The Impact of Social Media Influencers on Irish Consumers in the Tourism Industry
Submitted by
Laoise McDermott
A dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Science in Tourism Marketing
Presented to the School of Hospitality Management and Tourism, Technological University Dublin, Cathal Brugha Street.
Supervisor: Dr Patrick Horan
March 2019
Word Count:
10,274 Declaration
I certify that this dissertation, which I now submit for examination for the award of BSc in Tourism Marketing is entirely my own work and has not been taken from the work of others and to that extent such work has been cited and acknowledged within the text of my work.
I certify that the primary research undertaken as part of this dissertation is entirely my own work. This dissertation was prepared according to the regulations of the Technological University Dublin and has not been submitted in whole or in part for an award in any other Institute or University.
The Technological University has permission to retain, lend or copy this dissertation in whole or in part, on condition that any such use of the material of the dissertation be duly acknowledged.
Signed: ______Date: ______
i
Abstract
With the increase in social media influencers being present across multiple social media channels, there has been a rise in businesses utilising them as their latest marketing tool. The research was conducted to satisfy a gap in literature for which little attention has been given to the area of examining the impact social media influencers have on Irish consumers when searching for information on tourism products. A positivism philosophy approach using a quantitative method was used for this research. Subsequently, a questionnaire was created using Google forms and completed by 206 respondents from Ireland. The findings exposed that Irish consumers have a low level of trust with social media influencers. However, the research further uncovered that Irish consumers are influenced by social media influencers with more affordable tourism aspects, more so than those that are deemed to be costly. Furthermore, it was discovered that females are influenced more when they are younger, whereas males become more influenced as they become older. Lastly, the research uncovered that Instagram was the social media channel best used to influence Irish consumers as it was the most effective as portraying images. The findings suggest that social media influencers do have an impact on Irish consumers to a certain extent.
ii
Acknowledgements
Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr Patrick Horan for his continued guidance throughout this process. Thank you for replying to my emails no matter the time of day, and for believing in my topic from the very beginning. Your kind words and anecdotes helped me immensely.
To my Mam and Dad. Without your continued support, love and reassurance I would not be where I am today. Thank you to my brother Oisin for kindly offering to proofread this dissertation, and to my brother Pearce and sister Treasa for simply existing.
To Cian McCaffrey-Wall for his love and support and helping motivate me to complete my dissertation through providing food.
To the girls; Katie for always looking on the bright side of this whole process; Danielle for always giving us a laugh; and Claire for your consistent phone calls of panic and support tied into one, I don’t know where I’d be without you. You’re a great bunch and we’ve had a laugh right up until the final word. Thank you for everything.
And lastly to myself for managing to complete this dissertation after five long years in Dublin.
In the wise words of Paddy Horan,
“Let it Rip”
iii
Table of Contents
Chapter One ...... 1
1.1 Introduction ...... 2
1.2 Research Rationale...... 2
1.3 Aim and Objectives...... 2
1.4 Chapter Outline ...... 3
1.4.1 Chapter One - Introduction ...... 3
1.4.2 Chapter Two - Literature Review ...... 3
1.4.3 Chapter Three - Methodology ...... 3
1.4.4 Chapter Four - Findings ...... 3
1.4.5 Chapter Five - Analysis ...... 3
1.4.6 Chapter Six - Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 3
Chapter Two ...... 4
2.1 Introduction ...... 5
2.2 Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 ...... 5
2.3 Social Media ...... 6
2.3.1 Social Media Marketing ...... 7
2.4 Consumer Decision Making Process ...... 7
2.4.1 Information Search...... 7
2.5 Context of Social Influence and Influencers ...... 8
2.5.1 Influencer Marketing ...... 10
2.6 Conclusion ...... 12
Chapter Three ...... 13
3.1 Introduction ...... 14
3.2 Research Question and Objectives...... 14
3.3 Research Rationale...... 14
3.4 Research Philosophy ...... 15
iv
3.5 Research Approach ...... 15
3.5.1 Primary Research ...... 15
3.5.2 Secondary Research ...... 16
3.5.3 Questionnaire ...... 16
3.5.4 Sampling ...... 16
3.5.5 Pilot Questionnaire...... 17
3.6 Data Analysis ...... 18
3.7 Limitations ...... 18
3.8 Ethical Consideration ...... 18
3.9 Conclusion ...... 19
Chapter Four ...... 20
4.1 Introduction ...... 21
4.2 Survey Findings ...... 21
4.2.1 Age of respondents ...... 21
4.2.2 Gender of respondents ...... 22
4.2.3 Employment status ...... 22
4.2.4 Highest level of education ...... 23
4.2.5 Martial status ...... 23
4.2.6 Frequency of use of Social Media Channels...... 24
4.2.7 Social Media Influencers ...... 24
4.2.8 Which channel is most influential? ...... 27
4.2.9 Use of Social Media Influencers ...... 28
4.2.10 Agreement with statements regarding Social Media Influencers ...... 30
4.2.11 Level of influence when booking a holiday ...... 31
4.2.12 Likelihood of visiting destination based on opinion vs pictures/videos ...... 31
4.2.13 Likelihood of trying tourism services ...... 32
4.3 Conclusion ...... 33
v
Chapter Five ...... 35
5.1 Introduction ...... 36
5.2 Objective One ...... 36
5.3 Objective Two ...... 39
5.4 Objective Three ...... 41
5.5 Conclusion ...... 42
Chapter Six ...... 43
6.1 Introduction ...... 44
6.2 Objective One ...... 44
6.3 Objective Two ...... 45
6.4 Objective Three ...... 45
6.5 Recommendations for Future Research ...... 46
6.6 Conclusion ...... 47
List of References ...... 48
References ...... 49
Appendices ...... 56
vi
List of Figures
Figure 1: Top Social Media Platforms used to employ influencer marketing in America (Krasniak, 2016) ...... 10 Figure 2: Sampling Techniques (Saunders et al., 2012) ...... 17 Figure 3: Age of Respondents...... 21 Figure 4: Gender of Respondents ...... 22 Figure 5: Employment Status of Respondents ...... 22 Figure 6: Highest Level of Education Completed by Respondents ...... 23 Figure 7: Martial Status of Respondents ...... 23 Figure 8: Do respondents follow Social Media Influencers?...... 24 Figure 9: Number of Social Media Influencers followed ...... 25 Figure 10: Mean of Most Influential Channels ...... 27 Figure 11: Level of influence when booking a Holiday ...... 31 Figure 12: Likelihood of visiting destination based on Opinion vs. Pictures/Videos ...... 31 Figure 13: Likelihood of trying tourism services ...... 32 Figure 14: Tourism Services most likely to be tried based on Influencer ...... 32
List of Tables
Table 1: Frequency of use of Social Media Channels ...... 24 Table 2: Amount of Social Media Influencers followed on each channel ...... 25 Table 3: Level of agreement with statements regarding those not following any Social Media Influencers...... 26 Table 4: How influential Social Media Influencer are on each channel ...... 27 Table 5: Use of Social Media Influencers ...... 28 Table 6: Frequency of use of Social Media Influencers ...... 29 Table 7: Level of agreement with statements following Social Media Influencers ...... 30
vii
Chapter One Introduction
1
1.1 Introduction This chapter will provide an overview of the research that has been completed. The research rationale will be justified, and the aims and objectives of the dissertation will then be outlined. A brief synopsis of each chapter will be further discussed.
1.2 Research Rationale There has been little research undertaken with regards to social media influencers in tourism despite the increase in their popularity both on social media channels and as the latest marketing tool. While social media influencers are often used to endorse products for businesses more so than tourism products, tourism organisations are beginning to see their potential and are starting to use them in their latest marketing campaigns. However, there is no research on measuring the impact they truly have, especially within the Irish tourism market.
Thus, this study aims to research how much of an impact social media influencers have on Irish consumers when searching for information on the tourism product to include holiday destinations, restaurants, accommodation and travel methods.
1.3 Aim and Objectives The research question for this dissertation is:
To investigate the impact of Social Media Influencers on Irish consumers during the Information Stage of the Decision Making Process in the Tourism Industry
In order to achieve the research aim, the following objectives have been identified:
1. To investigate the level of influence Social Media Influencers have on Irish consumers when researching tourism products 2. To determine whether particular demographics are more influenced to try a new tourism service 3. To investigate which channels are the most successful at portraying a message from an influencer to the Irish Consumer
2
1.4 Chapter Outline The dissertation consists of the following chapters.
1.4.1 Chapter One - Introduction Chapter one includes a general introduction including the aims and objectives, and an overview of each chapter.
1.4.2 Chapter Two - Literature Review Chapter two provides a critical analysis of the literature to include Web 2.0; Social Media, Social Media Marketing; the Consumer Decision Making Process with focus on the Information Seeking Stage; Influencers and Influencer Marketing.
1.4.3 Chapter Three - Methodology Chapter three identifies and justifies the selected philosophy of research, data collection method, sampling selections, limitations of the research and ethics used during the research.
1.4.4 Chapter Four - Findings Chapter four presents the findings of the primary research undertaken, which are further displayed using graphs.
1.4.5 Chapter Five - Analysis Chapter five presents an analysis of the findings collected from the primary research, which will be cross-examined with the literature discussed in the secondary research. These will be discussed under each objective.
1.4.6 Chapter Six - Conclusions and Recommendations Chapter six draws up conclusions and makes recommendations for further research that could be undertaken.
3
Chapter Two Literature Review
4
2.1 Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to critically analyse the current literature on the topic of social media influencers, to include supporting literature on the development of Web 2.0, social media and social media marketing. The literature review then focuses on the consumer decision making process with a specific insight into the information seeking stage, which will then lead to the critical analysis of the available literature on influencers and the emergence of influencer marketing. The critical analysis of these existing academic sources will contribute to gaining knowledge on the basis of this dissertation research question which is 'To investigate the impact of Social Media Influencers on Irish Consumers during the information stage of the Decision Making Process in the Tourism Industry'.
2.2 Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 Web 1.0 was the original stage of the World Wide Web, which consisted entirely of static web pages connected by hyperlinks that did not provide any interactive content (Techopedia.com, 2018). Web 1.0 then revolutionised to become Web 2.0 which has resulted in the internet becoming a useful medium that encourages users to share their own information, therefore contributing to an increase in sources of travel information (Eichhorn et al., 2008).
The most prominent difference between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 is that while content creators were scarce in Web 1.0, anyone can contribute and create content in Web 2.0 (Cormode and Krishnamurthy, 2008). Multiple technological advances were created to maximize the potential for content creation (Cormode and Krishnamurthy, 2008). As a result of these advances, social media channels were developed to include social networks, wikis and blogs which in turn contribute to the collaboration, expanded knowledge and increased exchange of information amongst all users (de Rosario et all., 2013).
The further development of Web 2.0 has reformed the internet into a resource 'characterised by the participation and collaboration of users' (Hernández-Méndez et al., 2013). This has resulted in the increase of potential consumers making purchasing decisions based on information they have found on the internet (de Rosario at al., 2013).
Web 2.0 is a competitive tool for service sector organisations such as those in the tourism industry (Perrigot et al. 2011). Furthermore, the authors consider Web 2.0 as one of the key elements in attracting new customers and further enhancing the loyalty of current ones (Perrigot et al. 2011). The internet has inevitably reshaped the distribution of travel related information 5 and in turn how individuals plan for and consume travel (Buhalis and Law, 2008). Travel 2.0 has emerged as a result of Web 2.0, which sequentially has revolutionised the tourism industry (Hernández-Méndez et al., 2013; Buhalis and Deimezi 2004; Miguéns, Baggio & Costa, 2008; Kumar, Kumar and Mishra, 2015) and can be defined as the 'tourism and travel oriented Web 2.0' (Hernández-Méndez et al., 2013).
Berthon et al. (2012), Laroche et al. (2012a) and Michaelidou et al. (2011) all state that social media was also created as a result of the development of Web 2.0. The establishment of Travel 2.0 and social media websites combined have allowed consumers to post and share their travel- related experiences, opinions and comments, which in turn acts as an information source for other tourism consumers (Xiang and Gretzel, 2010).
2.3 Social Media
Social media can be described as internet applications that contribute towards User Generated Content (UGC) and facilitate social interaction between users online (Kirtis & Karahan, 2011; Hanna et al., 2011; Zeng & Gerritsen, 2014). Websites such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and YouTube were developed which allows users of the internet to not only view information online, but also contribute to it (de Rosario et all., 2013). These sites have become a space for users to share content of undertaken activities, places visited or personal experiences which are often showcased through the users own photographs (Chlebus-Grudzień, 2018)
Social media have had a huge impact on the tourism industry (Xiang and Gretzel, 2010). As tourism is an 'information intensive' industry, social media is an extremely vital source for obtaining knowledge and is particularly relevant as a marketing tool (Hays et al., 2013). Social media have influenced tourists in how they search for information, plan their holidays, share their experiences, meet other travellers, engage with tourism providers and perceive destinations (Gretzel, 2017; Pudliner, 2007). According to Statista (2018), it is estimated that by 2019 there will be roughly 2.77 billion social network users around the world. This provides a huge online market for tourism operators.
Buhalis and Deimezi, (2004) note that the interactive environment of social media as a result of Web 2.0 improves the promotion of services in the tourism industry such as travel, hotels and restaurants. This is because having a presence on social media permits direct communication with potential consumers, which allows for a two-way conversation to take
6 place between tourism businesses and their customers before, during and after their vacation (Lim, 2010). Customers can directly communicate with tourism organisations whilst also being able to discover information about the same organisation through other methods of online communication. Thus, social media allows customers to be directly involved with the supply and circulation of information which in turn can have a direct effect on the success or failure of a tourism organisation (Tussyadiah & Zach, 2013).
Multiple researchers agree that social media assists consumers in planning their trip and influences them to visit a destination (Simms, 2012; Lange-Faria and Elliot; 2012). This in turn has led to the development of tourism businesses utilising social media marketing (Cha. 2009).
2.3.1 Social Media Marketing O’Connor et al., (2016) describes Social Media Marketing as being a 'powerful marketing tool which can be used to empower, engage and educate consumers about a product, service or tourism destination. Many tourism businesses have recognized this and have invested in social media marketing in order to reach customers and engage with them in 'real time' (O’Connor et al., 2016). Tourism marketers are beginning to integrate social media channels into their marketing mix strategies with the aim of maintaining their reputation online and communicating with customers (Pike and Page, 2014; Hays et al., 2013). This in turn has become a vital source of information for consumers when searching for information with regards to tourism products.
2.4 Consumer Decision Making Process The consumer decision making process (CDP) model is described as being a “road map of consumers’ minds that marketers and managers can use to help guide product mix, communication, and sales strategies” (Blackwell at al., 2007, p70). The model consists of five stages that consumers go through when making purchasing decisions (Blackwell at al., 2007; Solomon, 2017). These include: 1. Problem Recognition; 2. Information Search; 3. Evaluation of Alternatives; 4. Product Choice and 5. Outcomes. Although each of the stages are important, for the purpose of this literature review, a closer analysis will be undertaken for the second stage of the decision making process, information search.
2.4.1 Information Search During this stage, consumers begin seeking information from a variety of sources to satisfy their needs. These sources can be categorised as (1) Marketer Dominated or (2) Non-Marketer
7
Dominated (Blackwell at al., 2007). Marketer dominated sources include advertisements, websites and salespeople, where as non-marketer dominated sources include consumers family, friends, the media and opinion leaders (Blackwell et al., 2007). With an increase in the internet being used in relation to searching for tourism related information, it can be seen that social media is essential during the information seeking stage as it provides consumers with an informed decision (Pestek and Alic, 2017).
With regards to tourism, choosing a holiday destination involves large emotional investments. The opportunity cost is irreversible as if a holiday goes wrong, that is often it for another year, so the fear of failure is high (Koc, 2004). Holiday destinations are intangible and cannot be tested prior to purchase. Therefore, it can be said that this level of risk when choosing a destination will intensify information seeking (Koc, 2004) during the information seeking stage.
The opinion leaders which were highlighted by Blackwell et al. (2007) combined with the increase in social media (Pestek and Alic, 2017) has resulted in the emergence of online opinion leaders (also known as online influencers) which are considered to be a new source of information for consumers (Watts and Dodds 2007; Lyons and Henderson 2005).
2.5 Context of Social Influence and Influencers The process through which an individual’s feelings, thoughts and actions are affected by other people is known as social influence (Goldsmith & Goldsmith, 2011). There are multiple factors that can affect whether an individual is influenced or not, with gender being one of them (Carli, 2001). Multiple studies have been conducted in the past regarding gender and social influence, with a specific focus on the extent in which women and men are influenced by others (e.g., Eagly, 1978; Becker, 1986; Eagly & Carli, 1981). However, there has been no research undertaken to investigate the extent to which gender plays a role in being influenced by influencers with regards to tourism services.
Influencers are individuals who hold the power to affect people’s decisions due to their status, knowledge or following (Gretzel, 2018). Influencers first started in the form of celebrities, where marketers would use them to endorse products or services (Gretzel, 2018). Celebrity endorsements benefited companies by capturing the audience’s attention, adding product and brand credibility whilst raising brand awareness and increasing ad recall (Glover, 2009). Glover (2009) goes on to further outline the importance of celebrity endorsements in tourism
8 marketing, stating that they can influence the destination image held by consumers, which can influence them into choosing a particular destination. The impact of celebrity endorsements has been documented extensively (McCartney & Pinto, 2014; Van der Veen & Song, 2014; Yen & Teng, 2015). While celebrities continue to be influential towards consumers, the rise of social media has given way to the production of social media influencers who are able to influence based on their relevant content (Gretzel, 2018) which is perceived to be more genuine (Pestek and Alic, 2017).
Pestek and Alic (2017) consider social media influencers to be a progression of celebrity endorsements. The authors contrast the two by describing celebrity endorsements as simply attaching a celebrity’s image to a campaign or a brand, where as social media influencers provide a more intimate method of marketing by providing their content through their own personality. Many followers would consider influencers as friends and people they know as a result of the influencers sharing so much of their real life with them (Pestek and Alic, 2017).
Social media influencers can be defined as popular social media accounts, personalities, blogs etc. whose work is to endorse or review products of different brands (Nandagiri and Philip, 2018). Freberg et al. (2011) consider social media influencers to be an independent third-party endorser who affect consumer’s attitudes through the use of social media channels. De Veirman et al. (2017) similarly refer to a social media influencer as a user of social media who gained a large following, established credibility and whose high reach and authenticity can lead to impact and persuasion in interaction with their following. They have gained this influence through time and engagement in the relationship between themselves and their followers (Pestek and Alic, 2017). A social media influencers huge source of appeal is that the informal and casual tone of their content and communication makes them approachable and gives them an authentic vibe which makes consumers feel like they are close with them (Pestek and Alic, 2017).
De Veirman, Cauberghe and Hudders (2017) describe influencers as "trustworthy opinion leaders". De Veirman, Cauberghe and Hudders (2017) further state that due to higher credibility and authenticity, Influencers are considered to be more effective than traditional advertising tactics. As a result of this, combined with the rise of social media, becoming an influencer has become a profession for some, with businesses beginning to see the potential they hold (Nandagiri and Philip, 2018). These businesses are increasingly using influencers to share particular messages engaging the businesses brand to their audiences in return for
9 rewards, which is referred to as influencer marketing (Gretzel, 2018; Hearn & Schoenhoff, 2016; Lu, Chang, & Chang, 2017).
2.5.1 Influencer Marketing Carter (2016) defines influencer marketing as “a rapidly growing industry that attempts to promote products or increase brand awareness through content spread by social media users who are considered to be influential” (p.2). Brown and Hayes (2008) further define influencer marketing as promoting brands through the use of key individuals who wield influence over potential consumers. Audrezet, de Kerviler and Guidry Moulard (2018) state that marketers in the US that are familiar with Influencer Marketing consider it to be the second most effective promotional strategy, rating 7.56 on a 10-point scale.
Social influencers have a strong online presence usually over multiple accounts. There are many different social media channels for influencers to use to post content and opinions, which can be utilised by tourism businesses. The most popular social media platforms that marketers use to employ influencer marketing in America which was researched by Krasniak (2016) can be seen below.
Instagram 89%
Facebook 70%
Twitter 70%
YouTube 59%
Blogs 48%
Snapchat 45% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Figure 1: Top Social Media Platforms used to employ influencer marketing in America (Krasniak, 2016) Krasniak's (2016) findings have been further reiterated through research from numerous scholars. While each platform has their strengths, Pestel and Alic (2017) state that the promotion of travel destinations works most effectively on a visual basis, which is why Instagram and YouTube have become popular channels for tourism promotion as videos and pictures of a trip can convey a more detailed experience. This is further supported by Casaló,
10
Flavián and Ibáñez-Sánchez (2018) who state that Instagram is the social media channel that is used most by influencers. The authors continue to say that the engagement rate on Instagram is higher than that of other social media channels, making it even more beneficial.
De Veirman, Cauberghe and Hudders (2017) also support Krasniak (2016) by outlining that as Instagram is a social media channel that provides users with photo and video sharing possibilities, it serves as an effective eWOM source as brands and products can be visually captured and further named in the photos caption. Furthermore, Casaló, Flavián and Ibáñez- Sánchez (2018) state that Instagram offers businesses the chance to post content that is aesthetically pleasing that focuses mainly on visuals which is ideal for influencer marketing.
11
2.6 Conclusion The author identified a lack of academic literature relating to the measurable impact of social media influencers, particularly in the tourism industry. This can be somewhat expected as influencer marketing is such a recent development. However, there is an abundance of research portraying social media influencers as a trustworthy, credible, genuine source of information. The literature also shows that more businesses are beginning to utilise social media influencers as their latest marketing tool.
Despite this, there is lack of hard data to show the level of influence social media influencers actually have on consumers when endorsing tourism products. The author aims to discover this level of impact on Irish consumers, along with some other questions that stem from this topic. The method chosen to answer these objectives will be further discussed in the following chapter.
12
Chapter Three Methodology
13
3.1 Introduction In the previous chapter, primary research was analysed and the author identified a gap in the literature relating to the impact of social media influencers on the Irish Market with relation to the tourism product. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the methods used in order to conduct the author’s research. It outlines the research question and objectives, the research rationale, research philosophy, research approach and what tools will be used. The sampling selections will be discussed and how the data will be analysed. This chapter will also briefly outline the limitations to the data collection and ethical considerations.
3.2 Research Question and Objectives Through the analysis of the existing literature, the following question has been developed
To investigate the impact of Social Media Influencers on Irish Consumers during the Information Stage of the Decision Making Process in the Tourism Industry
The following aims have been developed to help answer this question
1. To investigate the level of influence Social Media Influencers have on Irish Consumers when researching tourism products 2. To determine whether particular demographics are more influenced to try a new tourism service 3. To investigate which channels are the most successful at portraying a message from an influencer to the Irish Consumer
3.3 Research Rationale With the recent growth of social media influencers, it is interesting to see how they gain such a large following and essentially create a brand based solely on themselves, which in turn leads to more business utilising them as their latest marketing tool.
The author discovered when analysing the literature for the previous chapter, that there was a lack of literature about social media influencers endorsing tourism products, and no research on measuring the impact they truly have, especially within the Irish market. Social media influencers have been frequently used to endorse products for businesses more so than services in the tourism industry.
14
It is for these reasons combined that the author felt compelled to research how much of an impact social media influencers have on Irish consumers, with a specification on the tourism product to include holiday destinations, restaurants, accommodation, and travel methods.
3.4 Research Philosophy According to Collis and Hussey (2014, p. 43), the research paradigm is a ‘philosophical framework that guides how scientific research should be conducted’. The two main philosophical research methods are interpretivism and positivism (Malhotra, Birks & Wills, 2010; Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2012; Brotherton, 2008).
Interpretivism focuses on fact, meaning and understanding (Carson et al., 2001) Interpretivism is therefore associated with qualitative research (Saunders et al., 2012) as the findings are derived from the interpretation of the results (Collis and Hussey, 2014). On the contrary, Collis and Hussey (2014, p. 44) outline that theories under positivism ‘provide the basis of explanation, permit the anticipation of phenomena, predict their occurrence and therefore allow them to be examined’. It is for this reason that positivism is associated with quantitative data analysis as it is based on the collection and analysis of highly structured statistical data (Collis and Hussey, 2014; Saunders et al., 2012).
While interpretivism focuses on exploring the data to gain an interpretive understanding, positivism focuses on measuring data (Collis and Hussey, 2014). It is for this reason that the author has chosen to use a positivism approach in conducting their research as the question looking to be answered is focused more on ‘what’ happens rather than ‘why’ it happens.
3.5 Research Approach As previously mentioned, positivism is related to quantitative research. According to Malhotra, Birks and Wills (2012), quantitative research consists of techniques that are used to quantify data and apply a form of measurement and statistical analysis.
3.5.1 Primary Research Gratton & Jones (2010) define primary research as “research that has involved the collection of data specific to that particular research project” (p.8). According to Collis and Hussey (2014) primary data is collected from an original source, such as surveys, interviews or focus groups.
15
The author has decided to choose survey questionnaires as the method for collecting the primary data required for the purpose of this dissertation.
3.5.2 Secondary Research While primary research is essential for investigating new theories, it is not sufficient on its own. It is for this reason the author conducted secondary research by exploring the existing literature on the topic chosen for this dissertation which was showcased in Chapter Two. This literature has given the author an understanding for the topic being researched and will further be used in conjunction with the findings for further analysis.
3.5.3 Questionnaire According to deVaus (2002), a questionnaire is the term given to data collection methods where all participating subjects answer the same set of questions in the same predetermined order. There are many types of questionnaires to include self-completed questionnaires, which can be distributed via the web or post, interviewer-completed questionnaires, structured interviews or telephone questionnaires (Saunders et al., 2012).
For the purpose of this dissertation, the author has chosen to use self-completed questionnaires which will be created using Google Forms and will subsequently be distributed via web-based applications such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, LinkedIn, Snapchat and WhatsApp.
As the topic of this dissertation is in relation to social media influencers, online questionnaires were deemed to be the most appropriate to use in order to reach a target audience who have access to social media. While this may seem biased, it was important for the respondents who answered to have access to social media in order to be in contact with social media influencers. This sampling method, known as judgemental sampling, will be further discussed in the next section.
3.5.4 Sampling According to Walliman (2001), the data that is collected from the questionnaires distributed should represent the entire population, with the phrase ‘population’ being used to describe the total body of people under consideration for statistical purposes (Collis and Hussey, 2014). The population for this dissertation are individuals living in Ireland. Due to there being limitations in time and resources, a sample was chosen to best represent the entire population. A sample is ‘a group of individuals chosen to participate in a research study because they are representative of a larger population’ (Kolb, 2008, p.33).
16
There are two methods of sampling techniques, probability and non- probability (Saunders et al., 2012) which can be seen in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Sampling Techniques (Saunders et al., 2012) For the purpose of this dissertation, non-probability sampling was used. Molhotra et al., (2012) clarifies that non-probability is based on the researcher’s judgement rather than by chance. Doyle (2011) goes on to further say that non-probability can result in some members of the population being chosen more so than others as the respondents are chosen subjectively. The author chose non-probability sampling as it was required for the respondents to be present on Social Media in order to come into contact with social media influencers. Convenience sampling was used by distributing the questionnaires online through Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, LinkedIn, Snapchat and WhatsApp to people that the author knew. Snowball sampling was then used as the author requested for respondents to share the questionnaire with others. This resulted in the author being able to reach a wider audience.
3.5.5 Pilot Questionnaire Pilot testing of questionnaires refers to testing the questionnaire on a small sample of participants for the purpose of improving the questionnaire by identifying and eliminating potential problems (Malhotra et al., 2012) which in turn should improve the response rate and the validity of data (Oliver, 2014). The author decided to distribute the questionnaire online to five participants in order to gain feedback. As a result of the pilot testing a small number of errors were identified and changed.
17
3.6 Data Analysis Data analysis is important to retrieve vital information from raw data that is collected (Cooper & Schindler, 2011). The author used the Windows Office programme Excel and the software package ‘Statistical Package for the Social Sciences’ (SPSS) to analyse the data. Excel and SPSS enable the recording, calculation, analysis and interpretation of collected data and also the process of designing graphs and charts (Brotherton, 2008). The author collected the data via Google Forms, analysed the findings, interpreted the results and presented them in the findings chapter using multiple tables and graphs. The author then further discussed the findings in the analysis chapter and developed conclusions and recommendations.
3.7 Limitations The author faced a number of limitations when conducting this research. Firstly, the research was conducted as a requirement of an undergraduate dissertation which meant that time was a factor which limited the research. Secondly, when the author analysed the findings it was discovered that there were no respondents in the 55-64 or 65+ brackets. This hindered the results as the insights of these demographics were not able to be analysed. Thirdly, as the questionnaires were distributed online through social media channels, as stated earlier this could lead to bias. However, it was essential for respondents to be present on social media in order to be in contact with social media influencers.
3.8 Ethical Consideration It is imperative that researchers consider the ethics when conducting their research. The ethics will vary depending on the sensitivity of the topic being asked. Bell and Bryman (2007) outline that the following principles should be followed:
1. No physical or psychological harm will be caused to the participants 2. The researcher will respect the dignity of the participants 3. The researcher will inform consent to the participants and ensure they are aware it is voluntary 4. The researcher will ensure and respect the privacy, anonymity and confidentiality of its participants
In accordance to these guidelines, an ethical approach has been followed through this research.
18
3.9 Conclusion The methodology chapter discussed the research approach undertaken. A positivist approach using quantitative techniques was chosen. Online questionnaires were selected as the appropriate tool to collect the data, and these will be distributed online using social media channels such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, LinkedIn and WhatsApp. The sampling method was outlined, and non-probability was chosen, with snowball and convenience being the methods used. A brief outline of how the data will be analysed was given, along with any limitations that were encountered along the way. Ethical considerations were also taken into deliberation.
19
Chapter Four Findings
20
4.1 Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to present the findings from the 206 questionnaires that were collected during the primary research process which were carried out from the 16th - 25th February 2019. The aim of the research was to discover the impact social media influencers have on Irish consumers when searching for information on tourism products. The questionnaires used were created online using Google Forms which were then distributed online through social media channels including Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, Twitter, LinkedIn and WhatsApp. The results have been compiled to easily showcase the findings. This was achieved through the use of Google Forms, as it supplied percentages and charts when analysing the responses, and further through Microsoft Excel.
4.2 Survey Findings The survey that was distributed online consisted of 18 questions with the sole purpose to answer the aims of this dissertation. The findings that were collected from the 206 questionnaires will now be outlined with several diagrams to better illustrate them.
4.2.1 Age of respondents In question 1, respondents were asked what age bracket they fell under. The majority (70.9%) of respondents were between 18-24, while 22.8% were between 25-34, 4.4% were between 35- 44 and 1.9% were between 45-54. No respondents were recorded for the 55-64 and 65+ age brackets.
35-44 45-54 4.4% 1.9%
25-34 22.8%
18-24 70.8% N = 206
Figure 3: Age of Respondents
21
4.2.2 Gender of respondents The respondents were asked to state what gender they identified as. Out of the 206 responses, 69.4% were female, 30.1% were male and 0.5% identified as a gender other than male or female.
Other 0.5%
Male 30.1%
Female 69.4%
N = 206
Figure 4: Gender of Respondents 4.2.3 Employment status The questionnaire then asked what the respondent’s current employment status was. 50% of respondents were students, 46.1% were employed, 3.4% were self-employed and 0.5% were homemakers. No respondents were recorded as retired or unable to work.
Self -Employed Homemaker 3.4% 0.5%
Student Employed 50.0% 46.1%
N = 206
Figure 5: Employment Status of Respondents
22
4.2.4 Highest level of education Question 4 asked the respondents what the highest level of education was they had completed. Out of the 206 responses, 1.5% had no schooling completed, 35.4% completed the Leaving Certificate, 9.2% had completed Trade/Technical/Vocational Training, 47.1% completed a Bachelor’s Degree, and 6.8% completed a Master’s Degree. No respondents were recorded for completing a Doctorate Degree.
Bachelors Degree 47.1%
Leaving Certificate 35.4%
Trade/Technical/Vocational Training 9.2%
Masters Degree 6.8% Level of Level Education No Schooling Completed 1.5%
Doctorate Degree 0.0%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% N = 206 Percentage of Respondents
Figure 6: Highest Level of Education Completed by Respondents 4.2.5 Martial status Question 5 asked the respondents what their current marital status was. 50% of respondents were single, 43.7% were in a relationship, 5.8% were married and 0.5% were divorced. No respondents were recorded for being widowed. This is because of the young response rate.
60% 50.0% 50% 43.7% 40%
30%
20%
10% 5.8% Percentage ofRespondents Percentage 0.5% 0.0% 0% Single In a Married Divorced Widowed Relationship Martial Status N = 206 Figure 7: Martial Status of Respondents
23
4.2.6 Frequency of use of Social Media Channels Question 6 of the questionnaire asked respondents ‘How often would you use the following Social Media channels/platforms?’ The statistics presented in Table 1 show the findings of the respondents where N=206. Instagram came out as being used most often, with a combined total of 80.6% of respondents stating that they either frequently or very frequently use the Social Media Channel. Tumblr came out as the least used Social Media Channel, with a combined total of 68.5% of respondents saying they either very rarely or rarely used the app.
Very Rarely Occasionally Frequently Very N/A Rarely Frequently Facebook 6.3% 7.3% 23.3% 30.6% 31.1% 1.3% Instagram 4.4% 0.5% 10.7% 17.0% 63.6% 3.9% YouTube 5.3% 10.7% 25.7% 31.6% 26.2% 0.5% Snapchat 11.2% 8.3% 13.6% 15.5% 43.7% 7.8% Twitter 30.1% 11.2% 17.0% 7.3% 19.9% 14.6% Tumblr 58.3% 10.2% 2.9% 0% 0.5% 28.2% Pinterest 49.5% 13.6% 11.2% 3.4% 1.0% 21.4% Table 1: Frequency of use of Social Media Channels 4.2.7 Social Media Influencers In this section, several questions will be discussed. Question 7 asked the respondents do they follow any social media influencers. Out of the 206 responses, 81.1% of respondents said yes while 18.9% said no.
No 18.9%
Yes 81.1% N = 206
Figure 8: Do respondents follow Social Media Influencers?
24
Those who answered yes were then asked in question 8 how many social media influencers they currently follow. It was discovered that 29.2% follow between 1-5, 31.6% follow between 6-10, 12.3% follow between 11-15 and 26.9% follow 16+.
16+ 26.9% 1 to 5 29.2%
11 to 15 12.3%
6 to 10 31.6% N = 206
Figure 9: Number of Social Media Influencers followed
Respondents were then asked in question 9 what channels they followed the social media influencers on, and if any the amount. The results can be seen in Table 2.
None Some Quite a few A lot N/A N= Facebook 43.5% 44.1% 8.7% 2.5% 1.2% N=161 Instagram 3.6% 10.8% 21.1% 63.3% 1.2% N=166 YouTube 28.8% 27.5% 17.5% 22.5% 3.8% N=160 Snapchat 29.4% 37.5% 15.6% 12.5% 5.0% N=160 Twitter 53.5% 21.4% 10.1% 4.4% 10.7% N=159 Tumblr 78.5% 1.9% 0% 0% 19.6% N=158 Pinterest 79.9% 0.6% 0.6% 0% 18.9% N=159 Blog 63.5% 16.4% 4.4% 1.9% 13.8% N=159 Table 2: Amount of Social Media Influencers followed on each channel The Social Media Channel that the respondents follow the most social media influencers on is Instagram, with 84.4% saying they follow either quite a few or a lot. On the contrary, the Social Media Channel that the respondents follow no social media influencers on is Pinterest, with 79.9% of respondents saying they follow none.
25
Question 10 was directed at the 18.9% of respondents who answered ‘No’ to question 7. These respondents were asked ‘How strongly do you agree/disagree with the following statements about why you don't follow any Social Media Influencers?’ The results are presented in Table 3 where N=39.
Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Disagree Agree or Agree Disagree Not 2.6% 7.7% 7.7% 25.6% 56.4% interested in them Doubtful of 10.3% 5.1% 15.4% 25.6% 43.6% how reliable they are They’re 5.1% 10.3% 7.7% 33.3% 43.6% annoying Prefer to 5.1% 7.7% 15.4% 10.3% 61.5% follow friends/family Feel their 7.7% 12.8% 20.5% 23.1% 35.9% opinion is only because they get paid Table 3: Level of agreement with statements regarding those not following any Social Media Influencers
The main two reasons why the respondents didn’t follow social media influencers were that they preferred to follow friends/family (61.5%) and they were not interested in them (56.4%).
26
4.2.8 Which channel is most influential? Respondents were asked in question 11 ‘On a scale of 1-5 (with 1 being no influence and 5 being substantial), how influential do you think Social Media Influencers are on each channel?’ The responses can be seen in Table 4 where N=206.
1 2 3 4 5 Mean Facebook 23.3% 32.5% 29.6% 10.7% 3.9% 2.4 Instagram 3.9% 2.9% 9.2% 20.9% 63.1% 4.5 YouTube 8.3% 7.3% 23.3% 25.2% 35.9% 3.7 Snapchat 16.0% 13.1% 22.8% 32.5% 15.5% 3.2 Twitter 27.2% 19.4% 30.1% 16.0% 7.3% 2.3 Tumblr 62.1% 19.4% 15.0% 2.4% 1.0% 1.6 Pinterest 57.8% 17.5% 16.5% 5.3% 2.9% 1.8 Blogs 31.1% 16.5% 24.8% 15.5% 12.1% 2.6 Table 4: How influential Social Media Influencer are on each channel Instagram came out as the most influential with a mean of 4.5, followed by YouTube with a mean of 3.7. This was then followed by Snapchat with a mean of 3.2 and then Blogs with a mean of 2.6. Facebook came out as fifth most influential with a mean of 2.4, while Twitter closely followed with a mean of 2.3. The second least influential was Pinterest with a mean of 1.8 while Tumblr was deemed the least influential channel for social media influencers to be on, with a low mean of 1.6.
5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2
Mean influence Mean of 1.5 1 0.5 0 Instagram YouTube Snapchat Blogs Facebook Twitter Pinterest Tumblr Social media channels
Figure 10: Mean of Most Influential Channels
27
4.2.9 Use of Social Media Influencers Question 12 asked respondents how likely they would be to use social media influencers in certain situations. The findings are displayed in Table 5.
Definitely Probably Unsure Probably Definitely Mean Not Not A source of 17.5% 18.9% 10.7% 41.2% 11.7% information Inform you 10.2% 9.7% 11.1% 47.6% 21.4% about a product Inform you 10.2% 11.2% 10.7% 50.5% 17.5% about a service Inform you 10.2% 11.7% 11.2% 44.2% 22.8% about a destination Table 5: Use of Social Media Influencers
28
Respondents were asked in Question 13 how often they would use social media influencers in the following circumstances. The findings are displayed in Table 6.
Never Rarely Occasionally Often Very Often To view their 16.5% 21.4% 29.6% 26.2% 6.3% opinion To view the 9.7% 7.8% 20.4% 34.5% 27.7% videos/photos they post Because they 22.3% 34.5% 31.6% 11.2% 0.5% are a reliable source Because you 19.4% 24.8% 38.3% 16.0% 1.5% trust their opinion Because you 17.5% 20.9% 35.0% 21.4% 5.3% relate to them Table 6: Frequency of use of Social Media Influencers
29
4.2.10 Agreement with statements regarding Social Media Influencers Respondents were asked in question 14 how strongly they agreed with the following statements regarding social media influencers. The findings are represented in Table 7.
Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly Disagree Agree Social Media 3.4% 22.3% 39.8% 25.7% 8.7% Influencers are not credible I am doubtful 0.5% 22.8% 28.2% 37.4% 11.2% of their information I am doubtful 1.5% 11.2% 26.7% 41.3% 19.4% it is their true opinion I do not care 4.9% 35.9% 29.1% 17.5% 12.6% about what they have to say I prefer 1.9% 5.8% 17.0% 38.3% 36.9% information from friends/family I prefer 3.4% 14.1% 28.2% 35.0% 19.4% information from other online sources Table 7: Level of agreement with statements following Social Media Influencers
30
4.2.11 Level of influence when booking a holiday Question 15 asked respondents ‘How influential would you say Social Media Influencers are to you when booking a holiday?’ It was discovered that 38.3% of respondents answered ‘A little’, 29.6% of respondents answered ‘None at all’, 20.9% answered ‘A moderate amount’, 9.7% answered ‘A lot’ and only 1.5% answered ‘A great deal’.
A great deal A lot 1.5% 9.7%
A moderate A little amount 38.3% 20.9%
N = 206 None at all 29.6%
Figure 11: Level of influence when booking a Holiday 4.2.12 Likelihood of visiting destination based on opinion vs pictures/videos Question 16 asked respondents how likely they would be to visit a destination based on a social media influencers opinion. Question 17 then asked respondents how likely they would be to visit a destination based on a social media influencer posted images/videos. The findings for these two questions are displayed and compared in Figure 13.
45% 38.8% 40% Figure 12: Likelihood of visiting 35% 31.6% destination based on Opinion vs. 30% 28.2% Pictures/Videos 25% 22.8% 19.9% 20% 18.0%17.0% 15.0% 15% 10% 6.3% Percentage ofRespondents Percentage 5% 2.4% 0% Very Unlikely Unlikely Neither Unlikely Likely Very Likely or Likely Level of likelihood
Opinion Posted Images/Videos N = 206
31
4.2.13 Likelihood of trying tourism services Respondents were asked in question 18 what tourism service they would be most likely to try based on a Social Media Influencer.
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Never Not likely Somewhat Likely Likely Very Likely N = 206
Figure 13: Likelihood of trying tourism services
From further analysis, the tourism products most likely to be tried based on a Social media Influencer were restaurants, pubs/nightclubs and natural tourism products. Holiday destination, accommodation and travel method were least likely to be tired.
60% 52.4% 51.5% 51.5% 48.5% 47.6% 50% 42.8% 40% 34.5% 33.5% 30% 21.9% 20%
10%
0%
Figure 14: Tourism Services most likely to be tried based on Influencer
32
4.3 Conclusion The respondents profiled showed mainly to be females in the 18-24 age bracket. Majority were students, with the highest level of education completed being a Bachelor’s Degree.
Instagram came out as being the most used Social Media Channel, with a combined total of 80.6% of respondents stating that they either frequently or very frequently use the Social Media, with Facebook coming in second position with 61.7% respectively. Tumblr came out as the least used app, with a combined total of 68.5% of respondents saying they either very rarely or rarely use the Social Media Channel.
The findings showed that 81.1% of respondents stated that they did follow social media influencers, with the majority following 6-10 influencers. The social media channel that most respondents followed influencers on was Instagram, while Pinterest had the least. It is interesting to note that 43.5% of respondents answered to following none on Facebook, despite it being the second most used social media channel. Additionally, the findings showed that the main two reasons for the respondents who didn’t follow any social media influencers was because they preferred to follow friends/family or they were not interested in them.
The findings further showed that the respondents believed that Instagram had the potential to be the most influential social media channel, while Tumblr was the least influential. Facebook was considered to be the fifth most influential channel, which further supports the respondents who said they did not follow influencers on Facebook.
The findings from question 12 showed that while 69% of respondents would use a social media influencer to inform them about a product and 68% would use them to inform them about a service. Moreover, 67% stated that they would use a social media influencer to inform them about a destination. Additionally, the findings showed that respondents would be most likely to use a social media influencer to view their photos/videos. However, only 0.5% of respondents would use social media influencers as they were a reliable source and 1.5% would use them as they would trust their opinion.
The findings showcased that 60.7% of respondents agreed that they were doubtful it was the influencers true opinion, but 40.8% still cared about what influencers had to say. Additionally, 75.2% of respondents agreed that they preferred information from friends/family.
33
In relation to booking a holiday, the findings showed that 67.9% of respondents either didn’t use social media influencers at all or only a little. Whereas 30.6% said they would use them either a moderate amount or a lot.
When comparing question 16 and 17, the findings showed at respondents would be more likely to visit a destination based on a social media influencers posted pictures/videos rather than their opinion. Additionally, the findings showed that the tourism service most likely to be tried based on a social media influencer would be restaurants with a combined likely and very likely response of 52.4%.
The next chapter will discuss the analysis of the findings.
34
Chapter Five Analysis
35
5.1 Introduction This chapter will address the research objectives by discussing the findings and comparing them to the literature reviewed in Chapter Two. The author further utilised SPSS to cross-tab main finding results with each other to gather in-depth detail and give more insight into the meaning of the results. These will also be discussed.
5.2 Objective One To investigate the level of influence Social Media Influencers have on Irish Consumers when researching tourism products
According to Gretzel (2018), social media influencers are able to influence based on their relevant content. A social media influencers main source of appeal is that the informal and casual tone of their content and communication makes them approachable and gives them an authentic vibe which makes consumers feel like they are close with them (Pestek and Alic, 2017).
Pestek and Alic (2017) perceive Influencers to be genuine, while De Veirman, Cauberghe and Hudders (2017) describe influencers as "trustworthy opinion leaders". De Veirman, Cauberghe and Hudders (2017) further state that due to higher credibility and authenticity, Influencers are considered to be more effective than traditional advertising tactics. However, through further analysis of the findings collected, it was discovered that the level of trust is low with Influencers as only 0.5% of respondents would use social media influencers as they were a reliable source
When asked how frequently they would use social media influencers to view their opinion, 37.9% responded 'Never' or 'Rarely', with only 6.3% saying they would actively seek an influencers opinion. Additionally, 60.7% of respondents both agreed or strongly agreed to being doubtful of influencers opinions, with 34.4% agreeing that they were not credible. The reasoning for this can be echoed through De Veirman, Cauberghe and Hudders (2017) beliefs that online media has increased the difficulty in determining credible sources, while assessing a digital source for its credibility is more difficult in comparison to face-to-face interaction.
This is further echoed in the primary research when 37.8% of respondents stated that they were unlikely to visit a destination based on an influencers opinion. However, it was unveiled through further analysis of the primary research that respondents would be more likely to visit a destination based on an influencers posted photos/videos rather than their opinion. Pestel and
36
Alic (2017) outlined that the promotion of travel destinations works most effectively on a visual basis, as videos and pictures of a trip can convey a more detailed experience. The finding that 45.1% of respondents said they were 'Likely' or 'Very Likely' to visit a destination based on an influencers posted photos/videos further supports this literature.
While Pestek and Alic (2017) stated that many followers would consider influencers as friends and people they know as a result of them sharing so much of their lives with them, it was discovered that influencers were still not as influential as actual friends or family. It was discovered that 75.2% or respondents would prefer their information from friends or family and 54.4% would prefer information from other online sources.
Buhalis and Deimezi, (2004) convey that the interactive environment of social media improves the promotion of services in the tourism industry such as restaurants. This is supported through the findings as when respondents were asked the likelihood of trying different tourism products based on a Social Media Influencer, restaurants came out as the most likely to be tried with 52.4% of respondents saying they would be 'Likely' or 'Very Likely' to try a restaurant based on an Influencer. This was closely followed by Pubs/Nightclubs and Natural Tourism Products with 51.4% of respondents saying they would be 'Likely' or 'Very Likely' to try them based on an Influencer.
Choosing a holiday destination involves large emotional investments. Koc (2004) outlines that the opportunity cost is irreversible as if a holiday goes wrong, that is often it for another year, so the fear of failure is high. Holiday destinations are intangible and cannot be tested prior to purchase. Therefore, it can be said that this level of risk when choosing a destination will intensify information seeking (Koc, 2004). Through the findings, it was discovered that holiday destination, accommodation and travel method were the three least likely to be tried. Therefore, it can be argued that Irish consumers feel that influencers are not a reliable enough source to book the main components of a holiday, as the fear of failure is so high, and would prefer to look for more credible sources such as friends, family or other online sources.
To summarise, it was discovered that while Irish tourism consumers would be likely to use influencers as a source of information, the level of trust is considered to be low, which contrasts the literature. Respondents would prefer their information from other sources including friends, family and online. The literature also outlined that booking a holiday can involve high opportunity cost as the fear of failure is high, which may be the reason Irish consumers do not feel comfortable to rely solely on a Social Media Influencer while booking a holiday
37 destination, accommodation or travel method as they don’t deem them as a credible enough source. This is due to the level of trust being lower than what was outlined in the literature.
With that being said, 81.1% of respondents say they follow social media influencers and it was discovered that they are still interested in influencers photos and videos as part of their search, which shows an opportunity for future Tourism Marketers.
38
5.3 Objective Two To determine whether particular demographics are more influenced to try a new tourism service
While multiple studies have been conducted in the past regarding gender and social influence, with a specific focus on the extent in which women and men are influenced by others (e.g., Eagly, 1978; Becker, 1986; Eagly & Carli, 1981) the author was unable to find any literature regarding which demographic would be most inclined to try a tourism service based on a Social Media Influencer. From further analysis using cross tabulations on SPSS, the author discovered a trend in the findings which will be discussed.
From conducting the findings, it was discovered that 81.1% of respondents said they followed social media influencers. Of this 81.1%, it was revealed that 95.5% of Females aged 18-24 said they followed influencers. It was expected that there would be more people following social media influencers than not, but it was not expected for such a high percentage of respondents to say they followed social media influencers.
By using SPSS to conduct cross-tabulations of question 1, question 2 and question 18, the author was able to perform further analysis of the findings. It was unveiled that 30% of females aged 18-24 were more likely to try a destination in comparison to 17.1% males aged 18-24. On the contrary, 26.1% of males aged 25-34 were more likely to try a destination in comparison to 12.5% of females aged 25-34 based on social media influencers. This can be seen in Appendix D.
Restaurants came out as being the most likely to be tried based on an Influencer. When this was further analysed using SPSS, it was discovered that 22.7% of females aged 18-24 and 33% of females aged 25-34 were either likely or very likely to try a restaurant endorsed by an Influencer in comparison to only 8.6% of males aged 18-24 and 13% of males aged 25-34 who agreed. However, it was revealed that males in the 35-44 and 45-54 categories were more influenced than females when it came to trying a restaurant based on an Influencer. This would indicate that while younger females were shown to be more likely to try a restaurant based on an Influencer, males were more influenced as they grew older. This can be seen in Appendix E.
When asked ‘How influential would you say Social Media Influencers are to you when booking a holiday?’ 9.7% of respondents replied 'A Lot'. While this figure appeared to be low, through
39 further analysis using SPSS, it was discovered that males aged 18-24 and 25-34 were more likely to be influenced rather than females in the same age categories, with 11.4% of males aged 18-24 and 17.4% of males aged 24-34 saying social media influencers would influence them a lot in comparison to only 8.2% of females aged 18-24 and 8.3% of females aged 25-24 who agreed with the same statement. This can be found in Appendix F.
When asked would the respondents visit a destination based on an influencers opinion, it showed that 35.4% of females ages 18-24 said either 'Likely' or 'Very Likely' in comparison to 25.8% of males aged 18-24 saying the same. Whereas in contrast, 21.7% of males aged 25-34 said 'Likely' or 'Very likely' in comparison to 20.9% of females aged 25-34 saying the same. This can be seen in Appendix G.
To summarise, from further analysis of the findings it was discovered that with regards to destination, restaurants and an influencers opinion, females were more influenced at a younger age. However, as the respondents aged, the males became more influenced. Therefore, the author can conclude that young female consumers aged 18-24 tend to be more susceptible to try a tourism product endorsed by an Influencer, whereas males tend to become more influenced as they age.
40
5.4 Objective Three To investigate which channels are the most successful at portraying a message from an influencer to the Irish Consumer
According to Casaló, Flavián and Ibáñez-Sánchez (2018), Instagram is the social media channel that is used most by influencers. This is supported by the findings that the channel respondents follow the most social media influencers on is Instagram, with 84.4% saying they follow either quite a few or a lot.
De Veirman, Cauberghe and Hudders (2017) state that as Instagram is a social media channel that provides users with photo and video sharing possibilities, it serves as an effective eWOM source as brands and products can be visually captured and further named in the photos caption. As mentioned earlier, Pestel and Alic (2017) state that the promotion of travel destinations work most effectively on a visual basis, which is why Instagram and YouTube have become popular channels for tourism promotion as videos and pictures of a trip can convey a more detailed experience. The findings support this literature as it was discovered that respondents felt that Instagram is the most influential social media channel for social media influencers to be on, with YouTube coming in second. Furthermore, Casaló, Flavián and Ibáñez-Sánchez (2018) state that Instagram offers businesses the chance to post content that is aesthetically pleasing that focuses mainly on visuals which is ideal for influencer marketing. This can be beneficial in particular to natural tourism sites such as waterfalls, beaches and other scenery.
When the findings were further analysed using SPSS, it was discovered that younger females followed more influencers on Instagram than older females. This was mirrored by the findings of males as it was discovered that as males got older they also followed less influencers on Instagram. However, it was still discovered that across all age groups, Instagram was the channel that respondents followed most social media influencers on in comparison to the other social media channels listed.
Therefore, it was discovered through the findings that Instagram is deemed to be the most influential channel for social media influencers to be on. This finding is supported by existing literature which emphasises the visual aspect of the social media channel as being the main contributing attribute for its success.
41
5.5 Conclusion To conclude, it was discovered that while Irish tourism consumers would be likely to use social media influencers as a source of information, the level of trust is considered to be low. Furthermore, it was unveiled that while females are influenced when they are younger, males tend to be become more influenced as they age. Finally, it was revealed that Instagram was the most influential channel for social media influencers to portray messages to Irish consumers on. In the following chapter, the final conclusions and recommendations will be discussed.
42
Chapter Six Conclusions and Recommendations
43
6.1 Introduction This final chapter will provide conclusions to all the insights discussed throughout the research uncovered via the secondary and primary research. The objectives that were set out for this research will be listed below and a conclusion for each provided. Lastly, the author will make recommendations for further research.
6.2 Objective One To investigate the level of influence Social Media Influencers have on Irish Consumers when researching tourism products
The literature illustrated that social media influencers were deemed to be genuine, credible, trust worthy sources of information. However, it was discovered through the primary research that Irish consumers did not have the same views when dealing with tourism. The majority of Irish consumers felt doubtful of social media influencers opinions.
However, it was interesting to discover that despite Irish consumers having trust issues with social media influencers, 81.1% of respondents still followed them. It is the author’s opinion that the reasoning for this is to simply view their pictures, which is supported by the findings of 45.1% of respondents saying they were 'Likely' or 'Very Likely' to visit a destination based on an influencers posted photo/videos.
The author also discovered that the top three tourism related products that Irish consumers would be likely to try based on social media influencers were restaurants, pubs/nightclubs and natural tourism sites. The author believes the reasoning for this is due to the fact that restaurants and pubs/nightclubs are relatively cheap, therefore there is not a high opportunity cost and the fear of failure is low, which is supported by Koc (2004). Thus, while Irish consumers feel that social media influencers are not credible enough to influence them to try something that would cost a lot of money; they are willing to try something that is more affordable as if it goes wrong, than they don't lose out.
This is further supported by the three tourism related products least likely to be tried by a Social Media Influencer, which were destination, accommodation and travel method. The author believes that these are the main three aspects of booking a holiday. As they are the most important and often the most expensive, Irish consumers do not feel that social media influencers are a standalone credible enough source to book these based on their influence.
44
This is due to the fear of failure being so high with these aspects. Irish consumers would prefer to supplement social media influencers with other sources such as friends, family or other online sources.
To conclude, the author believes that the level of influence is higher with Irish consumers to try tourism products endorsed by a social media influencer providing they are not the most expensive aspects of the holiday. However, as Irish consumers do not believe social media influencers are a credible or trustworthy enough source, the author has discovered that the level of influence is low with Irish consumers to try the main and most expensive aspects of a holiday.
6.3 Objective Two To determine whether particular demographics are more influenced to try a new tourism service
While there has been previous studies on the extent in which males and females are influenced by others, there has been no research conducted on which gender would be more influenced to try a tourism serviced based on a Social Media Influencer. From the findings, the author discovered that females were more influenced by social media influencers opinions at a younger age and also when searching for destinations and restaurants. However, as the respondents aged, the males became more influenced.
Therefore, the author can conclude that young female consumers aged 18-24 tend to be more susceptible to try a tourism product endorsed by an influencer, whereas males tend to become more influenced as they age.
6.4 Objective Three To investigate which channels are the most successful at portraying a message from an influencer to the Irish Consumer
From the secondary research it was evident that Instagram was the most used channel by influencers and for influencer marketing. This was due to the visual aspect being the main advantage, making it superior in comparison to other social media channels. The literature was supported by the findings as it was discovered that Instagram was the channel most used by Irish consumers with a combined total of 80.6% of respondents stating they either frequently
45 or very frequently used the social media channel. This was further supported from the findings as Instagram came out as being the channel most Irish consumers followed social media influencers on, with a combined total of 84.4% saying they followed either 'Quite a few' or 'A lot'. Through SPSS it was discovered that across all age groups, Instagram was the channel that respondents followed most social media influencers on in comparison to the other social media channels listed. Moreover, Irish consumers felt that Instagram was the social media channel that would be the most influential, with a mean of 4.5 out of 5.
Thus, it was discovered through the findings that Instagram is deemed to be the most influential channel for social media influencers to be on as it is the most successful at portraying messages to Irish tourism consumers. This finding is supported by existing literature which emphasises the visual aspect of the social media channel as being the main contributing attribute for its success.
6.5 Recommendations for Future Research From conducting the research required to complete this dissertation, the author discovered a number of areas in which more research could be done.
When completing the Literature Review the author discovered some literature on social media influencers. However, this literature was mainly in relation to products, the fashion industry and the beauty industry. Moreover, the author discovered that there was little research undertaken with regards to social media influencers, in particular to the level of impact they have as a marketing tool in the tourism industry. The author recommends that further research should be undertaken to investigate the use of social media influencers in the tourism industry, and how they contribute to it.
As there were limitation with regards to this dissertations primary research, in particular to the higher ratio of females to males and the younger audience of the respondents, the author recommends further research to be carried out with a wider demographic to gain more of an understanding from a broader range of Irish consumers.
The author also recommends for more research to be conducted to include focus groups, in order to further understand why Irish consumers have such a low level of trust with social media influencers as this was a contrast to the literature analysed.
46
Finally, the author recommends for research to be undertaken to understand why restaurants, pubs/nightclubs and Natural Tourism sites were the most likely to be tried based on a Social Media Influencer, and why destination, accommodation and travel method were the least likely to be tried.
6.6 Conclusion The purpose of this dissertation was to investigate the impact social media influencers have on Irish consumers when conducting research on tourism products. The author discovered that social media influencers have a higher level of influence on Irish consumers with regards to cheaper tourism products, such as restaurants, pubs/nightclubs and natural tourism sites, and that social media influencers have a lower level of influence with regards to the more costly tourism aspects such as destination, accommodation and travel method. The author also discovered that Irish consumers had a low level of trust with social media influencers, revealing that they trusted their photos/videos rather than their opinions.
This dissertation also discovered that in the majority of cases, females were influenced more when they were younger, whereas males became more influenced as they got older. The author also discovered that the most effective channel for social media influencers to use in order to have an impact on Irish consumers was Instagram, which further supports the literature.
Overall, it was discovered that Irish consumers are influenced by social media influencers to a certain extent with regards to the tourism industry. Gender, age and the price of the tourism products in question are all contributing factors to the level of influence.
47
List of References
48
References Audrezet, A., de Kerviler, G. and Guidry Moulard, J. (2018). Authenticity under threat: When social media influencers need to go beyond self-presentation. Journal of Business Research. [online] Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.07.008 [Accessed 13 Mar. 2019].
Becker, B.J. (1986). Influence again: An examination of reviews and studies of gender differences in social influence. In J. S. Hyde & M. C. Lynn (Eds), The psychology of gender: Advances through meta-analysis (pp.178-209). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Universty Press
Bell, E. and Bryman, A. (2007) ‘The ethics of management research: An exploratory content analysis’, British Journal of Management, 18(10), pp. 63-77.
Berthon, R. P. Pitt, F. L., Plangger, K. & Shapiro, D. (2012). Marketing meets Web 2.0, social media, and creative consumers: Implications for international marketing strategy. Business Horizons, 55, pp. 261-271
Blackwell, R., Miniard, P. and Engel, J. (2007). Consumer behaviour. Mason, Ohio: Thomson/South-Western, pp.70-85.
Brotherton, B. (2008) Researching Hospitality and Tourism: A Student Guide, London: SAGE Publications Ltd
Brown, D., & Hayes, N. (2008). Influencer marketing: Who really influences your customers? New York: Taylor & Francis.
Buhalis D. & Deimezi, O. (2004). E-tourism developments in Greece: Information communication technologies adoption for the strategic management of the Greek tourism industry. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 5(2), pp103-130.
Buhalis, D., & Law, R. (2008). Progress in information technology and tourism management: 20 years on and 10 years after the Internet the state of eTourism research. Tourism Management, 29(4), pp. 609–623.
Carli, L. (2001). Gender and Social Influence. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), pp.725-741.
Carson, D, Gilmore, A, Perry, C, and Gronhaug, K. (2001) Qualitative Marketing Research. London: Sage Publications.
49
Carter, D. (2016). Hustle and Brand: The Sociotechnical Shaping of Influence. Social Media + Society, 2(3), pp.1-12
Casaló, L., Flavián, C. and Ibáñez-Sánchez, S. (2018). Influencers on Instagram: Antecedents and consequences of opinion leadership. Journal of Business Research. [online] Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.07.005 [Accessed 13 Mar. 2019].
Cha, J. (2009). Shopping on social networking Web sites: Attitudes toward real versus virtual items. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 10 (1): 77–93.
Chlebus-Grudzień, P. (2018) ‘Selfie at a Museum: Defining a Paradigm for an Analysis of Taking (Self-Portrait) Photographs at Museum Exhibitions’, Tourism, 28(1), pp. 7–13.
Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2014). Business Research. 4th ed. Basingstoke: Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, pp.43-45.
Cooper, D. R. & Schindler P. S. (2011) Business Research Methods, International Edition, 11th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Cormode, G. and Krishnamurthy, B. (2008). Key differences between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0. First Monday, [online] 13(6). Available at: https://journals.uic.edu/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2125/1972 [Accessed 6 Sep. 2018].
Creswell, J. (2009) Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches, London: SAGE Publications. de Rosario, A., del Mar Gálvez Rodríguez, M. and del Carmen Caba Pérez, M. (2013). Development of social media and web 2.0 in the top hotel chains. Tourism & Management Studies, 9(1), pp. 13-19.
De Veirman, M., Cauberghe, V. and Hudders, L. (2017). Marketing through Instagram influencers: the impact of number of followers and product divergence on brand attitude. International Journal of Advertising, [online] 36(5), pp.798-828. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2017.1348035 [Accessed 13 Mar. 2019].
De Veirman, M., Cauberghe, V., Hudders, L. (2017), Marketing through Instagram influencers: the impact of number of followers and product divergence on brand attitude, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 36, No. 5, pp. 798 - 828
50 deVaus, D.A. (2002). Surveys in Social Research. 5th ed. London: Routledge
Diffley, S., Kearns, J., Bennett, W., & Kawale, P. (2011). Consumer behaviour in social networking sites: Implications for marketers. Irish Journal of Marketing, 30(2), pp. 47–65.
Domegan, C. & Fleming, D. (2003) (2nd ed) Marketing Research in Ireland, Theory and Practice, Dublin: Gill & Macmillan Ltd.
Eagly, A.H. (1978). Sex differences in influenceability. Psychological Bulletin, 85, pp86-116
Eagly, A.H., & Carli, L.L. (1981). Sex of researchers and sex-typed communication as determinants of sex differences in influenceability. Psychological Bulletin, 90, pp1-20
Eichhorn, V., Miller, G., Michopoulou, E., & Buhalis, D. (2008). Enabling access to tourism through information schemes? Annals of Tourism Research, 35(1), pp. 189–210.
Freberg, K., Graham, K., McGaughey, K. and Freberg, L. (2011). Who are the social media influencers? A study of public perceptions of personality. Public Relations Review, 37(1), pp.90-92.
Goldsmith, E. and Goldsmith, R. (2011). Social influence and sustainability in households. International Journal of Consumer Studies, [online] 35(2), pp.117-121. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1470-6431.2010.00965.x [Accessed 14 Mar. 2019].
Gratton, C. Jones, I. (2010). Research methods for sports studies. 2nd Edition. Routledge. New York
Gretzel, U. (2017) Social Media Activism in Tourism, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism 15, no. 2, pp. 1–14.
Gretzel, U. (2018). Influencer marketing in travel and tourism, Advances in Social Media for Travel, Tourism and Hospitality: New Perspectives, Practice and Cases, pp. 147-156.
Hanna, R., Rohm, A., & Crittenden, L.V. (2011). We’re all connected: The power of social media ecosystem. Business Horizons, 54: pp. 265-273
Hays, S., Page, S.J. and Buhalis, D. (2013) Social media as a destination marketing tool: its use by national tourism organisations, Current issues in Tourism, 16(3), pp.211-239.
51
Hearn, A., & Schoenhoff, S. (2016). From celebrity to influencer: Tracing the diffusion of celebrity value across the data stream. In P. D. Marshall, & S. Redmond (Eds.). A companion to celebrity (pp. 194–211). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Hernández-Méndez, J., Muñoz-Leiva, F. and Sánchez-Fernández, J. (2013). The influence of e-word-of-mouth on travel decision-making: consumer profiles. Current Issues in Tourism, 18(11), pp.1001-1021.
Kirtis, K.A., & Karahan, F. (2011). To be or not to be in social media arena as the most cost efficient marketing strategy after the global recession. Procedia and Social behavioural Sciences, 24: pp. 260-268
Koc, E. (2004) ‘The Role of Family Members in the Family Holiday Purchase Decision- Making Process’, International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 5(2), pp. 85– 102
Kolb, B. (2008). Research as a Process. In B. Kolb, Market Research, A Practical Approach (p. 33). London: SAGE Publications Inc.
Krasniak, M. (2016). Social Influencer Marketing on the Rise: New Research. Accessed online (February 1, 2017) at: http://www.socialmediaexaminer.com/social-influencer-marketing-on- therise-new-research/.
Kumar, P., Kumar, V. and Mishra, J. (2015). Social Media: A Tool for Tourism Marketing. International Research Journal of Business and Management, 8(2), p.5.
Lange-Faria, W. and Elliot, S. (2012) Understanding the role of social media in destination
Laroche, M., Habibi, R., M. Richard, O.M., Sankaranarayanan, R. (2012a). The effects of social media based brand communities on brand community markers, value creation practices, brand trust and brand loyalty. Computers in Human Behaviour, 28: pp. 1755- 1767.
Lim, W, "The Effects of social media networks in the hospitality industry" (2010). UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones. 693.
Lin, Y. S., & Huang, J. Y. (2006). Internet blogs as a tourism marketing medium: A case study. Journal of Business Research, 59(10), pp. 1201-1205.
52
Lu, L.-C., Chang, W.-P., & Chang, H.-H. (2017). Consumer attitudes toward blogger's sponsored recommendations and purchase intention: The effect of sponsorship type, product type, and brand awareness. Comput. Hum. Behav. 34, 258–266.
Lyons, B., and K. Henderson. (2005). Opinion leadership in a computer-mediated environment. Journal of Consumer Behaviour 4, no. 5: 319–29. doi:10.1002/cb.22
Malhorta, N.K. & Birks, D.F. (2007) Marketing Research: An Applied Approach, 3rd ed. Essex: Pearson Education.
Malhotra, N. K., Birks, D. F. & Wills, P. (2010) Marketing Research: An Applied Approach, (4thed), Essex: Pearson Education Limited
Malhotra, N., Birks, D. and Wills, P. (2012). Marketing Research, an Applied Approach. 6th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, pp.476-478.
Malhotra, N.K. (2010) Review of marketing research, In Review of Marketing Research, pp.9- 17, Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Marketing, Tourismos, 7(1).
McCartney, G., & Pinto, J. F. (2014). Influencing Chinese travel decisions: The impact of celebrity endorsement advertising on the Chinese traveler to Macao. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 20(3), pp. 253-266.
Michaelidou, N., Siamagka, T. N., & Christodoulides, G. (2011). Using, barriers and measurement of social media marketing: An exploratory investigation of small and medium B2B brands. Industrial Marketing Management, 40: pp. 1153-1159.
Miguéns, J., Baggio, R. & Costa, C. (2008). Social media and tourism destinations: TripAdvisor case study. In Advances in Tourism Research (Aveiro).
Nandagiri, V. and Philip, L. (2018). Impact of Influencers from Instagram and YouTube on their Followers. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Modern Education, 4(1), pp.61-65.
O’Connor, N., Cowhey, A. and O’Leary, S. (2016) ‘Social media and the Irish tourism and hospitality industry: the customer experience’, E-review of Tourism Research, 13(3/4), pp. 440–470.
Oliver, P. (2014), Writing Your Thesis (3rd Edition), London: SAGE
53
O'Reilly, T. (2007). What Is Web 2.0: Design Patterns and Business Models for the Next Generation of Software. International Journal of Digital Economics, 1(65), pp.17-37.
Perrigot, R. Basset, G. & Cliquet, G. (2011). Multi-channel communication: The case of subway attracting new franchisees in France. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 39(6), pp. 434-455.
Pestek, A. and Alic, A. (2017). Use of Social Media Influencers in Tourism. In: Trade Perspectives 2017 Specialization and Customer Centred Retailing. [online] Zagreb: Faculty of Economics and Business Zagreb & Croatian Chamber of Economy. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326836387_USE_OF_SOCIAL_MEDIA_INFLUE NCERS_IN_TOURISM [Accessed 12 Oct. 2018].
Pudliner, B. A. (2007). Alternative literature and tourist experience: travel and tourist Weblogs. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 5(1), pp. 46–59.
Retailing and Consumer Services, 22, pp.244-249.
Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2012). Research methods for business students. 6th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, pp.160-163.
Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2012). Research methods for business students. 6th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, pp.160-163.
Saunders, M.N. and Lewis, P. (2012) Doing research in business & management: An essential Guide to planning your project, London: Pearson.
Simms, A. (2012) Online user-generated content for travel planning-different for different kinds of trips?, e-Review of Tourism Research, 10 (3), 76-85.
Solomon, M. (2017). Consumer Behavior: Buying. Pearson Education Limited, pp. 340-343.
Statista. (2018). Number of social media users worldwide 2010-2021 | Statista. [online] Available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/278414/number-of-worldwide-social- network-users/ [Accessed 17 Oct. 2018].
Techopedia.com. (2018). What is Web 1.0? - Definition from Techopedia. [online] Available at: https://www.techopedia.com/definition/27960/web-10 [Accessed 5 Oct. 2018].
54
Tussyadiah, I. & Zach, F. (2013). Social media strategy and capacity for consumer co-creation among destination marketing organizations. Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2013, pp. 242-253
Tussyadiah, I., & Fesenmaier, D. R. (2009). Mediating tourist experiences: access to places via shared videos. Annals of Tourism Research, 36(1), pp. 24–40
Van der Veen, R., & Song, H. (2014). Impact of the perceived image of celebrity endorsers on tourists’ intentions to visit. Journal of Travel Research, 53(2), 211-224
Watts, D.J., and P.S. Dodds. 2007. Influentials, networks, and public opinion formation. Journal of Consumer Research 34, no. 4: 441–58. doi:10.1086/518527
Xiang, Z. and Gretzel, U. (2010). Role of social media in online travel information search. Tourism Management, 31(2), pp.179-188.
Xiang, Z., Magnini, V.P. and Fesenmaier, D.R. (2015) Information technology and consumer
Yen, C. H., & Teng, H. Y. (2015). Celebrity involvement, perceived value, and behavioural intentions in popular media-induced tourism. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 39(2), pp. 225-244.
Zeng, B., & Gerritsen, R. (2014). What do we know about social media in tourism? A review. Tourism Management Perspectives, 10, pp. 27-36
55
Appendices
56
Appendix A
Ethical Clearance
57
Appendix B
Questionnaire
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
Appendix C
SPSS Cross-Tabulation
66
Appendix D
SPSS Cross-Tabulation
67
Appendix E
SPSS Cross-Tabulation
68
Appendix F
SPSS Cross-Tabulation
69
Appendix G
SPSS Cross - Tabulation
70