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Home , Persian art

By : Tulika Saikia, Assistant Professor, LPU

INTRODUCTION

Persia, one of the oldest countries in the Early Persian artworks include the world, and one of the earliest intricate ceramics from and civilizations in the history of , (c.3500 BCE), as well as a occupies the Persian plateau, bounded series of small objects from by the Elburz and Baluchistan mountains mountainous Luristan (c.1200-750 in the north and east. BCE), and the treasure trove of gold, silver, and ivory objects from Ziwiye In ancient times, during the first (c.700 BCE). Most of this portable art Millennium BCE, Persian emperors displays a wide variety of artistic like Cyrus II the Great, Xerxes and Darius styles and influences, including that I extended Persian rule into of Greek . and throughout Asia Minor as far as Greece and Egypt. For much of Antiquity, Items of ancient are Persian culture intermingled exhibited at the Metropolitan continuously with that of its neighbours, Museum of Art (New York) and the especially , and influenced British Museum, London. - and was influenced by - Greek art. Intricate ceramics from Susa and Bronze objects from mountainous Persepolis (c.3500 BCE), Luristan (c.1200-750 BCE of Archers

Achaemenid Era (c.550-330 BCE)

The first upsurge of Persian art occurred during the Achaemenian Dynasty era of the Persian Empire, under the influence of both Greek and Egyptian art. Persian art was exemplified in a series of monumental palace complexes (particularly at Persepolis and Susa), decorated with , especially stone reliefs, and the famous "Frieze of Archers" (now in the Museum in Paris) Drinking horns created out of enamelled brick. The city gate at Persepolis was flanked by a pair of huge bulls with human heads, while in 515 BCE, Darius I ordered a colossal and inscription to be carved out of rock at Behistun. The sculpture portrays shows him vanquishing his enemies watched by the Gods. Persian sculptors influenced and were influenced by Greek sculpture. Other artworks from this period include dazzling gold and silver swords, drinking horns, and intricate jewellery. Parthian Era (c.250 BCE)

Persian art under the Parthians, after the death of , was a different story. Parthian culture was an unexciting mixture of Greek and Iranian motifs, involving visible on monuments and in buildings decorated with sculpted heads and fresco wall .

Fresco detail of Robert Shirley Battle between Heraclius' army and under Khosrau II. Fresco visiting Pope Paul V, Sala dei by Pierodella Francesca, c. 1452 Corazzieri, Palazzo del Quirinale,Rome. Painted in 1615-1616. Sassanid Era (226-650 CE)

The second outstanding period of Persian art coincided with the Sassanian Dynasty, which restored much of Persia's power and culture. Sassanid artists designed highly decorative stone , and a range of gold and silver dishes, typically decorated with animals and hunting scenes. The biggest collection of these eating and cooking vessels is displayed at the , St. Petersburg. As well as art and metalwork, frescoes and illuminated manuscripts were two other art forms which thrived during this period. In addition, crafts like carpet-making and silk- were also strongly encouraged. Persian carpets and silks were exported as far as (present-day ) to the west and Turkestan to the east. However, the most striking relics of Sassanian art are rock carved out of steep limestone cliffs (e.g. at Taq-i-Bustan, Shahpur, Naqsh-e and Naqsh-e Rajab) which depict the victories of the Sassanid leaders. The influence of Sassanian artists extended to Afghanistan (a Persian colony of the time), where excavations at monasteries at Bamian have revealed frescoes and huge Buddhas. The Sassanian Empire collapsed after being defeated by the Byzantine Roman Emperor Heraclius. Persia Under

After being overrun by the Arabs in 641, Persia became part of Islam and its visual developed according to Islamic rules. One of these - the ban on three- dimensional portrayal of living things - led to an immediate decline in Persian sculpture and forced painting to become more ornamental and adopt the flat traditions of . However, in decorative art, like ceramics, metalwork and weaving continued to flourish, especially from the time of the Abbasid Dynasty (750-1258) in the eighth century. Ornamentation of Islamic temples like the Mosque of (764), the Great Mosque at Samarra (847), the tenth-century mosque at Nayin, the Great Mosque at Veramin (1322), the Imam Riza Mosque at Meshad-i-Murghab (1418), and the Blue Mosque at . Mosaics and other decorations were widely used in mosques and other buildings. Coloured roofs, using ceramic in blues, reds and greens were also a popular part of Persian . Illumination and

With the decline in figure drawing and figure painting, one popular form which developed in Persia was Illumination - the decoration of manuscripts and religious texts, especially the Koran. Iranian illuminators were active during the Mongol takeover of the country during the late , and the art of illumination reached its heyday during the (1501-1722). Styles :

Shekasteh Nasta'liq Naskh The copying of religious works also stimulated the development of ornamental writing like calligraphy. This grew up during the eighth and ninth centuries, roughly concurrent with the era of Irish illuminated manuscripts and became an Iranian speciality.

Mohaqqaq Painting

Painting was regarded as an important art under Islam. Around 1150, several schools of religious art emerged which specialised in the illustration of manuscripts of various types, all illustrated with miniature . This art form, in combination with illumination, grew into a significant artistic tradition in . The most famous painter was Bihzad, who flourished at the end of the fifteenth century, becoming the head of the Academy of Painting and Calligraphy. His landscape paintings were executed in a realistic style using a vivid colour palette. Among his pupils were several noted painters of the day, including Mirak and Sultan Mohammed. Bihzad's paintings are represented in the University Library at Princeton, and the Egyptian Library in Cairo. Other painting styles, such as mountain-scapes and hunting scenes became popular during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries with Baghdad, Herat, Samarqand, Bukhara and Tabriz becoming the main art centres. Later, portrait art became fashionable. From the late 1600s, Persian artists imitated European painting and engraving, leading to a slight weakening of Iranian traditions. It was during the Qajar era when "Coffee House painting" emerged. Subjects of this style were often religious in nature depicting scenes from Shia epics and the likes. The Court of the Anonymous Persian Rug

The art of rug weaving in has its roots in the culture and customs of its people and their instinctive feelings. Weavers mix elegant patterns with a myriad of colours. The Iranian carpet is similar to the Persian garden: full of florae, birds, and beasts. The colours are usually made from wild flowers, and are rich in colours such as burgundy, navy blue, and accents of ivory. The proto-fabric is often washed in tea to soften the texture, giving it a unique quality. Depending on where the rug is made, patterns and designs vary . And some rugs, such as Gabbeh, and Gelim have a variations in their textures and number of knots as well.

Gelim Later wares were made from Persian Pottery and ceramic clays with a layer of white . They were covered by transparent work lead glazes and colours were added Prominent archaeologist Roman with oxides. Persian ceramics matured Ghirshman believes "the taste and with time into more elaborate styles talent of this people [Iranians] can be and techniques. seen through the designs of their earthen wares". Of the thousands of archaeological sites and historic ruins of Iran, almost every single one can be found to have been filled, at some point, with earthenware of exceptional quality. Thousands of unique vessels alone were found in Sialk and Jiroft sites. The occupation of the potter ("kuzeh gar") has a special place in . Pottery making in the Iranian Plateau dates back to the Early Neolithic Age (7th millennium BCE) with the production of coarse, unglazed wares. During the 7th century, the Arabs conquered Persian territory as well as Syria, Palestine and Mesopotamia. A large part of North Africa was conquered next, including Egypt (see map below). In 717 CE, occupation of the Iberian peninsula took place, making the Arab empire one of the strongest. This set the stage for a development in Persian art forms based on Roman, Greek, Egyptian, and Central Asiatic ideas. The blending of these ideas from many regions was seen in the products of the ceramic industry. Influenced by techniques already practiced in conquered territories, Persian potters developed new forms and styles to produce the fine wares that characterize Persian ceramics. Because refined wares were mostly destined to serve and decorate the homes of the wealthy, or for export, this industry received great patronage and support. During the 9th century under the Abbasid rulership, additional styles and techniques were adopted and refined, later evolving into even more elaborate and exquisite forms. The use of cobalt blue dates to this period, as does the use of other metallic oxides, such as copper, to produce blues and greens. Potters at this time were also experimenting with slip decorations, and were able to control the liquid slip to create elaborate and intricate decorations. Colors such as manganese purple, tomato red, olive green, yellow and brown were applied to the surface and then covered with a transparent glaze, creating a glossy and smooth finish. The 11th century brought dramatic changes to the ceramic industry, influenced by Chinese porcelain ware. For a time Persian potters had tried to imitate the Chinese potter's porcelain ware, but they were unsuccessful because they lacked kaolin, a fine clay used for the production of porcelain. With the introduction of the Frit Ware, however, Persian potters were able to produce the smooth surface they sought. This new clay body was composed of white clay, powdered glass and quartz. Its soft consistency facilitated the use of new techniques such as engraving, piercing and moulding. By the 12th century, Persian ceramic styles were well established and they set the standards for further innovations and conventions. In the 13th century, however, ceramics took an abrupt turn with the Mongol conquest, and for a time, pottery production halted. Wares made during the Mongol occupation are called Il Kanid wares, referring to the ruling dynasty. In the 14th century the arts revived again, with the invasion of the Timur, under whose rule new centers of pottery production appeared. Kirman became one of the main centers . The control of the Iberian peninsula and the fall of Granada in 1492, added polychrome pottery to the colorful spectrum of Persian ceramic styles. Through the centuries, Persian potters have responded to the demands and changes brought by political turmoil by adopting and refining newly introduced forms and blending them into their own culture. This innovative attitude has survived through time and influenced many other cultures around the world work Metalwork (Ghalam-zani)

The tile work is a unique feature of the Engraving is a term, relatively rare in blue mosques of . In the old English, for artistic metalwork by days, Kashan (kash + an which literally hammering gold or silver (or other means "land of tiles") and Tabriz were materials), engraving, Repoussé and the two famous centres of Iranian chasing to form minute detailed reliefs mosaic and tile industry. or small engraved patterns -kari Mina Kari

"Khatam" means "incrustation", and Mina, is defined as some sort of glasslike "Khatam-kari" incrustation work. This coloured coat which can be stabilized by craft consists in the production of heat on different metals particularly copper. incrustation patterns (generally star Three kinds: shaped), with thin sticks of wood (ebony, •painting enamel teak, ziziphus, orange, rose), (for •Charkhaneh or chess like enamel golden parts), camel bones (white parts). •Cavity enamel

Khatam-kari Mina-kari Relief and sculpture

Relief carving has a history dating back thousands of years. Elamite reliefs are still to be found in Iran with Persepolis being a Mecca of relief creations of antiquity. Architecture

Each of the periods of Achaemenids, Parthians and Sassanids w ere creators of great architecture that, over the ages, spread far and wide far to other cultures. Although Iran has suffered its share of destruction, including Alexander The Great's decision to burn Persepolis, there are sufficient remains to form a The ruins of Persepolis, built 2500 years ago during picture of its classical architecture. the reign of the . The Achaemenids built on a grand scale. The artists and materials they used were brought in from practically all territories of what was then the largest state in the world. With the emergence of the Parthians and Sassanids new forms appeared. Parthian innovations fully flowered during the Sassanid period with massive barrel-vaulted chambers, solid masonry domes and tall columns. Sassanid fortress in Derbent, modern-day Russia.