts into a Coxeter datum (X , ρ, M), and there is an isomorphism of

238 groupoids W(X , ρ, M) / / W = W(X , ρ, C) [51]; this is called the Weyl groupoid of x y 239 R. If w ∈ W(x, y), then w(∆ ) = ∆ , by (3.10). The sets of real roots at x ∈ X are re x S 240 (∆ ) = y∈X {w(αi): i ∈ I, w ∈ W(y, x)}; correspondingly the imaginary roots are im x x re x 241 (∆ ) = ∆ − (∆ ) . Assume that W is connected. Then the following conditions are 242 equivalent [22, Lemma 2.11]:

x 243 • ∆ is finite for some x ∈ X , x 244 • ∆ is finite for all x ∈ X , re x 245 • (∆ ) is finite for all x ∈ X ,

246 • W is ﬁnite.

247 If these hold, then all roots are real [22]; we say that R is ﬁnite. We now discuss two 248 examples of GRS, central for the subsequent discussion.

θ Example 3.2 ([2]). Let k be a ﬁeld of characteristic ` ≥ 0, θ ∈ N, p ∈ G2 and A = (aij) ∈ kθ×θ. We assume ` 6= 2 for simplicity. Let h = k2θ−rk A. Let g(A, p) be the Kac-Moody Lie superalgebra over k deﬁned as in [57]; it is generated by h, ei and fi, i ∈ I, and the A,p parity is given by |ei| = |fi| = pi, i ∈ I, |h| = 0, h ∈ h. Let ∆ be the root system of g(A, p). We make the following technical assumptions:

ajk = 0 =⇒ akj = 0, j 6= k; (3.12) ad fi is locally nilpotent in g(A, p), i ∈ I. (3.13)

A,p A,p The matrix A is admissible if (3.13) holds [80]. Let C = (cij )i,j∈I be given by

A,p m+1 A,p cij := − min{m ∈ N0 : (ad fi) fj = 0}, i 6= j ∈ I, cii := 2. (3.14)

249 We need the following elements of k:

m if p = 0, d = m a + a ; (3.15) i m ij 2 ii k aii, m = 2k, if pi = 1; dm = (3.16) k aii + aij, m = 2k + 1; n Y pi((t−1)pi+pj ) νj,0 = 1, νj,n = (−1) dt; (3.17) t=1 n ! pipj Y pi((t−1)pi+pj ) µj,0 = 0, µj,n = (−1) n (−1) dt aji. (3.18) t=2

With the help of these scalars, we define a reflection ri(A, p) = (riA, rip), where On finite-dimensional Hopf algebras 9

A,p rip = (pj)j∈I, with pj = pj − cij pi, and riA = (ajk)j,k∈I, with

 A,p −cik µj,−cA,p aii + µj,−cA,p aik  ij ij  A,p  −cik ν A,p aji + ν A,p ajk, j, k 6= i;  j,−cij j,−cij ajk = cA,pa − a , j = i 6= k; (3.19)  ik ii ik  −µ A,p a − ν A,p a , j 6= k = i;  j,−c ii j,−c ji  ij ij  aii, j = k = i.

A,p 250 Theorem 3.3. There is an isomorphism Ti : g(ri(A, p)) → g(A, p) of Lie superalgebras 251 given (for an approppriate basis (hi) of h) by

( −cA,p A,p (ad ei) ij (ej), i 6= j ∈ I, Ti (ej) = fi, j = i ( −cA,p A,p (ad fi) ij fj, j ∈ I, j 6= i, T (fj) = i pi (−1) ei, j = i, (3.20)  µ A,p hi + ν A,p hj, i 6= j ∈  j,−cij j,−cij I A,p  Ti (hj) = −hi, j = i,  hj, θ + 1 ≤ j ≤ 2θ − rk A.

Assume that dim g(A, p) < ∞; then (3.12) and (3.13) hold. Let

X ={ri1 ··· rin (A, p) | n ∈ N0, i1, . . . , in ∈ I}.

(B,q) (B,q) 252 Then (X , r, C, ∆), where C = (C )(B,q)∈X and ∆ = (∆ )(B,q)∈X , is a ﬁnite GRS, 253 an invariant of g(A, p).

254 Example 3.4. Let H be a Hopf algebra, assumed semisimple for easiness. Let M ∈ H 255 H YD be ﬁnite-dimensional, with a ﬁxed decomposition M = M1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Mθ, where H θ 256 M1,...,Mθ ∈ Irr H YD. Then T (M) and B(M) are Z -graded, by deg x = αi for all θ P 257 x ∈ Mi, i ∈ θ. Recall that = ≥0αi. I Z≥0 i∈Iθ Z

258 Theorem 3.5 ([46, 48]). If dim B(M) < ∞, then M has a ﬁnite GRS.

0 ∗ We discuss the main ideas of the proof. Let i ∈ I = Iθ. We deﬁne Mi = Vi ,

M h M cij = − sup{h ∈ N0 : adc (Mi)(Mj) 6= 0 in B(M)}, i 6= j, cii = 2; 0 −cij 0 0 Mj = adc (Mi)(Mj), ρi(M) = M1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Mθ.

M M Then dim B(M) = dim B(ρi(M)) and C = (cij )i,j∈I is a generalized Cartan matrix 0 H [12]. Also, Mj is irreducible [12, 3.8], [46, 7.2]. Let X be the set of objects in H YD with ﬁxed decomposition (up to isomorphism) of the form

{ρi1 ··· ρin (M) | n ∈ N0, i1, . . . , in ∈ I}.

N 259 Then (X , ρ, C), where C = (C )N∈X , satisﬁes (3.7). Next we need: 10 Nicolás Andruskiewitsch

260 • [46, Theorem 4.5]; [42] There exists a totally ordered index set (L, ≤) and families H θ 261 (Wl)l∈L in Irr H YD, (βl)l∈L such that B(M) ' ⊗l∈LB(Wl) as Z -graded objects H 262 in H YD, where deg x = βl for all x ∈ Wl, l ∈ L. M M M M N 263 Let ∆± = {±βl : l ∈ L}, ∆ = ∆+ ∪ ∆− , ∆ = (∆ )N∈X (M). Then R = 264 (X , ρ, C, ∆) is a ﬁnite GRS.

265 Theorem 3.6 ([23]). The classiﬁcation of all ﬁnite GRS is known.

266 The proof is a combinatorial tour-de-force and requires computer calculations. It is pos- 267 sible to recover from this result the classification of the finite-dimensional contragredient Lie 268 superalgebras in arbitrary characteristic [2]. However, the list of [23] is substantially larger 269 than the classifications of the alluded Lie superalgebras or the braidings of diagonal type 270 with finite-dimensional Nichols algebra.

G H 271 3.5. Nichols algebras of diagonal type. Let G be a finite group. We denote GYD = H YD G 272 for H = CG. So M ∈ GYD is a left G-module with a G-grading M = ⊕g∈GMg such that G 273 t · Mg = Mtgt−1 , for all g, t ∈ G. If M,N ∈ GYD, then the braiding c : M ⊗ N → N ⊗ M 274 is given by c(m ⊗ n) = g · n ⊗ m, m ∈ Mg, n ∈ N, g ∈ G. Now assume that G = Γ Γ 275 is a finite abelian group. Then every M ∈ ΓYD is a Γ-graded Γ-module, hence of the form χ χ Γ 276 M = ⊕ M , where M is the χ-isotypic component of M . So YD is just the g∈Γ,χ∈Γb g g g Γ 277 category of Γ × Γb-graded modules, with the braiding c : M ⊗ N → N ⊗ M given by η χ 278 c(m ⊗ n) = χ(g)n ⊗ m, m ∈ Mg , n ∈ Nt , g, t ∈ G, χ, η ∈ Γb. Let θ ∈ N, I = Iθ. × Definition 3.7. Let q = (qij)i,j∈I be a matrix with entries in C . A braided vector space (V, c) is of diagonal type with matrix q if V has a basis (xi)i∈I with

c(xi ⊗ xj) = qijxj ⊗ xi, i, j ∈ I. (3.21)

Γ 279 Thus, every ﬁnite-dimensional V ∈ ΓYD is a braided vector space of diagonal type. 280 Question (a), more precisely (a1), has a complete answer in this setting. First we can assume 0 0 × I×I 281 that qii 6= 1 for i ∈ I, as otherwise dim B(V ) = ∞. Also, let q = (qij)i,j∈I ∈ (C ) and 0 0 0 0 0 282 V a braided vector space with matrix q . If qii = qii and qijqji = qijqji for all j 6= i ∈ Iθ, 0 283 then B(V ) ' B(V ) as braided vector spaces.

284 Theorem 3.8 ([44]). The classiﬁcation of all braided vector spaces of diagonal type with 285 ﬁnite-dimensional Nichols algebra is known.

286 The proof relies on the Weyl groupoid introduced in [43], a particular case of Theorem 287 3.5. Another fundamental ingredient is the following result, generalized at various levels in 288 [42, 46, 48].

289 Theorem 3.9 ([58]). Let V be a braided vector space of diagonal type. Every Hopf algebra 290 quotient of T (V ) has a PBW basis.

291 The classiﬁcation in Theorem 3.8 can be organized as follows:

292 For most of the matrices q = (qij)i,j∈Iθ in the list of [44] there is a ﬁeld k and a pair 293 (A, p) as in Example 3.2 such that dim g(A, p) < ∞, and g(A, p) has the same GRS 294 as the Nichols algebra corresponding to q [2].

295 Besides these, there are 12 (yet) unidentiﬁed examples. On ﬁnite-dimensional Hopf algebras 11

296 We believe that Theorem 3.8 can be proved from Theorem 3.6, via Example 3.2.

297 Theorem 3.10 ([18, 19]). An efficient set of defining relations of each finite-dimensional 298 Nichols algebra of a braided vector space of diagonal type is known.

299 The proof uses most technical tools available in the theory of Nichols algebras; of interest 300 in its own is the introduction of the notion of convex order in Weyl groupoids. As for other 301 classiﬁcations above, it is not possible to state precisely the list of relations. We just mention 302 diﬀerent types of relations that appear.

1−aij 303 ◦ Quantum Serre relations, i.e., adc(xi) (xj) for suitable i 6= j. Nβ 304 ◦ Powers of root vectors, i.e., xβ , where the xβ’s are part of the PBW basis. 305 ◦ More exotic relations; they involve 2, 3, or at most 4 i’s in I.

G 306 3.6. Nichols algebras of rack type. We now consider Nichols algebras of objects in GYD, G 307 where G is a ﬁnite not necessarily abelian group. The category GYD is semisimple and the 308 simple objects are parametrized by pairs (O, ρ), where O is a conjugacy class in G and x 309 ρ ∈ Irr G , for a ﬁxed x ∈ O; the corresponding simple Yetter-Drinfeld module M(O, ρ) G 310 is IndGx ρ as a module. The braiding c is described in terms of the conjugation in O. To 311 describe the related suitable class, we recall that a rack is a set X 6= ∅ with a map . : 312 X × X → X satisfying

313 ◦ ϕx := x . is a bijection for every x ∈ X.

314 ◦ x . (y . z) = (x . y) . (x . z) for all x, y, z ∈ X (self-distributivity).

−1 315 For instance, a conjugacy class O in G with the operation x . y = xyx , x, y ∈ O is 316 a rack; actually we only consider racks realizable as conjugacy classes. Let X be a rack and 317 X = (Xk)k∈I a decomposition of X, i.e., a disjoint family of subracks with Xl .Xk = Xk 318 for all k, l ∈ I.

Deﬁnition 3.11. [10] A 2-cocycle of degree n = (nk)k∈I , associated to X, is a family q = (qk)k∈I of maps qk : X × Xk → GL(nk, C) such that

qk(i, j . h)qk(j, h) = qk(i . j, i . h)qk(i, h), i, j ∈ X, h ∈ Xk, k ∈ I. (3.22)

n q Given such q, let V = ⊕k∈I CXk ⊗ C k and let c ∈ GL(V ⊗ V ) be given by

q nl nk c (xiv ⊗ xjw) = xi.jqk(i, j)(w) ⊗ xiv, i ∈ Xl, j ∈ Xk, v ∈ C , w ∈ C .

q 319 Then (V, c ) is a braided vector space called of rack type; its Nichols algebra is denoted 320 B(X, q). If X = (X), then we say that q is principal.

G 321 Every finite-dimensional V ∈ GYD is a braided vector space of rack type [10, Theorem 322 4.14]. Question (a1) in this setting has partial answers in three different lines: computation 323 of some finite-dimensional Nichols algebras, Nichols algebras of reducible Yetter-Drinfeld 324 modules and collapsing of racks.

325 3.6.1. Finite-dimensional Nichols algebras of rack type. The algorithm to compute a i 326 Nichols algebra B(V ) is as follows: compute the space J (V ) = ker Qi of relations of 327 degree i, for i = 2, 3, . . . , m; then compute the m-th partial Nichols algebra Bdm(V ) = 12 Nicolás Andruskiewitsch

i 328 T (V )/h⊕2≤i≤mJ (V )i, say with a computer program. If lucky enough to get dim Bdm(V ) < 329 ∞, then check whether it is a Nichols algebra, e.g. via skew-derivations; otherwise go to 2 330 m + 1. The description of J (V ) = ker(id +c) is not diﬃcult [38] but for higher degrees it 331 turns out to be very complicated. We list all known examples of ﬁnite-dimensional Nichols 332 algebras B(X, q) with X indecomposable and q principal and abelian (n1 = 1).

m Example 3.12. Let Od be the conjugacy class of d-cycles in Sm, m ≥ 3. We start with the (12) rack of transpositions in Sm and the cocycles −1, χ that arise from the ρ ∈ Irr Sm with ρ(12) = −1, see [64, (5.5), (5.9)]. Let V be a vector space with basis (x ) m and ij (ij)∈O2 consider the relations

2 m xij = 0, (ij) ∈ O2 ; (3.23) m xijxkl + xklxij = 0, (ij), (kl) ∈ O2 , |{i, j, k, l}| = 4; (3.24) m xijxkl − xklxij = 0, (ij), (kl) ∈ O2 , |{i, j, k, l}| = 4; (3.25) m xijxik + xjkxij + xikxjk = 0, (ij), (ik), (jk) ∈ O2 , |{i, j, k}| = 3; (3.26) m xijxik − xjkxij − xikxjk = 0, (ij), (ik), (jk) ∈ O2 , |{i, j, k}| = 3. (3.27)

m 333 The quadratic algebras Bm := Bc2(O2 , −1) = T (V )/h(3.23), (3.24), (3.26)i and Em := m 334 Bc2(O2 , χ) = T (V )/h(3.23), (3.25), (3.27)i were considered in [64], [36] respectively; Em 335 are named the Fomin-Kirillov algebras. It is known that

m m 336 ◦ The Nichols algebras B(O2 , −1) and B(O2 , χ) are twist-equivalent, hence have the 337 same Hilbert series. Ditto for the algebras Bm and Em [84]. m m ◦ If 3 ≤ m ≤ 5, then Bm = B(O2 , −1) and Em = B(O2 , χ) are ﬁnite-dimensional [36, 38, 64] (for m = 5 part of this was done by Graña). In fact

dim B3 = 12, dim B4 = 576, dim B5 = 8294400.

m m 338 But for m ≥ 6, it is not known whether the Nichols algebras B(O2 , −1) and B(O2 , χ) 339 have ﬁnite dimension or are quadratic.

4 Example 3.13 ([10]). The Nichols algebra B(O4, −1) is quadratic, has the same Hilbert 4 series as B(O , −1) and is generated by (x ) 4 with deﬁning relations 2 σ σ∈O4

2 xσ = 0, (3.28)

xσxσ−1 + xσ−1 xσ = 0, (3.29) 4 xσxκ + xν xσ + xκxν = 0, σκ = νσ, κ 6= σ 6= ν ∈ O4. (3.30)

Example 3.14 ([41]). Let A be a ﬁnite abelian group and g ∈ Aut A. The aﬃne rack (A, g) is the set A with product a.b = g(b)+(id −g)(a), a, b ∈ A. Let p ∈ N be a prime, q = pv(q) × a power of p, A = Fq and g the multiplication by N ∈ Fq ; let Xq,N = (A, g). Assume that q = 3, 4, 5, or 7, with N = 2, ω ∈ F4 − F2, 2 or 3, respectively. Then dim B(Xq,N , −1) = q−2 2 v(q)(q−1) qϕ(q)(q − 1) , ϕ being the Euler function, and J(Xq,N , −1) = hJ + J i, where J2 is generated by

2 xi , always (3.31)

xixj + x−i+2jxi + xjx−i+2j, for q = 3, (3.32) On ﬁnite-dimensional Hopf algebras 13

xixj + x(ω+1)i+ωjxi + xjx(ω+1)i+ωj, for q = 4, (3.33)

xixj + x−i+2jxi + x3i−2jx−i+2j + xjx3i−2j, for q = 5, (3.34)

xixj + x−2i+3jxi + xjx−2i+3j, for q = 7, (3.35)

v(q)(q−1) X h 2 v(q)(q−1)−h−2 with i, j ∈ Fq; and J is generated by T (V )J T (V ) and h

2 2 2 (xωx1x0) + (x1x0xω) + (x0xωx1) , for q = 4, (3.36) 2 2 (x1x0) + (x0x1) , for q = 5, (3.37) 2 2 2 (x2x1x0) + (x1x0x2) + (x0x2x1) , for q = 7. (3.38)

3 Of course X3,2 = O2; also dim B(X4,ω, −1) = 72. By duality, we get

dim B(X5,3, −1) = dim B(X5,2, −1) = 1280,

dim B(X7,5, −1) = dim B(X7,3, −1) = 326592.

Example 3.15 ([45]). There is another ﬁnite-dimensional Nichols algebra associated to X4,ω with a cocycle q with values ±ξ, where 1 6= ξ ∈ G3. Concretely, dim B(X4,ω, q) = 5184 and B(X4,ω, q) can be presented by generators (xi)i∈F4 with deﬁning relations

3 3 3 3 x0 = x1 = xω = xω2 = 0, 2 2 ξ x0x1 + ξx1xω − xωx0 = 0, ξ x0xω + ξxωxω2 − xω2 x0 = 0, 2 2 ξx0xω2 − ξ x1x0 + xω2 x1 = 0, ξx1xω2 + ξ xωx1 + xω2 xω = 0, 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 x0x1xωx1 + x0x1xωx1x0 + x1xωx1x0 + xωx1x0x1 + x1x0x1xω + x1x0x1xωx1 2 2 +x1xωx1x0xω + xωx1x0x1x0xω + xωx1x0xωx0 = 0.

3.6.2. Nichols algebras of decomposable Yetter-Drinfeld modules over groups. The ideas of Example 3.4 in the context of decomposable Yetter-Drinfeld modules over groups were pushed further in a series of papers culminating with a remarkable classiﬁcation result [50]. Consider the groups

−1 n Γn = ha, b, ν|ba = νab, νa = aν , νb = bν, ν = 1i, n ≥ 2; (3.39) 3 3 T = hζ, χ1, χ2|ζχ1 = χ1ζ, ζχ2 = χ2ζ, χ1χ2χ1 = χ2χ1χ2, χ1 = χ2i. (3.40)

G 340 ◦ [47] Let G be a suitable quotient of Γ2. Then there exist V1, W1 ∈ Irr GYD such that 6 341 dim V1 = dim W1 = 2 and dim B(V1 ⊕ W1) = 64 = 2 .

342 ◦ [50] Let G be a suitable quotient of Γ3. Then there exist V2, V3, V4, W2,W3,W4 ∈ G 343 Irr GYD such that dim V2 = 1, dim V3 = dim V4 = 2, dim W2 = dim W3 = 7 4 344 dim W4 = 3 and dim B(V2⊕W2) = dim B(V3⊕W3) = 10368 = 2 3 , dim B(V4⊕ 18 345 W4) = 2304 = 2 . G 346 ◦ [49] Let G be a suitable quotient of Γ4. Then there exist V5, W5 ∈ Irr GYD such that 18 347 dim V5 = 2, dim W5 = 4 and dim B(V5 ⊕ W5) = 262144 = 2 . G 348 ◦ [49] Let G be a suitable quotient of T . Then there exist V6, W6 ∈ Irr GYD such that 12 9 349 dim V6 = 1, dim W6 = 4 and dim B(V6 ⊕ W6) = 80621568 = 2 3 . 14 Nicolás Andruskiewitsch

G 350 Theorem 3.16 ([50]). Let G be a non-abelian group and V,W ∈ Irr GYD such that G is 2 351 generated by the support of V ⊕W . Assume that c|V ⊗W 6= id and that dim B(V ⊕W ) < ∞. 352 Then V ⊕ W is one of Vi ⊕ Wi, i ∈ I6, above, and correspondingly G is a quotient of either 353 Γn, 2 ≤ n ≤ 4, or T .

354 3.6.3. Collapsing racks. Implicit in Question (a1) in the setting of racks is the need to 355 compute all non-principal 2-cocycles for a fixed rack X. Notably, there exist criteria that 356 dispense of this computation. To state them and explain their significance, we need some 357 terminology. All racks below are finite.

358 ◦ A rack X is abelian when x . y = y, for all x, y ∈ X.

359 ◦ A rack is indecomposable when it is not a disjoint union of two proper subracks.

360 ◦ A rack X with |X| > 1 is simple when for any projection of racks π : X → Y , either 361 π is an isomorphism or Y has only one element.

362 Theorem 3.17 ([10, 3.9, 3.12], [55]). Every simple rack is isomorphic to one of:

t 363 (1) Aﬃne racks (Fp,T ), where p is a prime, t ∈ N, and T is the companion matrix of a 364 monic irreducible polynomial f ∈ Fp[X] of degree t, f 6= X, X − 1.

365 (2) Non-trivial (twisted) conjugacy classes in simple groups. t 366 (3) Twisted conjugacy classes of type (G, u), where G = L , with L a simple non- t 367 abelian group and 1 < t ∈ N; and u ∈ Aut(L ) acts by u(`1, `2, . . . , `t) = 368 (θ(`t), `1, `2, . . . , `t−1), where θ ∈ Aut(L).

369 Deﬁnition 3.18 ([7, 3.5]). We say that a ﬁnite rack X is of type D when there are a decom- ` 370 posable subrack Y = R S, r ∈ R and s ∈ S such that r . (s . (r . s)) 6= s.

371 Also, X is of type F [4] if there are a disjoint family of subracks (Ra)a∈I4 and a family 372 (ra)a∈I4 with ra ∈ Ra, such that Ra .Rb = Rb, ra . rb 6= rb, for all a 6= b ∈ I4.

373 An indecomposable rack X collapses when dim B(X, q) = ∞ for every ﬁnite faithful 374 2-cocycle q (see [7] for the deﬁnition of faithful).

375 Theorem 3.19 ([7, 3.6]; [4, 2.8]). If a rack is of type D or F, then it collapses.

376 The proofs use results on Nichols algebras from [12, 23, 46]. 377 If a rack projects onto a rack of type D (or F), then it is also of type D (or F), hence it 378 collapses by Theorem 3.19. Since every indecomposable rack X, |X| > 1, projects onto a 379 simple rack, it is natural to ask for the determination of all simple racks of type D or F. A 380 rack is cthulhu if it is neither of type D nor F; it is sober if every subrack is either abelian or 381 indecomposable [4]. Sober implies cthulhu.

Sm Am 382 ◦ Let m ≥ 5. Let O be either Oσ , if σ ∈ Sm − Am, or else Oσ if σ ∈ Am. The type 383 of σ is formed by the lengths of the cycles in its decomposition. 2 2 n 4 2 2 3 n 384 [7, 4.2] If the type of σ is (3 ), (2 , 3), (1 , 3), (2 ), (1 , 2 ), (2, 3), (2 ), or (1 , 2), 2 385 then O is cthulhu. If the type of σ is (1, 2 ), then O is sober.

386 [33] Let p ∈ N be a prime. Assume the type of σ is (p). If p = 5, 7 or not of the form k 387 (r − 1)/(r − 1), r a prime power, then O is sober; otherwise O is of type D. Assume k 388 the type of σ is (1, p). If p = 5 or not of the form (r − 1)/(r − 1), r a prime power, 389 then O is sober; otherwise O is of type D. On ﬁnite-dimensional Hopf algebras 15

Table 3.1. Classes in sporadic simple groups not of type D

Group Classes Group Classes T 2A Co3 23A, 23B M11 8A, 8B, 11A, 11B J1 15A, 15B, 19A, 19B, 19C M12 11A, 11B J2 2A, 3A M22 11A, 11B J3 5A, 5B, 19A, 19B M23 23A, 23B J4 29A, 43A, 43B, 43C M24 23A, 23B Ly 37A, 37B, 67A, 67B, 67C Ru 29A, 29B O0N 31A, 31B Suz 3A F i23 2A HS 11A, 11B F i22 2A, 22A, 22B 0 McL 11A, 11B F i24 29A, 29B Co1 3A B 2A, 46A, 46B, 47A, 47B Co2 2A, 23A, 23B

390 [7, 4.1] For all other types, O is of type D, hence it collapses.

391 ◦ [4] Let n ≥ 2 and q be a prime power. Let x ∈ PSLn(q) not semisimple and PSLn(q) 392 O = Ox . The type of a unipotent element are the sizes of its Jordan blocks.

393 Assume x is unipotent. If x is either of type (2) and q is even or not a square, or of 394 type (3) and q = 2, then O is sober. If x is either of type (2, 1) and q is even, or of 395 type (2, 1, 1) and q = 2 then O is cthulhu. If x is of type (2, 1, 1) and q > 2 is even, 396 then O is not of type D, but it is open if it is of type F.

397 Otherwise, O is either of type D or of type F, hence it collapses.

398 ◦ [8, 35] Let O be a conjugacy class in a sporadic simple group G. If O appears in Table 399 3.1, then O is not of type D. If G = M is the Monster and O is one of 32A, 32B, 41A, 400 46A, 46B, 47A, 47B, 59A, 59B, 69A, 69B, 71A, 71B, 87A, 87B, 92A, 92B, 94A, 401 94B, then it is open whether O is of type D. Otherwise, O is of type D.

402 3.7. Generation in degree one. Here is the scheme of proof proposed in [14] to attack K 0 403 Conjecture 3.1: Let T be a ﬁnite-dimensional graded Hopf algebra in K YD with T = C 1 404 and generated as algebra by T . We have a commutative diagram of Hopf algebra maps π 405 T / / B(V ) . To show that π is injective, take a generator r (or a family of f 6 p T (V )

406 generators) of J(V ) such that r ∈ P(T (V )) and consider the Yetter-Drinfeld submodule 407 U = Cr ⊕ V of T (V ); if dim B(U) = ∞, then p(r) = 0. Then p factorizes through 408 T (V )/J1(V ), where J1(V ) is the ideal generated by primitive generators of J(V ), and so 409 on. 410 The Conjecture has been veriﬁed in all known examples in characteristic 0 (it is false in 411 positive characteristic or for inﬁnite-dimensional Hopf algebras).

412 Theorem 3.20. A ﬁnite-dimensional pointed Hopf algebra H is generated by group-like and

413 skew-primitive elements if either of the following holds: 16 Nicolás Andruskiewitsch

414 [19] The inﬁnitesimal braiding is of diagonal type, e. g. G(H) is abelian. m m 415 [11, 38]. The inﬁnitesimal braiding of H is any of (O2 , −1), (O2 , χ) (m = 3, 4, 5), 416 (X4,ω, −1), (X5,2, −1), (X5,3, −1), (X7,3, −1), (X7,5, −1).

417 3.8. Liftings. We address here Question (c) in §3.2. Let X be a ﬁnite rack and q : X×X → 418 G∞ a 2-cocycle. A Hopf algebra H is a lifting of (X, q) if H0 is a Hopf subalgebra, H is q 419 generated by H1 and its inﬁnitesimal braiding is a realization of (CX, c ). See [39] for 420 liftings in the setting of copointed Hopf algebras. We start discussing realizations of braided vector spaces as Yetter-Drinfeld modules. Let θ ∈ N and I = Iθ. First, a YD-datum of diagonal type is a collection

D = ((qij)i,j∈I, G, (gi)i∈I, (χi)i∈I), (3.41)

where qij ∈ G∞, qii 6= 1, i, j ∈ I; G is a ﬁnite group; gi ∈ Z(G); χi ∈ Gb, i ∈ I; such that qij := χj(gi), i, j ∈ I. Let (V, c) be the braided vector space of diagonal type with matrix (q ) in the basis (x ) . Then V ∈ GYD by declaring x ∈ V χi , i ∈ . More generally, a ij i i∈Iθ G i gi I YD-datum of rack type [11, 64] is a collection

D = (X, q, G, ·, g, χ), (3.42)

421 where X is a finite rack; q : X ×X → G∞ is a 2-cocycle; G is a finite group; · is an action of 422 G on X; g : X → G is equivariant with respect to the conjugation in G; and χ = (χi)i∈X is × 423 a family of 1-cocycles χi : G → C (that is, χi(ht) = χi(t)χt·i(h), for all i ∈ X, h, t ∈ G) q 424 such that gi · j = i . j and χi(gj) = qij for all i, j ∈ X. Let (V, c) = (CX, c ) be the G 425 associated braided vector space. Then V becomes an object in GYD by δ(xi) = gi ⊗ xi and 426 t · xi = χi(t)xt·i, t ∈ G, i ∈ X. G 427 Second, let D be a YD-datum of either diagonal or rack type and V ∈ GYD as above; let 428 T (V ) := T (V )#CG. The desired liftings are quotients of T (V ); write ai in these quotients 429 instead of xi to distinguish them from the elements in B(V )#CG. Let G be a minimal set 430 of generators of J(V ), assumed homogeneous both for the N- and the G-grading. Roughly 431 speaking, the deformations will be defined by replacing the relations r = 0 by r = φr, 432 r ∈ G, where φr ∈ T (V ) belongs to a lower term of the coradical filtration, and the ideal 433 Jφ(V ) generated by φr, r ∈ G, is a Hopf ideal. The problem is to describe the φr’s and 434 to check that T (V )/Jφ(V ) has the right dimension. If r ∈ P(T (V )) has G-degree g, then 435 φr = λ(1 − g) for some λ ∈ C; depending on the action of G on r, it may happen that λ 436 should be 0. In some cases, all r ∈ G are primitive, so all deformations can be described; see 437 [13] for quantum linear spaces (their liftings can also be presented as Ore extensions [20]) 438 and the Examples 3.21 and 3.22. But in most cases, not all r ∈ G are primitive and some 439 recursive construction of the deformations is needed. This was achieved in [15] for diagonal 440 braidings of Cartan type An, with explicit formulae, and in [16] for diagonal braidings of 441 finite Cartan type, with recursive formulae. Later it was observed that the so obtained liftings 442 are cocycle deformations of B(V )#CG, see e.g. [63]. This led to the strategy in [3]: pick 443 an adapted stratification G = G0 ∪ G1 ∪ · · · ∪ GN [3, 5.1]; then construct recursively the 444 deformations of T (V )/hG0 ∪ G1 ∪ · · · ∪ Gk−1i by determining the cleft extensions of the 445 deformations in the previous step and applying the theory of Hopf bi-Galois extensions [77]. 446 In the Examples below, χi = χ ∈ Gb for all i ∈ X by [11, 3.3 (d)]. On finite-dimensional Hopf algebras 17

3 2 Example 3.21 ([11, 39]). Let D = (O2, −1, G, ·, g, χ) be a YD-datum. Let λ ∈ C be such that

2 λ1 = λ2 = 0, if χ 6= ε; (3.43) 2 λ1 = 0, if g12 = 1; λ2 = 0, if g12g13 = 1. (3.44)

Let u = u(D, λ) be the quotient of T (V ) by the relations

2 2 a12 = λ1(1 − g12), (3.45)

a12a13 + a23a12 + a13a23 = λ2(1 − g12g13). (3.46)

447 Then u is a pointed Hopf algebra, a cocycle deformation of gr u ' B(V )#CG and dim u = 0 0 × 3 448 12|G|; u(D, λ) ' u(D, λ ) iﬀ λ = cλ for some c ∈ C . Conversely, any lifting of (O2, −1) 3 2 449 is isomorphic to u(D, λ) for some YD-datum D = (O2, −1, G, ·, g, χ) and λ ∈ C satisfy- 450 ing (3.43), (3.44).

4 3 Example 3.22 ([11]). Let D = (O2, −1, G, ·, g, χ) be a YD-datum. Let λ ∈ C be such that

2 λi = 0, i ∈ I3, if χ 6= ε; (3.47) 2 λ1 = 0, if g12 = 1; λ2 = 0, if g12g34 = 1; λ3 = 0, if g12g13 = 1. (3.48)

Let u = u(D, λ) be the quotient of T (V ) by the relations

2 2 a12 = λ1(1 − g12), (3.49)

a12a34 + a34a12 = λ2(1 − g12g34), (3.50)

a12a13 + a23a12 + a13a23 = λ3(1 − g12g13). (3.51)

451 Then u is a pointed Hopf algebra, a cocycle deformation of B(V )#CG and dim u = 576|G|; 0 0 × 4 452 u(D, λ) ' u(D, λ ) iﬀ λ = cλ for some c ∈ C . Conversely, any lifting of (O2, −1) is 4 3 453 isomorphic to u(D, λ) for some YD-datum D = (O2, −1, G, ·, g, χ) and λ ∈ C satisfying 454 (3.47), (3.48).

3 Example 3.23 ([39]). Let D = (X4,ω, −1, G, ·, g, χ) be a YD-datum. Let λ ∈ C be such that

2 6 λ1 = λ2 = 0, if χ 6= ε; λ3 = 0, if χ 6= ε; (3.52) 2 3 3 λ1 = 0, if g0 = 1, λ2 = 0, if g0g1 = 1, λ3 = 0, if g0g1 = 1. (3.53)

455 Let u = u(D, λ) be the quotient of T (V ) by the relations

2 2 x0 = λ1(1 − g0), (3.54)

x0x1 + xωx0 + x1xω = λ2(1 − g0g1) (3.55) 2 2 2 3 3 (xωx1x0) + (x1x0xω) + (x0xωx1) = ζ6 − λ3(1 − g0g1), where (3.56)

3 3 3 ζ6 = λ2(xωx1x0xω + x1x0xωx1 + x0xωx1x0) − λ2(g0g1 − g0g1) 18 Nicolás Andruskiewitsch

2 2 2 2 +λ1g0 g1+ω(xωx3 + x0xω) + g1g1+ω(xωx1 + x1x3) + g1(x1x0 + x0x3) 2 2 2 2 −2λ1g0(x0x3 − xωx3 − x1xω + x1x0) − 2λ1gω(xωx3 − x1x3 + x0xω − x0x1) 2 2 −2λ1g1(xωx1 + x1x3 + x1xω − x0x3 + x0x1) 2 2 2 2 +λ2λ1(gωx0x3 + g1xωx3 + g0x1x3) + λ2g0g1(xωx1 + x1x0 + x0xω − λ1) 2 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 −λ2λ1(3g0g1+ω − 2g0g1 − g0gω − 2g0g1 + gω − g1 + g0) 2 2 2 3 −λ2(λ1 − λ2) λ1 g0(g1+ω + g1g1+ω + g1 + 2g0g1) + xωx1 + x1x0 + x0xω .

456 Then u is a pointed Hopf algebra, a cocycle deformation of gr u ' B(V )#CG and dim u = 0 0 × 457 72|G|; u(D, λ) ' u(D, λ ) iﬀ λ = cλ for some c ∈ C . Conversely, any lifting of 458 (X4,ω, −1) is isomorphic to u(D, λ) for some YD-datum D = (X4,ω, −1, G, ·, g, χ) and 3 459 λ ∈ C satisfying (3.52), (3.53). 3 Example 3.24 ([39]). Let D = (X5,2, −1, G, ·, g, χ) be a YD-datum. Let λ ∈ C be such that

2 4 λ1 = λ2 = 0, if χ 6= ε; λ3 = 0, if χ 6= ε; (3.57) 2 2 λ1 = 0, if g0 = 1, λ2 = 0, if g0g1 = 1, λ3 = 0, if g0g1g2 = 1. (3.58) Let u = u(D, λ) be the quotient of T (V ) by the relations

2 2 x0 = λ1(1 − g0), (3.59)

x0x1 + x2x0 + x3x2 + x1x3 = λ2(1 − g0g1), (3.60) 2 2 2 (x1x0) + (x0x1) = ζ4 − λ3(1 − g0g1g2), where (3.61)

2 2 2 460 ζ4 = λ2 (x1x0 + x0x1) + λ1 g1(x3x0 + x2x3) − λ1 g0(x2x4 + x1x2) + λ2λ1 g0(1 − g1g2). 461 Then u is a pointed Hopf algebra, a cocycle deformation of gr u ' B(V )#CG and dim u = 0 0 × 462 1280|G|; u(D, λ) ' u(D, λ ) iﬀ λ = cλ for some c ∈ C . Conversely, any lifting of 463 (X5,2, −1) is isomorphic to u(D, λ) for some YD-datum D = (X5,2, −1, G, ·, g, χ) and 3 464 λ ∈ C satisfying (3.57), (3.58). 3 Example 3.25 ([39]). Let D = (X5,3, −1, G, ·, g, χ) be a YD-datum. Let λ ∈ C be such that

2 4 λ1 = λ2 = 0, if χ 6= ε; λ3 = 0, if χ 6= ε; (3.62) 2 2 λ1 = 0, if g0 = 1, λ2 = 0, if g1g0 = 1, λ3 = 0, if g0g1g3 = 1. (3.63) Let u = u(D, λ) be the quotient of T (V ) by the relations

2 2 x0 = λ1(1 − g0), (3.64)

x1x0 + x0x2 + x2x3 + x3x1 = λ2(1 − g1g0) (3.65) 0 2 x0x2x3x1 + x1x4x3x0 = ζ4 − λ3(1 − g0g1g3), (3.66)

0 2 2 2 2 465 where ζ4 = λ2 (x0x1 +x1x0)−λ1 g1(x3x2 +x0x3)−λ1 g0(x3x4 +x1x3)+λ1λ2(g1 +g0 − 2 466 2g0g1g3). Then u is a pointed Hopf algebra, a cocycle deformation of gr u ' B(V )#CG 0 0 × 467 and dim u = 1280|G|; u(D, λ) ' u(D, λ ) iﬀ λ = cλ for some c ∈ C . Conversely, any 468 lifting of (X5,3, −1) is isomorphic to u(D, λ) for some YD-datum D = (X5,3, −1, G, ·, g, χ) 3 469 and λ ∈ C satisfying (3.62), (3.63). On ﬁnite-dimensional Hopf algebras 19

470 4. Pointed Hopf algebras

471 4.1. Pointed Hopf algebras with abelian group. Here is a classiﬁcation from [16]. Let

472 D = ((qij)i,j∈Iθ , Γ, (gi)i∈Iθ , (χi)i∈Iθ ) be a YD-datum of diagonal type as in (3.41) with Γ 473 Γ a ﬁnite abelian group and let V ∈ ΓYD be the corresponding realization. We say that 474 D is a Cartan datum if there is a Cartan matrix (of ﬁnite type) a = (aij)i,j∈Iθ such that aij 475 qijqji = qii , i 6= j ∈ Iθ. 476 Let Φ be the root system associated to a, α1, . . . , αθ a choice of simple roots, X the set 477 of connected components of the Dynkin diagram of Φ and set i ∼ j whenever αi, αj belong 478 to the same J ∈ X . We consider two classes of parameters:

479 ◦ λ = (λij)i

We attach a family (uα(µ))α∈Φ+ in CΓ to the parameter µ , deﬁned recursively on the Ni length of α, starting by uαi (µ) = µαi (1 − gi ). From all these data we deﬁne a Hopf algebra u(D, λ, µ) as the quotient of T (V ) = T (V )#CΓ by the relations

−1 gaig = χi(g)ai, (4.1)

1−aij adc(ai) (aj) = 0, i 6= j, i ∼ j, (4.2) adc(ai)(aj) = λij(1 − gigj), i < j, i j, (4.3)

NJ aα = uα(µ). (4.4)

482 Theorem 4.1. The Hopf algebra u(D, λ, µ) is pointed, G(u(D, λ, µ)) ' Γ and dim u(D, λ, µ) + Q |ΦJ | 483 = J∈X NJ |Γ|. Let H be a pointed ﬁnite-dimensional Hopf algebra and set Γ = G(H). 484 Assume that the prime divisors of |Γ| are > 7. Then there exists a Cartan datum D and pa-

485 rameters λ and µ such that H ' u(D, λ, µ). It is known when two Hopf algebras u(D, λ, µ) 0 0 0 486 and u(D , λ , µ ) are isomorphic.

487 The proof offered in [16] relies on [14, 43, 59, 60]. Some comments: the hypothesis on 488 |Γ| forces the infinitesimal braiding V of H to be of Cartan type, and the relations of B(V ) 489 to be just quantum Serre and powers of root vectors. The quantum Serre relations are not 490 deformed in the liftings, except those linking different components of the Dynkin diagram; 491 the powers of the root vectors are deformed to the uα(µ) that belong to the coradical. All 492 this can fail without the hypothesis, see [52] for examples in rank 2.

493 4.2. Pointed Hopf algebras with non-abelian group. We present some classification re- 494 sults of pointed Hopf algebras with non-abelian group. We say that a finite group G collapses 495 whenever any finite-dimensional pointed Hopf algebra H with G(H) ' G is isomorphic to 496 CG.

497 • [7, 8] Let G be either Am, m ≥ 5, or a sporadic simple group, diﬀerent from F i22, 498 the Baby Monster B or the Monster M. Then G collapses.

499 The proof uses §3.6.3; the remaining Yetter-Drinfeld modules are discarded consider- 500 ing abelian subracks of the supporting conjugacy class and the list in [44]. 20 Nicolás Andruskiewitsch

3 501 • [12] Let V = M(O2, sgn) and let D be the corresponding YD-datum. Let H be a 502 ﬁnite-dimensional pointed Hopf algebra with G(H) ' S3. Then H is isomorphic 503 either to CS3, or to u(D, 0) = B(V )#CS3, or to u(D, (0, 1)), cf. Example 3.21. • [38] Let H 6' CS4 be a ﬁnite-dimensional pointed Hopf algebra with G(H) ' S4. 4 4 4 Let V1 = M(O2, sgn ⊗ id), V2 = M(O2, sgn ⊗ sgn), W = M(O4, sgn ⊗ id), with corresponding data D1, D2 and D3. Then H is isomorphic to one of

2 2 u(D1, (0, µ)), µ ∈ C ; u(D2, t), t ∈ {0, 1}; u(D3, λ), λ ∈ C .

Here u(D1, (0, µ)) is as in Example 3.22; u(D2, t) is the quotient of T (V2) by the 2 relations a12 = 0, a12a34 −a34a12 = 0, a12a23 −a13a12 −a23a13 = t(1−g(12)g(23)) and u(D3, λ) is the quotient of T (W ) by the relations

2 a(1234) = λ1(1 − g(13)g(24)); a(1234)a(1432) + a(1432)a(1234) = 0;

a(1234)a(1243) + a(1243)a(1423) + a(1423)a(1234) = λ2(1 − g(12)g(13)).

504 Clearly u(D1, 0) = B(V1)#CS4, u(D2, 0) = B(V2)#CS4, u(D3, 0) = B(W )#CS4. × 505 Also u(D1, (0, µ)) ' u(D1, (0, ν)) iff µ = cν for some c ∈ C , and u(D3, λ) ' × 506 u(D3, κ) iff λ = cκ for some c ∈ C . 507 • [7, 38] Let H be a finite-dimensional pointed Hopf algebra with G(H) ' S5, but 5 508 H 6' CS5. It is not known whether dim B(O2,3, sgn ⊗ε) < ∞. Let D1, D2 be 5 5 509 the data corresponding to V1 = M(O2, sgn ⊗ id), V2 = M(O2, sgn ⊗ sgn). If the 5 510 infinitesimal braiding of H is not M(O2,3, sgn ⊗ε), then H is isomorphic to one of 2 511 u(D1, (0, µ)), µ ∈ C (defined as in Example 3.22), or B(V2)#CS5, or u(D2, 1) 512 (defined as above).

513 • [7] Let m > 6. Let H 6' CSm be a finite-dimensional pointed Hopf algebra with 514 G(H) ' Sm. Then the infinitesimal braiding of H is V = M(O, ρ), where the m−2 515 type of σ is (1 , 2) and ρ = ρ1 ⊗ sgn, ρ1 = sgn or ε; it is an open question 516 whether dim B(V ) < ∞, see Example 3.12. If m = 6, there are two more Nichols 3 517 algebras with unknown dimension corresponding to the class of type (2 ), but they are 4 518 conjugated to those of type (1 , 2) by the outer automorphism of S6. 519 • [34] Let m ≥ 12, m = 4h with h ∈ N. Let G = Dm be the dihedral group of order G 520 2m. Then there are infinitely many finite-dimensional Nichols algebras in GYD; all 521 of them are exterior algebras as braided Hopf algebras. Let H be a finite-dimensional 522 pointed Hopf algebra with G(H) ' Dm, but H 6' CDm. Then H is a lifting of an 523 exterior algebra, and there infinitely many such liftings.

524 4.2.1. Copointed Hopf algebras. We say that a semisimple Hopf algebra K collapses if 525 any finite-dimensional Hopf algebra H with H0 ' K is isomorphic to K. Thus, if G G F 526 collapses, then C and (CG) collapse, for any twist F . Next we state the classification 3 527 of the finite-dimensional copointed Hopf algebras over S3 [17]. Let V = M(O2, sgn) as 3 3 O X 528 a Yetter-Drinfeld module over CS . Let λ ∈ C 2 be such that λij = 0. Let v = 3 (ij)∈O2 3 529 v(V, λ) be the quotient of T (V )#CS by the relations a(13)a(23) +a(12)a(13) +a(23)a(12) = 530 0, a(23)a(13) + a(13)a(12) + a(12)a(23) = 0, 2 P 3 531 a = (λij − λg−1(ij)g)δg, for (ij) ∈ O . Then v is a Hopf algebra of dimension 72 (ij) g∈S3 2 On finite-dimensional Hopf algebras 21

3 3 532 and gr v ' B(V )#CS . Any ﬁnite-dimensional copointed Hopf algebra H with H0 ' CS 0 0 533 is isomorphic to v(V, λ) for some λ as above; v(V, λ) ' v(V, λ ) iﬀ λ and λ are conjugated × 534 under C × Aut S3.

535 Acknowledgements. This work was partially supported by ANPCyT-Foncyt, CONICET, 536 Secyt (UNC). I thank all my coauthors for pleasant and fruitful collaborations. I am particu- 537 larly in debt with Hans-Jürgen Schneider, Matías Graña and Iván Angiono for sharing their 538 ideas on pointed Hopf algebras with me.

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