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Standing Up Against Racial Discrimination: Progressive Americans and the Chinese Exclusion Act in the Late Nineteenth Century

Wenxian Zhang Rollins College, [email protected]

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Published In Zhang, Wenxian. "Standing Up Against Racial Discrimination: Progressive Americans and the Chinese Exclusion Act in the Late Nineteenth Century." Phylon (1960-) 56, no. 1 (2019): 8-32. www.jstor.org/stable/ 26743829.

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Standing Up Against Racial Discrimination: Progressive Americans and the Chinese Exclusion Act in the Late Nineteenth Century

Wenxian Zhang Rollins College

Abstract

The passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act is a dark chapter in the immigration history of the . In contrast to the overwhelming “Yellow Peril” literature of the time, the outcries of mistreated Chinese were few and far between, as they had little recourse against their accusers. This article attempts to identify the rare voices of Chinese Americans and recognizes the bold vision and noble endeavors of some progressive Americans during the Exclusion Era of the late nineteenth century. Throughout the national debates on the Chinese Exclusion Act, a minority of Americans stood up in support of Chinese immigrants, while sturdily condemning injustice against them. They argued that such a discriminatory measure wasa direct violation of America’s moral principles of freedom, liberty, and equity for all. Although their calls for justice were engulfed by the anti-Chinese hysteria of the time, they stood on the right side of history, and their brave acts inspired those marginalized people in their continuing march for civil rights advancement in the United States.

Introduction states. They soon became a major work- force during the construction of the first The discovery of gold in transcontinental railroad and made sig- in the mid-nineteenth century marked nificant contributions to the expansion the beginning of large-scale Chinese of agriculture in the American West immigration to the United States. Since (Zhang 2018). However, the economic the 1850s, unwilling to accept a life of recession that started in the early 1870s poverty and despair, tens of thousands led to rising anti-Chinese sentiment, of Chinese laborers embarked on the and Chinese immigrants were blamed transpacific voyage and began to work as scapegoats of the economic crisis and in gold and silver mines in the western a source of social evils and moral decline Wenxian Zhang 9

in America. Politicians such as James A. debate on the Chinese Exclusion Act? Johnson began to make racist claims By examining the lives of some no- “that the white man is superior to the table figures, this essay documents the Chinaman; that our country would be brave deeds of those Americans in voic- better off peopled entirely with our own ing their true convictions and defend- kind than if mixed with an inferior and ing Chinese immigrants during a dark degraded race” (Torok 1996, 89). Finally chapter of national history. By taking a in 1882, after California implemented a strong stand against ethnic persecution series of discriminatory legislation and at a time when racial discrimination following more than a decade of anti- was widely accepted, they demonstrat- Chinese outcries and lobbying from the ed considerable political courage and western states, Congress unilaterally unbending commitment to American passed the Chinese Exclusion Act (Stat- ideals. utes at Large 1882), prohibiting all im- migration of Chinese laborers. Building Voices of Chinese Americans: on the Page Act (Statutes at Large 1875), Wong Ching Foo and Yan Phou Lee which banned Chinese women from entering the United States, the Chinese During the late nineteenth century, Exclusion Act was the first law imple- most Chinese in America came from mented to prevent a specific ethnic or southern . With little education, national group from immigrating, and majority of them were manual laborers in one of the most significant restrictions mines and construction sites or living in on free immigration in American his- Chinatowns as factory workers or shop- tory. The Act not only outlawed all Chi- keepers. Wong Ching Foo and Yan Phou nese immigration, but also denied citi- Lee are two exceptions. Both were born in zenship to those already settled in the China but educated in the United States. country. Its impact upon the Chinese in After becoming naturalized citizens, America was profound and devastating they passionately advocated the cause (Chan 1991). of Chinese Americans. By speaking “American objections to Chinese im- out on behalf of their people against migration were deeply rooted in eco- disreputable legislation, they provided nomic and social tensions, as well as the rare voices for those persecuted and prevailing ethnic prejudice in the late proved that ethnic Chinese had become nineteenth century. Nevertheless, de- members of a multicultural American spite the dominant beliefs in American society (Seligman 2013a; Cheung, 2003). society and the fact that the Act passed Wong Ching Foo (1847-1898) was a with overwhelming support from Con- Chinese-American civil rights advocate gress, at that time the notorious legis- and one of the most outspoken Chinese lation had been vehemently opposed voices in the nineteenth century. Born by some progressive Americans. Who in Jimo, Shandong, Wong came to the were those people? How did they get United States in 1867 with the assistance involved with Chinese immigrants, and of American missionary Sallie Little what did they do during the national Holmes and attended the University at 10 Phylon 56

Lewisburg (now Bucknell University) be naturalized, Wong dedicated his in 1869-70. After a short stay in China, life to fighting for the equal rights of where he was excommunicated from Chinese Americans. He once famously the Baptist Church and became a challenged ’s anti-Chinese wanted man for inciting rebellion agitator and Irish immigrant Denis against the corrupt Qing Court, he Kearney to a duel, giving Kearney his returned to America in 1873 and became choice of weapon: chopsticks, Irish a citizen a year later (Seligman 2013b). potatoes, or Krupp guns (Seligman Disillusioned by Western religion, he 2013a, 161). Wong also established wrote his most notable essay “Why Am America’s first association of Chinese I a Heathen?” to explain his rejection voters and later the Chinese Equal of Christianity in favor of traditional Rights League. As its president, on Chinese beliefs (Wong 1887). Declaring January 26, 1893, Wong testified in front himself China’s first Confucian of a congressional committee to oppose missionary to the United States, he the renewal of the Chinese Exclusion launched a cross-country lecture tour to Act (Seligman 2013b). When the Geary promote Chinese culture and denounce Act passed, the League mobilized tens discrimination against the Chinese in of thousands of Chinese immigrants to America. When he gave a speech in New defy the discriminatory legislation, one York, Harper’s Weekly (1877, 405) praised: of the first massive civil disobedience cases in U.S. history (Pomfret 2016). Mr. Wong Ching Foo disclaims the Wong was also the first person to character of missionary, and says introduce the notion of Chinese he has come only for the purpose American (Zhang 2018). However, his of explaining away certain misap- same-titled newspaper in Chinese prehensions concerning his country language only lasted less than a year and people which prevail among for lack of funding. On the occasion of Americans. He is an intelligent, cul- its publication, Frank Leslie’s Illustrated tured gentleman, speaking English Newspaper (1883, 435) reported: with ease and vivacity, and he has The cosmopolitan character which the power of interesting his audi- has taken on of late ence. years is freshly shown by the es- tablishment of a Chinese weekly A civil rights pioneer, Wong proudly newspaper. This new journalistic defended Chinese Americans as law- venture is edited by Wong Chin abiding and good-mannered people, Foo, an educated man of rank, who and courageously declared that only graduated at one of our colleges, “character and fitness should be the and is very popular with his coun- requirement of all who are desirous trymen.… Such an enterprise will of becoming citizens of the American surprise many people who have Republic” (Pomfret 2016, 82). As one always been accustomed to regard of the first Chinese immigrants to the Chinese as illiterate barbarians, Wenxian Zhang 11

and it certainly shows a degree of “place of distinction” as a “foundation advancement which is exceedingly father” of Asian American literature. creditable to them. Besides his autobiography, Lee also wrote essays about the ways in which During the exclusion debate in late Chinese immigrants were mistreated nineteenth century America, another in the United States. As one of the distinguished Chinese voice belonged few American-educated Chinese of to Yan Phou Lee (1861-1938). Born in the time, Lee spent most of his life Xiangshan, , Lee came to advocating for equality for the Chinese America in 1873 as a part of the Chinese American community. In his graduation Educational Mission led by . speech, he claimed that “the Chinese However, before Lee could complete his will always preserve the sad record of study, his fellowship was cancelled by persecutions and cruelty which they the Qing Court and all students were had met in the land where all are equal recalled, a few months before the Chinese before the law. How humiliating to think Exclusion Act was passed. Despite his that only a feeble voice here and there young age, Lee had already developed has been raised against this enormous an appreciation of American culture. wrong!” (New York Times 1887c, 8). As With missionary assistance in China, he a direct response to the popular anti- “decided to come back here and make immigration slogan “Chinese Must Go!” this country his permanent abiding of the Exclusion Era, Lee wrote “The place, for when he left China, against the Chinese Must Stay,” in which he first command of his Government, he could praised the moral principles asserted never return except on peril of losing his by the Founding Fathers that “all men head” (New York Times 1887a, 2). Upon are created equal and made this fair returning, Lee converted to Christianity land a refuge for the whole world,” and resumed his studies at Yale. He and then powerfully denounced wrote for the press, lectured in different “How far this Republic has departed cities, and did clerical work to pay for from its high ideal and reversed its his tuition, while earning the Larned traditionary policy may be seen in the Scholarship and prizes for proficiency laws passed against the Chinese” (Lee in English, history, law, and political 1889). In “The Other Side of the Chinese economy. In 1887, after graduation Question,” he strongly condemned the from Yale, he married Elizabeth Maud hypocrisy that “Californians prohibited Jerome, which became “the first the Chinese from becoming citizens marriage in New Haven of a native of and then accused them of failure to China to an American lady” (New York become naturalized” (Lee 1887b). A Times 1887b, 1). During the same year, citizen himself, Lee advocated the he also published When I Was a Boy in assimilationist ideal and argued that China (Lee 1887a), believed to be the first Chinese, like European immigrants, title printed in English in the U.S. by were just as capable of becoming good someone of Asian descent. According to Americans. When Wong published his Amy Ling (2002), his writing deserves a “Why Am I a Heathen?” Lee responded 12 Phylon 56

with a rejoinder outlining his choice of your independence, and all the acts to embrace Christianity in America of your government, your people, and (Lee 1887c). While his outspoken voice your history are all against you” (As- angered many Americans of his time, ing 1852). Unfortunately, the press then he also managed to gain a sympathetic was largely one-sided; any outcries by understanding from some white middle- persecuted Chinese were few and far class readers. Besides Wong and Lee, between, and were quickly engulfed by Yung Wing, reportedly the first Chinese anti-Chinese waves. ever graduated from an American university, also registered his strong Support from Members of the opposition to the prejudiced legislation. Community: Frederick Bee, Otis In a letter to Secretary of State William Gibson, and Others M. Evarts, Yung Wing (1880) wrote: Since most of the early Chinese But at the present time the Treaty immigrants were young males with of 1868 is practically a dead letter little education, they could only find in one of the States of the Union employment in mines and railroad where tens of thousands of my construction, and later as factory countrymen are by law deprived of workers, agricultural laborers, shelter and prohibited from earn- fishermen, grocers, laundrymen, ing a livelihood and are in hourly and domestic servants. Because of expectation of being driven from widespread hostility, many sought their homes to starve in the streets. shelter in the Chinese communities of Under such circumstances I could large cities, especially San Francisco not acquit myself of my duty if I and New York. While concentrating did not protest earnestly, but most in insular Chinatowns, they still had respectfully, against the wrong to to interact with members of local which they have been subjected. communities, people such as business owners and employers, store customers, In fact, as early as 1852, when accusa- government officials, policemen and tions and legislative measures began to sheriffs, attorneys, religious leaders, and emerge to limit Chinese immigration to so on. Owing to these direct encounters, California, Norman Asing, a naturalized some Americans gained a firsthand citizen and leader in San Francisco’s understanding of the life experience Chinese community, published a force- of those immigrant laborers. During ful letter challenging the discriminatory the ensuing debates on the Chinese policies issued by California Governor Exclusion Act, whether out of sympathy, John Bigler: “You argue that this is a personal conviction, or business republic of a particular race—that the interests, they spoke out in support of Constitution of the United States admits Chinese immigrants. Frederick Bee and of no asylum to any other than the pale Otis Gibson are two good examples. face. This proposition is false in the ex- Born in Clinton, New York, Frederick treme, and you know it. The declaration Alonzo Bee (1825-1892) was the last Wenxian Zhang 13

of eight children of John and Mary of the Chinese immigrants, whom he (Wilson) Bee, who had emigrated praised as a “harmless, innocent class from Northumberland, England, in of people,” “men of iron,” and “hardy, the early nineteenth century. Growing industrious laborers” (Ibid, 44-45). up in Central New York, Bee followed After pointing out “that legislation his brother Albert to California in 1849 has been one-sided,” Bee remarked: and went directly into mining, which turned out to be a personally lucrative business. At that time, the Gold Rush I say it with shame, that these attracted both white settlers and have no privileges. They do to the American West, but Chinese not seem to have extended to them laborers typically operated in teams the protection of the law in any organized by district associations and particular.… We are here to show often worked in areas abandoned by and controvert the charges against others. In this capacity Bee had his first them, and expose the wrongs per- encounter with Chinese immigrants, petrated upon them.… It has ar- when he hired twenty Chinese rived to this – that their treatment workers on Ledge Bar to extract gold here is such that they have become from an underwater pit (Sacramento sick, disappointed, and disgusted, Daily Union 1855). While the difficult and I am here to show that they are operation generated a good profit, the a persecuted people (Ibid, 37-49). hard-working and productive Chinese miners also left a deep impression on However, despite Bee’s efforts, the the mind of the capitalist entrepreneur. Joint Special Committee still concluded In July 1876, at the urging of the that the Chinese population had few Republican National Convention, desirable characteristics and restrictive Congress passed resolutions “to measures on Chinese immigration were investigate the extent, character, and justified. Bee received death threats effect of Chinese immigration” (Report in 1877 after his testimony and when of the Joint Special Committee 1877). raising funds for the Chinese victims of When the Joint Special Committee the Chico Massacre (Inter Ocean 1877, held hearings later that year, no 5). He was also the constant subject of attorneys were willing to represent ridicule and condemnation by racist the Chinese immigrants, likely fearing publications such as The San Francisco repercussions from nativist mobs. When Illustrated Wasp, once the most-read Committee Chairman Senator Oliver weekly on the West Coast and a Morton contacted Bee, he accepted the vanguard of the anti-Chinese movement offer with the same entrepreneurial in California (For more information spirit that had made him a friend of please read the following: “Col. B’s the Chinese workers years earlier. On Hobby Horse,” San Francisco Illustrated October 21, 1876, at the Palace Hotel in Wasp, Nov. 9, 1878, cover; “Golden Calf San Francisco, Bee testified in front the Retained,” Wasp, March 15, 1879, cover; joint congressional committee on behalf “New Treaty and the New Politicians,” 14 Phylon 56

Wasp, 6:239 (1881), 144; “Our New miners (Daily Alta California 1885). Cabinet at Washington,” Wasp, April 28, For his outstanding work, Bee 1882, 264-5; “The Chinese Want to Go,” was awarded the honorable rank of Wasp, 9:316 (1882); “The Restriction Act Mandarin of the Blue Button by the Knocked Out,,” Wasp, August 15, 1885, Qing Court (San Francisco News Letter 8-9; “Easy Work: The Way to Repeal 1882). When Congress was debating the an Act of Congress,” Wasp, August Chinese Exclusion Act, he wrote a letter 10, 1889, cover; “The Joker Makes His to the Senate in protest: “As surely as Appearance Once More,” Wasp, August the path on which our fathers entered 24, 1889, 16; “A Dangerous Machine to a hundred years ago led to safety, to Fool With,” Wasp, September 28, 1889, strength, to glory, so surely will the 8-9.) Undeterred, he spoke with The path on which we now propose to enter Washington Post (Chinese in America bring us to shame, to weakness, and 1878) to denounce “the sand-lot men and to peril” (Bee 1882, 290). As a response the irresponsible riff-raff population, to the Board of Supervisors’ early who vote for the party which yells report on the condition of the Chinese loudest against the Chinese.” His strong Quarter in San Francisco and hoping support for Chinese laborers not only to provide a different perspective on generated angry protests from members the contentious issue, Bee published of the Workingmen’s Party, but also The Other Side of the Chinese Question: caught the attention of the newly arrived To the People of the United States and Chinese Ambassador Chen Lanbin, who the Honorable the Senate and House of after a brief investigation appointed Representatives. Testimony of California’s Bee a Chinese Consul in San Francisco Leading Citizens (1886). In 1890, in order (Sacramento Daily Union 1878). Bee to clarify misunderstandings about then devoted himself to representing Chinese immigration, Bee found himself the interests of the Chinese in America again in front of the Congressional and defending their civil rights against Joint Committee on Immigration discriminatory measures. A practicing and Naturalization, giving lengthy attorney in California, he testified as a testimony on the Chinese immigrants witness on behalf of Chinese immigrants in America, the Six Companies, the in multiple habeas corpus cases. He criminal activities in Chinatown, as well also appeared before state and federal as his work as a Chinese consul (Report of courts seeking reparations for growing the Committees 1890-91). He continually anti-Chinese violence in America, most spoke out in the news media to condemn notably the Rock Springs Massacre in the Scott Act and other discriminatory 1885, one of the most ferocious anti- legislation against Chinese immigrants Chinese riots in the nineteenth century (Daily Inter Ocean 1890, 24). In spite of (Harper’s Weekly 1885b, 676). After his determination, two weeks before his conducting investigation in Wyoming, death, Congress passed the Geary Act Bee vehemently condemned the to further extend and restrict Chinese “low-browed, square-jawed, ignorant immigration. When Bee passed away and villainously visaged men” for suddenly in 1892, the flag at the Chinese their violent attacks on Chinese Consulate and those around Chinatown Wenxian Zhang 15

in San Francisco were lowered to half- his trip to China and was appointed mast to pay tribute to their American ally as a missionary in , Fujian. in civil liberties (San Francisco Call 1892). After his marriage with Elizabeth For his steadfast support, Bee had won Chamberlin, the Gibsons sailed from the respect of the Chinese immigrants New York Harbor on April 3, 1855, he represented and inspired those and reached Fujian four months later. persecuted people in their continual While in Fuzhou, Gibson labored fight for civil rights in the country. with his followers to establish the first During the peak of anti-Chinese two Methodist churches in , the hysteria, Bee was by no means the only Church of the True God and the Church voice of opposition. In The Other Side of of Heavenly Peace. He also studied the Chinese Question, Bee (1886) compiled Chinese and helped translate of the Bible testimonies of some of California’s and other Christian books into the local leading citizens who spoke during dialect. After a decade of missionary the congressional hearings in favor of work, Gibson returned to preaching in Chinese immigration to the American Moira, New York, because of his wife’s West. The list includes a minister, failing health. However, he was soon entrepreneur, merchant, rancher, reassigned to San Francisco, California, physician, lawyer, and judge, with as the head of the Methodist Church’s names such as Augustus W. Loomis, “Chinese Domestic Mission,” which Frederick W. Macondray, Joseph A. was designed to serve the increasing Coolidge, Geo. D. Roberts, Solomon number of Chinese immigrants in the Heydenfeldt, Cornelius B. Gibbs, California Conference (Dickinson 2005). Herman Heynemann, Richard G. Sneath, Here Gibson proved himself again William F. Babcock, Donald McLennan, an effective leader of his community. Henry C. Beals, Arthur B. Stout, William He quickly established a mission in W. Hollister, David D. Colton, and the fast-growing city that included an Charles Crocker. First on his list was impressive building on Washington Otis T. Gibson, a Methodist minister Street. Since most Chinese immigrants and community leader in San Francisco. spoke , he learned the dialect, Otis Gibson (1826-1889) was born compiled a Chinese-English dictionary, on a farm in Moira, New York to and translated the New Testament into Winslow Gardner and Orpha Marsh Cantonese. In 1870, noting the dire Gibson. After the death of his brother, condition of Chinese women in San young Gibson became a Christian Francisco’s Chinatown, Gibson and his and joined the Methodist Episcopal wife launched the Women’s Missionary Church. In 1850, he entered Dickinson Society of the Pacific Coast, recruiting College and studied under Professor Methodist women to organize the Erastus Wentworth (1813-1886), Chair rescue and protection of exploited of Natural Philosophy and a devout Chinese women and girls, teaching Methodist. Following his graduation them English and other skills so that with a divinity degree in 1854, he they could adopt a new life in America decided to accompany Wentworth on (Dickinson Ibid). For his diligent service, 16 Phylon 56

Gibson was awarded an honorary Benjamin Sherman Brooks (1820- degree from Dickinson College in 1877. 1884) was another brave person in the An outspoken voice for the Chinese, late nineteenth century who spoke out Gibson frequently protested the unfair against discriminatory legislation and and exploitative treatment suffered the persecution of Chinese immigrants. by Chinese immigrants and made Born in Bridgeport, Connecticut, Brooks “untiring and courageous efforts in was a pioneer who migrated to the behalf of the poor and the wronged” California in 1849 and soon began to (Johnston 1898, 480). Published in practice law. For the next two decades 1877, Gibson was mostly known for his he worked as a land attorney in San landmark work The Chinese in America. Francisco and later represented the Based on his personal observation and interests of local Chinese and the Six research, he hoped “to give a fair and Companies in legal matters. In 1876, impartial presentation of ‘The Chinese he testified along with Bee before in America,’ their number, character, the congressional committee, where habits, and customs; their adaptation 130 witnesses were cross-examined or other wise to the condition of things (Sacramento Daily Union 1876). Among in this country, and the relations of our them, nearly half who testified supported Christian civilization to this heathen Chinese immigration, including church immigration” (Gibson 1877, 4). A rare but leaders, lawyers, doctors, farmers, powerful defense of Chinese immigrants merchants, and laborers (Paddison during the nineteenth century, Gibson 2009). At the congressional hearing concluded his condemnation against on October 21, Brooks proudly the anti-Chinese arguments with a noble proclaimed his progressive principles: reaffirmation of the American ideal: I believe these men have souls. I The doors of our country are open believe in the common humanity equally for both [White and Chi- and brotherhood of all men. I do nese]. We have room for all. Ours not claim any rights whatever as is the “land of the free, and the against a red man, or a black man, home of the brave.” The oppressed or a yellow man. If he can compete and down-trodden from all nations with me on a fair footing, let him may alike find shelter here, and compete. If he diminishes my earn- under the benign influences of our ings, I have no right to complain. free institutions, and of our exalted He has as good a right to earn a faith, with the blessing of Almighty living on God’s footstool as I (Re- God, these different nationalities port of the Joint Special Committee and varying civilizations shall, in 1877, 51). time, blend into one harmonious whole, illustrating to a wondering world the common Fatherhood of God, and the universal brother- hood of man (279-80). Wenxian Zhang 17

Criticism from the Literati: toward Chinese immigrants. As a Mark Twain and Joaquin Miller young journalist, he observed the dire conditions of Chinese miners: One of America’s most beloved writers, Mark Twain (1835-1910) was Of course there was a large Chi- a novelist, humorist, journalist, and nese population in Virginia [City, lecturer, best known for novels such Nevada] - it is the case with every as The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and town and city on the Pacific coast. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. They are a harmless race when Growing up in Hannibal, Missouri, white men either let them alone Twain had his initial encounter with or treat them no worse than dogs; Chinese on his first trip to New York in in fact they are almost entirely 1853, during which he labeled African harmless anyhow, for they seldom Americans, interracial, and Chinese as think of resenting the vilest insults “human vermin,” revealing the crude or the cruelest injuries. They are racism of his provincial youth (Twain quiet, peaceable, tractable, free 1853, 10). When the Civil War broke from drunkenness, and they are as out, Twain lost his job as riverboat pilot industrious as the day is long. A on the Mississippi, so he followed his disorderly Chinaman is rare, and brother to Nevada and began to work a lazy one does not exist. So long as a journalist, first at the Territorial as a Chinaman has strength to use Enterprise in Virginia City, then Daily his hands he needs no support from Morning Call, and later wrote for anybody; white men often com- Dramatic Chronicle in California. In this plain of want of work, but a China- capacity Twain witnessed firsthand man offers no such complaint; he the plight of Chinese laborers in the always manages to find something American West, and his xenophobic to do. He is a great convenience to viewpoint began to change. He once everybody - even to the worst class remarked, “I am not fond of Chinamen, of white men, for he bears the most but I am still less fond of seeing them of their sins, suffering fines for their wronged and abused” (Foner 1958, 183). petty thefts, imprisonment for their His news reports and literary works robberies, and death for their mur- related to Chinese immigrants include ders (Twain 1891, 391). “China Trial,” “Opium Smugglers,” “Chinese Slaves,” “Chinese Railroad In his 1870 “Disgraceful Persecution of Obstructions,” “The New Chinese a Boy,” Twain reiterated his rage at anti- Temple,” “China at the Fair,” “Coolies Chinese scapegoatism prevailing in the for California,” “Our Active Police,” western states: “What Have the Police Been Doing?” “John Chinaman in New York,” and A Chinaman had no rights that “Goldsmith’s Friend Abroad Again.” any man was bound to respect; Throughout his literary career, Twain that he had no sorrows that anyone exhibited considerable sympathies was bound to pity; that neither his 18 Phylon 56

life nor his liberty was worth the Europe, and I hope they will drive all purchase of a penny when a white the foreigners out and keep them out man needed a scapegoat; that for good” (Twain 1900, 699). By linking nobody loved Chinamen, nobody the turmoil in China with the Chinese befriended them, nobody spared Exclusion Act in the U.S., he remarked: them suffering when it was conve- “As far as America is concerned we nient to inflict it; everybody, indi- don’t allow the Chinese to come here, viduals, communities, the majesty and we would be doing the graceful of the state itself, joining in hating, thing to allow China to decide whether abusing, and persecuting these she will allow us to go there” (Geismar humble strangers (Twain 1870a, 1973, 159). In voicing his disapproval of 722). imperial aggression against China, he further declared: “It is the foreigners who Besides his journalistic encounters are making all the trouble in China, and with Chinese, Twain’s worldview was if they would only get out, how pleasant also influenced by Anson Burlingame, everything would be!” (Twain 2006, 69). the American ambassador to China who Within the American literary cycle later served as a Chinese envoy to the of the late nineteenth century, Joaquin United States. Through his friendship Miller was another voice of support for with Burlingame, Twain wrote “The Chinese immigrants. Joaquin Miller was Treaty with China,” and later praised the pen name of Cincinnatus Hiner Miller Burlingame as one who “had outgrown (1837-1913), a flamboyant American poet, the narrow citizenship of a state, and journalist, and frontiersman nicknamed become a citizen of the world; and his the “Poet of the Sierras,” after the Sierra charity was large enough and his great Nevada, about which he wrote in his heart warm enough to feel for all its Songs of the Sierras (Online Archives races and to labor for them” (Twain of California 2007). Born in Indiana to 1870b). After settling in Hartford, Hulings and Margaret Miller, he moved Connecticut, Twain also befriended with his family to Oregon and later to Yung Wing and supported the Chinese California during the Gold Rush. Miller Education Mission; in 1880 he even had worked as a mining camp cook, a lobbied for General Grant’s support Pony Express rider, a newspaper writer, for its continual operation in America a conservationist, and a lawyer and (Chiang-Schultheiss 2006, 175; Ou 2011, judge, but he was best known as a poet 62). While serving as vice president of of excessive romanticism, whose work the American Anti-Imperialist League, “conveys a sense of the majesty and Twain became an outspoken critic of excitement of the Old West” (Encyclopedia the imperialist policies of the McKinley Britannica 2019). Self-proclaimed as and Roosevelt administrations. When the “Byron of the Rockies,” Miller is commenting on the , remembered for lines from his poem in Twain noted, “my sympathies are with honor of Burns and Byron: the Chinese. They have been villainously dealt with by the sceptered thieves of In men whom men condemn as ill Wenxian Zhang 19

I find so much of goodness still, the wharves and about the hotels of San Francisco. It came from Irish In men whom men pronounce di- laborers and porters, but the cry vine was equally loud against the negro I find so much of sin and blot, and the Mexican.… The China- man did not vote, and so had no I do not dare to draw a line champion. This is the key to the Between the two, where God has whole question. This outcry against not (Miller 1889, 264). the Chinamen has from that day been a political shibboleth (Miller A gaudy pioneer in the American 1882, 18-19). West, Miller gained his reputation by capitalizing on the stereotypical image On March 15, 1879, Miller’s of Western frontiersmen (Lewis 2003, outrage was featured in the pages 78). Although his poems and books of Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, are hardly read and less regarded strongly condemning the anti-Chinese today, Miller had once been praised “statesmen” who claimed that “These as “Whitman without the coarseness” fellows mustn’t be tolerated any longer; and “the last of America’s great they can’t vote, and are of no earthly poets” (Peterson 1937, 66; Frost 1967, use to any of us. They must go” (Frank 112). A lesser-known fact was that he Leslie’s 1879, 32). in the same image, had strongly condemned injustice Miller was portrayed as a spokesperson toward the Chinese of his time. While for Chinese immigrants: “You are taking wandering through the western states a mean advantage of these harmless and serving as a local judge for four creatures; you made a treaty with them; years, he witnessed the persecution and they trusted your word, have built your pain suffered by Chinese immigrants. railroads, and washed your dirty linen, As a poet with a colorful personality, and now you propose to kick them out. Miller did not hold his tongue. Facing It is pitiful to see great minds prostituted a rising tide of anti-Chinese rhetoric, he to such selfish aims” (Frank Leslie’s wrote a passionate letter to the editor of 1879, 32). On the same day, Harper’s the Tribute, which was later read out load Weekly also published a different by George Hoar during the debate on cartoon by its renowned illustrator Chinese immigration in the U.S. Senate: Thomas Nast, which featured Senator James Blaine welcoming an Irishman 1 know the hardy, honest-hearted with the vote while kicking a Chinese settlers there, and I know that they laborer off a platform marked with protest against this measure which “Equal Rights to All Men. The Corner- politicians are trying to compel Stone of Our Republic.” Denouncing through Congress in their name. the hypocrisy of American politics, the And why is this being done? As caricature also quoted Joaquin Miller: early as 1854 this cry against the Chinese began to be heard along The Chinamen were terribly taxed 20 Phylon 56

by the country authorities; but they but equity that the Chinaman shall come always came up promptly, and here if we go there. This land is too great without a word of complaint paid and too good to forget equity” (Miller what was demanded of them.… 1901). Six years before his death, even Let me here say that I never, dur- after Congress made the law permanent, ing all my years of intercourse with Miller was still calling for the repeal of this people, saw a single drunken the Chinese Exclusion Act (Miller 1907). Chinaman. I never saw a Chinese beggar. I never saw a lazy China- man.... They are not strikers, riot- Visual Condemnation by ers, and burners of cities.… No; the Thomas Nast Creator of us all opened the Golden Gate to the whole wide world, let Thomas Nast (1840-1902) was a no man attempt to shut it in the German American caricaturist and edi- face of fellow-men (Harper’s Week- torial cartoonist who worked for Harp- ly 1879d, 216). er’s Weekly from the early 1860s to mid- 1880s. He was known for the creation of In 1886, Miller settled in the political symbol of the elephant for Oakland, California and became a the Republican Party, and his artworks conservationist. While living in nature, helped popularize the images of Uncle Miller maintained his compassion for Sam, Columbia, and the Democratic Chinese immigrants, writing in 1893: donkey. Nast’s role in American politics California needs her Chinamen was well recognized, as he was consid- and she is going to keep her China- ered a president maker and the father of men; and California is going to the American cartoon (New York Times protect her laborers in her fruit 1908). According to Albert Boime (1972, fields even though she has to shoot 43): down every tramp in the State. I take the responsibility of saying to As a political cartoonist, Thomas the ‘President and all others in au- Nast wielded more influence than thority’ at this Christmas time that any other artist of the nineteenth the people of California not only century. He not only enthralled will protect the Chinamen now a vast audience with boldness here, but they want the Golden and wit, but swayed it time and Gates swung wide open to all the again to his personal position on world as God made it (Miller 1893, the strength of his visual imagi- 44). nation. Both Lincoln and Grant acknowledged his effectiveness in While praising the “silent laboring their behalf, and as a crusading men on the firing line, the men of the civil reformer he helped destroy forest, the field, the miners of the the corrupt Tweed Ring that frontier,” not the “noisy city ‘laborer’” as swindled New York City of millions “main Americans,” he pointed out, “It is of dollars. Indeed, his impact on Wenxian Zhang 21

American public life was formi- remained small until the later decades of dable enough to profoundly affect the nineteenth century, and it is unclear the outcome of every presidential whether Nast had any direct interaction election during the period 1864 to with Chinese immigrants in the city 1884. (Tchen 1999, 211). Nonetheless, inspired by the Burlingame mission, Nast pub- lished his first Chinese-related cartoon Immigrating from Germany at a in 1868, which featured Columbia hold- young age, Nast grew up in New York ing Prince Gong and introducing China and began to work as an illustration to the world powers. In this image, Nast craftsman for Frank Leslie’s Illustrated depicted China as an ancient and civi- Newspaper at fifteen. His drawings be- lized nation entitled to the full respect gan to appear in Harper’s Weekly in 1859, of the international community. In the and he later gained fame for his artistic voice of America: “Brothers and Sisters, depiction of Civil War scenes. “Thomas I am happy to present to you the oldest Nast has been our best recruiting ser- member of the Family, who desires our geant,” praised . “His better acquaintance” (Harper’s Weekly emblematic cartons have never failed 1868, 460). In “Uncle Sam’s Thanksgiv- to arouse enthusiasm and patriotism, ing Dinner” a year later, he presented a and have always seemed to come just utopian illustration of an all-inclusive when these articles were getting scarce” America of “Come One Come All” and (Paine 1904, 69). As a radical Republican “Free and Equal” after the Civil War, influenced by Lincoln, Nast strongly where Chinese immigrants were warm- condemned slavery while supporting ly welcomed along with people from all civil rights and equality for all men. His over the world. This drawing also makes political cartoons firmly advocated the reference to the 15th Amendment to the abolition of slavery, condemned the vio- U.S. Constitution, which prohibits the lence of the Ku Klux Klan, and backed federal and state governments from de- the causes of African and Native Ameri- nying a citizen the right to vote based cans. Nast not only opposed racial seg- on “race, color, or previous condition regation, but also was one of the few of servitude” (Harper’s Weekly 1869b, editorial artists who took up the interest 745). An immigrant himself, Nast cher- of the Chinese in America (Ibid, 412-13). ished the American legacy as a country Among more than two thousand car- of people with heritages from around toons of his career, he had several dozen the world. In his 1870 drawing “Throw- drawings devoted to Chinese immi- ing Down the Ladder by Which They grants. In the years leading to the pas- Rose,” which mocked the hypocrisy of sage of the Chinese Exclusion Act, his some new Americans and their willing- China-related artworks demonstrated ness to oppress others, Nast forcefully considerable political courage in an age denounced the anti-Chinese nativism of racial prejudice. of the late nineteenth century (Harper’s Although Chinese began to arrive Weekly 1870, 480). New York in the 1850s, their community Nast in his works created the no- 22 Phylon 56

ble “John Confucius” character, which Americans (Harper’s Weekly 1879a, 101), stands in sharp contrast to what he be- and his empathy for African Americans lieved to be morally corrupt politicians and Chinese immigrants are outlined such as James Blaine, Senator from in “Difficult Problems Solving Them- Maine and unsuccessful presidential selves” and “The Nigger Must Go and candidate from the Republican Party. the Chinese Must Go” (Harper’s Weekly In “The Civilization of Blaine,” Nast 1879e, 256; 1879f, 101). Moreover, his criticized Blaine’s willingness to com- “Celestial” reinforces the stereotype of promise the Republican principles and Chinese as peaceful, docile members the fundamental rights of minorities in of society (Harper’s Weekly 1881, 96), America in order to win the party nomi- and his “Let the Chinese Embrace the nation (Harper’s Weekly 1879b, 181). In Civilization and They May Stay” effec- “A Matter of Taste,” John Confucius tively derides the erroneousness of the was disgusted by Blaine and other pres- anti-Chinese movement then (Harper’s idential hopefuls who dined on “Hood- Weekly 1882a, 176). As America’s great lum Stew” from “A Mess of Sand Lot strength comes from her diversity, the Pottage” (Harper’s Weekly 1879c, 212). Latin phrase E pluribus unum—One Capitalizing on the popularity of Bret out of many—was considered a de facto Harte’s 1870 poem, “Plain Language motto of the United States. By ridicul- from Truthful James,” Nast in “Blaine’s ing the irony of the Chinese Exclusion Language” again voiced his support for Act, Nast’s in his same-titled caricature Chinese immigrants while continuing revealed his strong conviction that the his condemnation of Blaine’s hypocrisy country should be a safe haven for those and his deplorable breach in Republican of all different cultures, national origins, values (Harper’s Weekly 1879d, 216). The and belief systems (Harper’s Weekly same disingenuousness is also vividly 1882b, 207). As his “Justice for the Chi- exposed in “Blaine’s Teas(e),” which nese” (Harper’s Weekly 1886, 208) clearly portrays the American statesman read- demonstrated, Nast with his creative ing the headline “Chinese Must Go” drawings was one of the few Americans while enjoying his Chinese tea from of his time voicing firm opposition to Chinese porcelain (Harper’s Weekly 1880, the persecution of Chinese immigrants. 192). After the Rock Springs Massacre, he Most of Nast’s Chinese-related made a moral argument with his “Here drawings center on the national debates Is a Pretty Mess! In Wyoming” on who of the Chinese Exclusion Act during the were the real barbarians in the notori- 1870-1880s. In his “Pacific Chivalry,” ous riot (Harper’s Weekly 1885a, 623). Nast openly sympathized with Chinese His “The Chinese Question” depicts an immigrants by denouncing discrimi- anguished Chinese immigrant chased nation against them (Harper’s Weekly by odious white hooligans, with Co- 1869a, 512). In his “Every Dog (No Dis- lumbia’s voice: “Hands off Gentlemen! tinction of His Color) Has His Day,” America Means Fair Play for All Men!” he expressed the same sentiment to- Nast avowed his personal belief that all ward both Chinese laborers and Native humans are equal before the law while Wenxian Zhang 23

unequivocally denouncing the anti- House of Representatives. Hoar gradu- Chinese hysteria prevailing at the time ated from Harvard College in 1846 and (Harper’s Weekly 1871, 149). from three years Through his passionate contribu- later. Deeply influenced by his mother tion to the national debate on immigra- Sarah Sherman, who founded a school tion and racial politics, Nast brought to teach reading and sewing to African attention to the predicament of Chinese American children in Connecticut, Hoar immigrants. Nevertheless, in the pro- believed that people of different races cess he also reiterated racist stereotypes were equal, and slavery was immor- of the time, especially with his nega- al. In 1852, he was elected to the State tive views toward Irish Americans and House and in 1857 to the State Senate. Catholics. As a radical Republican with Twelve years later, he became a mem- progressive ideals of equal rights for all, ber of the U.S. House of Representatives Nast was much more motivated against and after four terms was elected to the those who persecuted the Chinese than U.S. Senate in 1877. There he served for he was to speak on behalf of the Chinese another four terms until his death in in America. Still, most art historians and 1904 (Haynes 1943). scholars agree that he as a pro-minority As a republican, Hoar believed in artist contributed a rare, positive voice capitalist principle of private enterpris- for Chinese Americans during the Ex- es competing in free markets and co- clusion Era (Walfred 2014). His pro-Chi- authored the Sherman Antitrust Act to nese artworks effectively advocated the outlaw monopolistic business practices. cause of Chinese immigrants, setting On social issues Hoar was very progres- him apart from many of his peers, such sive. He campaigned for the rights of Af- as George F. Keller, notorious for de- rican Americans and Native Americans, monizing the Chinese in his numerous supported the right of workers to form cartoons for The San Francisco Illustrated labor unions, and argued before the Wasp. Senate in favor of the Women’s Suffrage Movement. Comparing imperialism Standing Alone in the Senate: to slavery, he condemned the annexa- George Hoar tion of the Philippines, convinced that American colonization of the islands George F. Hoar (1826-1904) was a violated the fundamental principles of long-serving United States senator from the Declaration of Independence. An and a prominent Ameri- idealist at heart, Hoar disliked partisan- can politician in the late nineteenth cen- ship in politics and was not afraid to tury. Hoar was born to a leading family criticize his party for what he believed in Concord, MA. His grandfather, Roger were erroneous policies. For his radical, Sherman, was one of the original sign- progressive stand, Hoar was known as a ers of the Declaration of Independence “Half-Breed Republican” (Welch 1971). and the United States Constitution, and Hoar was also an outspoken opponent his father, , was a success- of the American Protective Association, ful attorney and a member of the U.S. the largest anti-Catholic, anti-immi- 24 Phylon 56

grant organization in the late nineteenth exchanges with James Farley of Cali- century. He was long noted for his proc- fornia and other Democratic senators. lamation that the Chinese Exclusion While denouncing the proposed legisla- Act was un-American, describing it as tion, Hoar again affirmed his fundamen- “nothing less than the legalization of ra- tal liberal beliefs: “It is impossible, it is cial discrimination” (Daniels 2002, 271). incredible that a blow at the dignity of On March 1, 1882, during a congressio- human nature a blow at the dignity of la- nal debate, Hoar bravely stated: bor, a blow at men, not because of their individual qualities or characters, but Nothing is more in conflict with because of the color of their skin, should the genius of American institutions not fail to be a subject of deep regret and that legal distinctions between in- repentance to the American people in dividuals based upon race or upon the nineteenth century” (Congressional occupation. The framers of our Records 1882a, 3265). However, despite Constitution believed in the safety his strong objections, and after several and wisdom of adherence to ab- attempted amendments in the Senate, stract principles. They meant that the bill finally passed on April 28 with 32 their laws should make no distinc- yeas, 15 nays, and 29 absents (Congres- tion between men except such as sional Records 1882b, 3412). The other 14 were required by personal conduct objections all came from Hoar’s follow and character.… What argument Republican colleagues, while 21 Demo- can be urged against the Chinese crats, 9 Republicans, and one Indepen- which was not heard against the dent supported the legislation (Gold negro within living memory? (Hoar 2012, 216). On May 3, the House of 1882, 6-14). Representatives passed H.R. 5804 with a voice vote, and three days later President After condemning the prejudice and Chester Arthur signed the Chinese Ex- hatred toward African Americans, Na- clusion Act into federal law, which noted tive Americans, Irishmen, and Jews, that “the coming of Chinese laborers to Hoar courageously declared: “For myself this country endangers the good order and for the State of Massachusetts, so far of certain localities within the territory as it is my privilege to represent her, I re- thereof: Therefore, … the coming of fuse consent to this legislation. I will not Chinese laborers to the United States be consent to a denial by the United States … suspended … That hereafter no State of the right of every man who desired court or court of the United States shall to improve his conditions by honest la- admit Chinese to citizenship; and all bor—his labor being no men’s property laws in conflict with this act are hereby but his own—to anywhere on the face of repealed” (Statutes at Large 1882, 58-61). the earth that he pleases” (Ibid, 9). Throughout his political career, Hoar In late April 1882, the Senate held fi- remained a progressive voice in the Sen- nal deliberations on “An Act to Execute ate and consistently registered his ob- Certain Treaty Stipulations Relating to jections to discriminatory legislation Chinese,” during which Hoar had heated against Chinese immigrants. His role Wenxian Zhang 25

during the national debate was well doc- ful legislation, 129 years after its original umented in Martin Gold’s research, Chi- passage (Margolis 2011). nese Exclusion and the U.S. Congress: A Legislative History, which was dedicated Conclusion to the “steadfast champion of America’s founding principles” (Gold 2012). Be- The passage of the Chinese Exclu- cause of his liberal stand on this issue, sion Act is one of the darkest chapters Hoar also became subjected to ridicule in the history of the United States. In by anti-Chinese media, such as The San sharp contrast with the overwhelming Francisco Wasp (1889). In 1902, two “Yellow Peril” literature of anti-Chinese years before his death, the U.S. Congress immigration in late-nineteenth-century held another debate to further extend the America, the voices of persecuted Chi- Chinese Exclusion Act. Hoar became the nese were few and far between, as they only person who voted against it in ei- had little recourse against their accus- ther chamber of Congress, and his lone, ers in the public debate. Since most of heroic stand was recorded in American the early immigrants were Chinese vil- legislative history: lagers with little education, they clus- tered in Chinatowns of large cities and I hold that every human soul has formed clan and district associations to its rights, dependent upon its in- help and protect one another, most nota- dividual personal worth and not bly the Six Companies of San Francisco. dependent upon color or race, and As neighborhood groups, they helped all races, all colors, all nationali- immigrants travel to and from the U.S., ties contain persons entitled to be settle disputes among residents, and ar- recognized everywhere they go on range communal care of the sick or poor; the face of the earth as the equals however, as community organizations of other men.… As this bill violates they were not very effective in commu- that principle, in my judgment, I nicating with the media and mounting am bound to record my protest, if I forceful opposition to discrimination. stand alone (Congressional Records Only after an umbrella organization, the 1902, 4252). Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Asso- ciation, was established, did the Chinese Although he was alone, Hoar was community begin to play an active role standing on the right side of history. Four in defending their political rights and decades later, in a letter to Congress on legal interests in America (Lai 1987). the appeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, Nevertheless, despite the lack of strong Franklin Roosevelt declared: “Nations leadership in community advancement like individuals make mistakes. We must among early Chinese immigrants, there be big enough to acknowledge our mis- were still numerous legal challenges takes of the past and to correct them” launched by Chinese during the Exclu- (New York Times 1943, 1). Finally, in 2011, sion Era, including twenty appeals be- the U.S. Senate passed unanimously Res- fore the U.S. Supreme Court and 9,600 olution SR201 apologizing for the shame- corpus cases between 1880 and 1900 (Lin 26 Phylon 56

2013). Rulings from high-profile litiga- leaders, journalists, and intellectuals. tions such as the United States v. Wong Some of them resided in western states, Kim Ark and Wong Wing v. United States where they had frequent encounters had a profound impact on not only the with Chinese. Through those transac- Chinese community, but also the larger tions they gained firsthand understand- American society. Through their coura- ing of the life experience of those im- geous actions, Chinese Americans have migrant laborers. For instance, in the demonstrated that they are equal citi- spirit of capitalism, a few entrepreneurs zens of the United States. testified on behalf of Chinese workers During the national discourse about including Charles Crocker, president of Chinese immigration, besides a few the Southern Pacific Railroad. Crocker valiant writings by Chinese Americans was known for hiring a large number such as Wong Ching Foo and Yan Phou of Chinese immigrants for the construc- Lee, elite Chinese diplomats, including tion of the first transcontinental railroad, and Ho Yow, also vigor- once conspicuously claiming, “Make ously defended the interests of Chi- Masons out of Chinamen? Did they nese immigrants while pointing out not build the Chinese wall, the biggest the adverse impacts of discriminatory piece of masonry in the world?” (Con- legislation on local business and inter- gressional Serial Set 1888, 3660). In front national commerce (Wong 1998). At of a congressional committee, Crocker the same time, a few American schol- stated that “without Chinese labor we ars with extensive knowledge of China would be thrown back in all the branch- also expressed their concerns about es of industry, farming, mining, reclaim- restrictive measures. For example, in ing lands, and everything else” (Hoar The Oldest and the Newest Empire: China 1882, 21). During the hearing, he also and the United States, published in 1870, argued to hire Chinese for manual labor William Speer, a former missionary to so that white Americans could focus on China, tried to calm American fears “an elevated class of work” (Bee 1886, about the growing Chinese presence in 47). This view, which by itself is racist, the United States (Speer 1870). George was shared by others of his era. Mean- Frederick Seward (1881), upon return- while, it is perplexing that some critics ing from his four-year ambassadorship of Chinese oppression also held strong to China, wrote The Chinese Immigration: opinions of other minority groups in Its Social and Economical Aspects to criti- America, such as Nast’s negative por- cize the country’s immigration policy, trayals of Irish Americans and Gibson’s and he remained an outspoken critic of stand against Catholics. Only through the United States’ treatment of Chinese a comprehensive examination of the until his death. prevailing racism of that time, can one In the late nineteenth century, most begin to have a better understanding of of the vocal opposition to the Chinese their stereotypical viewpoints and com- Exclusion Act came from Americans plicated actions. Nevertheless, despite with strong progressive ideals: ordinary their limitations, by voicing opposition citizens, community members, religious to discrimination against the Chinese, Wenxian Zhang 27

they provided rare and valuable sup- ______port to a victimized group who had no political allies of the time. References What happened more than a cen- tury ago is still very relevant today, as Asing, Norman. May 5, 1852. “To His the country engages in renewed debates Excellency Gov. Bigler.” Daily Alta about possible immigration reforms. California. Bee, Frederick. 1882. Those who do not learn from history “A letter from F. A. Bee, Chinese are doomed to repeat it. In our multicul- Counsel.” in American Politics tural society of the twenty-first century, (Non-Partisan) from the Beginning we should not only condemn any form to Date. Ed. by Thomas V. Cooper. of racial discrimination, but also recog- Philadelphia: Fireside Publishing nize our forerunners for their vision and Company, 1892. courage during that difficult time. It is _____.1886. The Other Side of the Chinese remarkable that throughout the debates Question: To the People of the United on the Chinese Exclusion Art, a minor- State and the Honorable the Senate ity of Americans, who had limited in- and House of Representatives. San terchange with Chinese but still devel- Francisco, CA. Retrieved May 11, oped an empathy for these persecuted 2019 https://archive.org/details/ people, spoke out in support of Chinese othersideofchine00beef. immigrants while sturdily condemning Boime, Albert. 1972. “Thomas Nast and injustice against them. Out of personal French Art.” American Art Journal conviction, they argued strongly that 4:1 (Spring). such a discriminatory measure was a Chan, Sucheng. 1991. Entry Denied: direct violation of the moral principles Exclusion and the Chinese established by our Founding Fathers, Community in America, 1882–1943. namely, the American democratic ideals Philadelphia: Temple University of freedom, liberty, and equity for all. Press. By comparing Chinese immigrants with Cheung, Floyd. 2003. “Early Chinese other mistreated groups, they sought American Autobiography: equal treatment for all, and boldly de- Reconsidering the Works of Yan fended the civil rights of the Chinese in Phou Lee and Yung Wing.” a/b: America. Although their calls for jus- Auto/Biography Studies 18:1, 45-61. tice were quickly engulfed by the anti- Chiang-Schultheiss,Darren.2006. Chinese hysteria of the time, they stood “Representations of the Chinese on the right side of history, and their Other in Mark Twain’s World.” brave acts have inspired a persecuted Mark Twain Studies 2 (October): 158- people in their continuing struggle for 79. civil rights advancement in the United “China in America.” Washington Post. States. October 25, 1878. Congressional Record. April 25, 1882a. Vol. 14, Part 4. 13 Cong. Rec. 3265. Washington DC: GPO. Retrieved 28 Phylon 56

January 12, 2019 https://www. International Publishers. gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO- Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper. Mar. CRECB-1882-pt4-v13/pdf/GPO- 15, 1879. “The Chinese Question.” CRECB-1882-pt4-v13-7.pdf. _____.Feb. 17, 1883. _____.April 28, 1882b. Vol. 14, Part 4. Frost, Orcutt William. 1967. Joaquin 13 Cong. Rec. 3412. Washington Miller. New York: Twayne. DC: GPO. Retrieved January 12, Geismar, Maxwell. 1973. Mark Twain 2019 https://www.gpo.gov/ and the Three Rs: Race, Religion, fdsys/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1882- Revolution and Related Matters. pt4-v13/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1882- Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. pt4-v13-10.pdf. Gibson, Otis. 1877. The Chinese in _____.April 16, 1902. Vol. 35 Part 5, 35 America. Cincinnati: Hitchcock Cong. Rec. 4252. Washington DC: & Walden. Retrieved January 12, GPO. Retrieved January 12, 2019 2019 https://archive.org/details/ https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/ chineseinamerica00gibs/page/ pkg/GPO-CRECB-1902-pt5-v35/ n5. pdf/GPO-CRECB-1902-pt5-v35-1. Gold, Martin B. 2012. Forbidden Citizens: pdf. Chinese Exclusion and the U.S. Congressional Serial Set. 1888. Washington Congress: A Legislative History. DC: GPO. “Testimony Taken by Alexandria, VA: TheCapitol.Net. the United States Pacific Railway Harper’s Weekly. July 18, 1868. “The Commission.” Vol. 7, 3660. Youngest Introduced the Oldest.” Daily Alta California. September 28, 1885. _____.Aug. 7, 1869a. “Pacific Chivalry: “Wyoming Massacre.” 39:12981. Encouragement to Chinese Daily Inter Ocean. Oct. 5, 1890. “The Immigration.” Chinese in America.” _____.Nov. 20, 1869b. “Uncle Sam’s Daniels, Roger. 2002. Coming to America: Thanksgiving Dinner.” A History of Immigration and _____.July 23, 1870. “Throwing down Ethnicity in American Life. New the Ladder by Which They Rose.” York: Harper Perennial. _____.Feb. 18, 1871. “The Chinese Dickinson College Archives & Special Question. Columbia: Hands off Collections. 2005. “Otis Gibson Gentlemen! America Means Fair (1826-1889).” Retrieved January Play for All Men!” 12, 2019 http://archives. _____.May 26, 1877. “Wong Ching Foo.” dickinson.edu/people/otis- _____.Feb. 8, 1879a. “Every Dog (No gibson-1826-1889. Distinction of His Color) Has His Encyclopedia Britannica. 2019. “Joaquin Day.” Miller: American Writer.” _____.Mar. 8, 1879b. “The Civilization of Retrieved January 12, 2019 Blaine.” https://www.britannica.com/ _____.Mar. 15, 1879c. “A Matter of biography/Joaquin-Miller. Taste.” Foner, Philip Sheldon. 1958. Mark _____.Mar. 15, 1879d. “Blaine’s Twain: Social Critic. New York: Language.” Wenxian Zhang 29

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