Found Poetry: a Tool for Supporting Novice Poets and Fostering Transactional Relationships Between Prospective Teachers and Young Adult Literature

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Found Poetry: A Tool for Supporting Novice Poets and Fostering Transactional Relationships Between Prospective Teachers and Young Adult Literature

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

Lisa Patrick, M.A.

Graduate Program in Education

The Ohio State University

2013

Dissertation Committee:

Barbara Kiefer, Advisor

Barbara Lehman

Linda Parsons

Abstract

The purpose of this qualitative classroom-based dissertation study is to examine what happens when prospective teachers write found poetry using young adult literature.

Found poetry is a poetic form created by reframing words from the linguistic environment surrounding the poet. In this study, the participants wrote found poems using words from a novel of their choice that they had read for the teacher researcher’s course on young adult literature at a major Midwest university. Found poetry was investigated as a means for supporting novice poets in their writing efforts; readers in their transactional relationships with texts; and prospective teachers in their confidence and attitudes toward their future teaching of poetry writing. The primary data collected for the dissertation consisted of an extensive in-class written reflection over the found poetry writing project. Attride-Stirling’s (2001) thematic networks tool was used to analyze and interpret the data. Found data poems were created from the words of study participants in order to represent the thematic findings, as well as to seek congruence across multiple forms of data analysis and representation.

The first research question asks how writing found poetry might support novice poets. After the found poetry writing experience, all of the novice poets reported positive feelings for their poem, and many expressed a sense of pride in their poetic accomplishment. The accessible and structured approach of using words from the text for a poem supported the novice poets and lessened their anxiety and worry over writing

poetry. The majority of the participants favorably compared the found poetry writing experience to past school poetry writing experiences. They reported a shift in poetic self- efficacy, becoming much more comfortable and confident in their role as poets.

The second research question asks how writing found poetry might support reader/text transactional relationships. Writing found poetry positively impacted every participant’s relationship with the text chosen for the poem, as well as their reflections upon the reading experience. The search for words for the poem returned readers to the text, where they revisited the reading experience and reread portions of the book. These activities impacted readers’ awareness of the text and their understanding of literary elements. The poetic writing process strengthened and extended the reading experience and enriched the overall quality of the readers’ relationship with the book chosen for the found poem.

The third research question asks how writing found poetry might support prospective teachers of poetry. Found poetry provided prospective poetry teachers with support for their future teaching responsibilities. Becoming a poet in practice shifted their confidence and attitudes toward these responsibilities. The prospective teachers pointed to found poetry’s accessibility and usability, as well as its suitability for introducing students to poetry and supporting them as readers, as advantageous attributes for using the poetic form with their future students.

Taken as a whole, the found poetry experience supported the writing efforts of the novice poets; transformed the nature of the readers’ transactional relationships with texts; and positively impacted the prospective teachers’ confidence and attitudes toward teaching poetry writing.

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Dedication

This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of Louise M. Rosenblatt, for how could it be otherwise? This dedication to a brilliant theorist, scholar, and teacher

“inadequately symbolizes a most important transactional relationship” (Rosenblatt,

1978/1994, p. xv). I have been infinitely inspired by Dr. Rosenblatt’s lifetime devotion to nurturing transactional relationships between readers and texts. I pledge to do the same.

This dissertation is also dedicated to the students who took part in the study. My research would not have been possible without their willingness to participate and generosity in allowing me a glimpse into their reading and writing experiences.

Acknowledgements

I am deeply grateful to the members of my dissertation committee:

Dr. Barbara Kiefer, thank you for your support as my advisor. I am grateful for the Charlotte S. Huck Graduate Associate appointment. It was an honor to unpack and organize the Huck historical collection. I am especially grateful for the opportunity to teach so many children’s and young adult literature classes at OSU. These teaching experiences have been an integral part of my dissertation research. Thank you also for creating space in your fantasy class for me to become a found poet. Finally, thank you for being a literature professor who encourages her students to read.

Dr. Barbara Lehman, thank you for introducing me to South African children’s literature. As well, you have been a powerful source of support. I am exceedingly grateful for your willingness to act as a resource to your students. Thank you for your quick response to every appeal for guidance throughout the candidacy and dissertation phases of my doctoral work.

Dr. Linda Parsons, thank you for teaching me literary theory and content analysis.

I am indebted to you for introducing me to the colorful world of thematic networks. I am tremendously grateful for your mentorship in both my work as a student and as a scholar.

Thank you so much for that first invitation to present with you at a literacy conference.

Five minutes in, I knew I’d found a kindred spirit in you.

Three professors have had a significant impact on my graduate path:

Dr. Valerie Kinloch, thank you for your service on my candidacy committee. I am extremely grateful for your insightful guidance on my dissertation topic. As well, I am indebted to you for introducing me to the art of found poetry. Thank you for playing such a meaningful role in my graduate journey, both as a teacher and as a mentor.

Dr. Patricia Scharer, thank you for the opportunity to serve as your Graduate

Administrative Associate. It was an honor to act as the legs of such a diligent advocate for children’s literacy. Thank you also for introducing me to the National Reading

Recovery and K-6 Classroom Literacy Conference.

Dr. Amy McClure, thank you for offering me my first academic job as a student teaching supervisor at Ohio Wesleyan University. I am enormously grateful that you started me on the path to becoming a professor. I am also indebted to you for opening the field of education to poetry research with your seminal dissertation (McClure, 1985).

The Ohio State University and its students were instrumental in making this dissertation a possibility:

I gratefully acknowledge the Graduate Teaching Associate appointment from The

Ohio State University’s Department of Teaching and Learning that afforded me the opportunity to conduct dissertation research in a university classroom.

I also gratefully acknowledge the students from my Ohio State University courses who participated in this dissertation study. Without your generous willingness to share your reflections upon the found poetry writing experience, there would have been no dissertation.

Friends and family have been instrumental in the success of my dissertation journey:

Dr. Denise Dávila, the camaraderie in our cohort of two enriched and vitalized my graduate experience. Thank you for your friendship and for paving the way. I am also immensely grateful for your encouraging and insightful feedback on my found data poems.

A famous quote from E. B. White’s (1952/1980) Charlotte’s Web reads: “It’s not often that someone comes along who is a true friend and a good writer. Charlotte was both” (p. 184). Joy, I am very grateful that you came along: a true friend and a good editor. Thank you for your generous gift of time and expertise.

Cailyn, graphic designer extraordinaire, thank you for bringing my thematic networks to life. I am most grateful for your time and assistance.

Mom, you are, and always will be, the source of my inspiration. Thank you for always believing that I can get the job done. I am truly blessed with you as my mother.

Joli, you are my role model for successfully balancing work and family. Thank you for your sisterly encouragement and wise words right when I always need them.

Finally, the long days of teaching and even longer nights of writing would not have been possible without the unwavering support of my husband and two daughters.

Mike, Riley, and Mackenzie, you made the journey worthwhile. It means nothing without you three by my side. Mike, thank you also for finding and funding my office away from home. This dissertation would never have been completed without my writing haven.

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Vita

1988…………………B.A. in Education: Elementary Education

Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA

1988-1995 ..…………Fourth and Fifth Grade Classroom Teacher

Victor Falls Elementary School, Sumner, WA

1991…………………M.A. in Education: Curriculum and Instruction

Lesley University, Cambridge, MA

2002-2003…………...Preschool Teacher, The School for Young Children

Columbus, OH

2005-2007…………...Supervisor of Early Childhood Student Teaching

Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, OH

2007-2009…………..Assistant Director of Early Childhood Student Teaching

Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, OH

2007-2009…………...Instructor in Early Childhood Education

Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, OH

2009-2013…………..Graduate Teaching Associate, School of Teaching and Learning

The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH

2013…………………Ph.D. in Education: Literature for Children and Young Adults

School of Teaching and Learning, The Ohio State University

Columbus, OH

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Publications

Books: Editorial Assistance

Kiefer, B. Z., & Tyson, C. A . (2013). Charlotte Huck’s children’s literature: A brief

guide (2 nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Lehman, B. A., Freeman, E. B., & Scharer, P. L. (2010). Reading globally, K-8:

Connecting students to the world through literature. Thousand Oaks, CA:

Corwin.

Peer Reviewed Publications

Patrick. L. (2012). Creating communities of poetry readers. NUANCES: estudos sobre

Educação/Studies on Education, 21 (22), 106-127.

Editor Reviewed Publications

Davila, D., & Patrick, L. (2010, January). Asking the experts: What children have to say

about their reading preferences. Language Arts, 87 (3), 199-210.

Patrick, L. & Davila, D. (2010, January). What did you think of the book? Kids speak up.

Language Arts, 87 (3), 225-231.

Patrick, L. (2010). Profile: Mem Fox. In B. A. Lehman, E. B. Freeman, & P. L. Scharer

Reading globally, K-8: Connecting students to the world through literature (pp.

36-37). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Patrick, L. (2007, May/June). Teaching grammar can be fun: An oxymoron? Adolescent

Literacy in Perspective , 7-12.

Fields of Study

Major Field: Education

Specialization: Literature for Children and Young Adults

Table of Contents

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………....ii

Dedication……………………………………………………...... iv

Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………..v

Vita……………………………………………………………………………………...viii

List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………….xv

List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………...xvi

Found Poem Chapter Previews………………………………………………….……...xvii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION………………….……………………………………...2

Framing the Study…………………………………………………………………4

Neglect of Poetry in School……………………………………………….4

Neglect of Transactional Reading in School……………………………...6

Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………….8

Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………………..11

Supporting Novice Poets…………………………………………………11

Supporting Transactional Reading Relationships………………………..12

Supporting Prospective Poetry Teachers………………………………...13

Research Questions and Gaps……………………………………………………13

Research Question One…………………………………………………..14

Research Question Two………………………………………………….15

Research Question Three………………………………………………...16 x

Definition of Terminology……………………………………………………….18

Overriding Research Question…………………………………………...18

Research Question One…………………………………………………..22

Research Question Two………………………………………………….22

Research Question Three………………………………………………...23

Limitations and Significance of the Study……………………………………….23

Chapter Overviews…...…………………………………………………………..24

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEWS………………………..…...... 29

Found Poetry: A Review of the Literature……………………………………….30

History of Found Poetry………………………………………………….31

Questions of Poetic Ownership…………………………………………..38

Found Poetry in School…………………………………………………..44

Found Poetry in Research………………………………………………..53

Participant as Poet: The Expressive Theory of Poetry Writing………………….62

Participant as Reader: The Transactional Theory of the Literary Work………....63

Transactional Reading Process…………………………………………..66

Theoretical Concepts…………………………………………………….76

Participant as Writer: The Transactional Theory of the Literary Work………….83

Transactional Writing……………………………………………………83

Extending Transactional Experiences…………………………………....85

Participant as Prospective Teacher: The Constructivist Theory of Learning……90

Experiential Learning…………………………………………………….91

Prospective Teachers as Poets in Practice……………………………….93

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY……………....……………………………………...104

Pilot Studies…………………………………………………………………….105

First Pilot Study………………………………………………………...107

Second Pilot Study……………………………………………………...110

Research Design………………………………………………………………...114

Setting and Sample……………………………………………………..114

Classroom Practices…………………………………………………….116

Data Management Procedures………………………………………………….118

Data Collection…………………………………………………………119

Data Analysis……………………………………………………...... 125

Data Trustworthiness…………………………………………………...133

Data Representation…………………………………………………….146

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS………………….…………………………………………..157

Data Analysis: Thematic Results……………………………………………….158

First Data Set: Poetry Questionnaire…………………………………....159

Second Data Set: Literacy Autobiography……………………………..164

Third Data Set: Written Reflection.…………………………………….169

Codes and Frequencies…………………………………………………187

Data Analysis: Thematic Networks…………………………………………….190

Explication of Thematic Networks……………………………………..190

Research Question One…………………………………………………195

Research Question Two………………………………………………...216

Research Question Three……………………………………………….239

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Data Interpretation: Study Findings…………….………………………………257

Research Question One…………………………………………………257

Research Question Two………………………………………………...258

Research Question Three……………………………………………….259

Reflection upon the Findings…………………………………………...260

Data Trustworthiness………………………………………………...... 262

Representative Reflections……………………………………………...262

Secondary Dissertation Data Set……………………………………...... 269

Comparison of Themes Between Dissertation Data Sets………………276

Post Dissertation Data Sets……………………………………………..280

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION...... ……...….…………………………….....287

Discussion of the Findings……………………………………………………...288

Research Question One…………………………………………………288

Research Question Two………………………………………………...291

Research Question Three……………………………………………….298

Complementary Frameworks for Interpreting the Findings……………………301

Stances During Envisionment Building………………………………...301

Bridging Reader/Text Worlds………………………………………...... 306

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION………………………… ……………………………...313

Conclusions …………………………………………………………………….314

Recommendations………………………………………………………………315

Implications …………………………………………………………………….318

Final Reflection………….…………..…………………………………….……319

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References………………………………………………………………………………323

Children’s Books Cited…………………………………………………………………365

Appendix A: Course Syllabus…………………………………………………………..366

Appendix B: Consent Letter……………………………………………………………377

Appendix C: Consent Form…………………………………………………………….378

Appendix D: Excerpt from The Tale of Despereaux …………………………………...381

Appendix E: Poetry Questionnaire……………………………………………………..382

Appendix F: Literacy Autobiography…………………………………………………..383

Appendix G: Primary Dissertation Data Set Reflective Writing Prompt ……………...385

Appendix H: Secondary Dissertation Data Set Reflective Writing Prompt……………387

Appendix I: Kat’s Found Poem………………………………………………………...388

Appendix J: Kelly’s Found Poem………………………………………………………389

Appendix K: Barb’s Found Poem………………………………………………………390

Appendix L: Mike’s Found Poem………………………………………………………391

Appendix M: Jenny’s Found Poem……………………………………………………..392

Appendix N: Comprehensive Themes from the Data Analysis………………...... 393

Appendix O: Refined Themes from the Data Analysis...…………………...... 430

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List of Tables

Table 1: Poetry Questionnaire Question One ………………………………….………159

Table 2: Poetry Questionnaire Question Two…………………………….…………….160

Table 3: Poetry Questionnaire Question Three…………………………….…………...161

Table 4: Poetry Questionnaire Question Four…………………………….……………162

Table 5: Poetry Questionnaire Question Five…………………………….…………….163

Table 6: Literacy Autobiography Part One Question One……………………………...164

Table 7: Literacy Autobiography Part One Question Two……………………………..165

Table 8: Literacy Autobiography Part Two Question One……………………………..166

Table 9: Literacy Autobiography Part Two Question Two…………………………….167

Table 10: Literacy Autobiography Part Two Question Three………………………….168

Table 11: Written Reflection Part A Question One…………………………………….169

Table 12: Written Reflection Part A Question Two……………………………………171

Table 13: Written Reflection Part A Question Three…………………………………..173

Table 14: Written Reflection Part A Question Four…………………………………....175

Table 15: Written Reflection Part B Question One…………………………………….177

Table 16: Written Reflection Part B Question Two…………………………………….179

Table 17: Written Reflection Part B Question Three…..……………………………….181

Table 18: Written Reflection Part C Questions One and Two………………………….183

Table 19: Written Reflection Part C Question Three………..………………………….185

Table 20: Codes and Frequencies……………………………………………..………..187 xv

List of Figures

Figure 1: Thematic Network 1.A….……………………………………………………196

Figure 2: Thematic Network 1.B……….………………………………………………204

Figure 3: Thematic Network 2.A………….……………………………………………217

Figure 4: Thematic Network 2.B…………….…………………………………………227

Figure 5: Thematic Network 3.A……………….………………………………………240

Figure 6: Thematic Network 3. B………………………………………………………248

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Found Poem Chapter Previews

In the spirit of the subject of this dissertation, each chapter is previewed with a found poem by one of the most famous found poets of our time: Bern Porter. Each found poem is chosen for its ability to represent the overall function and purpose of the chapter it introduces. The poems are taken from Porter’s (1972) collection titled: Found Poems .

Bern Porter (1972)

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PREVIEW of the INTRODUCTION

Bern Porter (1972)

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The worlds of poetry and prose are rich with transformative power. According to

Georgia Heard (1999), a children’s poet who teaches poetry at schools around the world:

“Poetry has the power to change us, by helping us sift through the layers of our lives in search of our own truths and our own poems” (p. 118). Maria Tatar (2009), a professor of

Germanic Languages and Literatures at Harvard University, affirms the power of prose:

“Books almost whisper, ‘Let there be light’ when we begin reading them. Not all begin with luminous effects, but they still have the power to create light out of darkness, and worlds out of words” (p. 134). One may wonder what happens when these two worlds converge: What transformative power exists along the border where poetry and prose meet? This dissertation study asks: What happens when prospective teachers write found poetry using young adult literature? The Academy of American Poets defines found poetry: “Found poems take existing texts and refashion them, reorder them, and present them as poems” (Poets.org, Found Poem, para. 1). Eleanor Duckworth (1972) considers

“the having of wonderful ideas” to be “the essence of intellectual development” (p. 218).

This study explores the “wonderful idea” of writing poetry using words found in prose.

I first discovered found poetry when two of my graduate courses serendipitously

collided. Dr. Valerie Kinloch is responsible for introducing me to the art of found poetry

in her course: Research on Poetry and Spoken Word . At the end of each class, this poet

professor would read aloud a found poem she had composed from the words we had spoken together. Each expressed poetry’s singular ability to capture and distill a lived experience (Willis, 2002). Dr. Barbara Kiefer is responsible for giving me the opportunity to become a found poet myself in her course: The Roots of Fantasy . During an author study on the fantasy writer, Terry Pratchett, I found myself noticing the rich language and compelling themes in his stories. For my final class project, I decided to use the author’s own words to explore these themes. I wrote 30 found poems representing a wide range of themes from three of Pratchett’s young adult novels. Revisiting and rereading the books in order to gather words for the poems profoundly impacted my relationship with each text. Consequently, I learned that poetry also has the singular ability to capture and distill a reading experience. The following is a sample found poem from the project, composed from Nation (Pratchett, 2009):

A New Soul

His boy soul vanished with the wave.

He built himself a new soul, a man soul.

He made it outside himself. It covered the whole island,

every leaf, every pebble.

His soul: the Nation. A place where you might grant God absolution.

Framing the Study

Neglect of Poetry in School

Poetry educators and researchers have called attention to the marginalization and neglect of poetry in school for many years (Fleming, 1992; Hughes & John, 2009; Sloan,

2003b). Poetry is one of the most neglected components of the literacy curriculum

(Denman, 1988; Parr & Campbell, 2006). Kenneth Koch (1970) characterizes the subject of poetry as either dead or dormant in school. Former U.S. Poet Laureate Billy Collins

(2003) targeted the high school level for his poem-a-day program because “all too often it is the place where poetry goes to die” (p. xvii). One reason for this phenomenon is that when elementary school students move from primary to intermediate grades, a sharp decline in time devoted to poetry moves with them. Poetry becomes “solely that dreaded two-week language arts unit, rarely mentioned prior to or after the unit” (Denman, 1988, p. xvii). In a national survey of children’s poetry preferences, Terry (1974) found that students seldom wrote poetry, and a significant number of teachers only occasionally read poetry to their students: “After considering all the findings of this study, one conclusion is paramount above all others. Poetry is a neglected form in most elementary school classrooms” (p. 58). Children from such classrooms may then grow up to be teachers who lack the knowledge and experience to teach poetry to their own students

(Parr & Campbell, 2006). For too many years, poetry has been consigned to a peripheral role in American classrooms (Sloan, 2003a).

Destructive school poetry practices contribute to the neglect of the art form in the classroom (Miall, 1996). As Cheney (2002) willingly admits: “We English teachers have often been enemies of poetry – killing all beauty and pleasure with our precise dissections

of symbols, themes, images, devices…” (p. 79). Dressman and Faust (2006) surveyed every article on poetry and its teaching published in English Journal from 1912-2005.

Their review of ten watershed articles reveals that for many years people have been

concerned about the destruction of poetry for students. A variety of school practices

contribute to this destruction, including the intellectualization and over-analysis of

poetry, as well as the seemingly unending search for hidden meanings within poems.

According to Anne Sullivan (2005):

When poetry is taught in school, it is more often than not taught as a set of rules and procedures, with a terminology that relates to measurement of lines and stanzas, identification of elements and forms. Poems become riddles to which only the English teacher has the answer. As a result, very few of the teachers with whom I work report, coming into the program, a relationship with poetry. (p. 30-31)

In her literature review of poetry pedagogy from the 1960’s to the 2000’s, Enochs (2010) reports: “Defining poetry pedagogy means understanding poetry as a literary genre that took a manifest beating from those who misunderstood and misused it in classrooms during the first half of the twentieth century” (p. 35). Such detrimental poetry practices, labeled by Miall as “arbitrary, mystifying, and unpleasant,” too often lead to the destruction of poetry in school (p. 467).

The above-mentioned destructive practices can leave students with adverse feelings toward poetry. Wormser and Cappella (2000) introduce their book on teaching the art of poetry with these two powerful words: “Poetry frightens” (p. xiii). Former U.S.

Poet Laureate Rita Dove once pronounced: “Poetry - merely whispering its name frightens everyone away” (Apol, 2002, p. 89). In addition to fright, many students experience feelings of antipathy toward poetry (Dias, 1992). This aversion to poetry is

reflected in the results of a survey given to children’s literature professors; they report that poetry is their students’ least-preferred genre (McClure & Tomlinson, 2000).

Detrimental school poetry practices can actually engender a hatred of poetry in students:

“[Students] really hate poetry. It’s not that they just say they hate it; they really do”

(Burroughs, 1977, p. 50). As Rukeyser (1996) cautions: “Anyone dealing with poetry and the love of poetry must deal, then, with the hatred of poetry…” (p. 9). Two poets for children reminisce about their early feelings toward the art form. Paul Janeczko (1994) remembers that he did not like poetry when he was young: “I would rather take out the trash or visit a cranky uncle who smelled like my attic” sooner than read or write poetry

(p. 1). Janet S. Wong (2011) recalls her first experience with poetry in school: “When I decided in fourth grade that I hated poetry, I was wrong. What I hated was poetry homework, reciting poems in a ‘poetic voice,’ picking poems apart to find the ‘true meaning.’ I realized I hadn’t known enough poetry to hate it” (p. 287). Poetry is one of the most misunderstood of all the arts, and this pervasive misunderstanding can lead to intensely negative feelings toward the art form (Stauffer, 1946).

Neglect of Transactional Reading in School

Literacy educators and researchers recommend that literature practices focus on

the reading event itself, thereby encouraging students to engage in transactional reading

experiences (Cox & Many, 1992a, 1992b; Dias, 1992; Karolides, 1999; Many, 2004;

Many & Wiseman, 1992; Miall, 1996; Nodelman, 1992; Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, 1982,

1986a; Squire, 1966; Wiseman & Many, 1991; Zarillo & Cox, 1992). Such transactional

reading experiences are made possible by adopting an aesthetic stance for reading

literature (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994). When a reader adopts the aesthetic stance toward a

text, she pays close attention to what is thought and felt during the reading experience

(Rosenblatt, 1982, 1991). Louise Rosenblatt (1995, 2004) encourages teachers to direct the reader’s attention toward the literary work of art, keeping the focus on what is lived through in transaction with the text. Cox and Many (1992b) agree, recommending that literature curriculum and instruction should emphasize “understanding, supporting, and celebrating the evocations of students” (p. 67). It is crucial that readers be given aesthetic opportunities to transact with literature (Rosenblatt in Karolides, 1999). In a review of research on influential literacy teachers, Ruddell (1995) reports that teachers who encourage their students to adopt Rosenblatt’s recommended aesthetic stance when entering into textual transactions make a substantial difference in the personal and academic lives of their students. Transactional reading experiences are made possible when readers of literature are encouraged to adopt the aesthetic stance.

In direct contrast to the above recommendations, literacy teachers and scholars note a privileging of practices that for many years have emphasized what is to be taken away from a reading experience (Cox & Many, 1992b; Karolides, 1997, 1999; Miall,

1996; Nodelman, 1992; Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, 1981a, 1981b, 1982, 1983, 1985b, 1986a,

2004; Squire, 1966; Zarillo & Cox, 1992). Several aspects of typical classrooms are

“inhospitable” to the “transactional view” of aesthetic reading as described above (Dias,

1992, p. 141-142). These classrooms focus on what is required of the reader after the

reading event, rather than on creating an aesthetic reading experience (Rosenblatt,

1986b). Such practices subvert aesthetic reading, cultivating instead an efferent-based

approach to literature (Dias, 1992). In the efferent stance, the reader’s attention is

predominantly focused on accumulating what is to be carried away or retained at the

conclusion of the reading event (Rosenblatt, 1982, 1986b). Rosenblatt (1985b, 1995,

2004) contends that the tendency in teaching literature, especially in university classrooms, has been to turn readers’ attention away from lived-through experiences with texts, insulating them from the direct impact of the literary work of art. Students are rushed away from the actual reading experience in order to engage in efferent-oriented activities that portray the work of art as an object to be studied (Rosenblatt, 1966, 1970,

1991, 2005). Rosenblatt’s (1981b) favorite example of this practice is taken from her son’s (Ratner, 2005) third-grade reading workbook: “A text with wide margins and groups of brief rhymed lines was presented with the heading: ‘What facts does this poem teach you?’” (p. 29). Rather than being asked to adopt an aesthetic stance for reading the poem, students are directed to adopt an efferent stance, one that moves their attention away from the evoked work of art. Over-emphasizing the efferent stance serves to undermine aesthetic reading capabilities (Purves, 1991) and negates the potential benefits gained by reading literature (Rosenblatt, 1982). The typical classroom allows readers little time for developing aesthetic relationships with literature, a condition which is critical to transactional reading experiences. Rather than encouraging aesthetic reading practices, many literature teachers have instead moved toward stressing the efferent.

Statement of the Problem

Poetry is an aesthetic art form of all cultures: “[L]yric poetry is written down or composed in every culture on the planet at this moment, which means something like one thousand different cultures and three thousand different languages” (Orr, 2002, p. 1).

Indeed, poetry is one of the oldest art forms (Butler-Kisber, 2010; Untermeyer, 1938).

Poetic impulses existed at the origins of language use (Miall, 1996); poetry has been

produced by every civilization since people began to communicate (Boyd, 1973; Koch,

1998). “All societies through all of history have given voice to their experiences in order to understand them, and by doing so have created some form of poetry” (Denman, 1988, p. 7). Unfortunately, poetry has been virtually lost from many classrooms. And when one does encounter the art form in school, it is often through destructive practices. As a result, teachers and students alike “have grown alienated from and frightened of poetry” (Keil,

2005, p. 97). Anne Sullivan (2005) contends that our culture has forgotten how to use poetry as a means for “being in relation” to the world (p. 31). This estrangement poses a critical problem when one considers the transformative power of poetry. If students are not given opportunities to positively experience poetry, how will we restore the art of poetry to its place of importance in our classrooms and culture?

Prose is also a cultural aesthetic art form. Miall (1996) informs us that literature

“has been central to human society, whether in oral or written form, from the beginning of human history” (p. 465). Literature plays an important social role: Any social gains,

“such as the development of insight into values through literature, are possible only if we permit and foster the aesthetic kind of reading, which is experienced as intrinsically enjoyable and desirable” (Rosenblatt, 1970, p. 11). Thus, nurturing the aesthetic reading of literature can contribute to cultural health (Rosenblatt, 1992). Unfortunately, the artistic value of literature is declining in our culture (Rosenblatt, 1986b). In fact,

Rosenblatt (1982) even goes so far as to claim that literature is “an endangered species”

(p. 277). Schools continue to fail to develop readers of literature (Rosenblatt, 1970).

Miall concurs, warning that the way literature is typically taught in classrooms is destroying “the social and cultural significance of literature” (p. 465). Institutionalized

classroom literary practices are literally poisoning students’ dispositions toward literature

(Miall, 1996). Rosenblatt attributes societal neglect of the aesthetic to pedagogical practices that teach readers “to treat literature as a body of knowledge rather than a potential experience” (Karolides, 1999, p. 167). This neglect of aesthetic reading poses a critical problem when one considers the transformative power of prose. If students are not given opportunities to positively experience literature, how will we restore the art of literature to its place of importance in our classrooms and culture?

Prospective teachers must be helped to overcome their own negative school

poetry experiences if we are to return the art of poetry to its rightful place of importance

in our classrooms. One approach for attaining this goal is to position prospective teachers

as “active, autonomous learners” (Burk & Dunn, 1996, p. 11). Learning to teach is a

constructive process (Kroll & LaBoskey, 1996). Dorit Kaufman (1996) recommends that

teacher education programs design constructivist-based classrooms because experiential

learning is of paramount importance in changing prospective teachers’ behaviors and

beliefs. Lasting change is brought about by engaging in new experiences, reflecting on

what transpired, and then adjusting thinking and teaching practices based on that new

knowledge (Pennington, 1995). Eleanor Duckworth (1986) asserts: “If one stops to think

about it, it is hard to imagine students learning about teaching and learning other than by

working out for themselves what they think” (p. 486-487). Rather than merely teaching

about poetry, we can equip prospective teachers with actual poetry experiences. If

prospective teachers are not given opportunities to shift their negative attitudes toward

poetry, how will they gain the confidence to teach the art form in ways that do not pass

on those same negative attitudes to future students?

Purpose of the Study

This dissertation study has two major areas of focus : 1) Undergraduate students as poets and readers within a university classroom and 2) Undergraduate students as prospective teachers of poetry. Prospective teachers are engaged in two aspects of learning: both the content itself and the teaching of that content (Duckworth, 1972).

Study participants are positioned with dual identities; they are learners themselves, and they are prospective teachers of the very content they are engaged in learning. The purpose of this research is to examine how found poetry might support novice poets’ writing efforts, readers’ transactional relationships, and prospective teachers’ attitudes and confidence with regard to their future responsibility for teaching poetry writing.

Supporting Novice Poets

Found poetry offers novice poets a supportive method for experimenting with writing poetry. New poets are introduced to the art of poetry through a unique mentorship opportunity. Because the words for the poem are available in the text, the poet merely

“rents” the words with which to create the poem (Dorfman & Cappelli, 2007, p. 16). This rental agreement can help lessen some of the fear that beginning poets often associate with writing an original poem because it removes the burden of having to invent one’s own words (Apol, 1998; Murdoch, 2010). Nancy Lubarsky (2002), a Language Arts teacher, found that her novice poets were less intimidated by using the language of a novel as raw material than if they had been staring at a blank page, searching for poetic inspiration. The practice of manipulating others’ words can also provide a natural segue into the practice of writing original poetry (Karnish & Dick, 1977). Once writers are comfortable and confident in writing found poems, they may advance to writing

situations where the stakes are higher; namely, using their own words to write poetry

(Soter, 2011b). This research looks at found poetry as one possible tool for supporting novice poets as they take their first steps toward becoming practicing poets.

Supporting Transactional Reading Relationships

Rosenblatt (1995) argues that it is the teacher’s task to foster fruitful transactions between readers and texts. With regard to promoting transactional reading relationships,

Rosenblatt (1986b) boldly asserts: “If we as teachers hope to rescue the art of literature from its dwindling importance in our culture, we must make our primary and continuing concern the fostering of vital relationships between individual readers and texts” (p. 84).

She challenges teachers to help readers grow in their capacity “to creatively and critically take part in their transactions with literature” (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, p. 148). Nurturing transactional relationships between readers and texts represents a move away from traditional teaching methods that produce “shallow and unquestioning readers” who passively accept “the authority of the printed word” (Rosenblatt, 2005, p. ix). Rosenblatt

(1970) maintains that teachers of literature should primarily be concerned with

“individual encounters between individual readers and individual texts,” and she positions such literature teachers as “specialists in the relations…between literary texts and readers” (p. 16). As such, these teachers play an exceedingly vital role in society, one that “holds out the possibility of making the world a better place in which to live” (Flynn,

2007, p. 67). Cultivating rich reader/text relationships lies at the heart of transactional pedagogy. This research investigates found poetry as one possible tool for supporting the development of transactional reading relationships.

Supporting Prospective Poetry Teachers

Award-winning poet Joyce Sidman (2012) claims: “There’s great power in poetry” (p. 32). If teachers are to invite this power into their classrooms, they need a key to unlock the door of poetry:

For many of us, and for many kids I’ve taught, poetry hovered like a door locked tight with a chain and heavy padlock across it. When we tried to open the door, it wouldn’t budge, because no one gave us a key to unlock it. (Heard, 2009, p. 10)

A potential key for unlocking this door is located in the pleasure of poetry (Arnstein,

1962). If teachers are given the chance to experience the joy of poetry themselves, they may be more likely to foster this positive disposition toward poetry in their own students

(Boyd, 1973; Fisher, 1993). Perhaps found poetry is a door through which prospective teachers may enter to find pleasure in poetry. This research explores found poetry as one possible tool for supporting prospective poetry teachers’ attitudes and confidence.

Research Questions and Gaps

Researchers who accept Bernice Cullinan’s (1993) invitation to journey among readers of literature will find themselves “stimulated to ask new questions” (p. 322). My journey among college readers has prompted me to ask a new question of my own: What happens when prospective teachers write found poetry using young adult literature?

Contained within this overriding question are three distinct components, each of which generates its own relevant question. The first component references novice poets; the second component references transactional reading relationships; and the third component references prospective poetry teachers. Conceptual issues and research gaps are explored within each component of the guiding research question.

Research Question One

The first component of the overriding research question is: How might writing found poetry support novice poets? This question addresses two major conceptual issues.

First, novice poets are often intimidated by writing original poetry (Apol, 1998;

Lubarsky, 2002; Murdoch, 2010). Found poetry may provide beginning poets with a structured approach to writing poetry because they do not have to come up with their own words for the poem. Therefore, this study inquires into how writing found poetry might impact the writing experiences of novice poets. Second, poetry is often marginalized in school (Denman, 1988; Hughes & John, 2009; Koch, 1970; Sloan, 2003b; Terry, 1974), and this neglect is frequently the result of destructive school poetry practices (Dressman

& Faust, 2006). Found poetry, consisting as it does of low-stakes word play, pushes back against such practices (Soter, 2011b). Therefore, this study inquires into how writing found poetry might impact efforts to disrupt negative school poetry practices by providing students with positive school poetry experiences.

Poetry scholars identify a distinct lack of research with regard to poetry pedagogy

(Elster & Hanauer, 2002; Sloan, 1998). In a review of the research on poetry studies,

Fenwick and Burns (1997) conclude: “Research during the last 50 years, then, does not appear to have produced much information which has been helpful” (p. 60). Although poetry is often addressed in literacy education journals, “relatively little research has been conducted in the efficacy of poetry in the curriculum” (Soter, 2010, p. 2). Sunrises and

Songs (McClure, 1990) is the only major research report relating poetry to literacy development: “Few educators take poetry seriously enough to study its effect on reading and writing” (Sloan, 1998, p. 70). This study works to address these research gaps.

Research Question Two

The second component of the overriding research question is: How might writing found poetry support transactional reading relationships between readers and texts? This question addresses two major conceptual issues. First, a reciprocal relationship develops between a reader and a text during a transactional reading event (Rosenblatt, 1993b). This relationship is strengthened by reader awareness of the contributions made by both the text and the self to the transactional relationship, awareness that may be activated by the found poetry writing process. Therefore, this study inquires into how writing found poetry might impact the development of reader/text transactional relationships. Second, readers need opportunities to reflect upon their reading experiences (Rosenblatt,

1978/1994). The process of thinking about topics for a poem naturally invites readers to reflect upon their reading experience. Therefore, this study inquires into how writing found poetry might impact readers’ reflections upon transactional experiences with texts.

A mere 28 years ago, Rosenblatt (1985c) wrote that the conditions and methods for fostering students’ aesthetic reading capabilities were only just beginning to receive notice from researchers. Rosenblatt highlights implications for transactional education research: “The transactional emphasis on the personal literary transaction as the starting- point for growth in reading abilities has important repercussions on teaching methods and hence on ways of studying and evaluating them” (p. 104). Specifically, Rosenblatt

(1985b) offers the reciprocal “interplay between writing and reading” as one possible area of investigation for researchers interested in the teaching of literature (p. 49-50).

Other scholars join Rosenblatt’s call for transactional research. Margaret Meek (1982) suggests that in theorizing about children’s literature, we need to “begin again to look at

the interaction of text and reader” (p. 291). Michael Smith (1992) recommends that both researchers and teachers design learning experiences to support readers in becoming

“equal partners with the text in meaningful literary transactions” (p. 160). Finally,

Margaret Mackey (1997) argues that if educators and scholars are to gain an understanding of how students’ reading behaviors develop, then “it is important to traverse the complex world of their textual engagements by means of a variety of paths”

(p. 593). This study explores found poetry as one possible research path.

Research Question Three

The third component of the overriding research question is: How might writing found poetry support prospective teachers of poetry? This question addresses two major conceptual issues. First, it has been argued that if teachers are to help their students to become poets, then the teachers must first become poets themselves. According to Glover

(1999): “To teach poets we must be poets…Our personal example as poets will carry us a long way in inspiring our students as poets” (p. 37). Therefore, this study inquires into how writing found poetry might impact the confidence of prospective teachers toward teaching poetry writing to their future students. Second, it has been argued that engaging prospective teachers in positive learning experiences may translate into future classroom practice (Parr, 2005/2006; Parr & Campbell, 2006). According to Parr and Campbell, in order to confidently and successfully write poetry with students, “we must first examine our own apprehensions, preconceived notions, and perceived abilities as poets in order to include more space for poetry – both our own, and that of our students” (p. 45).

Therefore, this study inquires into how writing found poetry might impact the attitudes of prospective teachers toward teaching poetry writing to their future students.

It is not uncommon for prospective teachers to hold negative attitudes toward poetry stemming from their own destructive school poetry experiences. Because it is quite natural for teachers to teach in much the same way that they were taught (Parr,

2005/2006; Rosenblatt in Karolides, 1999), these teachers may unknowingly pass on their own damaging attitudes to their future students; or at the very least, they may neglect poetry altogether. Katherine Keil (2005) is a ninth-grade English teacher who confesses that her fear and discomfort around poetry managed “to create and maintain the malaise” of tiresome and threatening poetry practices (p. 97). Parr and Campbell (2006) underscore the importance of remedying teachers’ negative feelings about poetry:

Many teachers and students recall experiences with poetry that led them to dislike or dread it…These attitudes must be addressed and dispelled before teachers can begin to recognize and come to appreciate the full value of poetry in the classroom, and effectively incorporate it into their daily practice. (p. 37)

One of Parr’s (2005/2006) students reflects on the impact that her own negative feelings toward poetry writing had on her failure to teach the art form in a suitable manner: “I realize now…that the problem did not lie with the students, but in my ability and confidence to teach it at the time” (p. 138). Without addressing prospective teachers’ negative experiences and attitudes around poetry, they are likely to either avoid teaching poetry altogether, or to perpetuate pedagogy that reinscribes their own fear or hatred of poetry onto new generations of students (Parr, 2005/2006). Therefore, this study seeks to redress prospective teachers’ poetry attitudes and confidence by bolstering their poetry experiences and pedagogy. And it does so through the art of found poetry.

Definition of Terminology

Following, the significant terms of the overriding research question are defined, as well as the terms contained within each of the three components of this question.

Overriding Research Question

What happens when prospective teachers write found poetry using young adult literature ?

Prospective teachers. The term “prospective teachers” will be defined as those students who enrolled in the researcher’s undergraduate course on literature for adolescents as a prerequisite for acceptance into an education program.

Found poetry. Linda Austin (2007), a found poet and poetry teacher, asks: “If something isn’t lost, can you find it?” She answers: “Of course you can if you are writing found poetry” (Found Poetry, para. 1). A found poem is created from “language not intended to be poetry” (Dunning, Eaton, & Glass, 1975, p. 1) but is “declared to be so by its finder” (Soter, 2011b). Found poetry is fashioned from bits of language chanced upon in strange and unexpected places (Card Hyatt, 2008; Heard, 2012; Murdoch, 2010; Tiedt,

2002). Random fragments of language may be found anywhere, from a billboard or a road sign to a newspaper or a novel. Existing pieces of language are scavenged, hijacked, and reframed into a new literary art form. Found poets treat the universe as if it were “an immense piece of art” (Colombo, 1973, p. 435), liberating words from “the semantic environment” (Foss, 1972, p. 821) and affixing them to “the literary equivalent of a collage” (Gorrell, 1989, p. 33; Poets.org, Found Poem, para. 1). Words are the source of both the medium and the message of found poetry: “If the world kept a diary,” its form would be the found poem (Foss, 1972, p. 823).

Found poetry is “the imaginative appropriation and reconstruction of already- existing texts” (Prendergast, 2006, p. 369). These texts may be non-literary, as those appropriated by Pop Poets (Gross, 1967), or they may also be literary, such as prose. A number of poets speak to the process of creating poems from prose texts. Williams Carlos

Williams characterizes prose as a “laboratory” of sorts for poetry (as cited in Kennedy &

Gioia, 2007, p. 232). Wormser and Cappella (2000) envision the found poem as “a prank that poetry plays on the heedless world of prose” (p. 319). Jayne Hobgood (1998) compares found poets to detectives seeking “hidden poetic potential” in prose (p. 33).

Tom Hansen (1980) deems such poets to be “poet-discoverers,” those writers who perceive found fragments of prose as incomplete, sensing “the shadow of another intention…as if the language were asking the poet to help it uncover its own veiled meaning” (p. 277). Finally, Georgia Heard (2012) believes that there is “something truly magical about transforming words that were originally prose…into a poem where language is elevated and deepened” (Introduction). Literary found poets redeem, recycle, and reinvent prose as poetry, building new poems out of old words (Gorrell, 1989).

Found poetry introduces an element of play into the practice of poetry writing

(Alexander, 2006; Furman, Langer, & Anderson, 2006). Found poets take great delight in playing with “found” words “lost” by someone else along the way (Soter, 2011b). Anna

Soter describes the language play inherent in the poetic form: “Found poetry catapults you out; it frees you from your own habitual language patterns and allows you to play with language where the stakes are low because the words are not your own” (2011b, lecture). Perry Nodelman (1992) adds: “Found poems affirm…a playful delight in the ways in which words become interesting in and for themselves” (p. 116). Wormser and

Cappella (2000) explain that found poetry invites “fiddling around” in an “obliquely imaginative” way with words (p. 322). Words have the power “to serve as magic wands”

(Tatar, 2009, p. 31), and found poets are the wizards who wield those wands. The found poem below provides a poetic definition of the art form (Daniel, 2007, p. 10-11):

Found Poem

I found a poem.

I will tell you how I found it. I was walking along the beach when I saw a stone with a bump. I brought it home and stood it on the mantelpiece where it immediately turned into a Work of Art.

If I can find a Work of Art on the beach I thought I can find poems on fire extinguishers, in recipe books, insurance policies, telephone directories, the index to The Oxford Book of English Verse , my grandfather’s diary.

I read out the Smiths, A.J. from the London telephone directory and was attacked by a lady in the Lamb and Flag screaming This isn’t poetry!

I found a poem by Jeremy Bentham, the philosopher of Utilitarianism. The Greatest Happiness of the Greatest Number who had written a will stating that he was to be wheeled out at university committee meetings and whose head had just fallen off.

This was the end of the Found Poem. There is only so much you can do with a headless Utilitarian, wills and insurance policies. I returned the poem to its beach laying it carefully among 10,000 others where it immediately forgot it was a Work of Art and changed back into a pebble.

Sometimes I go for a walk listening to the great pebble-polisher dragging the poems off the earth hurling them forward and back the tug-of-war between the moon and the beach.

And sometimes I pick up an odd-shaped pebble but I never take it back to the mantelpiece. That would be ecologically irresponsible. Instead I lie hearing the rumble of unfound poems and the artless crash of the waves on the beach.

Young adult literature. Scholars do not uniformly agree on a definition of the term “young adult literature” (Bond, 2011; Bucher & Hinton, 2010; Nilsen & Donelson,

2009). Nonetheless, for the purpose of this study, the term will be defined as literature featuring a young adult protagonist told from a young adult perspective (Bond, 2011;

Tomlinson & Lynch-Brown, 2007). While Nilsen and Donelson define young adult literature as leisure or school reading chosen by readers between the ages of 12 and 18,

Bucher and Hinton observe that the age range for young adult literature is contested. In fact, members of the Conference on English Education Commission on the Study and

Teaching of Young Adult Literature were unable to reach a consensus on the age range for young adult literature (Pope & Kaywell, 2001). Some scholars place the upper level of the young adult reading audience in college (Bucher & Hinton, 2010; Pope & Kaywell,

2001), which justifies the positioning of the undergraduate students in this study as young adult readers. Just like their high school counterparts, college readers continue to explore issues of identity and finding their place in the world, endeavors which are both considered to be the purview of young adult literature (Bray, 2012).

Research Question One

How might writing found poetry support novice poets ?

Novice poets. The phrase “novice poets” will be defined as students who do not consider themselves to be poets. This working definition does not imply that novice poets have never written a poem; rather, students who self-identify as novice poets are those who consider themselves to be newcomers to the art of writing poetry.

Research Question Two

How might writing found poetry support transactional reading relationships between readers and texts?

Transactional reading relationships. The phrase “transactional reading relationships” is a Rosenblattian construct. Rosenblatt (1978/1994) conceives of reading as a creative transaction, the “coming-together of a human being…and a text” (p. 143).

The term “transaction” highlights the particular, reciprocal relationship between a reader and a text (Church, 1997). Rosenblatt (1986b, 1993a) borrowed the term from Dewey and

Bentley (1949); this pair originally appropriated it to describe the reciprocal relationship between humans and nature. When a reader and a text enter into a transactional relationship, they produce a literary work of art (Rosenblatt, 1956, 1991, 2005). This literary work of art resides in the reader’s unique and creative experience while living through a transaction with a text (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, 1995). Louise Rosenblatt’s

Transactional Theory of the Literary Work (1978/1994, 1995) provides one of the three major theoretical frameworks for this study. Therefore, a more thorough explication and representation of the theory will be provided in Chapter 2.

Research Question Three

How might writing found poetry support prospective teachers of poetry ?

Prospective teachers of poetry. The phrase “prospective teachers of poetry” will

be defined as those students who will be responsible for teaching poetry in their future

classrooms. All but one of the students took the course on literature for adolescents as a

prerequisite for acceptance into an education program. These education students fell into

two main groups: Early Childhood education majors and middle/high school English and

Language Arts education majors. The assumption is made that prospective teachers in

both programs will be responsible for teaching poetry writing in their future classrooms.

Limitations and Significance of the Study

The population for this study consists of young adult undergraduate students. The

findings cannot be widely applied to poets and readers of all ages. Additionally, the

study’s focus is narrow, examining one poetry writing activity with just two groups of

participants. This dissertation considers how a single activity may impact poetry

attitudes, both personally and pedagogically. In this investigation, found poetry is

explored as a tool for helping prospective teachers to overcome negative attitudes toward

poetry, so that they may break the cycle of neglect and abuse in their future classrooms.

However, found poetry is only one poetry activity among many that an educator could

use to support prospective teachers’ attitudes and confidence around poetry. Additionally,

poetry instruction in school, especially at the middle and high school levels, is a highly

complex endeavor and beyond the scope of this study. Found poetry is used to open the

metaphorical door of poetry, rather than as a means for comprehensively preparing future

teachers to master the entire poetry curriculum they will be required to cover.

There have been no studies to date that investigate if found poetry is a useful tool for supporting novice poets, transactional readers, or prospective poetry teachers. This study has three major areas of significance with regard to research findings: participants as (1) novice poets; (2) readers; and (3) prospective poetry teachers. Furthermore, this study holds implications for literacy practices, both in undergraduate literature classrooms and in teacher education programs. Accordingly, this dissertation provides the researcher with a formal opportunity to make “knowledge of classroom teaching and learning part of the literature on teaching” (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1990, p. 2).

Chapter Overviews

Chapter 2 provides an overview of the history of found poetry and questions of

poetic ownership, as well as a review of the literature pertaining to found poetry in school

and in qualitative research writing. Three major theoretical frameworks are advanced to

inform the positioning of the research participants. The Expressive Theory of Poetry

Writing frames the participants as poets. The Transactional Theory of the Literary Work

frames the participants as readers and writers. The Constructivist Theory of Learning

frames the participants as prospective poetry teachers. Chapter 3 offers a rationale for the

research design and methodology, as well as a detailed description of the data

management processes and procedures. Chapter 4 presents the results of the thematic data

analysis and the thematic networks, as well as the study findings. Found data poems

created from the raw data are also included to provide an artistic illustration of the major

themes. Chapter 5 puts forward an in-depth discussion of the study’s findings with regard

to each of the three research questions and the relevant literature. Chapter 6 concludes

with recommendations based on the findings and implications for future research.

Summary

Prose Summary

In classrooms across the country, the art forms of poetry and prose are threatened by neglectful and damaging literacy practices. Poetry often remains untaught, or taught in a destructive manner, leaving students with poor attitudes toward poetry. Students from such classrooms who grow up to be teachers may perpetuate this cycle of neglect and destruction. Prose is subjected to a similar challenge, as it is often taught in an efferently- oriented manner. This neglect of the aesthetic may leave readers feeling distanced from literature. In light of the transformative power of poetry and prose, the estrangement from these two art forms poses a worrisome threat for students and teachers alike in school.

This study has the dual purpose of examining undergraduate students as poets and readers, as well as prospective teachers of poetry. The overriding question of this dissertation research asks: What happens when prospective teachers write found poetry using young adult literature? The poetic form of found poetry is investigated as a means for supporting novice poets in their beginning writing efforts; readers in their transactional relationships with texts; and prospective literacy teachers in their poetry pedagogy. The purpose of this dissertation research is to inquire into how a single poetic writing activity may impact efforts to disrupt negative school poetry practices. In terms of novice poets, found poetry is explored as a supportive introduction to writing poetry since the words for the poem are contained in the text chosen for the poem. In terms of readers, found poetry is explored as a tool for fostering transactional relationships with texts. In terms of prospective poetry teachers, found poetry is explored as a tool for nurturing confidence and attitudes toward teaching poetry writing to future students.

Poetic Summary

Both prose and poetry are essential topics of this dissertation; therefore, each chapter summary consists of both a prose and a poetic summary. For the poetic summary, found poems are created from the words contained in that particular chapter. The poems reflect important facets of the chapter they represent. In order to justify the inclusion of found poetry in this study, an explanation of the significant role that poetry can play in research writing is offered in Chapter 2.

Composers of Found Poetry

Wizards who wield wands of words.

Creating light out of darkness and sunrises out of words.

Their luminous efforts transform souls.

No Absolution for Abuse

School is the attic where Poetry goes to die, after being beaten by a cranky uncle.

Who, after driving a stake through her endangered heart, padlocks the attic door against unsuspecting students.

Diary of a Dissertation

Today I liberated the word TRANSACTION from the island on which it was trapped.

I kidnapped an unsuspecting reader and recycled a fragment of text.

A heedless prank, I know.

A collage of life and letter, colliding and catapulting into the broken universe of art.

PREVIEW of the LITERATURE

Bern Porter (1972)

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEWS

People ask Newbery Honor-winning poet Joyce Sidman (2012) – “in a slightly mystified tone of voice” – why she writes poetry. She answers: “For the chance to feel connected to everything around me. For the chance to capture a moment of joy. For the chance to ease the heart” (p. 34). In her role as a poetry educator, Sidman encourages children to join her in writing poetry in order to “watch them take a crisp, clean dive into the mysteries that confront them every day, find what glitters beneath the surface, and emerge triumphant. Try it. You’ll see” (p. 34). This dissertation study takes up Sidman’s challenge by giving novice poets a means by which to dip their toes into the waters of poetry. Chapter 2 is organized into two main sections: an extensive literature review and theoretical frameworks. First, a review of the literature on found poetry covers four broad topics: the history of found poetry, questions of poetic ownership, and found poetry in school and in research. Then, three individual theories are advanced as frames with which to investigate and interpret the research findings for each of the three study questions.

The research participant is positioned as a poet through the lens of the Expressive Theory of Poetry Writing; as a reader and a writer through the lens of the Transactional Theory of the Literary Work; and as a prospective teacher through the lens of the Constructivist

Theory of Learning. The chapter ends with a prose and poetic summary.

Found Poetry: A Review of the Literature

A Valentine for Ernest Mann

You can’t order a poem like you order a taco. Walk up to the counter, say, “I’ll take two” and expect it to be handed back to you on a shiny plate.

Still, I like your spirit. Anyone who says, “Here’s my address, write me a poem,” deserves something in reply. So I’ll tell you a secret instead: poems hide. In the bottoms of our shoes, they are sleeping. They are the shadows drifting across our ceilings the moment before we wake up. What we have to do is live in a way that lets us find them.

Once I knew a man who gave his wife two skunks for a valentine. He couldn’t understand why she was crying. “I thought they had such beautiful eyes.” And he was serious. He was a serious man who lived in a serious way. Nothing was ugly just because the world said so. He really liked those skunks. So, he re-invented them as valentines and they became beautiful. At least, to him. And the poems that had been hiding in the eyes of the skunks for centuries crawled out and curled up at his feet.

Maybe if we re-invent whatever our lives give us we find poems. Check your garage, the odd sock in your drawer, the person you almost like, but not quite. And let me know.

Naomi Shihab Nye (1994, p. 70, emphasis in original)

Like the man in Nye’s poem, who found beauty hidden in the eyes of skunks, found poets search for poems hidden in the world around them, a world of shadows sailing among socks and shoes.

History of Found Poetry

Found poetry is a historical art form (Kelly, 2005), one with a long and established practice in literature (Prendergast, 2009a). While found poetry is often associated with the Surrealist and Dada writers of the early twentieth century, it actually has its roots in an ancient form of poetry known as the cento (Kelly, 2005). The cento leans heavily on the tradition of found poetry; lines from other poems are used to craft a new poem. Faltonia Betitia Proba’s fourth-century cento is a primary example, one which

“shuffles 694 lines of Virgil to narrate a Christian history of the world, from the creation to Christ’s resurrection” (Kelly, 2005, p. 79). A number of early examples of found poetry are located in a range of poets’ work. The first example is “Poésies,” a poem written by Isidore Ducasse, a 19 th – century poet who reshaped words from a number of

different texts into poetic form (Butler-Kisber, 2010). Another example is “Dernière

Heure,” Blaise Cendrars’ 1914 account of an Oklahoma jailbreak copied verbatim from a

Paris newspaper (Colombo, 1973). Ezra Pound’s (1950) poem, “Cantos,” is informed by

a found impulse (Colombo, 1973). The final example is the first poem in William Butler

Yeats’ Oxford Book of Modern Verse (1936), a found poem that the celebrated poet referred to as a work “of revolutionary importance” (Colombo, 1973, p. 433). The first published book of found poems in English is John S. Barnes’ A Stone, a Leaf, a Door

(1945). Barnes selected rhapsodic and rhythmical passages from the novels of Thomas

Wolfe and arranged them into a series of found poems (Colombo, 1973; Untermeyer,

1945). Although found poetry’s origins can be traced back to the fourth-century cento,

the art form did not truly take root until the early 1900’s.

Found poetry and pop culture. In the mid 1900’s, a connection was forged between the worlds of poetry and popular culture. Found poets were inspired to create poetry that “turns the continuous verbal undertone of mass culture up full volume for a moment” (Gross as cited in Colombo, 1974). The found poem became “stylish” in the

1960’s (Mackenzie & Colombo, 1966, p. 25). In a New York Times article, Gilroy (1967) had this to say about the poetic form of the time: “The game these days, for some poets and a lot of other people who like to play with words, is found poetry. It is not exactly new, for examples are scattered through past literature, but it is catching on…” (p. 34).

The Pop Culture Zeitgeist of the 1960’s had a strong influence on poets who were inspired by Pop Artists (Kennedy & Gioia, 2007). Pop Poetry is the literary equivalent of

Pop Art, both of which share “found” traits (Foss, 1972). Ronald Gross’s collection: Pop

Poems (1967) exemplifies the Pop Poetry of the time. Similar to Pop Artists like Andy

Warhol, whose paintings of soup cans were inspired by everyday found objects in the world, found poets go “pawing through popular culture like sculptors on trash heaps.

They hold and wave aloft usable artifacts and fragments” (Dillard, 1995, p. ix). But, rather than using the “cultural fallout” of Pop Artists, found poets used the “semantic fallout” of popular culture (Foss, 1972, p. 821). If the roots of found poetry took hold in the early 1900’s, then the art form bloomed in the popular culture of the mid 1900’s.

The rise of Pop Poetry made space for found poets in the world of publishing.

In 1969, George Hitchcock edited and published the first anthology of found poems:

Losers Weepers: Poems Found Practically Everywhere . Hitchcock wrote that the enthusiasm of the 25 contributing found poets for the project served to demonstrate that found poetry can provide a rich “source of wonder, laughter and enlightenment” (p. 5).

Even the decorative illustrations for the book embodied a found impulse. Hitchcock, along with Jacqueline McFarland, created the artistic renderings using the “authentic silent found poems among which we live – leaves, bits of grass and seaweed, shells, fishbones and the like” (p. 5). Six years later, Open Poetry (Gross, Quasha, Williams,

Colombo, & Lowenfels, 1973) was published, a lengthy tome consisting of four

anthologies representing four distinct poetic tendencies of the 1960’s. Twenty poets

contributed to the found poetry portion of the anthology. Interestingly, only four poets

were represented in both the Losers Weepers and Open Poetry anthologies. A well-

known Canadian writer, John Robert Colombo, was one of those four poets. He wrote “A

Found Introduction” for the Open Poetry anthology, finding the words of others to

introduce, define, and explicate the art of found poetry. Colombo, like many of his fellow

Canadian writers of the time, wrote found poems from historical and social documentary

literature (Stanzel, 1985). In 1975, William White wrote All Nature is my Bride , in which

he arranged passages from Henry David Thoreau’s journals (1837-1861) as poetry. Other

than capitalizing the first word of each poetic line, White did not omit or change any

words or punctuation. He simply took the existing “rhythms, images and cadences” found

in Thoreau’s prose and used stanza and line breaks to arrange them as “free-flowing verse

patterns” (p. vii). In paying homage to one of America’s most beloved writers, the found

poet was humble about his book of transposed prose, explaining: “I have only turned the

key on the locked box of Thoreau’s poetic genius” (p. viii). The found poetry art form

materialized in the realm of book publishing in the late 1960’s and 1970’s.

Two of the most well-known found poets published a great deal of found poetry

during this time. Bern Porter is best known for his series of “founds,” which are located

in more than a dozen books. His oversized text, Found Poems (1972), is a mishmash collage of words, numbers, symbols, illustrations, and images. Curiously, no sources for the found elements are cited. In a bibliography about the press that published this book,

Frank (1983) has the following to say about the famous found poet: “Porter is to the poem what Duchamp was to the art object…Porter’s eye never tires of seeking accidental, unintentional literature in odd pages of textbooks, far corners of advertisements, the verbiage of greeting cards and repair manuals, ad infinitum” (p. 42).

Another of the most prolific and influential found poets from this time period is John

Robert Colombo, who published fifteen collections of found poetry (Jones, 1990).

Colombo (1973) explains the art form as follows: “Found art is the most conservation- minded of the arts, for it recycles the waste of the past and reuses it in a surprisingly different way, thereby giving the original a new lease on life” (p. 435). The creative minds of Bern Porter and John Robert Colombo are responsible for the majority of the found poetry published in the U.S. and Canada during the middle of the 20 th century.

Where to “find” poetry. More recently, a number of found poetry collections

have found their way into the public sphere. In 1985, Lewis Turco published a collection

of found, composite, and composed poems based on Robert Burton’s (1628) Anatomy of

Melancholy . In 1995, Pulitzer Prize-winning author and contemporary poet Annie Dillard

published a book of found poems with an author’s note explaining that she “did not write

a word of it” (p. ix). Instead, Dillard lifted words from an eclectic range of books to

create her poems, dismissing the authors’ original intentions. For example, she wrote a

poem on the subject of growing old using words from Daniel Beard’s (1882) classic

manual The American Boy’s Handy Book . Dillard characterizes her poetry practice as

“editing at its extreme: writing without composing” (p. x). Hart Seely (2003) edited a collection of found haiku, sonnet, and free verse poems created from Secretary of

Defense Donald Rumsfeld’s press briefings. Together, Peyer and Seely (2008) edited a collection of found poetry using the words of New York Yankees baseball announcer,

Phil Rizzuto. Finally, Michael Solomon (2011) edited a collection of found poems constructed from emails sent by Sarah Palin during her term as Governor of Alaska. The textual reservoir available to found poets is vast, ranging from press briefings to gubernatorial emails.

Found poetry is not limited to books and anthologies; examples of the poetic form also appear in a number of scholarly journals, such as: American Scholar , English

Journal , and Harvard Educational Review (Bowers, 2007; Davie, 1980; Fogle, 2004;

Rosen, 2009). Noah Hawkins Rosen’s teacher assigned her fifth grade students to watch

Barack Obama’s presidential inauguration and then to write a found poem using words that they liked (Diamond, 2009). Noah had his found poem, “Inauguration: A Found

Poem,” published in a special issue on the presidential election in Harvard Educational

Review (Diamond, 2009). English Journal published a short, humorous found poem by

Andy Fogle (2004), a writer-in-residence at Clarke Hart Middle School in Washington,

DC. Fogle “found” the poem in an announcement made over the school’s loudspeaker:

Loudspeaker (a found poem)

Kevin Williams, report to the office. You’re missing. (p. 127)

Found poetry was once even discovered on a classroom chalkboard (Jones, 1990).

Stanley Fish (1980) relates a fascinating anecdote about a fragment of text that he appropriated as a found poem. In 1971, a group of students in his class on 17 th century

English religious poetry entered the classroom to find a “poem” written on the board. In

actuality, Fish had simply drawn a frame around the reading assignment given to the

previous class and added a page number to the top of the frame. He asked his students to

interpret the “religious poem” found on the board. What ensued was a spirited attempt to

make poetic sense of the last names of five linguists. Fish offers this obscure example to

illustrate that interpretation is truly “the art of constructing” (p. 327). Found poetry

appears in such disparate places as the pages of journals to the corners of chalkboards.

Two poetry projects use the process of obliteration to create found poems. Artists

from the Altered Books Project (2009) collaborate to find poems hidden in the pages of

used books by crossing out any undesired words. The words that remain constitute a

poem “found” within the book’s pages; the book is then passed on to another poet who

continues the process. Austin Kleon (2010) published a collection of poems created by

blacking out words in the newspaper with a permanent marker, which he titled:

Newspaper Blackout . What excites Kleon about his poetic process is that “by destroying writing you can create new writing. You can take a stranger’s random words and pick and choose from them to express your own personal vision” (p. xv, emphasis in original).

Kleon (2010-2013) also maintains “Newspaper Blackout,” a companion website to his book of newspaper poems. He invites poets to follow the formula: “Newspaper + Marker

= Poetry” to create and share their own poems. While the Altered Books and the

Newspaper Blackout projects both use the poetic process of obliteration to “find” words,

rather than a more traditional process of creating found poetry, the poems that remain after eliminating unwanted words are essentially found poems.

The internet offers extensive resources for those interested in reading found poetry. “Found Poetry” (2006) is a web log “dedicated to Found poetry, the way in which seemingly prosaic statements from apparently poetically-challenged people can transcend the expect [sic] boundaries, and enter the realms of the artistic” (About, para. 1). Twice a year The Found Poetry Review (2012) publishes poetry incorporating elements from existing texts. This journal is dedicated “to celebrating the poetry in the existing and the everyday” and publishes a variety of found poetic forms such as centos, blackout poems, and erasure pieces (About, para. 1). Two online magazines publish found poems gleaned from speeches and interviews of public figures: Salon.com (Seely & Peyer, 2009) and

Slate.com (Seely, 2010). The New York Times is a rich resource for found poetry. For example, New York Times writer Alan Feuer (2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013) periodically publishes poems that he “finds” in the Missed Connections section of Craigslist. The titles are taken directly from subject headings, and the poems are created by simply adding line and stanza breaks to the original advertisements. By definition, the subject matter of found poetry is inexhaustible: “If it has been lived or thought and well said, it may one day become a found poem” (Stanzel, 1985, p. 105).

Found poetry for children and young adults is also available on the internet.

Laurie Halse Anderson (2009) wrote “Listen,” a found poem to celebrate the tenth anniversary of her young adult novel, Speak (1999). The first and last stanzas of the poem are her own words, but the stanzas in between are written using words and phrases from the tens of thousands of emails and letters she has received from readers sharing their

reactions to her book. Anderson’s website provides a link to a YouTube video of her reading the poem. Amy Ludwig VanDerwater (2012) posted a found poem titled

“Chicken” on her poetry web log, which she wrote using words from a nonfiction children’s book on raising and showing chickens. Mary Lee Hahn (2012) wrote a found poem using words from Stephen King’s novel: 11-22-63 , which she posted on the web log: “A Year of Reading.” Finally, the author of Carol’s Corner web log (2012) turned an essay about dogs into a found poem to honor her own dog that had died. Found poetry for young people is available in a variety of online venues, from web videos to blog posts.

Found poetry has recently emerged in a number of literary arenas for children and teachers. Paul B. Janeczko (2011) included a found poem, “Valtr Eisinger/11956,” in

Requiem , his collection of poetry about the Terezín Ghetto. He created the poem using

words from letters written by a prisoner at Buchenwald with the last name of Eisinger.

Fisher and Frey (2012a) suggest the creation of found poems as one of ten writing

prompts for content area classrooms in their text: Improving Adolescent Literacy . Found

poetry appears in the glossary of Fountas and Pinnell’s (2012) newest professional text:

Genre Study . Finally, Georgia Heard (2012) recently edited a collection of found poems from numerous popular poets for children: The Arrow Finds its Mark . Found poetry is becoming increasingly available to teachers and students alike.

Questions of Poetic Ownership

Found poetry is a literary genre that “exists by definition in a contradictory position on the margins of the literary canon, since it places in jeopardy the very notions of literature, genre, work of art and artist that circumscribe the status of the canon”

(Jones, 1990, para. 9). This contradictory position poses a unique issue of ownership.

Colombo (Mackenzie & Colombo, 1966), Canada’s most famous and prolific found poet, asks: “Is it morally justified to make an ‘adaptation’ of another’s creative work? Is some kind of ethical copyright being broken along with some actual copyright law?” (p. 24).

He answers his own question by asserting: “There are no laws of language” (p. 24). T. S.

Eliot (1950), in an essay on the English dramatist Philip Massinger, proposes: “ Immature

poets imitate; mature poets steal; bad poets deface what they take, and good poets make it

into something better, or at least something different” (p. 125). Found poets would appear

to fall into Eliot’s category of “good poets.” The publishers of the journal Found Poetry

Review (2012) deem found poetry to be protected under Fair Use Standards, and their publishing practices adhere to the Center for Social Media’s “Code of Best Practices in

Fair Use for Poetry.” This code was created by a group of poets to articulate common expectations regarding poets’ rights to copyrighted material (Aufderheide, Coles, Jaszi, &

Urban, 2012). Under “Principles and Limitations,” new works that are “remixed” from other material, such as the “use of ‘found’ material,” are protected as follows:

Principle: Under fair use, a poet may make use of quotations from existing poetry, literary prose, and non-literary material, if these quotations are represented in poetic forms that add value through significant imaginative or intellectual transformation, whether direct or (as in the case of poetry- generating software) indirect. (Aufderheide et al., 2012, Principles and Limitations, para. 5)

Student found poets may be concerned by legalistic concepts of poetic ownership and

originality that are “embedded in academic codes of conduct and copyright law” (Tarlo,

2009, p. 127). In a reflection upon the found poetry writing process, one of the

participants in this study articulates the core of this controversial issue: “When I was

writing the found poem it felt a lot like plagiarism to me. I was using another person’s

phrases and ideas to write my poem.” The participant submits the following question:

“How do we let students know when it is okay to borrow ideas and when it is plagiarism?” Following, found poets themselves attempt to answer this critical question.

Found poets weigh in. Numerous found poets address the contentious issue of

ownership. Jim Murdoch (2010), a poet and poetry blogger, argues that the words of a

found poem belong to the poet, even if its words may have been found in someone else’s

text. He asserts that all words are known and cannot be owned; all words are in fact,

borrowed: “Every poem I will ever write is already in my head. All I have to do is locate

the words” (Murdoch, 2010, Power Cuts , para. 7). Manina Jones (1990), an English professor at The University of Western Ontario, agrees: “The economy of found poetry further suggests that language is never ‘produced’ in any truly creative sense, but rather

that it is always borrowed (para. 11, emphasis in original). Rebecca Card Hyatt (2008), a

secondary Language Arts teacher and found poet, extends the argument: “Aren’t most of

my word combinations lifted from one of the hundreds of books, papers, poems I’ve

read? The words at my command have all been used, are being used and will be used

again” (Found poetry, para. 7). In writing about her poetic practice, Card Hyatt justifies:

“I do not want to say something new. I want to say something that was lost, but now is

found” (Found poetry, para. 9). Harriet Tarlo (2009), an academic poet who both writes

and critiques experimental and innovative poetry, adds to the conversation about poetic

ownership by situating the controversy within the wider culture of consumer capitalism,

with its “attendant ideas of ownership and originality.” Tarlo argues: “In a sense, the idea

of owning words is as absurd as the idea of owning natural resources, and yet both ideas

are taken as real” (p. 127). Subversive found poets fight against these ideas of “ownership

and originality,” asserting their right to “freedom of citation within the poetic culture”

(Tarlo, 2009, p. 127-128). Karen Norum (2000), a writer of research found poetry, feels comfortable in claiming authorship for her poems. Norum justifies this claim by pointing out that she stages the text, finds the words, and writes the poems using poetic elements such as sound, pattern, and layout. However, this research poet does acknowledge that her authorial position is only made possible by the “interdependence on others” (p. 248).

Found poets defend the originality of found poetry by pointing out that, in essence, all words, whether spoken or written, prose or poetry, are essentially free for the finding.

A literary theorist weighs in. Jacques Ehrmann (1975), a French literary theorist, devotes an entire theoretical essay to his interrogation of questions over ownership of found texts. He begins his essay with seven examples of banal found poems (as he refers to them) created by following this recipe:

1. Take any scrap of writing. Whichever one comes to hand. A page from a dictionary or a telephone book; a press clipping; an ad; one of Shakespeare’s sonnets; a list of books; street names; a Latin sentence. 2. Take another scrap. 3. Etc. 4. Cut up each scrap or recopy it. 5. Choose a title (optional). 6. Arrange each scrap on a clean page. 7. Stop when you’ve had enough. 8. In this manner you will have made “texts.” (p. 229)

Ehrmann explains that found poetry is derived from ordinary language “not produced

(created) by anyone in particular;” therefore, the author cannot be found at the origin of the text (p. 236, emphasis in original). He argues that isolating language from its original context and then reassembling that language “ in another manner ” displaces the language from its origin (p. 238, emphasis in original). Ehrmann theorizes: “One can no longer say

that the poet is at the origin of his language, since it is language which creates the poet and not the reverse” (p. 239, emphasis in original). The found poet does not create language; rather, in finding language, both poet and poem are created anew.

Poets and poetry educators weigh in. Those who write and teach poetry have also taken up the issue of poetic ownership. Author and writing educator Ralph Fletcher

(2002) instructs young poets that imitation is not the same as copying: “Poets borrow things like line lengths, rhythms, cool words from each other all the time” (p. 120). Two found poems are included in Wormser and Cappella’s (2000) book on teaching the art of poetry. In speaking to Sarah Gorham’s found poem, “Dear Growing Teen: A Found

Poem,” written using words gathered from teen advice magazines, the poetry educators affirm that Gorham “did not write the words but she certainly assembled the poem” (p.

321). In reference to Nancy Richardson’s found poem, “An Everyday Thing,” created from the notes of lawyers who represented the families of students who were injured or killed in the Kent State University shootings, Wormser and Cappella assert: “As the found poem respects the authenticity of its source(s), it is journalistic; but as it orders and forms the words, it is imaginative” (p. 324). The poetic method of finding and ordering words gives the found poet creative authorship over those words. Georgia Heard (2012), a poet and poetry educator, also addresses the issue of ownership when writers lift words from unlikely places and refashion them as poetry. In Writing Toward Home (1995), she and a group of her visiting friends took part in a found writing activity together. Each person randomly chose words from an assortment of books and wove them together to create a found poem. The experience of sharing their poems with the group led to the realization “that each piece of writing, although gathered randomly from disparate

sources, was an authentic reflection of its author, a mirror” (p. 110-111). Poets and poetry educators alike assert that the found poetry writing process is not an act of plagiarism.

Dissent over authorial rights. The writers of the original works do not always agree that found poetry is exempt from laws of plagiarism. Andrew Motion (2009), a former poet laureate of England, wrote “An Equal Voice,” a found poem that gives voice to shell-shocked soldiers from World War I. He lifted the words from a variety of original sources, including Ben Shephard’s A War of Nerves (2001), a history of medical psychiatry. Shephard takes issue with Motion’s appropriation of the soldier’s words and accuses Motion of plagiarism (Flood, 2009). Motion defends his poem, claiming that he drew on the established tradition of found poetry (Flood, 2009). This example illustrates the division that issues of ownership may provoke between the original prose author and the ensuing found poet. Yet, two writers who work with found poets and artists argue in favor of found poetry’s originality. Laurence Foss (1972), who writes about found poetry in the Journal of Popular Culture , avows that the found poet “is truly artist rather than

plagiarist,” reasoning that the “choice of material to isolate as an objet d’art itself

constitutes an artistic act” (p. 823). Teresa Leo (2001), in an email interview with the

found poet, Rick Moody, proposes: “[I]s there not an artistry in the arrangement of found

objects, swatches of images, bytes of conversation, phraseology, an eye for what happens

when the edges of the disparate meet and synchronize or repel?” (TL, para. 16). It may be

argued that the artistic acts of choosing and arranging words contribute to the legitimacy

of found poetry as a poetic form. Found poets reclaim and reframe the words of other

writers, and while their material is not new, their poems, in fact, are. Linda Austin (2007)

cautions that concerns over ownership can lead to publishing difficulties; some editors of

literary journals may worry about copyright issues. Austin assures found poets that copyright laws allow poets to “create new works from existing works” and recommends that poets credit the original source(s) to avoid accusations of plagiarism. Questions of authorial ownership vary depending upon whether one views a found poem through the lens of the original prose author’s words or through the lens of the subsequent poet’s appropriation and arrangement of those found words.

Found Poetry in School

While no formal research studies have been conducted on the writing of found poetry with students, nine teachers report on their experience of using found poetry in the classroom. The majority of the instructors are English teachers working with a range of grades from middle and high school to college. Four of the teachers engaged their students in creating found poetry from non-literary textual sources. These instructors invoke a more traditional approach to found poetry, creating Pop Poems from non-prose sources. Found poetry can also be created by choosing words from a literary text and reframing them to create an original poem (Wormser & Cappella, 2000). Five of the teachers engaged their students in writing found poems with the words from novels they read. Although the articles reviewed below are not research studies, they do speak to the worthwhile role that found poetry may play in English/Language Arts classrooms.

Found poetry using non-literary sources. Several teachers report on writing found poetry from non-literary sources. Marlam Karnish (Karnish & Dick, 1977) has high school students create found poetry from advertising. This teacher uses the process of rearranging found text into poetic lines to teach novice poets about the connection between rhythmic patterns and poetic ideas. Karnish credits found poetry with the

potential to “show students how words combine with feeling to strike a responsive chord in the reader” (p. 74). Katherine Keil (2005) uses the vehicle of found poetry to encourage her high school English students to engage in wordplay. Her goal is to help writers discover that poetry is all about “interacting intimately with language” (p. 101).

As part of a year-long poetry unit, the students write and share poetry, including found poems, which they create using words culled from newspapers and magazines.

Throughout the unit, Keil works to help her students rediscover the joy of poetry.

Nancy Gorrell (1989) embraces found poetry’s enduring ability to impact her students’ “attitudes, values and sensibilities” because “it challenges them to find poetry in all the ‘wrong’ places, it continues to thrill them with those rare and elusive encounters”

(p. 34). For over ten years, Gorrell has used the same poem as the starting point for exploring poetry with her high school English students. “Parents,” Julius Lester’s (1969) powerful poem written with words found in an article from The New York Times , never ceases to “excite, provoke, and inspire” her students (p. 30). In the preface to his book of found poetry, Lester explains his motivation for creating the disturbing poem. Believing that readers of newspapers are so accustomed to reading horror that they have become desensitized to that horror, Lester contends that the process of arranging news articles as poems humanizes the content. What goes unnoticed in the context of news is revealed as the human experience that it actually is. After extensive work with Lester’s poem, Gorrell challenges her students to create their own found poems by searching for “hidden poetic potential” in non-literary print resources ranging from magazines to newspapers and from textbooks to labels; they even hunt for words in “notes left on paper bags” (p. 33). Gorrell concludes her article with a passionate endorsement of the poetic form:

In sum, found poetry is an ideal tool or starting point for teaching poetic response. It lets students connect to what excites, outrages, inspires, and provokes them in the real world. It starts where they are, and lets them respond with passion. It provides a vehicle for attitudinal change – poetry is everywhere to be discovered. It makes students active observers and seekers developing their own poetic sensibilities. And last, it inspires students to write their own poems – the final and perhaps most important way of responding. (p. 34)

Gorrell uses Lester’s provocative found poem to draw her students into the world of poetry, a world that they respond to enthusiastically.

Nancy Shore (Shore & Burns, 2010; Shore, DiBiase, Hutchins, & Manahan,

2010) reflects on an experiment with found poetry in an online course she teaches at The

University of New England School of Social Work. As part of the course design, students

post comments on an online discussion board. Shore asks the students to write found

poems using words from these postings. Based on participant feedback, the instructor

concludes that the process of rereading discussion threads for the assignment helps the

students to synthesize the content of the course. The found poetry writing experience also

serves to strengthen the online class community, as well as to demonstrate students’

critical and creative thinking. The instructor received unanimous endorsement from the

students to include the found poetry writing assignment in future courses.

Found poetry using literary texts. Several teachers have also written about

using novels as the source for their students’ found poetry. Nancy Lubarsky (2002) uses

found poetry as a culminating activity for a class novel study. In an effort to work with

poetry in a nonthreatening manner, Lubarsky has her students use the language of the

novel they are studying as the raw material for constructing poems about the book. She

maintains that her seventh grade students’ found poems provide a lens through which to

understand and interpret the novel they read. Diana Mitchell (1976), rather than approaching poetry as an isolated unit of study, weaves the art form into the very fabric of her class. Found poetry is one of many poetic writing assignments that she gives to her middle and high school students. They create found poems from the literature they read by locating powerful images within a text and arranging them in the form of a poem. This practice serves to alert her students to authors’ use of poetic language. Additionally, reading the found poems aloud in class reveals the number of “beautiful and powerful images” present in the novels (p. 79).

Don Phillips (1989) uses found poetry with his high school English students as a literary bridge between prose and verse. The seniors write biography found poems on the famous poets that they study. The juniors write found poems on characters from Lord of the Flies (Golding, 1954). The poetic form allows the students to compactly represent their impressions of the main characters from the novel. Phillips reports that the poems

“not only provided evidence of informed perceptions but also frequently were fine pieces of ‘original’ writing” (p. 70). In fact, this teacher feels that many of the poems were

“sharper in focus and showed more perception than the students’ equivalent attempts in prose” (p. 70). Linda Rief (2002) engages her middle school students in writing found poetry from significant lines and passages collected during their reading of novels. She finds that this practice of asking students to notice and gather personally meaningful text helps them to pay attention to noteworthy literary elements and their reaction to the novels. Rief observes: “Shaping those passages into poetry helps students step deeper into the writing as they pay attention to images, to language, to style” (p. 47). All four

teachers report positive outcomes as a result of having their students write found poetry using words gleaned from the literature they read.

A fifth teacher, Jayne Hobgood (1998), writes extensively about her students’

experiences with found poetry. She uses the poetic form to support the goal she sets for

her middle school Language Arts students to own “the reading they do, so they can take

from the literature a deeply felt meaning for their own lives” (p. 26). Hobgood explains

that found poetry exercises are “deceptively simple, but they have serious implications in

the area of reader response and teacher responsibility” because they invite readers to

“experience and experiment with personal meanings in the literature” (p. 28). The process

of rereading text in order to create a found poem refers readers “back to the text and to

their own lives in an effort to track their own processes of meaning-making” (p. 28-29).

When one lifts “prose material out of its original context” and arranges “the lines to

create poetic form, sound, and meaning,” one can evoke “new meanings” and expose

“powerful realities and ironies” (p. 33). In fact, when writers create found poems from

novels, “they crystallize a little meaning and feeling of their own from the author’s

original work” (p. 26). Hobgood claims that found poems, as well as activities that

generate the poems, provide her students with “a real ownership of the learning process”

by helping them to “make more of a text” and to “discover the power of effective

language” (p. 29). Hobgood’s work echoes this dissertation investigation of found poetry

and its potential impact on reader/text transactional relationships.

Teacher as found poet. It is not just students who write found poetry; teachers

may also participate in this artistic endeavor. Michelle Commeyras (Commeyras & Kelly,

2002), a teacher educator at The University of Georgia, shares a story about composing a

found poem from one of her student’s written assignments. In the course that she teaches on reading pedagogy, she asks her students to reflect in writing about the books they read for class assignments. Commeyras was so moved by the ideas and emotions expressed in one student’s written reflection that she was inspired to write a found poem. Combining the student’s words and phrases in such a way as to express her personal understanding of the writer’s original work, she strove to “communicate what is most telling and compelling in someone else’s recorded language” (Commeyras & Kelly, 2002, p. 101).

The student responded ecstatically to the found poem and was honored to have

Commeyras share the poem. This professor poet experienced the significant impact that artistically responding to a student’s work can make on both teacher and student.

Found poetry in graduate studies. Two examples of recent studies by teachers who use found poetry with their students are located in the graduate work of Lannin

(2007) and Friedman (2012). In both, found poetry is merely mentioned as one writing lesson among many. Found poetry is not mentioned in either study’s data analysis or interpretation of findings. The eighth and ninth grade students in Lannin’s (2007) doctoral research wrote found poems based on the novel Counterfeit Son (2000). These

poems are situated among many other genres of creative writing designed to support

meaningful connections to the text. Friedman’s (2012) master’s thesis explores poetry’s

impact on the identity and literacy development of fourth grade students. Specifically,

students created lines of found poetry using words found in magazines. In both of these

graduate studies, found poetry is simply one creative writing activity among many. In a

third example of found poetry in graduate research, Lewis (2012) devotes her master’s

thesis to developing a handbook for teachers in which found poetry is offered as a

strategy for bridging the gap between students and academic curriculum. The first chapter opens with a found poem that Lewis wrote using words from the study’s abstract.

Found poetry lesson plans. A variety of found poetry lesson plans and resources

are available to teachers of all grades. Ellen J. Foster (2012), an Assistant Professor of

Secondary Social Studies Education at the University of Mississippi, published a found

poetry lesson plan in The Geography Teacher , which adapts Dunning and Stafford’s

(1992) found poetry writing exercise to the context of geography. The lesson is intended

to support the fluency and vocabulary development of struggling readers through the

poetic process of using quotes from nonfiction geography articles to create found poems.

Two online literary resources for teachers provide a wide selection of found poetry

lessons. First, ReadWriteThink is a collaborative literacy website between The

International Reading Association and The National Council of Teachers of English. A

number of found poetry lesson plans are featured on this website (Filkins, n.d.; Gardner,

n.d.; Greenblatt, n.d; Schulze, n.d.a; Schulze, n.d.b; Webster, n.d.; Wilhelm, n.d.). The

website also offers two tools to aid in the found poetry writing process. “Word Mover”

(ReadWriteThink, n.d.) is an interactive tool that assists users in creating found poetry by

picking words from a word bank or a famous literary work. “Writing a Found Poem”

(ReadWriteThink, n.d.) is a printout designed to lead students through the steps of writing

their own found poem. The Learning Network of The New York Times is an online

resource that equips teachers with instructional ideas and materials using the content of

the newspaper. Ten lessons are specifically designed to teach students how to write found

poetry using the contents of news articles from the Times (Brown & Ojalvo, 2009;

Hambouz & Eisenhauer, 2006; Hambouz & Kahn, 2007; Hambouz & Kahn, 2008,

February; Hambouz & Kahn, 2008, March; Hambouz & Kahn, 2008, May; Hambouz &

Kahn, 2011; Kavanagh, 2008; Rittner & Eisenhauer, 2008; Rittner & Kahn, 2006).

Found poetry contests. The Learning Network also holds a student found poetry

contest every April (Schulten, 2010; 2011, April 1; 2012, March; 2013, March). Students

between the ages of 13 and 25 are challenged to submit a found poem, 14 lines or fewer,

written using words and phrases taken from one or several New York Times article(s).

Katherine Schulten (2012, March 30) provides a “nutshell” definition of the art form:

Found poems “are composed from words and phrases found in another text” (para. 4). In

their reflection over the first contest, which resulted in 250 submissions, judges Schulten

and Doyne (2010) state: “We were impressed. Though the creations are, by definition,

composed from Times sources that aren’t poems (and often aren’t poetic), our favorites

have the startling turns of phrase and never-seen-it-put-quite-like-that-before descriptions

that we expect of good poetry” (para. 3). The Second Annual Found Poem Student

Challenge garnered over 650 submissions, tripling the entries over the previous year

(Schulten, 2011, April 29). According to the poetry judges (Schulten, 2011, April 29):

We don’t know whether that’s a sign that readership of our blog is growing, that students are suddenly enraptured by poetry or that more teachers are making our challenges part of their assignments, but frankly, we don’t care — it’s all good news. (para. 3, emphasis in original)

The judges praised the “clever choices of words” that the found poets “swiped from” a variety of sources: “from news about foreclosures to obituaries about entomologists”

(Schulten & Doyne, 2011). One of the judges’ favorite found poems from the 2011 contest was created using two disparate articles. The first article was written by Dominus

(2011) about Suzanne Collins’ (2008) dystopian novel for young adults, The Hunger

Games . The second article was written by Beth Raymer (2011) about a chain of

extended-stay motels for people down on their luck. Imogen’s untitled found poem is

reprinted below (Schulten, 2011, June 7, para. 4):

Heartbreakingly innocent, beloved ones drowning in their dishwater-brown world. Oppressed children, a tortured crew, sweat and sacrifice. Mesmerizing dreams, glitzy, gleaming; Free them from the tragic brutality, memories like nightmares. Dark patch behind the 7-Eleven becomes a makeshift haven, cigarette butts alongside lime rinds sucked dry, fifty-eight cent doughnuts. Desensitized voyeurs, youthful monsters exploring violence; like Theseus in his maze, they battle cliques and crushes. Fantasy pitted against the realities of loss, survival, sacrifice. Echoes of suffering, that half-human monster in the night.

The Third Annual Found Poem Student Contest brought in 597 submissions

(Schulten, 2012, May 25). In a reflection over the 2012 contest, Schulten (2012, May 11)

addresses the found poets: “Three years in, your smart, thoughtful choices and the clever

things you do with them still delight us just as much, but now we’re no longer surprised

by what you’re capable of” (para. 6). In anticipation of the Fourth Annual Found Poem

Student Contest, which added a new invitation to non-English teachers who wish to focus

on nonfiction reading materials, Schulten (2013, March) reveals that the growing

popularity of the contest required an entire panel of judges to “read, agonize and argue

over the winners” (para. 4). Almost 1,000 poems were submitted to the 2013 challenge

(Schulten, 2013, May). Four-time judge Shannon Doyne observes that each year of the

contest: “I find that more and more of the found poems read like originals. Source

materials disappear and the unexpected emerges in images that, in the best work, might

even startle their creator” (Schulten, 2013, May, para. 6). In just four years, the Learning

Network’s Found Poem Student Challenge has grown from 250 to 971 submissions, an increase of 731 found poems.

Found Poetry in Research

Qualitative arts-based researchers are pushing the boundaries of scientific

research, especially in the field of social science. According to Cahnmann-Taylor (2008),

over the past few decades: “Assumptions about what counts as knowledge and the nature

of research [in education] have dramatically changed” (p. 3). This change has been

brought about in part by researchers troubling the dichotomy between art and science

through their use of arts-based qualitative research tools, such as poetry. The

unconventional use of poetry challenges the traditionally accepted role of prose in

academic writing as “the sole legitimate carrier of knowledge” (Richardson, 2002, p.

877). When researchers “experiment with form” in both their research practice and in

representations of that research, they resist limitations imposed by “the hegemony of

research discourse” (Finley, S., 2003, p. 294). The inclusion of the poetic arts in

qualitative research confronts conventionally accepted modes of inquiry.

Every phase of the social science research process – from data collection to data

analysis to data representation - can benefit from the researcher’s “own artistic

sensibilities” (Chappell & Cahnmann-Taylor, 2013, p. 257). Poetry is an example of an

artistic tool that may be utilized throughout the process of qualitative inquiry (Cahnmann-

Taylor & Siegesmund, 2008; Furman, 2005). One of the earliest examples of research

poetry is located in the work of anthropologist Toni Flores (1982), who used poetry as

part of her reflexivity process (Butler-Kisber, 2010). Sociologist Laurel Richardson

(1992, 1993, 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000a, 2000b, 2000c, 2002, 2005) is one of the original and most prolific of the original arts-based practitioners. Her ground-breaking work helped introduce poetry into the field of qualitative research (Butler-Kisber, 2010).

Other early practitioners include Elliot Eisner (1981, 1997a, 1997b) and Norman Denzin

(1996, 1997, 2003). Other scholars to join the ranks of these post-modern researchers are:

Austin (1996); Butler-Kisber (2009); Cahnmann-Taylor (2003, 2009); Carr (2003);

Faulkner (2005, 2007); Furman (2004a, 2004b, 2006a, 2006b); Glesne (1997); Poindexter

(2002a, 2002b); Prendergast (2003, 2004a, 2007, 2009a); and Smith (1999).

Definition of research poetry. In general terms, research poetry is written from and about research subjects and data. Utilizing a poetic form of expression can help teacher researchers to examine and make meaning of the research experience (Burchell,

2010). Research poetry provides academic poets with an alternative means for both analyzing and representing qualitative data (Burdick, 2011; Furman, 2006; Furman,

Langer, & Taylor, 2010). Furman, Langer, Davis, Gallardo, and Kulkarni (2007) differentiate between literary poems and research poems: While the research poet may borrow from the poetic methods of literary poets, the academic poet’s express purpose is to represent data in ways that stay true to the essence of the experience being represented.

Research poetry offers arts-based scholars a unique form for representing participants’ lived experiences, as evidenced in the academic work of such poetic pioneers as Carr

(2003), Furman (2005), Poindexter (1997), and Richardson (1994-1995). In terms of analysis, integrating poetry into academic writing provides an artistic window through which researchers may view qualitative data (Lyons, 2008). Examining findings through the dual lenses of art and science allows the researcher to see and know more deeply,

which can lead to alternative ways of understanding (Carroll, Dew, & Howden-Chapman,

2011; Richardson, 2000b, 2002c; Sullivan, 2005). Research poetry is a valuable tool for representing and analyzing data.

Academic poets utilize a variety of poetic forms in their scholarly writing, one of which is the form of found poetry. Research found poetry, which is crafted directly from qualitative data, short circuits traditional distinctions between academic and poetic language (Jones, 1990). In research poetry, science and art “feed off each other”

(Kusserow, 2008, p. 75). In fact, Washington asserts that using poetry in qualitative research “is as much an art as it is research” (p. 326). According to Macklin Finley

(2003), found poetry is used by qualitative researchers throughout the research process: the literature review (Prendergast, 2006); anthropological and sociological field work

(Flores, 1982; Kusserow, 2008; McConochie, 1986; Prattis 1985; Richardson, 1998); and data analysis and representation (Bhattacharya, 2008; Commeyras & Montsi, 2000;

Meyer, 2008). Recently, a number of arts-based researchers have turned to the form of found poetry as an inquiry tool. In addition to those mentioned above, these research found poets include: Burdick (2011); Butler-Kisber (2002); Fecho, Commeyras, Bauer, and Font (2000); Finley (2000); Fox (1996); Langer and Furman (2004a, 2004b); Norum

(2000); Poindexter (2006); Prendergast (2004b); Pryer (2005, 2007); Souter (2005);

Sullivan (2000a); and Walsh (2006). Recently, a number of graduate researchers have written found poems crafted from their dissertation data sources: Atkins (2011); Boyle

(2011); Klehr (2009); Little (2011); Schendel (2009); Slotnick (2010); Stewart (2003); and Swain (2011). Wendell McIntyre (2012) crafted found data poems as part of her

master’s thesis. Found poetry is used by a growing number of qualitative scholars throughout the inquiry process.

Poetic representation of data. The research poem may be used as a means of investigating (Wells, 2003) and representing (Furman, Lietz, & Langer, 2006) the lived experiences of study participants. In order to poetically represent data, the words for a research poem are taken directly from participant interviews. Representing the data of study participants in this manner draws upon “the literary tradition of found poetry”

(Prendergast, 2009b, p. 541). Laurel Richardson (1992) is credited with introducing found poetry into qualitative social science research (Butler-Kisber, 2005, 2010). Monica

Prendergast (2004b) differentiates between original research poetry, which is “researcher-

voiced” and found poetry, which is “participant-voiced” (p. 74). The fundamental goal of

research poetry is to illuminate the truth of participant experience (Furman, Enterline,

Thompson, & Shukraft, 2012). As Strate and Winslow (2010) remind us: “We would do

well to remember that being human is bound up inextricably with language, as it enables

us to transcend time and space; and that poetry, as the highest form of language, is the

medium that makes us the most human of all” (p. 437). When utilized as a method of

arts-based research, found poetry provides an expressive form with which to represent

participant experience (Meyer, 2008). The writing process moves the researcher from the

“linear thinking” expressed in data transcripts, to “a more embodied form of text”

expressed in poetry (Butler-Kisber, 2005). Some recent examples of scholars who utilize

the art of poetic representation are: Bassett (2012); Carroll et al. (2011); Emmett, Dobbs,

Williams, and Daaleman (2011); and Sjollema, Hordyk, Walsh, Hanley, and Ives, (2012).

“Words abstract meaning from experience” (Hermsen, 2009, p. xx), and research found

poets use the very words of the participants themselves to communicate the meaning of their lived experience through the poetic form (Butler-Kisber, 2002).

Research is awash with data, and for qualitative researchers, the greater part of this data takes the form of words. It can be challenging to wade through this sea of words.

Poetry may offer a solution to this challenge, since words are the poet’s medium (Boyd,

1973). One of the poet’s gifts is the ability to “tune into words that resonate with experience” (Soter, 2011a, lecture). Research poets search for these charged words in the data of human experience and use them to artistically construct meaning out of qualitative data (Leggo, 2005). Lesley Saunders (2003) helps illuminate the mechanism by which research poetry works: The “meaning and significance are in the language rather than conveyed through it ,” as in literary poetry (p. 177, emphasis added). As

Laurel Richardson (2000c) explains: “The ‘worded world’ never accurately, precisely, completely captures the studied world” (p. 923), but perhaps found poetry, using the very words of that studied world, might come close. Words offer research poets a powerful tool for investigating and characterizing the lived experiences of study participants.

Implications of research poetry. Research poetry holds implications for work with qualitative data. Qualitative researchers must find ways of compressing vast amounts of data. Poetry can aid in this data reduction process (Szto, Furman, & Langer,

2005). Compression is “the art of conveying much with few words,” and it is “one of poetry’s signatures…every word counts and must be both precise and emotionally alive”

(Cohen, 2009, p. 9). Just as the poet must decide on what words are essential to the poem, so too the researcher must decide on what is essential in the data; the research poem bridges both endeavors through the tool of compression (Furman, 2006a; Langer &

Furman, 2004a). Monica Prendergast (2006) describes the process of sifting through data as “intuitively sorting out words, phrases, sentences, and passages that synthesize meaning from the prose in light of a particular research question” (p. 370). Research poets follow a similar sifting process when creating a found data poem: “In a poem, hours may be compressed into a line, monumental life experiences compressed onto a page”

(Sullivan, 2005, p. 28). The element of compression inherent in the research poem can act as a powerful instrument of data refinement.

Another implication of research poetry is located in its capacity to impact the readability and accessibility of research reports. The way in which data is represented can powerfully influence readers’ reception of that data: “Form matters. How we represent data on the page matters” (Norum, 2000, p. 249). The choice to include aesthetic and artistic forms of representation creates spaces and places within the research writing

(Lawrence-Lightfoot & Davis, 1997; Norum, 2000) for a wider audience (Cahnmann,

2003; Cahnmann-Taylor, 2008; Hill, 2005; Prendergast, 2004b). Laurel Richardson

(1994) maintains that qualitative research is meant to be read; therefore, she charges scholars with the creation of vital texts. The research poem is one form of aesthetic representation that may help to enliven scholarly texts (Furman, 2006b). This vitalization is achieved through the poetic elements of compression and expression. Arranging emotive passages into poetic form can create a representative text that is both compact and evocative (Furman, Collins, Langer, & Bruce, 2006).

First, poetry’s capacity for communicating with just a few words makes it more consumable for the reader than lengthier prose forms of data representation (Furman,

2006a; Furman et al., 2006; Furman et al., 2010). The compressed nature of research

poetry is beneficial for communicating study findings in virtually all fields of qualitative study (Sullivan, 2005). Found data poems highlight the essence of the story the data tells

(Wiggins, 2011). Lahman et al. (2011) theorize about the mechanism by which

compression influences response to data: “Perhaps research poets listen for a poem to tell a story – this whittling away of words to the heart of the matter delivers a powerful message that may equally intrigue and incite” (p. 894, emphasis in original). Found poets work to unearth the essential story in the data buried beneath the weight of words.

Second, poetry’s capacity for expression has the power to bring that story to life.

Lascelles Abercrombie (1926), a poet, professor of English literature, and poetry theorist, elucidates: Poetry “does not merely tell what a man has experienced, but it makes his very experience itself live again in our minds by means of the incantation of its language”

(Stenberg, 1929, p. 111). The concise nature of the research poem is particularly well- suited to highlighting the emotional intensity of participants’ lived experiences (Langer &

Furman, 2004). When research found poets use participants’ actual words to express an experience, they penetrate “the essence of human experience” (Furman et al., 2006, p. 2) and induce those patterns of experience to “transcend the narrative text they originated in” (Norum, 2000, p. 247) thereby illustrating the “heart of an experience” (Luce-Kapler,

2009, p. 78). Essentially, the research poet frees and gives life to evocative and emotive representations of participant experience. Poetry’s capacity to express emotion is clearly evident in Hartnett’s (2003) prison poems, which merge the “evidence-gathering force of scholarship with the emotion-producing force of poetry” (p. 1). Through the poetic elements of compression and expression, research poetry furnishes a provocative solution to Richardson’s (1994) decree for vital research texts.

Research poetry’s potential for delivering powerful messages to its recipients is evident in the work of three arts-based research poets who have personally experienced this phenomenon. Cynthia Poindexter (2002a) finds that when she shares poetry crafted from interview data with attendees of conferences and workshops, the “listeners and readers tend to be moved by their simplicity and power” (p. 70). When Michelle

Commeyras shares her data poems with teachers, she finds that the poems “spark a more profound response” than when she presents data analyses in more conventional formats

(Commeyras & Montsi, 2000). Carol Isaac (2011) is a biomedical qualitative researcher who poetically represents her data analysis of medical students’ performance evaluations.

The creation of poetry fills this arts-based researcher’s “need to capture and present this experience in a succinct, powerful, and emotionally poignant way” (p. 447). Isaac’s moving research poem “illustrates the author’s emotion to the audience after grappling

with disturbing results from the data analysis” (p. 447, emphasis added). In the service of

making their work “more accessible, empathetic, evocative, and ethical,” qualitative

researchers may wish to draw upon arts-based practices (Butler-Kisber et al., 2002-2003).

As such, poetically representing research data creates alternative pathways for

aesthetically communicating findings.

Caution to research poets. Although research poets may embrace poetry’s promise for both reaching and appealing to a wider audience of readers, blending art with science is not without risk. Peter Willis (2002) found that the poetic components of his research text received a more critical reaction than did the prose portions: “It was apparent that one took the poetic path at one’s peril” (p. 11). Adrie Kusserow (2008) kept her research poetry hidden from her anthropology professors and colleagues in her

unwillingness to “cross any lines or blur any boundaries” (p. 74). A number of artistic researchers speculate as to why poetic representation may result in criticism. Lahman et al. (2011) caution that those readers of research who are unfamiliar with poetry, or who may have had negative experiences with poetry, might find research poetry inaccessible or alienating. Readers approach research texts with set expectations, and if these expectations are disrupted by nontraditional formats, the experience may negatively impact readers’ engagement with such texts (Nicol, 2008). For example, Stephen Harnett

(2003) believes that readers find his investigative poems difficult to comprehend because

“they so actively refuse to fit into traditional genres of textual production” (p. 2). Anne

Sullivan (2000b) contends that members of the academic community reject aesthetic forms of knowledge representation because they have not yet learned how to read these artistic forms. She suggests that members must become literate in these forms if they are to be accepted in the academy as legitimate representations of knowledge.

The inclusion of research poetry in scholarly writing is contested (Kusserow,

2008; Poindexter, 2002a; Slattery, 2003); therefore, researchers who choose to use alternative forms of data representation need to explicate how these forms contribute to their research goals (Cahnmann-Taylor, 2008; Faulkner, 2007; Percer, 2002). It is recommended that research poets make their intentions clear around the use of the poetic form and its role in their academic endeavors: If one makes an “excursion to the edges of what is legitimized in the academy,” then one must substantiate that journey (Eisener,

1997b, p. 6). Despite the risks posed to arts-based researchers, Cahnmann-Taylor and

Siegesmund (2008) argue that art should play an integral role in research methodology.

Indeed, Cahnmann-Taylor (2008) challenges qualitative researchers to experiment with

forms of arts-based inquiry for the sake of scholarship, since more researchers actually write about criteria for such research than actually produce the artistic forms themselves.

Participant as Poet: The Expressive Theory of Poetry Writing

The first component of the research question positions participants as novice

poets. Therefore, a theoretical frame must be advanced for poetry writing. Yet, the field

of poetry theory tends to focus on theories of reading poetry. Theories that address poetry

writing are far less common, and those that are available to researchers are inclined to

focus on composition and rhetoric, areas that are unrelated to the topic of this dissertation

research. As Terry Hermsen (2009), a poet and poetry educator, avows: We may speak of

theories, “but in the end, the poem still emerges from one writer sitting down with a

blank sheet of paper and seeing ‘what can be done with words’” (p. 76). The work of

Darrell Fike (2000), an English professor at Valdosta State University and published

poet, offers insight into theories of poetry writing. He argues that traditional theories of

poetry build upon four basic assumptions: “The poem is made from language; the poem

has a subject; the poem has a writer; the poem has a reader” (p. 81). Fike proposes four

major theories of poetry, each built upon one of the above conditions, which are generally

present when a poem is written or read. The Objective Theory focuses on the language of

a poem; the Mimetic Theory focuses on the subject of a poem; the Expressive Theory

focuses on the writer of a poem; and the Pragmatic Theory focuses on the reader of a

poem. The Expressive Theory of Poetry Writing, which is most applicable to this

research study, “proclaims that a poem is a piece of the poet’s very soul” and primarily

focuses “on the poet’s feelings and identity” (p. 86). This theory is reflected in the

remarks of one of the students from the first pilot study: “I felt like it [the found poem]

was a piece of me and part of my soul even though it wasn’t my words.” Anna Soter

(2011a) concurs with Fike: “We write for many purposes, one of which is expressive”

(lecture). Rich Furman (2005), in writing about his autoethnographic research poetry, mirrors Fike’s sentiments: “In a very real sense, poetry lies in the domain of the heart: writing poetry is the research of soul” (p. 35). With regard to the four poetry theories described above, Fike cautions: “None of these traditional theories recognizes the powerful role the reader plays in bringing any piece of writing to life” (p. 90). Fike relies on Iser (1978) for a theory that recognizes the role of the reader and highlights “the dynamic interaction of reader and text” (p. 91). This researcher relies on Rosenblatt

(1978/1994, 1995) for a theory that recognizes the role of the reader and highlights the dynamic transaction of reader and text.

Participant as Reader: The Transactional Theory of the Literary Work

The core of literary theory is comprised of how readers make sense of, and

respond to, the texts they read (Bressler, 2007). In offering a theory to frame the

positioning of the research participants as readers, it is critical to note that there is no

universal literary metatheory (Bressler, 2007; Nikolajeva, 2005). No single overarching

theory can possibly encompass all conceivable interpretations of readers’ transactions

with texts. Each theory and method has its own advantages and disadvantages

(Nikolajeva, 2005). Selecting a literary theory depends on the researcher’s goals (Soter,

1999). The goal of this dissertation is to examine transactional encounters between

readers and texts; therefore, Louise Rosenblatt’s (1978/1994, 1995) Transactional Theory

of the Literary Work provides an ideal framework for this research. Culler (1983)

maintains that there are “many stories of reading;” the Transactional Theory is explored here as one promising story (p. 69).

Louise Rosenblatt is widely considered to be one of the most significant and influential theorists of the reader response movement (Beach, 1993; Cai & Traw, 1997;

Church, 1997; Connell, 2005; Dressman & Webster, 2001; Farrell, 1990; Karolides, 1999;

Sloan, 2002; Tompkins, 1980). Kridel (2000) calls the theorist one of “our true ‘living legends’ of American education” (p. 42). Rosenblatt’s influence even extends beyond

America; her theory holds international importance (Evans, 1991). Lawrence Sipe (1997) views Rosenblatt as a pioneer in stressing the prominence of the reader in the reading process: “For the educational community, the most influential reader response theorist is

Louise Rosenblatt” (p. 9). As such, she was one of the first scholars to acknowledge the critical role played by the reader in a reading event (Kiefer, 1994). According to Soter,

Faust, and Rogers (2008): Rosenblatt “created a legitimate space for the reader and the reader’s essential role in any transaction with the literary text” (p. 8). Rosenblatt (1993b) herself admits that she took an unorthodox stance with regard to established literary theories. In response to being credited as the first to formulate a reader response theory,

Rosenblatt (1985b) concedes: “It is true that, to counter the traditionalists’ and the New

Critics’ neglect of the reader, I insisted on the reader’s role” (p. 103). This insistence on the importance of the reader disrupted the hegemony of New Criticism theorists whose text-oriented epistemology dominated the times (Claggett, 2005; Rosenblatt, 1981b).

According to Flynn (2007), Rosenblatt’s theoretical work was “forward-thinking, even prophetic…She attempted to break through the provinciality and disciplinarity of literary studies by demonstrating what reading might mean if it were recognized as a social

process, as a transaction between and among human beings” (p. 68). Although Louise

Rosenblatt has had a more significant influence on the ways in which teachers approach literature in the classroom than most other literary critics, “the world of literary criticism and theory has only recently begun to acknowledge the relevance of her arguments”

(Booth, 1995, p. vii).

While Rosenblatt is often identified with Reader Response Theory, in 1969 she renamed her theory to: The Transactional Theory of the Literary Work (Rosenblatt,

2004). Her motivation for this terminological shift is located in an effort to reject reader response critics who, “no matter what their assertions, still in practice accorded dominance to either reader or text” (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, p. 180). Although Rosenblatt was known at the time as a reader response theorist, the move to rename her theory was actually in reaction to other reader response theorists who overemphasized the reader’s role in the reading process, to the neglect of the text’s role (Rosenblatt, 1981b). She also disagreed with the reader response movement’s oversimplified view of personal response as the end product to the reading process (Rosenblatt, 2003). Rosenblatt’s (1986b, 1990,

1993a, 2004) new name was a deliberate move to emphasize the importance of the reciprocal relationship between a reader and a text. In an interview with the transactional theorist, Marinaccio (1999) asks the following question: “You have described your main theory of reading as ‘transactional.’ In the field, people frequently refer to it as ‘reader response.’ Why do you prefer the use of the term ‘transactional/transaction’?” (p. 4).

Rosenblatt replies: “Reading is ‘transaction,’ during which each [reader and text] is continuously affecting the other…I call my theory the transactional theory because I wanted to emphasis [sic] this dynamic relationship” (p. 5). According to the

Transactional Theory, the reader is not a static entity, nor is the text an autonomous repository of fully-formed meaning; rather, reader and text co-exist in a mutual and reciprocal relationship (Marinaccio, 1999; Rosenblatt, 1986b). Rosenblatt’s new name for her theory highlights the importance of the reader/text transactional experience.

Rosenblatt is truly “one of our most versatile and eminent scholars” (Clifford, 1991, p. 21). Her extensive work has inspired a great number of literary scholars (Colapietro,

1998). Although Rosenblatt passed away in 2005, Malich and Kehus (2012) point out that the Transactional Theory continues to maintain an important place in academic studies that seek to bring new interpretations to the theory. Two examples of recent contributors to the transactional field include Cai’s (2008) research into the Transactional Theory and the study of multicultural literature, as well as McEneaney, Li, Allen, and Guzniczak’s

(2009) research into stance, navigation, and reader response in expository hypertext.

Upon Rosenblatt’s passing in 2005, the editors of the journal Voices from the Middle

dedicated the March issue as a tribute to Rosenblatt in order to “honor a scholar who

single-handedly changed our understanding of the reading process” (Beers, 2005). Even

though this esteemed theorist is gone, her life’s work is expected to continue to have a

strong influence on teachers and students (Roen & Karolides, 2005; Van Horn, 2005).

Transactional Reading Process

A reading experience consists of a particular event involving a particular reader

and a particular text at a particular time under particular circumstances (Rosenblatt, 1983,

1990). The particular circumstances surrounding this event include the shaping power of

the reader’s culture, society, and environment (Rosenblatt, 1993b). Each of these

situational factors affects the transaction (Rosenblatt, 1986a). Rosenblatt argued over the

course of her entire career that reading is a transaction involving readers and texts

(O’Flahavan & Wallis, 2005). The term “transaction” highlights the particular, reciprocal relationship between a reader and a text (Church, 1997). Rosenblatt (1986a, 1988, 1993a) borrowed this apt term from Dewey and Bentley (1949), who originated the term describing the reciprocal relationship between humans and the natural world. At its most basic level, Rosenblatt’s (1988) theory states that “human activity is always in transaction, in a reciprocal relationship, with an environment, a context, a total situation”

(p. 12). A literary transaction takes place in the connection between readers and texts, and

this transaction is viewed “as the heart of reading” (Lehman, 2007, p. 26). While both

reader and text are important components in the Transactional Theory, it is what happens

when they come together that constitutes the theoretical core. It is the relationship that

develops between a reader and a text that is of primary importance. This transactional

relationship requires the reader to be conscious of the text’s contributions to the reading

experience: “The concept of transaction emphasizes the relationship with, and continuing awareness of , the text” (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, p. 29, emphasis in original). During a

reading transaction, “an interdependent relationship in time” is built between a reader and

a text (Rosenblatt, 1998, p. 888). Rosenblatt’s (1988, 1998) concept of this mutually

dependent relationship is multifaceted; she views it as a complex, continuous, and

dynamic relationship comprised of a back-and-forth, to-and-fro, give-and-take, non-linear,

spiraling, and self-correcting process, one that is characterized by an ongoing reciprocity

whereby reader and text each condition, and is conditioned by, the other. Throughout her

career, Rosenblatt championed the notion of the transactional experience shaped by the

reader and guided by the text (Clifford, 1991).

Reader and text. Rosenblatt considers both the reader and the text to be equal and essential partners in literary transactions (1978/1994, 1985b, 2003). Both elements— the reader operating from her world, and the text operating from its world—are mutually essential; they must come together within a transactional relationship to produce an evocation (Rosenblatt, 1983). The Transactional Theory “seeks to do justice to the contributions of both reader and text” (Rosenblatt, 1981b, p. 18); readers are “active performers with the text” (Karolides, 1997, p. 8, emphasis in original). Rosenblatt (1960) cautions against neglecting either of these two factors in the reading equation: “Literature equals book plus reader” (p. 306). The “essentiality” of both elements confronts the dualistic thinking that assumes one is more important than the other (Rosenblatt, 1998, p.

889). The theorist compares this binary trap to the element of water: “To ask whether the text is more important than the reader in the reading event is like asking whether hydrogen or oxygen is more important in constituting water” (Rosenblatt, 1998, p. 902).

Both components of the transaction bring different elements to the reading event. The reader brings her accumulated memory of past experiences in life, literature, and language to the reading event (Rosenblatt, 1983). The text brings the story world configured in a “set of signs capable of being interpreted as verbal symbols” (Rosenblatt,

2004, p. 1369). Consequently, built into the raw material of the reading event itself, is the particular world of the reader interacting with the particular world of the text (Rosenblatt,

1978/1994). One becomes a reader by virtue of one’s relationship with a text, and a set of marks on a page becomes the text of a poem by virtue of its relationship with a reader

(Rosenblatt, 1970, 1978/1994). “[B]ooks do not just simply happen to people. People also

happen to books” (Rosenblatt, 1956, p. 66). As fundamental elements of any reading event, both reader and text make equally important contributions to the evocation.

While Rosenblatt acknowledges the importance of the reader and of the text, her theory underscores the reader’s contribution to a reading event. Rosenblatt (1978/1994) invokes a metaphor of light to articulate the shifting emphasis on the various elements within the reading event. She claims that throughout the history of literary theory either the book or the author has been spotlighted, but the reader “tended to remain in shadow, taken for granted, to all intents and purposes invisible” (p. 1). Although Rosenblatt acknowledges that over the years the spotlight has sometimes been directed at the reader, she stresses that this illumination has never lasted for long. When the reader is glimpsed, it is usually as a “passive recipient of the impact of the work” (Rosenblatt, 1970, p. 7).

Rosenblatt (1978/1994) seeks to cast her theoretical spotlight over the whole scene of the reading event, with special focus on the previously invisible reader. The transactional theorist wishes to give the reader “due honor and support,” thereby counteracting the historical neglect of the reader in the reading process (Rosenblatt, 1970, p. 26). However, she cautions that even though her theory highlights the role of the reader, this act in no way discounts or minimizes the importance of the text, especially as it relates to the validity of a reader’s interpretation of the evoked work (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994).

Rosenblatt (1995) insists that she never rejects the responsibility of the text to the transactional relationship.

Evocation. The evocation may be characterized as “an object of thought”

(Rosenblatt, 2004, p. 1371). This object is produced when a reader and a text engage in

an aesthetic transaction (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, 1985b). The evocation resides in a

reader’s unique and creative experience while living through a transaction with a text

(Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, 1995). Lehman (2007) articulates Rosenblatt’s theory of literature “as the lived-through experience between reader and text” (p. 14, emphasis in

original). Rosenblatt (1985b, 1986b) employs a variety of terms to describe what is

produced during this transactional experience: “evocation;” “a literary work of art;” and

“the poem.” The creative act of evocation is only possible when readers and texts come

together in a transactional event; readers and texts are plentiful, but poems are rare

(Benton, 1992). The concept of evocation as a personal and particular event in time

situated in the life history of a reader is fundamental to the Transactional Theory and

“should be central to a systematic theory of literature” (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, p. 16).

The evocation process itself is not straightforward; even a reader’s evocation of

the most simple work will be “tremendously subtle and complex, with its blending and

balancing of overtones, attitudes, feelings, and ideas” (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, p. 134). A

detailed description of this complex, interactive, and reciprocal process is provided below

(Rosenblatt, 1964, 1980, 1985a). The evocation, situated in the live circuit established

between a reader and a text (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, 1982), comes into being through the

interplay between the transactional partners (Rosenblatt in Karolides, 1999). During this

interplay, a reader attends to and draws on the images, emotions, and ideas activated and

stirred up by the words of the text (Rosenblatt, 1985b, 1990, 1995, 2004). The reader then

filters these textual cues through the lens of her accumulated reservoir of experiences in

life and in literature (Langer, 1995; Rosenblatt, 1986b; Zarillo & Cox, 1992). Finally, an

evocation is created out of the raw material that is stirred up and filtered during the

transactional reading event (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, 1982).

The evocation process necessitates action. According to Rosenblatt, the literary work of art “comes into being” (1985b, p. 38) as “an event in the life of each reader”

(1995, p. 268). When a reader actively participates in a lived-through experience with a text, she creates a literary work (Cox, 1992; Lehman, 2007; Many & Wiseman, 1992;

Rosenblatt, 1978/1994). Consciously paying attention to a lived experience with a text allows the entire range of responses made possible by the text to enter into the reader’s awareness, and it is “out of these materials he selects and weaves what he sees as the literary work of art” (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, p. 28). Rosenblatt (1966) portrays this literary work of art as “a special kind of experience;” indeed, it is “an extension, an amplification, of life itself” (p. 999-1000). This experience of a literary work can have a

“liberating and fortifying effect in the ongoing life of the reader” (Rosenblatt, 1995, p.

277). Each literary experience becomes a part of the reader’s ongoing stream of life experience, which is then brought forward to future encounters with literature

(Rosenblatt, 1956, 1969a, 1978/1994).

Response. A critical component of the transactional reading process is the notion of response. Rosenblatt (1985a) clarifies that the term “response” is often used rather loosely to cover two distinct and interrelated processes: the evocation process itself and the reader’s response to that evocation. During a transaction, the reader experiences a concurrent stream of reactions to the emerging evocation (Rosenblatt, 1982). “Even as we are generating the work of art, we are reacting to it” (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, p. 48). Two differing streams of response are involved in any aesthetic reading event. The first stream is the actual process of evocation. In this aspect of response, a reader is in dialogue with a text as she creates and enters into the world of the text (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994). The work of art

that emerges from the transaction consists of the reader’s “structured responses” to the

“uttered sounds or inked marks on a page” (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, p. 14). The second stream of response consists of the accompanying reactions generated in response to the lived-through current of emotions, thoughts, and images that are brought forth during the evocation (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, 1982, 1985b). The reader responds to the lived-through work as it is being experienced and evoked (Rosenblatt, 1982, 1985b). Mingshui Cai

(2008) elucidates the complexity of response: “The reader evocates a story world from the text, enjoying the ongoing creative process of evocation, and at the same time, she is responding to what she is evocating” (p. 215). This envisionment of response is complex because it involves two distinct processes that occur simultaneously.

In the field of education, the transactional approach to reading literature is subjected

to pervasive misunderstanding (Anzul, 1993). This confusion centers on the concept of

response: Soter, Wilkinson, Connors, Murphy, and Fu-Yuan Shen (2010) address the

“enduring debate regarding the nature and qualities of response” (p. 209). A common

mistake is often made with regard to reader response. The error concerns the explanation

of what exactly it is that a reader responds to. The object of a reader’s response is the

evocation, not the text (Rosenblatt, 1985b, 1986b, 2004). Two of the terms that Rosenblatt

often uses to refer to an evocation, “the poem” and “the work,” compound the confusion

because both terms may be mistaken for the text, as opposed to the evocation. Rosenblatt

(1985b) argues that reader response theorists are not always clear as to “what the reader

is ‘responding’ to,” and she asks this critical question: “To what , in fact, do we respond?”

(p. 39, emphasis in original). The theorist answers her own question: “We respond, then,

to what we are calling forth in the transaction with the text” (Rosenblatt, 1982, p. 269). A

pervasive misuse of the term has resulted in lasting confusion over this particular step in the reading process. Indeed, this persistent misunderstanding of the notion of response is primarily responsible for Rosenblatt’s (1969b, 1986b, 2003, 2004) decision to rename her theory. For the purpose of this dissertation, all future use of the term “response” will be used exclusively to refer to a reader’s response to an evocation and not to a text.

Reflection. After a reader has produced an evocation, she may wish to reflect on

the literary work of art she has just evoked. As with response, the reader does not reflect

on the text; rather, the evocation becomes the object of reflection (Rosenblatt, 1990).

During reflection, the reader attempts to recapture the general effect of the reading

experience, seeking to recall what in the evocation itself led to the pattern of response

(Rosenblatt, 2004). Readers may ask themselves questions about the work as

experienced, such as: “What kind of ‘event’ have I lived through in transaction with the

text? What manner of world have I conjured up?” (Rosenblatt, 1981a, p. 20). Rosenblatt

(1978/1994) explains that when a reader engages in the process of reflection upon a

literary experience, she re-experiences and re-enacts the work-as-evoked. Reflection

allows the reader to return to the reading experience in order to relive and deepen it

(Rosenblatt, 1982). This reflective act is a key element in the transactional process for

numerous reasons. First, reflection provides the reader with an opportunity to savor and

elaborate on the transactional experience (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, 1985b, 1986b). Second,

reflection can also help to illuminate and clarify the reading event (Rosenblatt, 1986b).

Additionally, reflection can lead to growth in reading ability and self-criticism (Rosenblatt

in Karolides, 1999). Classroom practices often ask readers to move directly from the

evoked work to the process of interpretation. However, Rosenblatt (1978/1994) maintains

that the reader must recreate the reading experience before engaging in the interpretive process. Readers can be helped to reflect on an evoked work by guiding their attention back to the reading experience in order to relive and recapture it for reflection (Holland &

Lehr, 1976; Rosenblatt, 1982, 1985b, 1995; Stratta & Wilkinson, 1973). Reflection is a critical step in the transactional reading process, one that must occur before readers begin to engage in interpretive activities.

Interpretation. Interpretation is the final step in the reading process whereby the reader becomes a critic in order to establish the validity of an evocation (Rosenblatt,

1978/1994). This step primarily involves an effort on the part of the reader to describe, organize, and analyze the nature of the evocation (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, 1985b, 1986b).

As with reflection, it is the evocation, and not the text, that is the subject of interpretation

(Rosenblatt, 1986b). Rosenblatt (1986) clarifies: Evocation “becomes the object of our response and the subject of our interpretation ” (p. 70, emphasis in original). Therefore, the reader must first have a direct, lived-through experience with the text before attempting to interpret the reading event (Rosenblatt, 1969a). During the interpretive process, the reader must scrutinize the two-way live circuit established with the text. She interprets the structure of feelings, ideas, and images called forth while in transaction with the text (Rosenblatt, 1986b). In doing so, the reader reflects self-critically on the process of evocation and tests whether her personal work of art is justified based on what the signs of the text contributed to the reading event (Rosenblatt, 1956, 1995).

Due to the “prismatic and nonlinear” nature of interpretive practices, the process of interpretation can be particularly challenging (Mackey, 2003, p. 593). Although an evocation cannot be externalized, the reader must find a way to make it “visible and

accessible to analysis” (Andrasick, 1990, p. 77). In order to clarify the significance of a work of art, the reader may apply a frame of reference or a method of abstraction in order to characterize and report on the evocation (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, 2004). Jonathan

Culler (1997) states: “to interpret a work is to tell a story of reading” (p. 86). The process of interpretation creates a unique story of each reading event in the life of a reader. The aim of literature education is to help readers to refine their ability to enter into, reflect on, and interpret aesthetic reading experiences (Rosenblatt, 1985a).

Summary. The following is a brief summary of the reading process before

turning to an examination of Rosenblatt’s key theoretical concepts. A reading event may

be compared to a journey (Rosenblatt, 2005). At the beginning of the journey, the reader

lives through a transactional experience with a text, creating as fully as possible a

personal evocation. During the reading event, the reader responds to the poem as it is

being evoked, as well as to the concurrent stream of response to that evocation. After the

literary work of art is produced, the reader reflects on the evocation, recalling and

reliving the transactional experience. In the final step of the journey, the reader interprets

the evocation, organizing and analyzing the literary work of art. Rosenblatt (1985b)

provides her own summary of the transactional process:

The poem…i.e., the literary work of art, comes into being, happens, during the aesthetic transaction. This lived-through current of ideas, sensations, images, tensions, becomes shaped into what the reader sees as the literary work or the evocation corresponding to the text. This is what the reader starts reacting or responding to during the reading event. Later, there will be recall of the experience, remembering of, and reflection on, the evocations and the reactions. (p. 103, emphasis in original)

Theoretical Concepts

A number of theoretical concepts set the Transactional Theory apart from other literary theories. The transactional paradigm, including its unique concept of stance along an efferent/aesthetic continuum, differentiates the theory from New Critical and Reader

Response theories (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994). The following section examines the concepts of textual activity, stance, selective attention, and literature as experience.

Textual activity. Because found poetry is created by a reader using the words of a text, it is incumbent upon this researcher to fully explicate how the Transactional

Theory treats textual activity within a reading event. The literary work of art “is a product of the reverberations between what is brought to the text and what it activates”

(Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, p. 174). This activation process is complex. The text does not stand on its own; it requires a reader “to activate the marks on the page” (Karolides,

1997, p. 18). Language is a system of symbols (Rosenblatt, 1949), and a text is a configuration of these symbols (Probst, 1990; Rosenblatt, 1986b; Smagorinsky, 2001).

However, the signs are not inscribed with any particular fixed meaning (Rosenblatt,

1978/1994, 2004). Rather, a text is merely a series of squiggles on paper offering readers a fluid potential of transactive and triadic symbolizations (Rosenblatt, 1986b, 1988,

2004). Language is a “socially-produced system of symbols” (Rosenblatt, 1960, p. 310) and, over time, these linguistic symbols become “internalized by an individual human being in transaction with a particular environment” (Rosenblatt, 1988, p. 3). Readers draw from this internalized set of “experiences with words in life situations” (Rosenblatt, 1988, p. 3), otherwise known as the “personal, linguistic-experiential reservoir,” to make meaning of texts (Rosenblatt, 1998, p. 891). Individual words are “aspects of sensed, felt,

lived-through experiences” (Rosenblatt, 1982, p. 271), and readers possess images, feelings, and ideas that are linked to each of these words (Rosenblatt, 1960, p. 310).

When a reader encounters particular words within a text, she draws upon her accumulated experiences with language, literature, and life in order to transact with those symbols

(Kiefer, 2001; Marinaccio, 1999; Rosenblatt, 1978/1994).

Rosenblatt considers the text to be an equal partner and co-participant with the reader in the reading process (1978/1994, 1985b). The text is an active element throughout the transactional relationship (Bernhardt, 1987), offering the possibility of

“intellectual, emotional, and aesthetic experience” (Probst, 1990, p. 30). The text plays an essential role in shaping the evocation and response (Soter et al., 2010). During the evocation process, the function of the text is to act as a guide, one that focuses the reader’s attention in order to activate elements of past experiences that are linked to the verbal symbols (Langer, 1995; Rosenblatt, 1978/1994; Smith, 1992). The evocation is actually “the product of creative activity carried on by the reader under the guidance of the text” (Rosenblatt, 1995, p. 266). Although the text offers guidance during a transaction, it is also open to the reader’s creative contributions; indeed, the text actually requires these creative contributions to bring about an evocation (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994,

1981a, 1985b, 1986b). The reader has a responsibility to the text to transform its symbols into a poem in a manner that corresponds to, and does justice to, the particular words of that text (Rosenblatt, 1986, 1995; Young, 1987). The text plays a critical role in the transactional reading process; it waits for a reader to interpret its signs and then, under its guidance, to evoke a literary work of art (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994).

Stance. A critical component of the transactional experience is the reader’s adoption of a predominant stance, an attitude which helps to guide the reader in what elements to attend to as they are stirred up during the process of evocation (Hade, 1992;

Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, 1982, 1986b; Zarillo & Cox, 1992). At the beginning of an encounter with a text, the reader must select an orientation, or stance, with which to approach the reading of the text, an act which directs how the pattern of words will activate the reader’s internal state (Rosenblatt, 1981b, 1983, 1985a). The reader’s choice of stance is influenced by multiple factors: the purpose for reading, past experiences in literature and life, and the text itself (Rosenblatt, 1982, 1986b, 1991). Rosenblatt (1986b) identifies two reading stances: efferent and aesthetic, and she argues that every reading event must fall somewhere on the continuum that stretches between the poles of these two stances. Any text can be read either efferently or aesthetically. Rosenblatt (1981a) supports this claim with the example of found poets, who find texts “evidently written for efferent reading and, by breaking them into segments, signal the reader to adopt an aesthetic stance, to pay attention to the sound, to the kinaesthetic and emotive reverberations of the words, and thus to make a poem” (p. 17). A reader’s stance is not static; rather, it is transactive. Therefore, readers may move back and forth along the continuum of stance while reading a particular text (Hade, 1992; Rosenblatt, 1991).

Rosenblatt emphasizes that the nature of efferent and aesthetic transactions are distinctive. These differences are of “paramount importance” (Rosenblatt, 1986b, p. 80) because “the reader’s stance inevitably affects what emerges from the reading”

(Rosenblatt, 1982, p. 269). Rosenblatt (1982) appropriated the term “efferent” from the

Latin word meaning “to carry away” (p. 269). When a reader adopts a predominantly

efferent stance toward a text, her attention is focused on accumulating what she will carry away or retain after the reading event is complete (Rosenblatt, 1982, 1986b, 1988). During efferent reading, the reader is focused on extracting public and cognitive textual meanings; she is primarily concerned with what remains “as the residue after the reading” (Rosenblatt,

1978/1994, p. 23, emphasis in original). Rosenblatt (1982) appropriated the term

“aesthetic,” from the Greek word meaning “to sense” or “to perceive” (p. 269). When a

reader adopts a predominantly aesthetic stance toward a text, she pays close attention to

what is thought and felt during the evocation process by drawing on her past reservoir of

experience in life and literature (Rosenblatt, 1982, 1988, 1991). During aesthetic reading,

the reader’s attention is focused inward, centered on what is being created during the

lived-through experience with the text (Holland & Lehr, 1976; Rosenblatt, 1978/1994,

1982, 1986b, 1991). The reader concentrates on private and affective textual experiences,

consciously registering the effect of the transactional experience as it is taking place

(Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, 1983, 1991). The public and private aspects of meaning are both

present in reader transactions with the world and with texts; it is the mix, or the

proportion of these aspects, that determines where on the continuum a reader’s stance

will fall (Rosenblatt, 1993b). Rosenblatt (1993a) argues that the literature teacher’s

failure to recognize the significance of stance is often at the root of literature’s plight.

Selective attention. Another integral element of the transactional reading experience is “selective attention,” a term used to explain the transactional view of reading as a “dynamic, fluid process in time” (Rosenblatt in Karolides, 1999, p. 164).

This process lies at the core of evocation and response; it is the method by which some elements of textual potentialities are brought to the center of the reader’s attention while

others are pushed to the fringes of consciousness or ignored altogether (Rosenblatt in

Karolides, 1999; Rosenblatt, 2004). Each text offers a multitude of transactional possibilities. However, it is simply not viable for a reader to attend to every potential textual cue at every possible moment; she must select out what to attend to. Selective attention involves a back and forth movement between the words of the text and “the experienced, felt, meanings being elicited, organized, and reorganized” under the stimulus of those actual words (Rosenblatt, 1985a, p. 38). Throughout this selective activity, the reader looks for cues to organize and structure the meaning of thoughts and emotions that are aroused in succession by the text (Rosenblatt, 1964). The reader accomplishes this task by drawing on the linguistic reservoir of past experiences in language and in life (Rosenblatt, 1985a). The predominant focus of the reader’s attention determines the distinctive experience of the reading transaction (Rosenblatt, 1981b).

The stance a reader adopts is a critical aspect of the selective attention process.

Stance offers a tentative framework with which to guide and shape the reader’s selective attention (Hade, 1992; Rosenblatt, 1981b, 1985b; Zarillo & Cox, 1992). Rosenblatt

(1978/1994) explains: “The stance guides the choice of what to pay attention to, what to select out and synthesize, from the elements stirred up in the stream of consciousness during the transaction with the text” (p. 184). When a reader adopts the aesthetic stance for a reading event, she will not be able to pay equal attention to the compound effect of all textual stimuli: “Some will color the whole experience, some will have a sharp impact, others will be glossed over or remain on the outer fringes of consciousness” (Rosenblatt,

1978/1994, p. 167). Rosenblatt (1978/1994, 1982, 1986a) encourages readers to adopt the aesthetic stance when reading literature. The theorist states two primary reasons for this

position. First, the emergence of a literary work of art is dependent upon the reader adopting an aesthetic stance (Rosenblatt, 1982, 1986b, 2005). Aesthetic reading makes possible the fullest creative potentiality of a literary text (Rosenblatt, 1981a). In fact, the theorist goes so far as to ask her literary audience to “entertain the possibility” of aesthetic reading providing “the basic model for all reading” (Rosenblatt, 1981b, p. 17).

Second, literary texts “are the source of intellectual, emotional, and aesthetic experience”

(Probst, 1990, p. 30). Thus, adopting an aesthetic stance when reading literature can help readers to become more fully engaged participants in reading experiences (Rosenblatt,

1978/1994, 1982, 1985b). Stance has a powerful impact on the reader’s selective attention, and thus, on the overall transactional experience.

Literature as experience. The Transactional Theory offers a unique view of literature. Rosenblatt depicts literature as the “sensing, feeling, thinking…ordering and organizing of image, idea, and emotion in relation to a text” (as cited in Galda, 1982, p.

341). As opposed to traditional text-oriented theories, which view literature as an object or a body of knowledge, the Transactional Theory views literature as potential experience

(Bressler, 2007; Faust, 2000; Rosenblatt, 1964, 1998; Tyson, 2006). Literature offers readers the possibility of “ living-through , not simply knowledge about ” (Rosenblatt,

1995, p. 38, emphasis in original). Rather than “learning about literature,” readers need

“vivid personal experience[s] with the literary works themselves” (Rosenblatt, 1949, p.

23, emphasis added). According to Rosenblatt (1991), literature is experience.

Rosenblatt (1966, 1995) contends that the reader’s active participation in literature through creating, reflecting on, and evaluating evocations results in a range of benefits. Readers begin to trust their own personal response when their evocations are

valued, which helps to develop self-confidence in reading (Harding, 1997; Nodelman,

1992; Rosenblatt, 1986). A personally experienced literary work of art, no matter how unsophisticated, can be the beginning of growth in reading ability (Rosenblatt, 1986).

“Precisely because every aesthetic reading of a text is a unique creation, woven out of the inner life and thought of the reader, the literary work of art can be a rich source of insight and truth” (Rosenblatt, 1982, p. 276-277). Aesthetic experiences with literature may also support readers’ imaginative, emotional, and intellectual development (Rosenblatt, 1966,

1995; Sloan, 2002; Soter et al., 2008). The range of reader benefits is considerable.

Rosenblatt is recognized as an education theorist with very high ideals. Her tireless efforts to expound her theory are a reflection of her belief that the Transactional

Theory serves the higher purpose of educating democratic citizens (Berg, 1991; Berthoff,

1991; Farrell, 2005; Flynn, 2007; Karolides, 1999; Kridel, 2000; Pradl, 1991, 1996, 2005;

Probst, 2005; Rosenblatt, 1946a, 1946b, 1977, 1993b, 1995, 1998; Rosenblatt, Jones, &

Campbell, 1938). Literature is meant to play a vital role in students’ individual lives and in a democratic society as a whole (Rosenblatt, 1969a). When readers personally experience literature, they “develop the imaginative capacity to put themselves in the place of others – a capacity essential in a democracy, where we need to rise above narrow self-interest and envision the broader human consequences of political decisions”

(Rosenblatt in Karolides, 1999, p. 169). Lawrence Sipe (1999) explains this phenomenon:

As students move through experiences with literary texts, they forge links between the literature they experience and their own lives. These personal links “have the potential to be both informative and transformative for their developing sense of themselves as individuals and members of society” (p. 127). Indeed, John Clifford (1991) avows that it

is the “vitality of the transactional experience” that forms “the basis for the important work that reading, writing, and teaching must do in the world” (p. 13). Rosenblatt’s enduring challenge to teachers is to create a community of “disciplined and skillful readers, suitable for a more democratic society” (Ratner, 2005, p. 8).

Participant as Writer: The Transactional Theory of the Literary Work

Writing can facilitate and foster learning (Beach, 1990; Harding, 1962; Knoeller,

2003; Roen, 2000) by providing readers with an effective meaning-making tool (Adams,

1987; Andrasick, 1990; Langer, 1995; Probst, 1990). Collom and Noethe (2005) view writing as an artistic process of exploration: “Hidden rainbows of perception arise through the writing act” (p. xiii). Students may use writing as a linguistic tool with which to explore their reading experiences. The writing process can be instrumental in supporting the understanding of experience (Burchell, 2010) because language has the powerful capability to “generate and develop thought” (Andrasick, 1990, p. 76). Langer and Applebee (1987) even go so far as to claim that in general, “any kind of written response leads to better performance than does reading without writing” because writing allows readers to slow down their thinking to consider different ideas and questions (p.

130). This study proposes the language of poetry as an aesthetic writing tool for supporting students’ exploration and understanding of transactional reading experiences.

Transactional Writing

Rosenblatt’s (1993b) pragmatic transactionalism led her to envision reading, writing, listening, and speaking as “interrelated aspects of the individual’s transactions with the environment” (p. 383). The transactional paradigm can be applied to writing, as well as to reading (Rosenblatt, 1988). Just like the reading act, the writing act is a

particular event in time (Rosenblatt, 1988). The writer carries on a two-way transaction with the text as it is being written (Rosenblatt, 1988). And, just as readers must choose a stance for reading, so too the “reader-turned-writer” must choose a stance for writing

(Rosenblatt, 1988, p. 11). While the efferent stance is the usual option in school for writing about reading, the aesthetic stance is a viable option for communicating aspects of aesthetic reading experiences (Lewis, 2000; Rosenblatt, 1988). Rosenblatt (2004) describes what happens when a reader becomes a writer about an evocation:

When a reader describes, responds to, or interprets a work – that is, speaks or writes about a transaction with a text – a new text is being produced…When the reader becomes a writer about a work, the starting point is no longer the physical text, the marks on the page, but the meaning or the state of mind felt to correspond to that text. The reader may return to the original text to recapture how it entered into the transaction but must “find words” for explaining the evocation and the interpretation. (p. 1380)

In found poetry, the poet finds these words in the text itself. Duane Roen (2000) suggests that writing activities work especially well in conjunction with the Transactional Theory, enhancing aesthetic reading experiences by ensuring that the reader’s attention stays focused on the lived-through experience. Readers may become writers as part of their aesthetic attempt to depict the envisioned literary work (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994).

Robert Probst (2000) asserts that when we broaden “the range of discourse forms” available to readers for responding to their experiences with literature, we give them access to the pleasures of artistic creation (p. 72). In this study, poetry writing is offered as an example of an artistic form of discourse available to readers. A number of teachers have successfully used poetry to support the literacy learning of their students. Bleeker and Bleeker (1996) have found that asking their students to write poetry in response to

reading young adult fiction encourages them to construct textual meaning for themselves with creativity and thoughtfulness. When Craig Steenstra asks his high school literature students to write poetry about the literary texts they read, the experience allows the young adults to connect more deeply with the words of the texts: “Writing poems about literature is an authentic activity that can foster deep knowledge of the work being studied” (Steenstra, Hunt, & Hunt, 2006, p. 102). Courtney-Smith and Angelotti (2005) have found that writing free verse poetry after reading novels, along with other creative

activities such as reflective writing, enhances the literary skills of their high school

English students and fosters the “vital experience” of literary texts (p. 62). These teachers

have clearly met Parsons and Colabucci’s (2008) challenge to ensure that school writing

is “meaningful and authentic” (p. 51). In asking the participants of this study to take up

writing in response to their reading experiences, this researcher seeks to do the same.

Extending Transactional Experiences

It is important that readers be given ample opportunities to extend their

transactional experiences with texts through artistic and linguistic activities (Probst,

2000; Rosenblatt, 1995). Extension activities should be designed to help maintain the

connection between readers and evocations, promoting and strengthening their lived-

through experiences with texts (Many, 2004; Rosenblatt in Karolides, 1999). Because the

evocation, and not the text, is the object of reflection and interpretation, follow-up

activities need to guide the reader’s attention back to the transactional experience

(Rosenblatt, 1980, 1982, 1985b, 1986b, 1995; Stratta & Wilkinson, 1973). Rosenblatt

(1991, 2004) recommends that teachers design these activities to reflect the aesthetic,

such as poetry, drawing, painting, dance, music, role-playing, and writing. It is critical

that teachers scrutinize extension activities to ensure that they are not merely substitutions for the actual experience of literature (Rosenblatt, 1966). Rosenblatt (1966) challenges teachers to ask of each activity: “Does it get in the way of the live sense of literature? Does it make literature something to be regurgitated, analyzed, categorized, or is it a means toward making literature a more personally meaningful and self-disciplined activity?” (p. 1004). Found poetry is both an artistic and linguistic activity that meets

Rosenblatt’s parameters for a follow-up activity to reading. It is an artful form of writing with a particular ability “to make us respond aesthetically to the universe around us”

(Colombo, 1973, p. 435). Found poetry also endeavors to make literature more personally meaningful by helping to maintain the connection between a reader and her evocation.

Instead of moving the reader toward efferent analysis, found poetry does the opposite. By inviting the reader to linger in a text, noticing and gathering words for a poem, the poetic process draws the reader closer to the evoked work. This study takes up the art of found poetry as an aesthetic writing tool for extending readers’ transactional experiences.

Reflection. An essential step in growing as a reader lies in the ability to reflect on

reading experiences. The process of reflection can help to clarify the reading event

(Rosenblatt, 1986b) by assisting the reader “in the effort to realize” the evocation “more

keenly, to arrive at a tighter organization, a firmer knitting-together of elements”

(Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, p. 133). Reflection gives the reader control over a textual

experience, control that is demonstrated by moving away from the lived-through

experience to reflect on, and extend outward from, the evocation itself (Smith, 1992).

Once a reader has transacted with a text, the first aim of the teacher should be to give the

reader an opportunity to reflect on the lived-through experience with the text (Holland &

Lehr, 1976; Rosenblatt, 1986). Rather than hurrying students away from the reading event to engage in efferent-oriented activities, the teacher should provide opportunities for recollecting and savoring the transactional experience (Rosenblatt, 1985a).

While reflection is a critical step in the reading process, it is not a simple one

(Rosenblatt, 1978/1994). The “ephemeral” literary work of art “cannot be held static for later inspection. It cannot be shared directly with anyone else; it cannot be directly evaluated by others. Its transitory and inward character undeniably presents problems”

(Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, p. 132). Richard Beach (1993) concurs with Rosenblatt, claiming that many adolescents experience difficulty in reflecting upon their reading experiences.

And yet, readers must find ways to hold evocations, as well as the concurrent streams of response, steady for reflection; they must find ways to reflect on what transpired during transactional experiences. Beach suggests that the quality of students’ reflections may be enhanced by engaging in oral and written activities that refer readers back to their reading experiences. This dissertation offers the art of found poetry as one possibility for a reflective writing activity. The first step in creating a found poem is to consider the reading experience and to reflect on what part of that experience the reader wishes to explore in the poem. Found poetry, then, may help to support the reflective process by guiding the reader’s attention back to the reading experience.

Interpretation. The Transactional Theory envisions readers and texts as “partners in the interpretive process” (Bressler, 2007, p. 78). Reader and text must work together in order to gain insight into the reading experience. Interpretation requires the reader to attend to two distinct aspects of the evocation process: The reader must pay close attention to the pattern of signs in the text and equally close attention to what each

particular configuration of signs evokes in the reader (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994). The text is the external pole of the interpretive process: Once the signs of the text stimulate an evocation, they become the public control by which the reader checks the relevance of the evoked work (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994). During interpretation, the reader asks: “What in this book, and in me , caused this response?” (Rosenblatt, 1956, p. 73, emphasis in original). A reader can look at any aspect of the evocation to seek what in the text gave rise to that portion of the work as experienced. Complete participation in the reading event is aided by reader awareness of the contributions made by both the text and the self to the transactional relationship.

Writing about reading experiences can foster interpretation of those experiences

(Beach, 1990). Robert Probst (1990) suggests that students be given more opportunities to write their own texts after reading events: “Those texts could be the most immediate and significant accounts possible of literary experience” (p. 36). The act of putting a transactional experience into words can help to organize and impose order on that experience (Britton, 1977). Writing creatively in response to a reading experience can also reveal “complex interpretive insights” (Knoeller, 2003, p. 48). Perry Nodelman

(1992) describes found poetry created from novels as a structured interpretive exercise in which students are freed “to focus on compression of language and thought, as well as heightened attention to sound – in service of exploring a work” (p. 46). He contends:

“Inviting students to write poetry in response to literature opens new avenues for both student writing and textual interpretation” (p. 46). This dissertation offers the art of found poetry as one possible interpretive writing activity.

A reader’s lived-through experience with a text is the start of a conversation between the reader and the text (Apol, 1998, p. 33). This conversation takes place in the interplay between the words in the text and the life experiences that the reader associates with those words. Words and experience are complexly and intricately related: “Words are primarily aspects of sensed, felt, lived-through experiences” (Rosenblatt, 1982, p.

271). Poetry can highlight this vital connection between words and experience:

The magical relationship between words and their referents is nowhere more apparent than in poetry where, as soon as they are uttered, words move inwards and act centripetally - they name, fix and isolate particular experiences; but they also move outwards and act centrifugally - they evoke, generate and associate these experiences with others retained in memory or conceivable in imagination. (Benton, 1992, p. 71-72)

In looking at found poetry specifically, the process of gathering words from a text for a poem involves focused attention at the word level. Dorothy Alexander (2006) states that found poetry puts the poet in a “challenging relation to words” (p. 4). She explains that the practice of found poetry may increase awareness of words because the poet physically engages with words “as things-in-themselves” (p. 4). Found poetry is crafted using the very words of the text; therefore, the poetic writing process may offer readers a useful tool with which to verify the specific words in a text that gave rise to an evocation. Found poetry may also help to support the interpretive process by uncovering the contributions of both reader and text to the reading experience.

The act of rereading is an integral element in the interpretive process. The

Transactional Theory allows that a reader may defend her reading experience by going back to the world of the text (Christenbury, 2005; Marinaccio, 1999). Once there, she rereads portions of the text in order to validate her interpretation of the evocation

(Rosenblatt, 1982). Rosenblatt (2005) explains: “We return to the text to see how, drawing on a personal reservoir to transact with the text, we arrived at our particular interpretation” (p. xxiv). During rereading, the text guides the reader through the self- corrective process of interpretation (Tyson, 2006). Bill Corcoran (1992) characterizes rereading as retraveling familiar ground, “freed of the need to construct from scratch the elements of a fictional world” (p. 64). He believes that aesthetic reading capabilities can be enhanced when readers revisit known texts. The process of rereading is intricately tied to transactional writing activities. Christian Knoeller (2003), in his work with imaginative response, has found that a natural consequence of writing imaginatively is a focused rereading of the literary work: “Many students report repeatedly consulting the text as they compose imaginative responses so that their writing is detailed and faithful to the original. Accordingly, after students have explored a work imaginatively, their interpretations are often considerably more thoughtful and complex” (p. 43). Rereading is an integral part of the found poetry writing process. Gathering words for a poem involves rereading the text, which may help to inform the reader of an evocation’s validity.

Participant as Prospective Teacher: The Constructivist Theory of Learning

University teachers are faced with a proliferation of learning theories; it is critical that educators become knowledgeable about the theoretical approaches that may inform their instruction (Minter, 2011). Robert Minter supports this knowledge acquisition with a glossary of learning theory categories. The category labeled “Constructivist Theories” holds that “learning is best accomplished by having students learn by experimentation”

(p. 14). Brian Cambourne (2002) defines constructivism as a set of assumptions regarding both the learning process and the learners involved in that process. According to von

Glaserfeld (1995), the constructivist approach to teaching is a theory of knowing. And doing is an extension of knowing: “[W]e know because we have in fact done” (Parr,

2005/2006, p. 139). A primary assumption of constructivism is that knowledge is best acquired through active involvement with content versus more traditional approaches of imitation and memorization of material (Kroll & Black, 1993). The principles of constructivism apply to all learners, including college students (Burk & Dunn, 1996).

Scholars advocate for the inclusion of the Constructivist Theory in teacher education programs (Burk & Dunn, 1996; Kaufman, 1996; Kroll & LaBoskey, 1996). Principles of constructivism may play a critical role in education classrooms, including those that prepare future teachers. This dissertation’s positioning of study participants as prospective poetry teachers is framed by The Constructivist Theory of Learning.

Experiential Learning

A fundamental component of the Constructivist Theory is experiential learning, which promotes active involvement of the student in the learning process (Kaufman,

1996). John Dewey (1916/2009, 1938/1998) has been credited as the father of the

Experiential Theory: “Although virtually all writers will be succeeded by other voices in their respective educational positions, Dewey is never superseded as spokesperson. Even today, he retains his posture as the single most significant voice of the experientialist perspective” (Schubert, Schubert, Thomas, & Carroll, 2002, p. 13). Dewey conceives of a learning experience as a transaction between an individual and the environment

(1938/1998). This notion of transaction is fundamentally important to Dewey’s articulation of experience: “An experience is always what it is because of a transaction taking place between the individual and what, at the time, constitutes his environment”

(Dewey, 1938/1998, p. 41). Experiential educators, most notably in the fields of adult and outdoor education, have adopted Dewey’s Experiential Theory because it promotes direct experience with the subject matter to be learned (Wurdinger & Carlson, 2010).

Experiential learning is a key theoretical concept of the Constructivist Theory.

Experiential learning is an important pedagogical construct in teacher education

(Lesley, 2011). Kroll and LaBoskey (1996) advocate for teacher education programs to provide preservice teachers with multiple opportunities for both constructing and reflecting on learning. “For teachers to appreciate the importance of active, autonomous learning for children, they have to be active, autonomous learners themselves” (Burk &

Dunn, 1996, p. 11). Paul Johnson’s (2011) qualitative study on active learning found a positive response by graduate education students to the active learning techniques used in his course on human growth and development. Queens University used experiential education as a critical framework with which to restructure their preservice teacher education program, emphasizing the perspective of learning from experience (Russell,

1998). Cremin, Mottram, Collins, Powell, and Safford (2009), in their study on building communities of teacher readers, found that when participants were personally engaged and reflectively involved as adult readers, this active positioning helped the teachers to

“reconsider the nature of reading and the experience of being a reader” (p. 18). Another teacher educator who advocates for active, experiential learning for preservice teachers is

Parr (2005/2006), who maintains: “We do not simply describe the theory, strategies, and techniques, but go one step further to engage students in much the same way we would engage learners in regular classrooms” (p. 138). Bishop and Ostrom (1994) position prospective writing teachers as practicing writers. Even though one may concede that

teaching writing is possible if one is not a writer, these writing educators challenge:

“shouldn’t we insist that it be otherwise?” (p. 194). It is not enough for students in teacher education programs to learn simply about content; it is critical that they actively experience that content themselves.

Prospective Teachers as Poets in Practice

Teaching attitudes and behaviors are shaped by teachers’ previous experiences in school (Kaufman, 1996; Lesley, 2011). Sheri Skelton (1986) even goes so far as to claim:

“Teachers teach as they have been taught” (p. 86). Michelann Parr (2005/2006) agrees, asserting that “we will often revert to the way we have been taught, or refrain from those situations that make us uncomfortable” (p. 138). The manner in which poetry was presented to teachers when they were students can prove to be a deciding factor in those teachers’ classroom poetry practices. In a questionnaire given to 48 second-year primary trainee teachers about their perceptions toward poetry, Ray found that the preservice teachers’ answers “revealed how their own experiences of poetry at school had shaped their perceptions and attitudes towards their teaching of poetry” (as cited in Cumming,

2007, p. 96). Eve Merriam, a well-known children’s poet, holds teachers responsible when children turn away from poetry, speculating that the cause is the poor poetry instruction they themselves received as students (Sloan, 1981). The ways in which teachers themselves experience poetry in school can have a powerful influence over how they approach the teaching of poetry in their own classrooms.

Negative encounters with poetry are often characterized by fear and can lead to a

resistance to poetry (Rukeyser, 1996). Booth and Moore (2003) assert: “Those people in

life who dislike poetry, who are afraid of it, nervous of it, and distrustful of it, are often

people who have had negative school experiences with poetry” (p. 57). Memories of these negative experiences may have a profound impact on teachers’ personal attitudes and feelings toward poetry, causing many to be reluctant, even afraid, to teach poetry

(Arnstein, 1962; Dias, 1992; Sloan, 2001, 2003b; Wade & Sidaway, 1990). Kathy Perfect

(1999), in a review of literature that sought reasons for why poetry is often neglected by classroom teachers, finds several issues mentioned repeatedly: “fear, lack of comfort, teachers who feel compelled to teach reading skills, anxiety over method and knowledge, negative school experiences , and over-analysis and interpretation” (p. 731, emphasis added). Glenna Sloan (2003b) traces the genesis of her college students’ dislike and fear of poetry to the “unfortunate experiences with its study in high school and college

English literature classes” (p. 1). Destructive school poetry practices can cause negative feelings and attitudes in students who then grow up to be teachers who pass on these same dispositions toward poetry to their own students, or who simply ignore poetry altogether. Thus, the cycle of destruction and neglect is perpetuated.

Teachers play a vital role in making poetry a priority in school. Wormser and

Cappella (2000) view the teacher as the “institutional gatekeeper of poetry in our society”

(p. ix). Molly Travers (1984), in a review of the research on poetry in the classroom, concludes that “the particular teacher has more influence on results than the particular method” (p. 367). In fact, after researching influences on student attitudes toward poetry,

Travers (1987) makes the bold assertion that the teacher plays a more important role in influencing students’ perceptions of poetry than any other classroom factor. The teacher’s attitude is essential if students are to engage in the world of poetry (Gullan & Gurrey,

1935). Research reveals that unless poetry is important in a teacher’s own life, then

poetry will not be important in the life of the classroom (Denman, 1988). Therefore, failing to address teachers’ aversion to poetry may well result in the neglect of poetry in the classroom (Parr, 2005/2006, p. 138). As Keil (2005) asserts: “If poetry does not have a place in my life, it will be difficult to convince students of its worth. If I cannot approach poetry with comfort, students will feel my tension” (p. 101). The teacher holds a crucial position in making poetry a positive possibility in the classroom.

Because teachers play a key role in making poetry a part of classroom experience, it is of paramount importance that those teachers who harbor pervasive anxiety and fear toward poetry be helped to gain comfort and confidence in teaching poetry. Glenna Sloan

(2001) reassures us that negative attitudes toward poetry can be transformed. One way to support prospective teachers in becoming more comfortable with poetry is through the learn-by-doing approach (Collom & Noethe, 2005; Honigsfeld & Dove, 2008; Kane &

Rule, 2004; Kucan, 2007; Szabo, 2008). Teaching children to write poetry can be a daunting task for teachers who themselves are not poets (Fisher, 2008). Sheri Skelton

(1986) recommends that teachers be given opportunities to learn about poetry from personal encounters inside the poetic world. Diane Lockward (1994) once asked a group of poets for advice in helping English instructors to improve their poetry teaching practices. The poets uniformly suggested that the teachers try reading, writing, and listening to poetry themselves: “Once they have grown to love poetry, they will become much better at teaching it” (p. 70). Michelann Parr (2005/2006) asks her preservice teachers to be willing to step outside their comfort zones and to immerse themselves in whatever task they will ask their future students to do: “Learning and teaching by doing requires that we take risks similar to those we require of our students” (p. 135). Without

this participatory approach, her preservice teachers “are likely to remain apprehensive and less likely to take risks as teachers and facilitators” (p. 138). Katherine Keil (2005) maintains that the experiential act of stepping out of her role as teacher and into the role of poet was instrumental in helping her students to become “apprentice artisans” to poetry (p. 101). Perry Nodelman (1992) avows that if we want children to enjoy poetry, then “we need to provide them with knowledge of the possibilities of poetry and of attitudes toward the experience of it, and with techniques and strategies for deriving both understanding and enjoyment from that experience” (p. 128-129). When teachers become poets in practice, they learn first-hand how to help their students to become poets as well.

A number of university instructors have taken up the mandate to invite students inside their personal worlds of poetry. Anna Soter (2010) emphasizes “participants as readers and writers of poetry” in her poetry courses, a focus she considers “preparatory to teaching poetry effectively” (p. 2). Glenna Sloan (1998, 2003a) conducts her graduate children’s literature and poetry classes by modeling the practices that she hopes her teachers will take back to their classrooms. “Learn by doing” is her guiding philosophy; she believes that to gain confidence in teaching poetry, teachers must first become confident with the art form themselves (Sloan, 2003b, p. 14). Parr and Campbell (2006) work together to apply an experiential learning philosophy to poetry by asking their preservice teachers to become poets in practice: “Without taking risks and engaging in poetry writing themselves,” teachers who dread and fear poetry will “never have the opportunity to discover what a useful and rewarding tool poetry can be in enhancing literacy” (p. 37-38). Providing prospective teachers with personal writing experiences as poets may positively impact attitudes toward teaching poetry.

Summary

Prose Summary

Found poetry is a poetic form that relies on its source for words outside of the poet’s own intellect. Found poets reclaim and reframe words from existing texts to create an original poem. The historical art form of found poetry became fused to American popular culture in the 1960’s. Since then, the poetic form has appeared in a range of literary venues, from poetry collections and anthologies to journals and newspaper articles. Found poetry is also located in a variety of online sources, from lesson plans to newspaper poetry contests. The art form maintains a contradictory position on the outskirts of accepted forms of poetry, a location which may create issues of ownership for the found poet. While some authors of the original works pilfered by found poets protest the appropriation of their words, many poets and poetry educators maintain that the art form is protected under standards of fair use. The primary argument made for the authenticity of found poetry is that words cannot be owned; they comprise a writer’s linguistic resources. While the found poet’s words are not original, it is argued that the process of refashioning these words into an original poem legitimizes the art form. Words are free for the finding by poets and prose writers alike.

Although no formal research studies have been conducted on the writing of found poetry with students, a number of secondary and college Language Arts teachers report positive outcomes from their found poetry lessons. These lessons include found poetry created from non-literary as well as literary textual sources, such as novels. Found poetry has recently appeared in education dissertations, but never as the subject as the study, only as an ancillary to other creative writing and poetry activities. A variety of lesson

plans are available to teachers who wish to explore the art form in their classrooms, from resources such as ReadWriteThink to The New York Times Learning Network.

As a form of research poetry, found poetry is used by academic poets in qualitative research. Found poetry is most commonly utilized to analyze and represent research data. The poetic form is especially useful to social scientists for representing the lived experiences of study participants. Research poetry provides arts-based researchers with an inquiry tool that blends artistic and scientific endeavors, providing an alternative window through which to derive and view research findings. This artistic tool offers arts- based scholars a variety of benefits. Poetry can aid in the process of data reduction through the poetic element of compression. Academic poetry can also vitalize scholarly texts, positively impacting the readability and accessibility of research reports. Despite the potential benefits afforded by research poetry, there is risk involved when arts-based researchers choose to augment traditional academic texts with poetry. In order to make space for the beneficial role that found poetry can play in research methodology, poetic pioneers are encouraged to thoroughly explicate their writing processes and goals.

Each component of the overriding research question is framed by an orienting theory, one which informs the positioning of the research participants. First, the

Expressive Theory of Poetry Writing, which focuses on the writer of a poem, frames the study participants as novice poets. According to Darrell Fike’s theory, poetry is an expression of the poet’s feelings and identity; indeed of the poet’s very soul. Second, the

Transactional Theory of the Literary Work, which focuses on reader/text transactional relationships, frames the study participants as readers and writers. According to Louise

Rosenblatt’s theory, reading is a transactional event in time, a dynamic and reciprocal

relationship that develops between a reader and a text. Third, the Constructivist Theory of

Learning, which focuses on active, experiential learning, frames the study participants as prospective poetry teachers. According to John Dewey’s Experiential Theory, which is a fundamental construct of the Constructivist Theory, students are supported by actively engaging in their learning experiences. In addition to informing the positioning of the research participants, the three theories are used to ground the data analysis and interpretation in the theoretical frameworks that underpin each research question.

Poetic Summary

Why Poetry, Ms. Sidman?

For the chance to ease the heart.

For the chance to capture a moment of joy.

For the chance to feel connected to everything around me.

Found Poetry’s Bride

Words old, never new. Words borrowed, never blue.

Finders Keepers

Out west, there are no laws of language.

It’s all just teen soldiers marching down the street, shooting arrows and taking words prisoner.

Alien chickens, murdered telephones, baseball sonnets, are captured and chained inside found poems.

Losers Weepers

TRANSACTION

Readers and Texts build reciprocal Relationships through evoc Ation and response, reflection and i Nterpretation. Adopting the ae Sthetic stance for literature produces dynamic trans Actions. Sele Ctive attention on literary Theory creates magic Ical mOments with Louise Rose Nblatt

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Fike’s Theory

The poem proclaims: Here is my writer!

She expresses a web of feelings within a theory of words.

I am a piece of my poet’s very soul.

Hermsen’s Theory

We may speak of poetry and writing and theory.

We may even speak of poetry writing theory.

But in the end, the poem still emerges from one writer sitting down with a blank sheet of paper and seeing what can be done with words.

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Learn by Doing

Take a risk and become a spokesperson for experience.

Construct a glossary of doing and knowing.

Step outside your comfort zone and face your fears.

Join the found poetry program for just one apple.

Read It, You’ll See

Watch me take a clean, crisp dive into the mysteries that confront me.

I’ll find what glitters beneath the surface of data, and emerge triumphant.

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PREVIEW of the METHODOLOGY

Bern Porter (1972)

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

This dissertation research is a qualitative classroom-based inquiry. According to

Lesley Colabucci (2004): “Classrooms are teeming with opportunities to seek understandings and explanations as called for by qualitative research” (p. 72). In the search to understand and explain what happens when prospective teachers write found poetry using young adult literature, the researcher poses three questions.1) How might writing found poetry support novice poets? 2) How might writing found poetry support transactional reading relationships between readers and texts? 3) How might writing found poetry support prospective teachers of poetry? The research design for this study is qualitative in nature (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Louise

Rosenblatt (2004) contends that qualitative research provides the methodological foundation for studying transactions between readers and texts. Corrine Glesne (2010) states that the tools of qualitative research allow investigators to study “the inner experience of participants” (p. 12). In the case of this classroom-based qualitative inquiry, the overall design was carefully crafted to investigate participants’ inner experiences with literature, situated within the framework of the Transactional Theory.

Chapter 3 is organized into three major sections: pilot studies, research design, and data management procedures. The chapter ends with a prose and poetic summary.

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Pilot Studies

The Research Development Seminar in the Teaching of English, held at New

York University in 1963, was challenged with examining reliable research designs for studying the teaching of English. Louise Rosenblatt (1963), the seminar director, reports that the group recognized the “value of many well-designed pilot studies, generating hypotheses for possible further testing (p. 78). Over the past three years, I have gathered informal data on my students’ reflections upon their found poetry writing experiences.

Each quarter I informally analyzed the data and used the findings to refine my found poetry instructional practices. The following section provides a brief history of these found poetry classroom practices and pilot studies.

The first time I used found poetry with college students was during the autumn quarter of 2009 at The Ohio State University in my Introduction to Children’s Literature course. I asked the students to write a thematic found poem in response to the experience of reading Kate DiCamillo’s (2003) The Tale of Despereaux . The powerful poems I received, especially in light of the number of students who expressed negative attitudes toward poetry, was my first indication that found poetry could have an important role to play in my literacy pedagogy. I repeated the poetry assignment in the same children’s literature courses taught during the winter and spring quarters of 2010, generating two more sets of thematic found poems. The variety of poems stood out as a visible testament to the range of possible reader transactions with the same text, as evidenced by the following two untitled found poems. Both are taken from the same novel and written on the same theme of love, but the differences reflect each of the reader’s unique transaction with the book.

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Poem 1

Love, A curse. An insult. A word without light. Ridiculous. Will there be consequences? You bet. But, There is no sweeter thing Than someone you love calling your name. Nothing. Yes! It is all coming clear. There is more to this world than anyone could imagine. Love. Powerful. Wonderful. Laughable. Capable of moving mountains. And spools of thread. Ain’t it lovely?

Poem 2

I will show you the twisted results of love. But, Suffering is not the answer.

Love is ridiculous!

And love will… …move through warm patches of sunlight and dark pools of shade.

And I, I honor you. Be brave friend.

It isn’t easy, and for everyone that told you there was no such thing as ‘happily ever after.’

Remember, the April sun is weak but determined. Life is very funny in that way. Adieu, my friend.

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First Pilot Study

In light of the three sets of compelling found poems, I decided to gather my first

set of pilot study data in the spring quarter of 2010. After the found poems had been

written, I asked the students to reflect in writing upon the activity. The prompt for the

reflection was open-ended; I simply invited the students to share anything they wished

with me regarding their poetry writing experiences. During the summer quarter of 2010, I

worked with Dr. Linda Parsons on an independent study over qualitative content analysis.

I used Attride-Stirling’s (2001) thematic networks tool to analyze the data collected from

the first pilot study, which consisted of the students’ written reflections. The following

section offers a brief report of those findings because they affected the design of future

found poetry writing experiences, as well as the design of the dissertation research.

The students’ feedback fell into two broad thematic categories. The following is a

representative comment from the first category, poetry writing experiences: “I was

surprised at how connected I felt to my found poem. I felt like it was a piece of me and

part of my soul even though it wasn’t my words.” The following is a representative

comment from the second category, reading experiences: “Writing the found poem made

me more involved in the reading process and the story itself.” These categories evolved

into the first two dissertation questions. A number of reflections gave me my first

glimpse into found poetry’s ability to connect readers and texts. One student aptly noted

that writing a found poem “helped to build a tiny bridge from you to the book.” Another

described the entire process from beginning to end as “an in-depth journey with the text;

it’s really cool to watch the author’s words evolve into your own as you piece the poem

together.” The final quote illuminates found poetry’s ability to bridge reader/text worlds:

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“The found poem allowed me to go back and pull subtle meanings through the magnificent language, to further develop an understanding of the emotional character bonds, and to bridge her [the author’s] language and thoughts into my words.” I also received many positive comments regarding the poetic form. Recurring words included:

“fun…easy…enjoyable…stress-free.” The majority of students, even those who expressed negative feelings for poetry, reacted positively to the overall experience.

In addition to the positive comments, I also received a number of negative comments. Two problematic themes stood out. First, because I taught the students how to write a found poem at the beginning of the course, many used sticky notes or highlighters as they read to mark places in the book that impacted them or words they wanted to use for their poem. I received feedback that this process interrupted the reading experience for some students, preventing readers from fully immersing themselves in the reading event, as portrayed by this comment: “It [looking for words] distracted me from the book.

I was too focused on paying attention and couldn’t get lost in the story. Next time, I’d like to read it once, then start over looking for reoccurring themes or words.” While many students did report experiencing a heightened awareness of what they noticed as they read, such as character relationships or themes, I felt this self-knowledge was gained at a cost to readers’ transactional experiences. In her doctoral research investigating teacher influence on student response to literature, Pantaleo (1976) asserts that teachers must become aware “that some of their teaching practices may, in fact, encumber students’ enjoyment of reading, and obstruct children’s lived-through evocations of texts, as well as their expression and interpretation of the latter” (p. 274). The very theory that framed my reading pedagogy was threatened by the activity I had designed to align with it.

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A second negative theme concerned the lack of choice over the text to use for the found poem. A few students mentioned struggling with writing a found poem for a book that they did not enjoy reading, as reflected in this comment: “I found it a little hard to do one [found poem] for Tale of Despereaux because I could not really get into the book.”

This reflection reinforces Weiss’ (2011) claim: “Freedom of choice is essential in developing a love of reading” (p. 58). The results of the data analysis from the first pilot study, coupled with the three sets of found poems, reinforced my initial hypothesis that found poetry might have an impact on transactional reading experiences. The findings also helped to guide the evolution of the found poetry writing activity. First, based on the feedback over interrupting the reading experience, I decided to introduce the found poetry assignment toward the end of the course so that students would not have their transactional experience disrupted by the search for words to use in their found poem.

Second, based on the feedback regarding choice of texts, I opted to allow students to pick the book they most wanted to revisit for their found poem, rather than requiring everyone to write a poem on the same text. This decision is supported by a number of scholars and research studies (Allington, 2002; Doepker & Ortlieb, 2011; Fisher & Frey, 2012b;

Gambrell, 2011; Guthrie & Davis, 2003; Ivey & Broaddus, 2001; Kasten & Wilfong,

2007). If our aim is to “improve the quality of our students’ actual literary experiences,” then we need to provide them with literary works in which they can “become personally involved” (Rosenblatt, 1966, p. 1002). Finally, the positive comments I received over both the poetry writing and reading experiences prompted me to seriously consider found poetry as a possible focus for my dissertation research.

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Second Pilot Study

I decided to gather one more set of pilot study data before making the final

decision regarding my dissertation research. My students’ written reflections from the

Introduction to Children’s Literature class in the autumn quarter of 2010 convinced me

that I had indeed found my dissertation topic, as evidenced by this comment:

The found poem was a way to artistically react to what I just finished. The story seeped into my skin and simmered. I enjoyed it and I was able to gain a greater experience from the book instead of just finishing it and that being that, or beating the story like a dead horse until I wanted to throw it into a fire.

Rosenblatt (1995) cautions against the use of efferently oriented classroom activities with

literary texts. The transactional theorist claims that asking students to interpret evocations

from literature in an efferent manner places a screen between readers and texts. These

screens create “an unbridged gulf between anything that the student might actually feel

about the book, and what the teacher, from the point of view of accepted critical attitudes

and his adult sense of life, thinks the pupil should notice” (p. 61, emphasis added). As

seen in the above student reflection, found poetry appeared to offer the reader an

aesthetically-oriented activity with which to deepen the reader/text relationship.

A number of the students’ reflections reinforced my choice of Rosenblatt’s

Transactional Theory for the study’s theoretical framework. In 1982, Rosenblatt noted

that reflection allows a reader to return to the reading experience in order to relive and

deepen it; One of the students noted: “It helped me to relive the story after I was finished

reading.” In 1998, Rosenblatt observed that a relationship is built between a reader and a

text during a reading transaction; One of the students observed: “Writing a found poem

after reading the book really helped give depth to my relationship with the text.” In 2004,

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Rosenblatt shared that the reader attempts to recapture the effect of the reading experience during the process of reflection; One of the students shared:

The found poem impacted my reflection of the book because it forced me to recapture what I had read. But not in the way that readers typically do. I didn’t have to answer meaningless questions about my reaction, or synthesize every last word in hopes of determining what the author meant. No, I got to find and determine the words I felt most meaningful…I used the author’s words to symbolize and show what I got out of the book. The found poem creates a new element of understanding and expression.

As I read the written reflections from the second pilot study, I encountered uncanny

echoes of Rosenblatt’s theoretical writings.

One particular student from this second pilot study strongly influenced my decision to make found poetry the focus of my dissertation. I include his name here, which I have his permission to do, in order to honor his most important contribution to this dissertation journey. Chris Cooper’s reflection upon writing his found poem from

The Tale of Despereaux (2003) is particularly thoughtful and moving:

I was honestly surprised by the impact writing the found poem had on me. I loved reading the book, but after writing the found poem I loved it more. I felt like I had participated creatively in the unfolding text: found within the story and myself something that felt a bit like a revelation. As though through the poem I saw into the story and into myself more deeply. Writing the found poem showed me the impact the story had on my subconscious deep self through the process of abstraction, selection, and synchronicity.

In a follow-up conversation to the above reflection, Chris verbally expanded on his

experience: “I was a real partner with the text. The reading of the text is a living

experience. Found poetry allows you to be a co-creator in that living experience that you

derive from reading the text.” Chris was a “co-poet” in the creation of his found poem

(Gorrell, 1989, p. 34), and his reflection highlights the impact the found poem had on his

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transactional relationship with the book. The found poem (reprinted below) that Chris wrote to honor the power stories have played in his reading life never fails to move me.

This poem, along with Chris’ reflection and our subsequent conversation, at last convinced me that found poetry would be the focus of my dissertation research.

Stories, I Honor You

Imagine, if you will, stories are light, green and alive, words that pinwheel through centuries, eternities, because all living things have a heart, because of music, because of love. Because of music and because of love, Because all living things have a heart, Through centuries, eternities, green and alive, a soul set afire thought I I will make some light And it will begin in this way: Once upon a time. And He marveled, Because stories like light, and hope like love… are ridiculous, wonderful, powerful things.

In an effort to refine my research design, I continued conducting pilot studies until gathering data for my dissertation research. A total of twelve sets of pilot study data were gathered, consisting of reflective writings upon the found poetry writing experience. Six sets came from my OSU Introduction to Children’s Literature classes; three sets came from my OSU Literature for Adolescents classes; and three sets came from my Ashland

University Advanced Studies of Literature for Young Children summer classes. The initial prompts for the written reflections were open-ended, and they became more and

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more specific as my precise research interests and questions developed. I found recurring themes throughout the pilot study data, confirming and reinforcing the choice of found poetry as my dissertation topic. The twelve pilot studies had a significant impact on shaping the direction and methodology of this dissertation study. The following are representative quotes from the 2011 OSU pilot studies:

Winter 2011

• “I felt so connected to the lines I chose that I feel like I truly could have just spoken from my own heart and written something like it.” • “I have never really been one to write poetry, but writing a found poem made it easy and gave me the confidence to try and write my own poetry.”

Spring 2011

• “Because I was choosing my own poem, I was in return creating my own story.” • “I liked actually writing the found poem because it was much more fun than typical poetry. There seemed to be less pressure, which I typically feel when asked to write a poem. (Poetry was ruined for me in school.) Overall, it was a much more positive experience for me than previous experiences with poetry. I would use found poetry in my future classroom.”

Autumn 2011

• “I felt like I had created something unique and wonderful, like I had unearthed a small gem from the text that only I could have found.” • “I was so proud [of my found poem]; I actually felt like a poet for the first time in my life. And, writing this poem definitely took my relationship with the book to a deeper and more beautiful level.”

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Research Design

Methods “are the procedures and tools a researcher employs in an inquiry: the plans for gathering information; the mechanisms for reducing or synthesizing data; and the techniques for analyzing and making sense of information” (Baumann & Duffy-

Hester, 2002, p. 2). The following section delineates the general procedures of the qualitative research design, including an in-depth discussion of the data management processes. These processes encompass the collection, analysis, trustworthiness, and representation of data. Including a “coherent and transparent” account of the research process helps to ensure the trustworthiness of the study (Butler-Kisber, 2010, p. 14). In order to legitimize the inclusion of research poetry, I provide a sample found data poem created from the raw data, along with a discussion of the poetic composition process.

Setting and Sample

Carole Cox (1992) maintains that researchers should investigate reading experiences in authentic settings, studying “real readers engaged with real texts in real contexts” (p. 20). Alan Kaplan (2010) situates Cox’s directive within the realm of young adult readers. At the conclusion to his review of dissertation research about young adult literature, he calls for further studies into “the use of young adult literature with adolescents in real classrooms in real time” (p. 58). To meet the above mandates, the focus of this study is on real undergraduate students reading and transacting with real young adult literature in the context of a real college classroom. Research was conducted in the teacher researcher’s Ohio State University undergraduate course EDU T&L 656:

Literature for Adolescents in the spring quarter of 2012 (See Appendix A for syllabus).

Teaching this course satisfied 25% of the researcher’s Graduate Teaching Associate

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contract. To legitimize the choice of the research setting, one may turn to Cullinan

(1993), who invites university teachers to journey among readers of literature, a journey she describes as a “pleasant voyage filled with bright moments and sudden insights” (p.

322). The Transactional Theory is especially relevant in university classrooms, since it is here that students are subjected to “mainly efferently oriented demands of the traditional teacher-centered classroom” (Rosenblatt, 2005, p. xi). Indeed, university teachers who accept Cullinan’s invitation must transform their classroom practices in order to “savor aesthetic responses from participants” (p. 322). This dissertation research is the result of one university teacher enthusiastically joining Cullinan on her aesthetic odyssey, and together with the study participants, celebrating the “beauty of literature” and sharing in the “joy of others who read it” (p. 322).

A total of 25 undergraduate students were enrolled in the class, 24 of whom were taking the course as a prerequisite for entrance into OSU’s Master of Education Program.

Of these education students, eight planned on majoring in high school English Education; eleven planned on majoring in middle school Language Arts; two planned on majoring in middle school subjects other than Language Arts; and three students planned on majoring in Early Childhood Education (The assumption is made that preschool and elementary school teachers will be responsible for teaching poetry). In all, 22 of the 24 prospective teachers (92%) planned on becoming teachers of English/Language Arts, making this a relevant sample for investigating component three of the research question. There were

21 female students and 4 male students in the class. Of the students, 23 identified as

European American, and two students identified as African American.

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The recruitment process occurred on the final day of class after students had completed their found poems. Findings from the pilot studies revealed that the majority of students who enter my classes carry negative experiences with, and attitudes toward, writing poetry. Therefore, I did not want to put any pressure on the students by alerting them to the possibility of their poems being collected as part of research. Toward that end, I recruited student participation after the found poems had been completed. During recruitment, I described the research project and what participants could expect if they volunteered to participate in the study, emphasizing that participation was entirely voluntary. As each course assignment was part of normal classroom requirements, students could choose to have any/all/none of them to be collected as data. Both the consent letter (See Appendix B) and the consent form (See Appendix C) were shared in class with the students. After introducing the study and reviewing the consent materials, I asked the students to reflect in writing upon their found poetry experience. Specifically, the prompts asked students to reflect on how the experience impacted their feelings about writing poetry; their transactional relationship with the text they chose for the poem; and their attitudes and confidence toward teaching poetry writing to future students. This in- class reflection, as with all of the data collected, was not graded. Twenty-four students consented to have their work collected for research purposes, 21 of whom were prospective poetry teachers.

Classroom Practices

A primary focus of the course centered on nurturing transactional reading experiences between students and texts. Classroom practices were designed to support genuine experiences by transforming reading “into a flexible, open-ended human

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process” (Manna & Misheff, 1987, p. 168). A description of these transactional classroom practices follows. Students in the course read a short story, seven young adult novels, and two picturebooks chosen from a list of books provided by the instructor.

Book groups were formed based on students’ text preferences. Each week prior to class, students filled out a book card to document their transactional reading experience and to develop discussion questions (See Appendix A). In class, the students met with their book groups to discuss their reading experiences and pose the questions they had written.

During week eight, students were taught how to write found poetry. This activity was purposely planned late in the course due to findings from numerous pilot studies. In previous classes, when students were taught early on in the quarter how to write a found poem from a novel, many reported having their transactional experiences disrupted in their search to locate words for the poem as they read. In light of these findings, when I explained the syllabus on the first day of class, I merely mentioned there would be a poetry assignment, and I would review the directions later.

The lesson on found poetry followed the Gradual Release of Responsibility lesson plan model. In order to activate and build background knowledge, I began with a brief introduction to the art form, including a definition and a brief overview of the history of the poetic form. During the next step of explicit instruction, I shared the steps for creating a found poem (See Appendix A). Next, I modeled writing a found poem using a shared text all the students had read for class: Chris Crutcher’s (1989) short story titled “A Brief

Moment in the Life of Angus Bethune.” For guided practice, the students (who sat in groups of four to a table) collaborated to write a group found poem from the text of 14

Cows for America , by Carmen Agra Deedy (2009), which I had read aloud to the class.

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The groups shared their poems out loud, providing a compelling example of Rosenblatt’s

(1985b) claim that a single text can generate many literary works of art. We then spent some time discussing the various topics chosen for the poems, as well as the range of procedures used by the different groups. Finally, for the independent practice stage of the lesson plan, individual students wrote a found poem using an excerpt from Kate

DiCamillo’s (2003) The Tale of Despereaux (See Appendix D). This particular passage was chosen for its rich and figurative language, compelling themes, and suspenseful action. A number of volunteers read their poems aloud, providing yet another example of how a single text can produce an endless possibility of transactions, as evidenced by this participant’s reflection upon the activity: “I think it’s amazing how we can use one section of the text and each found poem can be unique and hold a different meaning

(Sally). I then explained that the students would be writing their own found poem over a text of their choice that they read for the class. The students had complete control over which text and reading experience they most desired to revisit for their found poem. I suggested how they might translate their experience of writing poems from a short text to an entire novel. The poems were to be turned in on the second to the last day of class.

Data Management Procedures

The data collected by a researcher passes through that researcher’s theoretical lenses (Kleinsasser, 2000). As such, in his recommendations for writing the methodology section of social science research reports, Smagorinsky (2008) advocates that the methodology “should be tied to the study’s motivating theory in terms of data collection, reduction, and analysis” (p. 395). To meet this imperative, I have worked diligently to align my research methodology with the Transactional Theory that frames this study.

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Rosenblatt (1988, 2004) herself believes that this theory matches well with ethnographic research because it is concerned with reading events that take place in specific social, cultural, and educational contexts. The heart of research on the Transactional Theory lies in the “inescapable transactional events between readers and texts” (Rosenblatt,

1978/1994, p. 175). This dissertation study investigates how the “qualitative individuality” of one particular transactional “reading-event” might support students in their growth as readers (Rosenblatt, 1970, p. 13). Rosenblatt (1985b) stresses that the raw data of transactional research must consist of “individual personal encounters with texts”

(p. 175). Thus, the data collected for this study consists of individual reader/text encounters. The data was collected from three primary sources: a poetry questionnaire, a two-part literacy autobiography, and a written reflection upon the found poetry writing experience. Additionally, one auxiliary set of data was gathered, which consists of the students’ found poems. However, the poems were not part of the data analysis process; they were merely collected for reference purposes in relation to the students’ written reflections upon their writing experience. The following section illustrates each step of the data management process: data collection, data analysis, data trustworthiness, and data representation.

Data Collection

Three sets of data were gathered as part of the primary dissertation research in the spring quarter of 2012: a poetry questionnaire, a two-part literacy autobiography, and a written reflection upon the found poetry writing experience.

First data set. The first data source is a poetry questionnaire that students filled out during the fourth week of the course, at the beginning of the class devoted to poetry

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(See Appendix E). Twenty-one students completed the form. The questionnaire contains five prompts. The first prompt of the questionnaire asks if the participants consider themselves to be poets; it is pertinent to question one of the study, which examines how writing found poetry might support novice poets. An accurate count of which participants positioned themselves as novice poets is needed for determining how the found poetry writing experience may have impacted the poetry writing of this specific segment of participants. The next three prompts, which are also pertinent to the first question, probe attitudes and experiences about poetry in order to determine how the found poetry writing experience may have impacted efforts to disrupt previous negative school poetry practices. These prompts ask about feelings toward poetry in general and poetry writing specifically, as well as memorable school poetry experiences. The fifth and final prompt asks the participants how they feel about teaching their future students write poetry; it is pertinent to question three of the study, which examines how the found poetry writing experience might support prospective teachers of poetry. This prompt is designed to determine how the found poetry writing experience may have impacted the participants’ confidence and attitudes around teaching poetry. Each prompt of the poetry questionnaire is crafted to reveal those aspects of the participants’ poetry attitudes and experiences that are pertinent to answering the first and third research questions.

Second data set. The second data source consists of a two-part written literacy

autobiography (See Appendix F). Autobiographical narratives seek to capture writers’

“candid attitudes, opinions, and values” (Manna & Misheff, 1987, p. 161). Twenty-four autobiographies containing participants’ literacy attitudes and experiences were collected.

Part one of the autobiography, which was turned in during week four of the course, is

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primarily pertinent to the second question of the study, which examines how writing found poetry might support transactional relationships between readers and texts. The autobiography inquired into memories of specific home and school literacy experiences.

The students answered a series of six open-ended prompts: two about their literacy history, three about their current literacy attitudes and interests, and one about their future literacy goals. Like Manna and Misheff (1987), I asked my students “to retrace and examine in writing their development as readers from their earliest memories of print to their most recent reading habits, interests, and experiences” (p. 161). Two of the six prompts, which inquire into the participants’ school reading experiences and their personal reading goals, are pertinent to this study. These prompts are designed to determine how the found poetry writing experience may have impacted reader/text relationships. Part two of the literacy autobiography, which served as a take-home final, consists of six prompts. Three of the prompts, which inquire into the evolution of the participants’ relationship with poetry and reading, as well as their views toward using found poetry with future students, are pertinent to this study. The prompts are designed to uncover the evolution of the students’ relationships with poetry and reading during the course and how the found poetry writing experience may have impacted that evolution.

Third data set. The third data source makes up the bulk of the data analyzed for this study. During the last meeting of the course in week ten, students were asked to complete an in-class written reflection upon their experience of writing the found poem

(See Appendix G). Twenty-four students participated, but one student answered only one prompt. As well, the number of respondents for each question ranged from 21 to 24. The

reflection consists of three main sections, each designed to probe different aspects of the

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guiding research question: What happens when prospective teachers write found poetry using young adult literature? A fourth “Open-Ended Response” section invited participants to note anything about the found poetry writing experience not covered by the rest of the questions. Only two students wrote in this section. The primary purpose of collecting the written reflections upon the found poetry writing experience is to inquire into how that experience may have impacted students’ poetry writing experiences and transactional reading relationships, as well as their attitudes and confidence toward teaching poetry writing to their future students.

In the first section of the written reflection, “Writing the Found Poem,” participants were given four prompts. The first prompt asked how they felt about the actual process of writing the found poem, and the second prompt asked how they felt about the final poem. The third prompt asked participants to compare the experience to other poetry writing experiences, and the fourth prompt asked students if and why the experience shifted any of their feelings about poetry. Finally, participants were invited to share additional comments about their writing experiences. The prompts are designed to inquire into how the poetry writing process may have impacted the writing efforts of the novice poets. This section of the reflection is specifically directed at the first research question, which examines how writing found poetry might support novice poets.

In the second section of the written reflection, “Transactional Relationship with the Text,” participants were given three prompts. They were asked if and how the writing process impacted: (1) their relationship with the text; (2) their awareness of the text and its contributions to the reading experience; and (3) their reflection upon the reading experience. In particular, I endeavored to inquire into how the process of writing the

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found poem may have impacted readers’ partnership with the text chosen for the poem.

This section of the reflection is specifically directed at the second research question, which examines how writing found poetry might support transactional reading relationships between readers and texts.

Finally, in the third section of the written reflection, “Teaching Poetry Writing in the Future,” participants were given two prompts relating to how they viewed the poetry writing experience in terms of their attitudes and confidence toward teaching their future students to write poetry. Participants were asked to rate how likely they would be to include found poetry writing experiences in their future classrooms: very likely; somewhat likely; somewhat un-likely; and very un-likely, as well as to explain their rationale for the choice. Next, the participants were asked to describe their confidence level around teaching poetry writing in future classrooms and whether or not (and why) that sense of confidence had changed during the quarter. I primarily sought to inquire into how the poetry writing process may have impacted prospective teachers’ confidence around teaching poetry to their future students. This section of the reflection is specifically directed at the third research question, which examines how writing found poetry might support prospective teachers of poetry.

Before turning to an explanation of the data analysis procedures, I offer justification for the choice of reflective writing as the primary source of data for this study. John Dewey (1938/1998) views reflection upon experience as a key foundational requisite for thinking and learning. The father of Experiential Education defines reflection as “the discernment of the relation between what we try to do and what happens in consequence. No experience having a meaning is possible without some

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element of thought” (p. 144-145). Dewey proposes that reflecting upon experience allows one to discover the connection between an activity and the consequences of that activity.

It is through reflection that one makes meaning from experience (Stevens, Emil, &

Yamashita, 2010, p. 351). Written reflection upon experience can serve as a learning tool for students and as a research tool for teachers.

First, as a tool to support learning, reflective writing can play a significant role in the literature classroom. Christian Knoeller (2003) views this genre as a “nearly indispensable tool for learning,” explaining that when readers respond imaginatively to a reading experience, the creative writing process may reveal “complex interpretive insights” (p. 48). Reflecting in writing upon this response process enables students to explore interpretive insights, creating a “bridge from the creative to the interpretive”

(Knoeller, 2003, p. 44). Two teacher educators provide examples of classroom reflective practices. Cheryl Rosaen (2003) prepares her preservice teachers for the diverse cultures of their future classrooms by asking them to write poetry, followed by a written reflection upon their poetic experiences. Rosaen considers these reflective pieces to be “a helpful source of information about how the students experienced the participatory spaces created” (p. 1463). Michelann Parr (2005/2006) uses reflection as a learning tool with her preservice teachers as part of her approach to experiential learning. She believes that one must know in order to teach, and the path to this knowing is through doing, followed by reflection upon what has been done. One of the participants in this study articulates the role that reflection plays in her teacher preparation: “I learn a lot about the teacher I want to be when I reflect on my own reading experiences and hear those of others” (Kat,

Literacy Autobiography Part 1). In this study, reflective writing is employed as a learning

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tool to support students in understanding their poetry writing and transactional reading experiences.

Second, as a tool to support research, reflective writing is used in the educational

community as a method of qualitative inquiry. Specifically, reflective writing is

recognized as a qualitative method of data collection (Duncan, 2004). According to van

Manen (1990), human experiences comprise the data of human science research, and the

most direct method for investigating the nature of experience is to ask individuals to write

those experiences down. When teachers listen to students’ explanations of thinking about

learning experiences and then adjust their instruction accordingly, reflection becomes a

tool of research (Duckworth, 1986). I have utilized reflective writing throughout my

teaching career as a means of understanding and supporting the nature of my students’

learning experiences. As such, reflective writing serves as an integral component of my

research paradigm. In this study, reflective writing is employed as a research tool to

inquire into the role found poetry may have played in supporting novice poets and their

poetry pedagogy, as well as their transactional reading relationships.

Data Analysis

In keeping with Peter Smagorinsky’s (2008) recommendation to tie data

management procedures to a study’s theoretical framework, the Transactional Theory has

been affixed to each stage of the dissertation process, including that of data analysis.

Rosenblatt (2004) recommends using content analysis when examining transactions

between readers and texts. Therefore, a general content analysis approach was used to

qualitatively analyze and code the three data sets for emerging themes (Glaser & Strauss,

1967; Krippendorff, 2004; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Thematic analysis is a commonly

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accepted form of data analysis in the social science field (Roulston, 2001). Qualitative researchers use coding as a method to “fracture” the data, which frees the thematic analyst from simply describing the data and moves interpretation to a more abstract level

(Strauss, 1987, p. 55). The researcher achieves this abstract level when relationships and patterns are uncovered in the data (Krippendorff, 2004). Such relationships and patterns may be understood as themes that emerge from the data analysis. Max van Manen (1990) defines theme as “the form of capturing the phenomenon one tries to understand; theme describes an aspect of the structure of lived experience” (p. 87). A thematic content analysis of the data was conducted to gain an understanding of the nature of participant experience during the found poetry writing activity.

Thematic networks tool. Data analysis is a “process of making sense out of data”

(Merriam, 1998, p. 192). Jennifer Attride-Stirling’s (2001) thematic networks tool was used to make sense out of the dissertation data. This functional tool can aid qualitative researchers in both conducting and organizing thematic analyses. According to Attride-

Stirling, constructing a thematic network involves mapping out three classes of themes.

First, Basic Themes are identified, which are simple principles characterized by the data.

Next, similar categories of Basic Themes are clustered together into Organizing Themes.

Finally, these Organizing Themes are grouped together into a single Global Theme.

Global Themes are “super-ordinate themes that encompass the principal metaphors in the data as a whole” (p. 389). Each Global Theme, along with its accompanying Organizing and Basic Themes, constitutes a thematic network. Once a thematic network is constructed, it serves as a tool with which to organize and illustrate the data analysis and

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interpretation. Thematic networks are represented graphically as webs, providing the qualitative researcher with a visual representation of the key patterns found in the data.

Conducting a thematic networks analysis involves six distinct steps within three broad analytical stages (Attride-Stirling, 2001). The first stage reduces the text, the second stage explores the text, and the third stage integrates the text. The six steps for employing the thematic networks analysis are listed as follows: 1) code material; 2) identify themes; 3) construct thematic networks; 4) describe and explore thematic networks; 5) summarize thematic networks; 6) interpret patterns. Each step in the overall data analysis process involves an increasingly abstract level of analysis. The following section presents a detailed examination of each step in the thematic networks process.

During the first step of data reduction, the material is coded. This step is managed by devising “a coding framework” based on the theory framing the research questions.

The framework is then used to dissect the text into segments. This first step was actually accomplished during the data design stage. The three components of the research question, as well as the conceptual issues related to each, were used as a coding framework with which to dissect the written reflection into three major sections, reflecting the individual prompts. Each prompt represents a “meaningful and manageable” segment of discrete data (Attride-Stirling, 2001, p. 391).

During the second step of data reduction, themes are identified. The researcher extracts the “salient, common or significant themes in the coded text segments” (Attride-

Stirling, 2001, p. 392). Two processes were used to accomplish this second step. First, themes were color-coded with highlights on the computer files of transcribed data. Next, the themes were also color-coded on printed copies of the data using felt tip colored pens.

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Using two methods allowed different patterns in the data to surface, whether the researcher was reading data on a screen or on paper. The themes were then compared and any discrepancies were rectified. After the themes are identified, the researcher refines the themes by selecting themes that are “specific enough to be discrete…and broad enough to encapsulate a set of ideas contained in numerous text segments” (p. 392).

During the third step of data reduction, thematic networks are constructed through an iterative process of arranging and rearranging themes into similar, unifying groups. This third step was accomplished by capturing thematic patterns found within the three data sets. One thematic network was created for each of the two conceptual issues pertaining to the three research questions, yielding a total of six thematic networks. Each network was constructed on a dry-erase board using different colors for the Organizing Themes and their attendant Basic Themes. The reduction of data is an in-depth, multi-stage process resulting in the creation of thematic networks (Attride-Stirling, 2001).

Once the first stage of text reduction has been completed, the researcher moves on to the second stage, which involves the exploration of text. During the fourth step in the analytical process, the researcher describes and explores the contents of each network.

The description is supported with text segments, and the exploration notes the appearance of underlying patterns. These descriptive and exploratory processes actually took the thematic networks through many iterative evolutions until all three levels of themes accurately represented the data findings. For purposes of validity, once each final network was achieved, the data analysis and original data were reread to verify the integrity of the networks. After describing and exploring the networks, the researcher proceeds to the fifth step, during which the researcher summarizes the networks. The

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summary process identified the key thematic patterns for each network, which presented a succinct and explicit accounting of these representative patterns. During the sixth step in the analytical process, the textual exploration is integrated. The aim of the researcher during this step is to “return to the original research questions and the theoretical interests underpinning them, and address these with arguments grounded on the patterns that emerged in the exploration of the texts” (p. 394). This final step consisted of interpreting patterns within and across all of the networks. If a researcher follows all six analytical steps, she is rewarded with the coalescence of the motivating theory, the guiding questions, and the data analysis (Attride-Stirling, 2001).

The researcher made the decision to record any theme mentioned by three or more respondents in the report on the findings. A cut off had to be made somewhere, and as three responses yields a percentage greater than 10%, regardless of the differing number of responses to each prompt, it was decided that this number constitutes a meaningful set worth recording. Occasionally themes with just one or two respondents are included because they are mentioned elsewhere in the data as significant themes. A reader of this research report might wonder at one aspect of this researcher’s thematic coding. Perhaps if one group of the respondents reflected about an experience in one manner, then the reader might wonder how the other part of the group responded. Does the finding from the first group imply that the others take a different view? The answer is no. Rather, it simply means that the other respondents didn’t address that same particular theme.

Following, an empirical example of the thematic coding process is provided. This sample is taken from the Written Reflection Part B Question 3. The participant answers are transcribed in random order. A colored key is provided below for the coding scheme.

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Empirical example of the thematic coding process.

Written Reflection Part B Question Three:

Did the process of writing the found poem impact your reflection over your reading experience?

I realized how much more I actually liked the book. I also liked being able to pick which book I wanted to go back and look at . Teri

The ideas I gained from the text shifted from simply existing within the work itself to feeling more like it applied in the real world . Tyler

It’s a different way to take away what I learned from the novel or what stood out to me. It’s so many words that hold a strong relationship to the novel . Sally

You have to reflect on what you read and what really impacted your experience reading so you could apply it to the poem. Morgan

It allowed me to reflect on one part of the novel and realize that section’s importance to the rest of the story . Mitch

Found poetry, like traditional analysis, explores the text on a deeper level than is possible through the 1 st read . Both activities give the reader a greater understanding of the text by simply revisiting it. Mike

It improved it for me . Lida

The writing process really improved my experience . I really loved the book to begin with, but absolutely adored it after the poem. I am not a poetry person, yet was proud of the results of my found poem . Since I was only able to write the poem with the help of quotes from the book, my appreciation/love for the book grew exponentially. Kristy

I realized that certain things stuck with me for longer than I thought. I originally only liked the book a little so I though that I wouldn’t remember a lot of things after putting the book down but writing the poem was so easy that many things must have stuck. Kendra

I think it really made me reflect. I am the kind of reader who reads, then puts the book away and moves on to the next one but this made me stop and really dive back into the book . Kim

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It helped me find my favorite parts of the book and dig further into it . Kristen

It impacted my reflection because when I saw certain words I thought of different themes that could stand for the novel. Kelly

Through my choices of lines to use in my poem , I realized what parts of the story meant the most to me, and how the story really impacted me and helped me to grow as a reader and as a person. Jenny

Found poetry allows the reader to interpret thoughts and interpretations of the text not as a whole (which could be overwhelming) but in bits and pieces that are a part of the big picture . I think this helped me reflect more deeply on an issue that I focused on . Clarissa

I read Shine by Lauren Myracle. I loved it and felt a strong connection even though I’m very different than the character. Reading more and writing the found poem caused me to reflect on several things in the story rather than just the main idea. Now when I reflect on it, I recall every relationship in the book . Barb

I initially loved the book because of the romance of it all. After considering what I might like to write about , I began reflecting on the more subtle relationships between characters, which I found to be far more enticing than the original, overbearing first impression that I had . Belinda

Yes, because I wrote the found poem, I remember elements of the book better. The poem made me consider the art of the book and of my poem which helped me love and understand the book even better. Amber

I enjoyed going back through the book and reflecting in the process. Writing a found poem can be even more effective than a paper because it’s a way to get students engaged, but the method is disguised as actually fun and creative . Who is to say that learning can’t be enjoyable ? Allie

Yes, because it had me go through the section I used for the found poem again and notice things I might have missed the first time I read it . Annie

I did like that I got to focus on one aspect/character of the book . This book will stick with me more because of it. Abby

Yes, I felt more involved with the text. Madison

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Participants who left the prompt blank Carla Kat Steve

Coding Scheme active phrases/agency in supporting the process of reflection promoted personal connection to/involvement with the text positively impacted feelings for the text enriched understanding of the text supported memory of the text caused a new realization general improvement of reflection upon reading experience appreciation of ability to focus on whatever choose to comments on poem/poetry writing process comments on words for poem quality of impact made by the found poetry writing process

5: narrowing 4: deepening 2: extending 1: widening

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Data Trustworthiness

The concept of trustworthiness refers to efforts on the part of the qualitative researcher to “address the more traditional quantitative issues of validity” (Bloomberg &

Volpe, 2008, p. 85). Trustworthiness involves a basic question: “How can an inquirer persuade his or her audiences (including self) that the findings of an inquiry are worth paying attention to, worth taking account of?” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 290). This challenge of persuasion is not insurmountable to qualitative researchers; a number of practices are available for ensuring that a study’s findings are as unbiased and reliable as possible. The inferential act undergirds qualitative research: Content analysts draw inferences from data, and researchers infer answers to their research questions

(Krippendorff, 2004). According to Creswell and Miller (2000), validity in qualitative inquiry pertains to these inferences, or interpretations, drawn from data.

Rosenblatt’s (1978/1994) Transactional Theory argues that many valid interpretations of a single text are possible. The same text may evoke unique works of art for different readers because each reader brings a particular set of lived experiences to each textual encounter: “This leads to rejection of the notion that there is a single

‘correct’ reading of the text of a literary work of art” (Rosenblatt, 1985b, p. 36). Miles and Huberman (1984) situate Rosenblatt’s view of interpretation within the context of qualitative data analysis, arguing that “no single conclusion or explanation can be unequivocally established” (p. 22). Susan Walsh (2006), who creates found poetry out of group meeting transcripts, embodies this transactional view of interpretation: “I resymbolize what occurred in the group according to my own life and experiences. I cannot do otherwise. There is no one true account of what happened and how it affected

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each, or any, of us” (p. 990). The transactional paradigm is reflected in the interpretive process of the dissertation data analysis. As such, this reader acknowledges that the reading of the dissertation data, like the reading of any text, is situated within this particular researcher’s lived experiences at this moment in time.

While every text offers a unique reading experience to every reader, this circumstance does not rule out responsible reading; some evocations may be considered more defensible than others (Karolides, 1999, 2005; Rosenblatt, 1995). Moreover, it is possible to have an inadequate interpretation of an evoked work (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994).

Even though research data, like literary texts, are open to multiple interpretations, Miles and Huberman (1984) stress that researchers must work to ensure that these conclusions are reasonable; indeed, data analysts must be confident that “another researcher facing the data would reach a conclusion that falls in the same general ‘truth space’” (p. 22).

They add that the researcher must “carry the burden of proof that the patterns found [in the data] are representative, and not merely personal choices” (p. 28). To meet this obligation, the researcher has followed a number of practices to promote trustworthiness, practices which are thoroughly explicated below.

Triangulation is a validity procedure whereby the researcher seeks congruence across multiple information sources (Creswell & Miller, 2000). Two sets of dissertation data were gathered in the researcher’s Literature for Adolescents course during 2012: one in the winter quarter and one in the spring quarter. The spring data set comprises the primary dissertation data that was qualitatively analyzed using Attride-Stirling’s (2001) thematic networks tool. The winter data set comprises the secondary dissertation data

(See Appendix H for the reflective writing prompt) that was used to triangulate the

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primary data set. Congruence across these two data sources was sought in order to establish validity (Creswell & Miller, 2000). The secondary data set was analyzed first, so as not to influence its ability to validate the findings of the primary data set. A comparison between the findings of both data sets is presented in Chapter 4. Two sets of post-dissertation data are also briefly reviewed in Chapter 4 to further ensure validation.

Arts-based researchers take a unique view of triangulation. Richardson (2000c) argues that in post-modernist mixed-genre texts, “we do not triangulate; we crystallize ”

(p. 934, emphasis in original). While the concept of crystallization is by no means in

binary opposition to that of triangulation, it does expand “methodological triangulation

into multigenre crystallizations” (Ellingson, 2008, p. 23). Richardson proposes the

metaphor of a crystal for considering complex issues of qualitative trustworthiness

situated within a postmodern framework: “[Crystallization] combines symmetry and

substance with an infinite variety of shapes, substances, transmutations,

multidimensionalities, and angles of approach” (Richardson & St. Pierre, 2008, p. 478).

Just as a crystal has many facets, so too does a qualitative researcher have many angles

for approaching the trustworthiness of a study.

With regard to trustworthiness, Lincoln and Guba (1985) challenge: “What

arguments can be mounted, what criteria invoked, what questions asked, that would be

persuasive on this issue?” (p. 290). In an effort to address this challenge through the

process of crystallization, the researcher has incorporated a number of methodological

facets: multiple writing genres involving poetic representation of the thematic findings;

thick description of the research design and data management procedures; systematic use

of a rigorous data analysis tool; and numerous processes for reducing bias, including the

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recognition of the social nature of text production and an extensive engagement in researcher reflexivity around bias and identity. In an effort to legitimize the study findings, this researcher addresses trustworthiness through the method of crystallization.

Multiple writing genres. One approach for accommodating the arts in qualitative inquiry is to incorporate multiple genres of writing in the research report (Richardson,

2000c). Poetry is one example of an alternative artistic genre that may be used in combination with other more traditional genres of academic writing (Carr, 2003; Hall,

2001). Found data poems are utilized in this study as a poetic form of crystallization. Just as literary poets use language to illuminate and crystallize life experience (Abercrombie,

1926; Gannon, 2001; McKim & Steinbergh, 1983; Willis, 2002), so too, research poets

use language to illuminate and crystallize participant experience (Furman et al., 2007).

Poetically representing data can affect the conclusions drawn from research findings,

“linking method to meaning and adding rigor to narrative analysis” (Poindexter, 2002a, p.

72). In following the lead of Anne Sullivan (2000b), this research poet employs a process

of mindful poem-shaping that acts simultaneously as both interpretation and illustration

of the significant themes in the research data. Lynne Butler-Kisber et al. (2002-2003)

model how experimentation with “artful analytic approaches” to data analysis and

representation can enhance the trustworthiness of qualitative researchers’ work: “We

were able to see and show our work in new ways, and from different perspectives. We

were also pushed to be more specific and transparent in explaining our work to others.

We became more aware, reflective and accountable” (p. 159-160). Chapter 4 presents

thematic found data poems that were created from the words of study participants in

order to seek congruence across multiple forms of data representation.

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Thick description. Thick description of the study design and procedures, especially with reference to the themes that emerge from data analysis, can also assist in establishing trustworthiness (Creswell & Miller, 2000). Rich detail “creates verisimilitude, statements that produce for the readers the feeling that they have experienced, or could experience, the events being described in a study” (Creswell &

Miller, 2000, p. 129). To meet the mandate for thick description, a detailed account of the study procedures and data management methods has been included in this chapter.

Furthermore, Chapter 4 presents a meticulous accounting of the thematic findings.

Rigorous data analysis tool. Research data should be as unbiased as possible. As in other branches of research, Creswell (2008) calls for objectivity in social science research. Attride-Stirling (2001) defines objectivity as the absence of interpretation.

However, qualitative data analysis is nothing if not grounded in the subjective interpretation of findings. It must be acknowledged that qualitative data analysis is necessarily subjective, owing to the fact that such data is collected by human beings about human beings (LeCompte, 2000). Moreover, that data is then analyzed and interpreted by human beings. Indeed, one of the primary motivations for using the qualitative method is to “bring to light the meaning, richness and magnitude of the subjective experience of social life” (Attride-Stirling, 2001, p. 403). It is for this reason that research poets resist the mandate for scientific objectivity: “To be a poet means to live in the world of the subjective” (Furman et al., 2006, p. 39). Adrie Kusserow (2008), a professor of anthropology and sociology, uses the poetic form to write about “what can’t be statistically counted or scientifically verified except through simile and metaphor” (p.

74). Her poetry is an attempt to “call into question the objective science,” which the

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academy purportedly practices on human subjects (p. 75). Allowing for the subjectivity of interpretation and for alternative forms of data representation disrupts the hegemony of a research community that seeks to privilege objectivity in academic research.

The standards for assessing the validity and merit of qualitative research need to rely on criteria other than quantitative aims of objectivity (Attride-Stirling, 2001).

Attride-Stirling describes qualitative data analysis as “highly intuitive” and “theoretically driven” (p. 403). She argues that these characteristics have resulted in a shortage of qualitative interpretive tools, leading to a “gross under-reporting” by researchers of their work during the analytical stage of data management (p. 403). It is for this very reason that she designed her method of thematic data analysis to aid qualitative researchers in their quest to validate research findings. The process of creating thematic networks enables researchers to approach data analysis systematically: “By breaking up the text into clearly defined clusters of themes, the researcher is able to unravel the mass of textual data and make sense of others’ sense-making, using more than intuition” (p. 402).

This rigorous and sophisticated analytical tool delineates explicit procedures for researchers to follow as they move from the textual to the interpretive level of analysis

(Attride-Stirling, 2001). This researcher utilizes Attride-Stirling’s thematic networks tool carefully and systematically in order to draw inferences that are as closely tied to the data as possible. In following the methodological lead of Parsons and Castleman (2011), the researcher seeks to ensure that her “subjectivity was not arbitrary;” that her “inferences were systematic and informed;” and finally, that her “findings were rigorous and reliable”

(p. 8). Toward this end, a comprehensive report is included in Chapter 4 outlining the steps followed in the construction, description and exploration, summarization, and

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integration of the thematic networks, as well as an exhaustive report of the data analysis results in order to comply with the qualitative researcher’s burden of proof. Attride-

Stirling’s rigorous analytical tool has significantly supported the goal of trustworthiness.

Social production of texts. Researchers must recognize that texts are socially produced; the person for whom the writing is intended must be sensitive to possible expectations anticipated by the writers of those texts (Krippendorff, 2004). In light of this possibility, this researcher has worked to minimize any inadvertent influence on the participants’ production of texts. All written documents for data collection are part of the normal classroom requirements. As well, it is the researcher’s pedagogical belief that poetry, as well as autobiographical and reflective writing, should not be graded.

Therefore, in keeping with this teaching philosophy, students were informed at the beginning of the course, and in the letter of consent, that merely completing these assignments satisfied the course evaluation requirements. Additionally, with the exception of the literacy autobiography part two, all assignments collected for data were completed before the research project was ever introduced.

Trustworthiness was most vulnerable when participants completed the written

reflection upon the found poetry writing experience. Therefore, the reflections were

completed in class with no connection to course requirements. Additionally, when

introducing the dissertation research and the reflective writing activity, the researcher

emphasized her interest in capturing an honest portrayal of the students’ personal found

poetry experiences. Finally, as with all of the data collected, it was made clear that

agreeing to have the reflections collected for the research project was entirely voluntary

and had no bearing on course grades. During the data analysis, the researcher endeavored

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to remain actively conscious of the fact that these reflections were socially produced. In fact, encountering negative comments about the found poetry writing experience reinforced the researcher’s belief that in general, the reflections as accurately as possible reflected the participants’ genuine experiences. Through every step of the data planning and collection process, this researcher strove to be sensitive to participant production of texts collected as dissertation data.

Researcher reflexivity. The practice of reflexivity is critical to the work of qualitative researchers, especially in terms of contributing trustworthiness to a study

(Crabtree & Miller, 1992). Reflexivity is a methodological process of learning about one’s research self (Kleinsasser, 2000). The practice of reflexivity “illuminates deeper, richer meanings about personal, theoretical, ethical, and epistemological aspects of the research question” (Kleinsasser, 2000, p. 155). One learns about one’s research self by disclosing the biases, beliefs, and assumptions that inform the study, a process that brings into the researcher’s awareness the myriad of forces that can potentially influence data management techniques (Creswell & Miller, 2000, Poindexter, 2002a). Qualitative researchers need not apologize for these influential forces, but it is incumbent upon them to provide a rigorous and explicit accounting of the role that the self plays in the process of inquiry (Butler-Kisber, 2010). Uniting the practice of reflexivity with the practice of thematic analysis helps researchers to avoid naïve readings of the data (Roulston, 2001).

Investigators who practice reflexivity work to uncover places within the research process where voice and bias are “indelibly inscribed” (Roulston, 2001, p. 281). Marshall and Rossman (2011) recommend that a section of the qualitative research report be devoted to the exploration of positionality, or what they describe as one’s “social

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identities in conducting inquiry, interpreting data, and constructing the final narrative…”

(p. 63). In consideration of the charge to acknowledge the presence of biases (Szto et al.,

2005), the following section is devoted to disclosing the identities that most impact the researcher’s positionality within the study design and methodology. Although “what one believes about teaching and learning is complicated, large-scale, hard to define, and close to the soul” (Duckworth, 1986, p. 486), this researcher nevertheless works to explicate how her identities of teacher researcher, research poet, and transactional practitioner influenced and shaped the data management processes and procedures (Creswell &

Miller, 2000). In the interest of supporting the readability of the following section, the researcher uses the informal pronoun, “I” when referring to her reflexive self.

A primary attribute of my research self is located in my identity as a teacher researcher. Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1996), leaders in the field of teacher research, define investigation by teacher researchers as “systematic and intentional inquiry carried out by teachers” (p. 7). Sometimes referred to as “action research” or “practitioner research,” this form of inquiry has seen increased acceptance as a legitimate method of social science research (Zeichner, 2001). Eleanor Duckworth (1996) explains the unique opportunity afforded to teachers who are concerned with investigating learning:

[T]hrough teaching, one is in a position to pursue questions about the development of understanding that one could not pursue in any other way. If as a researcher one is interested in how people build their understanding, then the way to gain insight is to watch them do it, and try to make sense of it as it happens. (p. 490)

Viewing the teacher as researcher blurs the boundary between these dual identities

(Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). Susan Koukis (2010), who conducted her dissertation study as a teacher researcher in her own ninth grade English classroom, asserts that for

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the researcher practitioner, “theory and practice are inseparable, and the boundary between the two dissolves” (p. 72). While some education scholars may consider the association between theory and practice to be contradictory, Rosenblatt herself never countenanced this dichotomy (Allen, 1991; Hallin, 1995); each significantly contributes to the research agenda. Indeed, a mutually conditioning cycle of practice and research is integral to the paradigm of teacher research. Margaret Anzul (1993) illustrates: “My work as a teacher powered my research and my work as a researcher cast new light on my teaching…every aspect of my work reflected off of and enriched all the others” (p. 201).

Like Anzul, this study’s research agenda grew organically out of my teaching practice.

This dissertation research is firmly situated in the desire to systematically investigate one of my key pedagogical practices. Just like Rosenblatt (1978/1994, 1993b) herself, it is my teaching experience that has informed me of the essentiality of readers’ personal encounters with texts. Over the past four years of teaching children’s and young adult literature courses at The Ohio State University, I have asked my students to write found poetry using the texts they read. According to writers for the National Capital

Language Resource Center, classroom-based research is conducted by teachers:

…in order to reflect upon and evolve their teaching. It is a systematic, documented inquiry into one aspect of teaching and learning in a specific classroom. The purpose of teacher research is to gain understanding of teaching and learning within one’s classroom and to use that knowledge to increase teaching efficacy/student learning. Reflective teachers do this every day, only not as carefully and systematically. (Chamot, Barnhardt, & Dirstine, 1998, p. 2)

My deep interest in how found poetry might support novice poets, as well as how found

poetry might support readers in their transactional relationships with texts, has developed

out of my ongoing reflective practice about the poetry writing activities in my classroom.

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As a teacher researcher, my goal for this dissertation research is to enlighten my own pedagogical practices for writing poetry and reading literature with students, as well as to contribute to the body of research on the transactional model of reading.

Another primary attribute of my research self is located in my identity as a

research poet. Arts-based researchers call for the expansion of how we define research in

order to create space for aesthetic activity (Finley & Knowles, 1995). Anne Sullivan

(2000b) entreats researchers not to overlook the potential role the artist may play alongside the traditional role of scientist in educational research. Brady (2004) coined the term “ artful-science ” to describe ethnographic research that combines “humanistic and scientific design” (p. 622, emphasis in original). Experimenting with both the artistic and scientific use of language puts research poets at the intersection of creative and critical discourses (Leggo, 2008, 2009). Laurel Richardson (2000c), a pioneer in arts-based research, advocates for the mixing of writing genres in academic writing. Scholars do not have to be restricted by the false binary of either scientific or artistic writing; rather, arts- based researchers can break boundaries by merging these two genres. Poetry is one form of artistic writing that may be used in combination with other more traditional genres of academic writing (Carr, 2003; Hall, 2001). I adopt the positionality of artful scientist in this dissertation research.

Composing research found poetry integrates my research self with my poet self

(Richardson, 1992). In particular, I am a writer of found poetry composed from my

research data. Found data poems naturally fuse science and art; the artistry of the poem

grows directly out of the scientific material. Poetically rendered data can uncover and

illuminate research findings (de Beer, 2003; Willis, 2002) because poetry allows the

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researcher to use an “artist’s eye” (Finley & Knowles, 1995, p. 140) in order to “see beyond the veil of data” (Richardson, 1993, p. 702), yielding “new and important insights” (Butler-Kisber, 2002, p. 235). The integration of art and science can help education researchers to avoid “methodological monism” through the “binocular vision” of the artistic and the scientific (Eisner, 1981, p. 9). Carl Leggo’s (2005) identity deeply resonates with my own: “I am a poet and a teacher, and my poetry informs my teaching, and my teaching informs my poetry” (p. 177). I would add that poetry informs my research, and my research informs my poetry. Therefore, the three fluid identities of teacher, researcher, and poet underpin this study.

The third attribute of my research self is located in my identity as a transactional practitioner. It is incumbent upon teacher researchers to acknowledge that their research designs and methodologies are strongly influenced by their ideological and pedagogical frameworks (Baumann & Duffy-Hester, 2002). Methodology is “the theory behind the method” or the “philosophical framework” of the research (van Manen, 1990, p. 27). The theory behind this study’s method is Louise Rosenblatt’s Transactional Theory of the

Literary Work (1978/1994, 1995). For teacher researchers specifically, methodology involves the “beliefs about the world of teaching, learning, children, and the classroom life” (Baumann & Duffy-Hester, 2002, p. 2). This teacher researcher sincerely believes that students become readers by engaging in significant transactional experiences with texts. A variety of theories and methodologies are available to researchers who seek to investigate the world of reading. Those theories in which teachers can recognize “truths that match their own experiences” can have a “deep and pervading influence on teachers’

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thinking and practice” (Early, 1982, p. 200). The Transactional Theory matches the truth of this teacher researcher’s own personal and professional experiences with literature.

Theory and practice are deeply intertwined. Theory shapes classroom practice:

“…a carefully conceived theory, even before it is affirmed by research data, influences classroom practices” (Early, 1982, p. 201). Specifically, teachers’ theoretical beliefs regarding the nature of reader/text relations have a strong influence on their literacy pedagogy and practices (Dressman & Webster, 2001; Pantaleo, 1994; Willinsky, 1998).

In her role as a “theorist practitioner,” Rosenblatt viewed the classroom as a site where both theory and practice would mutually inform the other (Salvatori, 1991). During an interview with Louise Rosenblatt, Nicholas Karolides (1999) asks the transactional theorist about the relationship between theory and practice. Rosenblatt explains her view on the subject as follows: “Students don’t need theory. It’s the teacher who needs to assimilate the theory in order to act on it…Theory should help us provide the conditions, the contexts, that will foster growth toward competent reading” (p. 166). Above all, the theorist hoped to influence actual teaching, and the way she accomplished this goal was to explicate the theoretical basis for her transactional approach to reading (Karolides,

1999). The Transactional Theory has shaped my own philosophy around literacy pedagogy and practices (Clifford, 1991). Along with Clifford, I believe this esteemed theorist and pedagogitist “deserves as much credit as we can bestow” for giving us a

“theoretical ground for our pedagogical practice” (p. 21).

Sound theory is essential to effective practice (Beach, 1993; Lehman, 2007;

Rosenblatt, 1995; Sloan, 2002). Rosenblatt (1999) endeavored to enable teachers to enact patterns of instruction that support students in advancing “toward increased ability to

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transact with texts” (p. 168). Her theory has enabled me to enact my own patterns of instruction that foster transactional reading relationships between readers and texts.

Above all, my teaching practices seek to respect the transactional nature of reading (Dias,

1992). The Transactional Theory is evident in virtually every aspect of the dissertation’s design and methodology. For example, readers are encouraged to select the text and reading experience that they would most like to revisit for their found poem, rather than all students being required to use the same text. Additionally, the art of found poetry is taught at the end of the course so that the search for words does not interfere with the transactional encounter. My classroom experiences with the transactional model of reading have influenced and directed my research interests, and in keeping with the iterative cycle of inquiry and instruction, my research has influenced my pedagogy and practice. Thus, the Transactional Theory exerts a powerful influence on this study’s philosophical framework and research paradigms.

Data Representation

Poetry offers the arts-based researcher an alternative form to traditional prose representations of data, one that is both artistic and unconventional. Chapter 2 of this dissertation presents a review of the studies on research poetry. At the conclusion of this review, a note of caution is offered to the research poet with regard to justifying the inclusion of research poetry in scholarly writing (Eisner, 1997b; Richardson, 2000c). The research poet is charged with explaining her creative methods (Furman et al., 2006). In light of this admonition, the researcher considers it prudent to make her academic and artistic choices transparent (Butler-Kisber, 2010; Walsh, 2006). Therefore, a detailed description is offered of the steps followed to create an empirical example of a found data

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poem. This poem (reprinted below from Chapter 4) represents themes derived from the participants’ answers to question one of the written reflection part B, which asks: Did the

process of writing the found poem impact your relationship with the text?

Poetic methodology. With regard to the data representation activity, two

questions are posed and answered. The first question asked is: What process was

followed to create the found data poem? Initially, I read back through the raw data, as

well as the results of the thematic analysis, in order to refresh my memory. Then, I mined

the data in search of “nuggets,” highlighting those representative words and phrases that

illustrated key thematic patterns (Butler-Kisber, 2002; Furman et al., 2006; Meyer, 2008;

Walsh, 2006; Wiggins, 2011). I transcribed the identified words into a Microsoft Word

document. Next, I began the iterative practice of combining and moving around words,

all the while paying close attention to poetic devices such as alliteration, rhythm, and

sound. I read each incantation of the poem aloud, striving for the perfect placement of

words and line breaks in the effort to “get at the essence” of what I was attempting to

recount in the data (Butler-Kisber, 2005, p. 97). Finally, I stepped away from the poem.

Returning with fresh eyes resulted in the revision of three stanzas. Like Butler-Kisber,

my poetic writing process was discursive rather than linear, yielding an “embodied form

of text that represents feelings and essences expressed in the poetic form” (p. 97).

The second question asked with regard to the data representation activity is: What

can poetry accomplish better than prose? Or, what is known in poetry that is unknown in

prose (Eisner, 1997b; Richardson, 2000c)? In writing about the figure a poem makes,

Robert Frost (1967) observes: “For me the initial delight is in the surprise of

remembering something I didn’t know I knew” (p. vi). The poetic process blends the

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science of thematic analysis with the art of poetry writing (Furman et al., 2010). This blended writing process serves to illuminate themes that may be missed in more traditional forms of data analysis and representation. The poetic element of compression can aid the qualitative arts-based researcher in reducing data, which contributes to the process of thematic illumination (Furman et al., 2006). Writing poems as part of the

“interpretive act of theme-building” highlights patterns in the data that otherwise might remain hidden among the verbosity of prose (Furman et al., 2010, p. 70). For example, the found data poem below contains 48 words (50 including the title), which was

condensed down from a data segment containing 703 words written by 16 respondents.

Consequently, poetic compression can provide the research poet with an artistic tool with

which to unveil essential thematic patterns in qualitative data.

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Empirical example of a found data poem.

Poetry’s Power

Go back Dig Dive

Back into questions And speculations

Revisit Reread Relive

Relationships and Friendships

Spend a second Seeing another angle Of surprise

Find a New Way

To imagine Critical dimensions

Discover Beautiful Art

Take on a voice Take on a vision

Write the truth Of your Bond

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Following the lead of Souter (2005), who includes a portion of her transcribed interview to help illustrate the creative process behind a sample poetic transcription, the written reflections that contributed words for the sample found data poem are presented below. The words “found” for the poem are underlined, providing a visible link with which to trace the original source of the words. While common words, such as conjunctions, have also been underlined in order to document that every word from the poem is represented in the data, these words carry no significant thematic meaning.

Poetry’s power lies in its very personal character. Found poems allow the reader to take the text and experience it on a personal level inherent in poetry.

It made me go back through the book and look at the character and the character’s thoughts. After pulling text from the book and putting it all together I was surprised with what I came up with and I was able to see the character in a new way.

The process of writing the found poem impacted my relationship with the text because I had to dig back into the text to think about themes because that was the focus I wanted in my poem.

I enjoyed reading the book and didn’t want it to end. Creating the poem gave me another reason to dive back into the book.

I already had a relationship after my first read. However, after reading it again, the thoughts and feelings I had during certain portions of the book deepened and were speculated . I questioned how I read it the first time, and then returned to those portions and thought about my reading experience again, which strengthened my relationship with the text.

The poem allowed me to revisit how the book talked about truth , and how each character handled the same truth – and made it more real to me. It reinforced the plot points and important features I had read, which helped me to understand.

I found greater depths in the character I chose to write my [ tense changed to “your ” in found poem for poetic purposes ] found poem about. The character already intrigued me, but by giving him a second look, I had a better idea of how exactly he felt, or perhaps didn’t feel.

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When writing the found poem, I went back and reread parts of the novel that most impacted me. It was great to re-engage in this experience and relive the most profound aspects of the book. When writing the actual poem out of selected phrases, I found a new meaning or a new dimension to the text I already loved. I was able to take on a new perspective and look at the same text from another angle .

It allowed me to better understand the relationship between the two characters that I was trying to illustrate with the poetry. As I searched, my initial idea for the poem changed and developed into a dual-voice poem, reflecting the love and friendship between two characters. I would not have realized the depth of their relationship had I not worked to find it through the found poetry.

The found poem made me spend more time with the text and really think about the character who I had decided to write about.

It helped me to revisit the text and see deeper into it. It allowed me to merge my own creativity with the author’s vision for the book. It also made me feel imaginative and better understand the text than if I were to write a bland paper.

I found it [writing a found poem] enriched my understanding and caused me to think critically and creatively about the text. I drew a new understanding from the text through this process.

It did because it forced me to go back through the book. I chose a specific relationship in the book that I felt a connection with and in searching through, I discovered way more on the relationship than I ever thought there was. It made my connection with the relationship even stronger.

By taking the voice of the characters in the story in order to write the poem, I was able to learn more from it and empathize with the characters in it over the events that occurred. I definitely feel like I have a deeper relationship with the text after writing the found poem…I also was more aware at how artistic and beautiful the text was.

I was able to relate more to the character whose voice I took on in my poem. I was able to get to know her better on a deeper level.

It was more of a bond between the book and I. When I remember the book I will remember the poem.

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Poetic elements may contribute to the process of thematic illumination. Such elements can also act as poetic tools with which to enhance the depiction of themes (Carr,

2003). Arranging data by utilizing the poetic devices of stanza and line breaks, as well as white space, unearths essential themes (Furman, 2006a). Specifically, creating a cluster of poems around a particular theme helps to express “a range of subtle nuances about a topic,” revealing “dimensions of a theme that might not otherwise be revealed” (Butler-

Kisber & Stewart, 2009, p. 4). Creating the found poems enabled this researcher to view the data with a more nuanced vision. For example, the concluding stanza from the sample found data poem above, “Write the truth/Of your/Bond,” highlights the poem’s role in helping to communicate the experience of the reader’s transactional relationship with a book. Embedded as they were within the participants’ written reflections (as shown below), the thematic impact of the words contained in the original transcribed text was less apparent to this researcher. However, reframed in poetic form (as reprinted below), the found words resonate with one of the most powerful themes from the data:

Transcribed lines from the written reflections:

“I found greater depths in the character I chose to write my found poem about.” “The poem allowed me to revisit how the book talked about truth.” “It was more of a bond between the book and I.”

Last stanza of the sample found data poem:

Write the truth Of your Bond

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Summary

Prose Summary

This dissertation research is a qualitative classroom-based study that investigates what happens when prospective teachers write found poetry using young adult literature.

The primary dissertation research was conducted in the teacher researcher’s Ohio State

University undergraduate course, Literature for Adolescents, in the spring quarter of

2012. A total of twenty-four students consented to participate in the study. The data collected for the dissertation consists of a poetry questionnaire, a two-part literacy autobiography, and an extensive in-class written reflection upon the found poetry writing project. The written reflection is comprised of three main sections, each designed to probe the three core components of the overriding research question. A general content analysis approach was used to qualitatively analyze and code the data for emerging themes. Attride-Stirling’s (2001) thematic networks analytical tool was utilized to create thematic networks.

Research data should be as unbiased as possible; yet, this can be a challenging goal for qualitative researchers whose work is grounded in the subjective analysis of data.

Although the reading of the dissertation data, like the reading of any text, is situated within this particular researcher’s lived experiences at this moment in time, a number of practices were invoked to undergird the study’s trustworthiness through the process of crystallization. Found data poems were created using words of the study participants in order to thematically analyze the data, as well as to seek congruence across multiple forms of data representation.

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Poetic Summary

Recipe for Rosenblatt

Take 24 undergraduate students and one transactional teacher researcher.

Mix together: reading books and writing poetry.

Stir in: written reflections to illuminate experiences.

Separate out: 16 novice poets and 21 prospective poetry teachers.

Bake until dissertation is done.

Mining Metaphor

Fracture the data.

Break it apart into crystals,

illuminate the patterns.

Light up the themes,

caught in the web of words.

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The ABC’s of Reflexivity

Assumptions and Biases Challenge

A myriad of forces indelibly inscribed upon research selves.

The boundaries dissolve between researcher, teacher, poet.

Helping the artful scientist to see beyond the veil of data.

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PREVIEW of the FINDINGS

Bern Porter (1972)

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CHAPTER 4

FINDINGS

Chapter 4 presents a meticulous account of the research findings with the express intention to transport readers into the experiences of the study participants (Creswell &

Miller, 2000). The data was analyzed thematically, an approach which van Manen (1990) describes as the “process of recovering the theme or themes that are embodied and dramatized in the evolving meanings and imagery of the work” (p. 78). Researchers with aesthetic vision search for patterns and relationships in the data of human experience

(Sullivan, 200b). This researcher’s aesthetic vision is oriented toward theme: “Theme gives control and order to our research and writing” (van Manen, 1990, p. 79). The data was thematically coded for commonly occurring patterns: Participants’ answers to each prompt were examined in detail, and words and phrases were highlighted that seemed

“particularly essential or revealing about the phenomenon or experience being described”

(van Manen, 1990, p. 93). The resulting themes, or categories that emerged from the data analysis, became the findings of the investigation (Merriam, 1998). Chapter 4 contains four main sections: 1) tables of thematic results; 2) thematic networks; 3) study findings; and 4) data trustworthiness. The chapter ends with a prose and poetic summary.

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Data Analysis: Thematic Results

As presented in the methodology chapter, Attride-Stirling’s (2001) analytical tool was used to conduct a thematic analysis of the data. Qualitative researchers follow six distinct steps when utilizing this tool: 1) code the material; 2) identify themes;

3) construct thematic networks; 4) describe and explore the thematic networks;

5) summarize the thematic networks; 6) interpret patterns across the thematic networks

(Attride-Stirling, 2001). The results of following the first two steps in the analytical process are presented below in tables organized by data set (See Appendix N for a complete set of comprehensive themes). Although Attride-Stirling carefully delineates detailed procedures for each step of her tool, it is not possible for a qualitative researcher to follow each to the letter. It must be remembered that qualitative data analysis requires

“an intuitive sense of what is going on in the data; trust in the self and the research process; and the ability to remain creative, flexible, and true to the data all at the same time” (Glesne, 2010, p. 16). While endeavoring to conscientiously follow Attride-

Stirling’s instructions throughout the process of reducing, exploring, and integrating the text, this researcher also tried to remain open to unforeseen detours through the data that the construction of the thematic networks made possible. In doing so, the researcher consciously strove to honor van Manen’s (1990) approach to thematic analysis: “Making something of a text or of a lived experience by interpreting its meaning is more accurately a process of insightful invention, discovery or disclosure – grasping and formulating a thematic understanding is not a rule-bound process but a free act of

‘seeing’ meaning” (p. 79). While the thematic networks analytical process supports the systemization of data analysis, the process itself is a highly creative and intuitive one.

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First Data Set: Poetry Questionnaire

As presented in the methodology chapter, 21 out of 24 participants completed the poetry questionnaire. This data set consists of five questions, each designed to uncover differing aspects of the participants’ poetry attitudes and experiences at the beginning of the study.

Table 1: Poetry Questionnaire Question One

Do you consider yourself a poet? 15 Why or why not? 10

(21 respondents) 5

0 Novice Occasional Practicing

Category # % Example Answer Novice Poets 16 76% “No, with a resounding ‘no’” (Steve). Occasional Poets 3 14% “Sometimes enjoy writing poetry, but don’t consider myself particularly talented” (Mike). Practicing Poets 2 10% “Yes. Anyone can be a poet” (Clarissa).

Themes for “Novice Poets”

• 6 (38%) of the novice poets felt inadequate as poets: “Not only do I not particularly enjoy writing poetry, but I have not written anything I would care to call poetry” (Tyler).

• 3 (19%) of the novice poets didn’t feel creative enough to write poetry: “I appreciate good poetry but what I produce is not creative or beautiful” (Amber).

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Table 2: Poetry Questionnaire Question Two

8 How do you feel about poetry in 7 general? 6 5

4 (21 respondents) 3 2 1 0 Negative Neutral Mixed Positive

Category # % Example Answer Mixture of 7 33% “Just like any art, poetry can rock or suck” positive and (Mike). negative feelings. Purely positive 5 24% “I think it [poetry] can be powerful and feelings beautifully written” (Barb). Purely negative 5 24% “I feel like it gets more credit than it deserves. People tend to assume a piece is more meaningful than it really is simply because it may be more open to interpretation” (Tyler). Neutral feelings 4 19% “I don’t mind, but not my favorite thing to read or write” (Annie).

Explanations

• 57% did not report wholly positive feelings toward poetry (mixed + negative).

• 9 (43%) harbored negative feelings toward the analysis of poetry: “It really bothers me when the poem is such a puzzle, it’s nearly impossible to find the hidden meaning unless you’re an expert or something” (Allie).

• 4 (19%) had a clear love/hate relationship with poetry: “Poetry is a love-hate relationship. I love reading verse novels and reading funny poems, but once someone lays a poem in front of me and asks me to interpret it, well forget it” (Kelly).

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Table 3: Poetry Questionnaire Question Three

12 How do you feel about writing poetry? 8 4 (21 respondents) 0

et s ive u t Po er guo Nega m bi or F Am Occasional Poet

Category # % Example Answer Negative toward 15 71% “Poetry is probably the last thing I’d like to writing poetry write” (Morgan).

Occasional poet 3 14% “I enjoy writing poetry, although I don’t do it too often” (Clarissa). Former poet 2 10% “I used to write poetry for fun but not anymore” (Madison). Ambiguous 1 5% “I am rarely at such a loss that I would need answer poetry to describe my feelings” (Tyler).

Explanations for Negative Feelings

• 8 (38%) cited restrictive poetry rules and forms: “I usually struggle with all the poetic rules teachers try to pin on us” (Kristen).

• 6 (29%) felt unqualified to write poetry: “I feel like I’m pretending. Any poems I’ve ever written come off as inauthentic and trying to be deep and meaningful” (Kendra).

• 5 (24%) expressed dissatisfaction with the poetic process and product: “I am not a huge fan b/c I always have a tough time getting started and am never satisfied w/ the outcome!” (Barb).

• 3 (14%): addressed the issue of finding words for a poem: “I am not very creative and struggle to find the right words or phrases to use” (Kristy).

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Table 4: Poetry Questionnaire Question Four

12 10 What are your memorable school 8 experiences with poetry? 6

(21 respondents) 4 2 0 Negative Neutral Mixed Positive

Category # % Example Answer Mixed memories 10 48% “I remember writing a poem about the leaves in fall in the 4 th grade. My teacher liked it and gave it an A. I think that’s when I peaked. It’s been downhill from there” (Kendra). Positive memories 5 24% “I was a poetry editor for a magazine in my high school and that really helped me appreciate writing and reading poetry” (Clarissa). Negative 4 19% “Stress about making it what the teacher said – memories negative” (Abby). Neutral 2 10% I can’t remember much about poetry in school” (Kristy).

Explanations for Negative Memories

• 7 (33%) disliked analysis of poems: “All the poetry I read in school was hard to understand, filled with meanings I was never able to interpret (Morgan).”

• 2 (10%) dissatisfied with poetic rules: “I remember not being able to come up with rhymes and my poems sounding awkward (because I didn’t know anything about meter)” (Steve).

Explanations for Positive Memories

• 7 (33%) liked fun poetry projects and units: “I remember in 7 th grade we wrote a book of poetry…It was a lot of fun” (Madison).

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Table 5: Poetry Questionnaire Question Five

10 8 How do you feel about teaching 6 your future students to write 4 poetry? 2 (21 respondents) 0 Unprepared Lack Positive Confidence

Category # % Example Answer Positive 8 38% “I look forward to teaching poetry” (Kristy). Lack Confidence 7 33% “I feel like I’ll be a fraud. How can I force kids to read poems when I don’t even like it?! I feel like they’ll see right through me” (Kendra). Unprepared 6 29% “It will be an important thing to teach and I think I need to learn more about it myself as well so that I will be able to teach it in a way that my students don’t hate it” (Allie).

Explanations for Lack of Confidence and Preparation

• 10 (48%) of the unconfident and unprepared participants are also prospective poetry teachers

• 4 (19%) wanted to prevent negative poetry attitudes in future students: “I’m worried because I do not want my students to hate poetry, yet I’m excited to learn new ways to teach it without creating that feeling” (Kat).

• 3 (14%) wanted to change their own poetry attitudes to benefit future students: “I want to change the perception of poetry that I have so that my future students will not dread poetry units” (Amber).

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Second Data Set: Literacy Autobiography

As presented in the methodology chapter, 24 out of 24 participants completed the two-part literacy autobiography. Two questions from part one, which inquire into school reading experiences and personal reading goals, as well as three questions from part two, which inquire into the evolution of relationships with poetry and reading, as well as views toward using found poetry with future students, are pertinent to this study.

Table 6: Literary Autobiography Part One Question One

Disliked literary analysis

Disliked testing What are your memorable school experiences with Liked freedom reading? Disliked forced reading

(24 respondents) General negative 0 5 10 15

Category # % Example Answer General 15 63% “I always completed my assignments, but I never really negative enjoyed reading during elementary school” (Belinda). views towards school reading Disliked being 9 38% “My negative experiences with reading in High School forced to read come from being forced to read books I didn’t like. books not Reading something that does not interest you is torture” interested in. (Kat). Liked the 7 29% “In earlier school grades I always enjoyed silent reading freedom to time, especially when we were allowed to choose what choose their we were reading” (Annie). own books Disliked being 5 21% “Because of this system [AR computer tests] reading tested became more of a chore and hassle than something to do for fun” (Teri). Disliked 4 17% “I grew frustrated with…the constant need to pick every literary part of the text apart” (Kristen). analysis

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Table 7: Literary Autobiography Part One Question Two

What do you hope to get Foster out of this class, both relationship personally and to reading professionally, in terms of your relationship with Learn to pass reading? on love of reading

(24 respondents) 0 5 10 15

Category # % Example Answer Foster positive 6 25% “I want more than anything to learn from this class to relationship to develop my love for reading more so that I can transfer reading that love to my students” (Amber).

Learn to pass 3 13% “I am hoping to figure out how to…foster a positive on love of relationship with reading [in my future students]” reading (Clarissa).

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Table 8: Literary Autobiography Part Two Question One

Did your personal relationship with poetry Positive impact grow or change during the course? If no, how? Positive (24 respondents) perception

0 2 4 6 8 10

Category # % Example Answer Positive 8 33% “I feel better about poetry now than I ever have before” impact (Carla). Positive 5 21% “I really enjoyed writing the found poem” (Kim). perception

Shifting Attitudes

• 9 (38%) shifted attitudes toward poetry as a result of found poetry: “I’m no different than a typical student in that I can’t stand having to write it [poetry]. I feel like working on a found poem for this class helped immensely” (Tyler).

• 3 of the 9: felt less intimidated by poetry: “I’m definitely not as intimidated [by writing found poetry] anymore!” (Belinda).

• 3 of the 9: increased confidence around poetry: “I was able to look at my dislike of poetry and not feel like I was going to fail” (Amber).

Comments on the Art of Found Poetry

• 4 (17%) poetic support from using the text’s words: “Found Poetry is a great thing to do with struggling poets because they have a concrete starting place and don’t have to come up with the poem on their own; the story serves as a guide to writing” (Kat).

• 2 (8%) found poetry process and product: “It feels good knowing I put the lines together the way I did even if it came from a book (Barb).

• 2 (8%) creativity of found poetry: “It [found poetry] gives us a chance to have that creative side and bring our ideas to the surface” (Sally).

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Table 9: Literary Autobiography Part Two Question Two

Did your personal relationship with reading Positive impact of transactional paradigm grow or change during this course? If so how? Positive impact of found (24 respondents) poetry

0 5 10 15

Category # % Example Answer Positive 8 33% “My experience with reading has been revitalized” impact of (Steve). transactional paradigm Positive 3 13% “It [found poetry] is extremely helpful in developing a impact of transactional relationship with a book” (Jenny). found poetry

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Table 10: Literary Autobiography Part Two Question Three

What practices/philosophies regarding reading and poetry do you plan to carry forward to your future students, and why?

(24 respondents)

• 6 (25%) committed to using found poetry with future students: “I thoroughly enjoyed the found poem exercise and will carry it with me into the classroom” (Mitch).

• 3 of the 6: identified found poetry as a way to helps students enjoy and engage with poetry without intimidation: “I loved how we did found poems, because it makes you a poet without the stigma of poetry. Now, I can incorporate this into lessons that will not bore the children but engage them” (Lida).

• 2 of the 6: identified found poetry as a beneficial way to introduce poetry: “I loved doing the found poem, and felt it was a creative way to introduce poetry” (Allie).

• 1 of the 6: identified found poetry’s ability to support all poets: “I would really like to use this [found poetry] with students to show that everyone can be a poet” (Kim).

• 5 (21%) connected classroom poetry experiences and future poetry teaching responsibilities: “Because I have learned these lessons I have a better relationship with poetry and I feel better trying to write myself and teaching it” (Carla).

• 2 (8%) connected found poetry to the Transactional Theory: “It [found poetry] deepened my relationship with the book” (Barb).

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Third Data Set: Written Reflection

As presented in the methodology chapter, 24 participants turned in a written

reflection upon the found poetry writing experience; however, not all the participants

answered every question. Therefore, the percentages within each data segment are

factored on the number of answers to each prompt. The written reflection, which

comprises the majority of the dissertation data, is divided into three sections, one for each

research question. Part A is designed to investigate the participants’ found poetry writing

experience. Part B is designed to investigate the participants’ transactional relationship

with the text chosen for the found poem. Part C is designed to investigate the

participants’ attitudes and confidence toward their future poetry teaching responsibilities.

Table 11: Written Reflection Part A Question One

15 How did you feel about the process of writing the actual found poem? 10

5 (23 respondents) 0 Negative No Mixed Positive Feelings

Category # % Example Answer Positive 16 70% “It was very relaxing” (Kelly). Mixed 4 17% “It was a bit difficult to pick out words from the novel, but it was fun” (Jenny). No Feelings 2 9% “When Lisa gave us a brief introduction it seemed as if this would be a fun experience to engage in” (Sally). Purely Negative 1 4% “Once I settle on a theme (which is hard by itself) the multitude of words and phrases to choose from is overwhelming” (Mike). Table Continued

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Table 11: Continued

Positive Feelings

• 19 instances of positive words to describe the writing experience, with the most common being “enjoyed or enjoyable” (7); “easy” (5); and “fun” (4): “It was easy and a lot of fun” (Lida).

• 5 (22%) liked or loved the process: “I really liked the process” (Kristy).

• 3 (13%) connected found poetry to Transactional Theory: “It [process] allowed me to think about what mattered most about the story in my own mind” (Mitch).

• 8 (35%) referred to components of the writing process: “I really enjoyed picking out the phrases I liked and reworking them into something I created” (Kristen).

• 6 of the 8: liked finding, choosing, and rearranging words: “I really liked finding words and lines and forming it into a poem” (Barb).

• 2 of the 8: found that not having to use their own words was easier and less stressful: “I really like writing found poems, because it is less stressful than writing actual poems since I am not using my own words” (Annie).

• 2 of the 8: compared the process to a scavenger hunt: “It [process] was…almost like a scavenger hunt” (Jenny).

• 8 (35%) shift in feelings from the beginning of the project to the end: “I was nervous at first, but I actually like it” (Abby).

• 5 of the 8: shift due to finding the process easier than expected: “It was actually a lot easier than I was expecting it to be” (Kendra).

• 3 of the 8: shift due to getting comfortable with the process: “At first I was nervous, but after a couple of tries and familiarizing myself with the process I am very comfortable with it” (Carla).

• 3 of the 8: shift due to using words from text for poem: “The material was there. All I had to do was find it” (Tyler).

Negative Feelings

• 3 (13%) condensing large text into a poem was time-consuming: “I did find it difficult to work with a large text and condense it into a page” (Kat).

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Table 12: Written Reflection Part A Question Two

How did you feel about your final 15 found poem? 10

(23 respondents) 5

0 Negative Mixed Positive

Category # % Example Answer Positive 19 83% “I loved my final poem. I was very proud of my work. I have never enjoyed poetry before, but found that writing a poem I love is worth it! (Kristy). Mixed 3 13% “I was satisfied with it, but felt self-conscious because it was sort of short” (Kelly). Negative 1 4% “I wasn’t very happy with my found poem. I felt that it was hard to do justice to such an amazing book like Looking for Alaska ” (Kat).

Positive Feelings

• 18 instances of positive words to describe feelings for the poem, with the most common being “like” (8); “proud” (7); and “love” (3): “ I liked it [found poem] and I was proud of it” (Madison).

• 8 instances of adverbs to add emphasis, with the most common being “really” (4) and “very” (2): “I really liked my final poem” (Sally).

• 4 instances of the word “actually” to register surprise: “I was actually quite proud of it” (Tyler).

Table Continued

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Table 12: Continued

Reasons for Positive Feelings

• 7 (30%) commented on the poetic world: “[It’s] so interesting how powerful it can be when words are rearranged or mean something else” (Abby).

• 3 of the 7: identified found poetry’s ability to express much with few words: “I felt that it said so much and so much meaning with not many words” (Sally).

• 3 of the 7: found poetry’s power: “I thought my found poem was very powerful and made me emotional to think about the rest of the story” (Mitch).

• 2 of the 7: experienced a shift in poetic self-identity: “My final poem made me feel like I was a poet, even though I always thought I couldn’t write poetry” (Jenny).

• 6 (26%) commented on the transactional world: “It [found poem] sounded great and also reflected the moment in the book” (Kristen).

• 4 of the 6: experienced found poetry’s ability to express aspects of the reader/text relationship: “Though it was the author’s words, I was able to manipulate them in order to articulate my reaction to the novel and characters” (Belinda).

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Table 13: Written Reflection Part A Question Three

How did this experience compare to 15 other poetry writing experiences? 10

(23 respondents) 5

0 None Mixed Positive

Category # % Example Answer Favorable 19 83% “I liked this way better than other poetry writing experiences, because I get stressed out a little when writing poetry but I like writing found poetry” (Annie). Mixed 2 9% “It was easier and challenging at the same time. You have the words to use but putting them into the order you want is challenging” (Clarissa). No Comparison 2 9% “I like writing poetry, so I love all aspects of it” (Lida).

Positive Comparison

• 20 instances of positive words to describe the writing experience, with the most common being “enjoyed or enjoyable” (5); “much better” (5); and “easier” (4): “Easier and more enjoyable” (Teri).

• 15 instances of adverbs to add emphasis, with the most common being “much” (5); “more” (4); and “much more” (3): “I found this experience to be much more enjoyable” (Jenny).

• 4 (17%) positively compared found poetry to past negative school poetry writing experiences: “Compared to the poems I was forced to write in middle/high school this was a day at the beach” (Kim).

Table Continued

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Table 13: Continued

Reasons for Positive Feelings

• 9 (39%) commented on the poetic world: “It was much less stressful!! I liked not having to come up with each thought on my own” (Barb).

• 6 of the 9: liked using words from the text for the poem: “So much better! I made my own poem without the stress of picking the words” (Kristen).

• 1 of the 9: pointed to found poetry’s usefulness for introducing novice poets to poetry: “It would be amazing for beginners, a great starting point because it’s not overwhelming” (Allie).

• 1 of the 9: felt a sense of accomplishment compared to past poetry experiences: “I felt more accomplished this time, like my final poem was better” (Madison).

• 1 of the 9: pointed out a dichotomy between the ease of writing and the depth of feeling for the found poem: “It was bizarre in that it was significantly easier to write than most of the poetry I’ve produced and yet I actually felt strongly about what I had composed” (Tyler).

• 3 (13%) commented on the transactional world: “Other poetry writing experiences seemed forced while the found poem was reflective and allowed me to think about the text further” (Mitch).

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Table 14: Written Reflection Part A Question Four

Did this experience shift any of your 15 feelings about poetry? Why or why 10 not? 5 (23 respondents) 0 No Shift Positive Shift

Category # % Example Answer Positive Shift 17 74% “Considering I did not know found poetry existed, this experience has made me appreciate poetry more” (Mitch). No Shift 6 26% “Not really, but it gave me a new method for teaching it that I will use someday” (Allie).

No Shift in Feelings

• 3 (13%) no shift/already positive: “Nope - I still think poetry is a great form of expression” (Clarissa).

• 3 (13%) no shift/mixed comments: “No, I still am not a fan of poetry. But this type made it less scary” (Teri).

Positive Shift in Feelings

• 11 instances of positive words to explain shift in feelings, with the most common being “fun” (3); “easier” (2); and “improved feelings” (2): “Yes! Poetry can be fun and relaxing and a way to enjoy a book in a fun new way” (Kim).

Explanations

• 3 (13%) new thinking about poetic forms: “Made me see not all forms of poetry are a struggle. It can be fun to solve the puzzle” (Kristen).

• 2 (9%) realized not all poetry is analysis: “I always avoided poetry at all costs because I thought it was all about obscure interpretation and analyzing, but this gave me a new appreciation for it” (Jenny).

Table Continued 175

Table 14: Continued

• 2 (9%) shift in poetic self-efficacy: “It shifted my feeling because I now feel that there is a type of poetry for me and I am not completely hopeless” (Carla).

• 2 (9%) shift in transactional reading: “It’s just another delicious way to experience a profound novel” (Belinda).

• 2 (9%) looked toward future poetry teaching: “A little less anxiety over having to teach it to my future students” (Kendra).

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Table 15: Written Reflection Part B Question One

25 20 Did the process of writing the found poem impact your relationship with 15 the text? 10

5 (24 respondents) 0 No Yes

Category # % Example Answer Yes 24 100% “The process of writing the found poem impacted my relationship with the text” (Kelly).

100% addressed one or more steps in the found poetry writing process:

• 9 (38%) Step one: return to the text, with the most common activities being “go back through” (3); “reread” (2); and “revisit” (2): “I enjoyed reading the book and didn’t want it to end. Creating the poem gave me another reason to dive back into the book” (Kristen).

• 15 (63%) Step two: returning to the text extended the reading experience, with the most common activities being “take a second/closer look” (4); “think about” (3); “search for” (2); and “spend more time” (2): “The found poem made me spend more time with the text and really think about the character who I had decided to write about” (Kim).

• 15 (63%) Step three: extending the reading experience impacted it: “I found it [writing a found poem] enriched my understanding and caused me to think critically and creatively about the text. I drew a new understanding from the text through this process” (Carla).

Table Continued

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Table 15: Continued

Explanations

• 13 (54%) mentioned one or more literary elements: “I was able to relate more to the character whose voice I took on in my poem. I was able to get to know her better on a deeper level” (Madison).

• 8 of the 13: discussed characters from the book: “It [writing the found poem] made me go back through the book and look at the character and the character’s thoughts. After pulling text from the book and putting it all together I was surprised with what I came up with and I was able to see the character in a new way” (Teri).

• 4 of the 13: discussed themes from the book: “I hadn’t really thought about any of the themes in the book before writing the poem. When I decided that my poem would be about bravery, I started to notice how that the theme was present throughout the book” (Kendra).

• 2 of the 13: connected characters and themes: “I would say that it did impact the relationship with the text because it makes you think deeply about the themes of the book and the way the characters were tied to those themes” (Morgan).

• 2 of the 13: discussed the book’s plot: “It reinforced the plot points and important features I had read, which helped me to understand” (Steve).

• 11 (46%) mentioned their relationship with the book: “It was more of a bond between the book and I. When I remember the book I will remember the poem” (Lida).

• 6 of the 11: relationship with the book was strengthened: “By writing the poem, I felt a stronger connection to the text” (Kristy).

• 3 of the 11: feelings toward the book were reinforced: “I feel that it made me look at the novel closely and sometimes I liked it even more than before” (Sally).

• 2 of the 11: saw the book in a new light: “I definitely feel like I have a deeper relationship with the text after writing the found poem…I also was more aware at how artistic and beautiful the text was” (Jenny).

• 3 (13%) identified found poetry’s bridge between reader and text: “Poetry’s power lies in its very personal character. Found poems allow the reader to take the text and experience it on a personal level inherent in poetry” (Mike).

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Table 16: Written Reflection Part B Question Two

Did the process of writing the found 15 poem impact your awareness of the 10 text and its contributions to your reading experience? 5

(21 respondents) 0 No Yes

Category # % Example Answer Yes 20 95% “By writing my found poem, it impacted my awareness of the text and contributed to my reading experience” (Kelly). No 1 5% “I don’t really think the process impacted my awareness of the text. There were some things when I went back that I was like ‘oh yeah,’ but nothing too great stood out to me” (Abby).

Observations

• 17 instances of words to describe found poetry’s impact on the reader’s textual awareness, such as: “more aware” (6) and “see” (3): “I definitely became more aware of themes and ideas after writing the poem and going back through the book looking for quotes” (Kristy).

• 11 instances of words to describe the search for words in the text, with the most common being “look ” (4); “go back” (3); and “find” (2): “The original work already left its mark on me, but going back into the text helped to crystallize the feelings and impressions I originally had” (Tyler).

• 10 instances of words to describe found poetry’s support in directing readers’ attention back to the text, with the most common being “helped me” (4); “able to” (3); and “allowed” (3): “It helped me to find key parts in the book and then meaningful words within that section” (Kristen).

Table Continued

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Table 16: Continued

Explanations

• 11 (52%) actual process of revisiting the text enriched reader awareness of the text: “Writing the poem helped me look more closely at the text to find what I wanted my poem to be about and what I wanted to say made me much more aware about what I had read” (Kim).

• 9 of the 11: looking for words expanded the focus of attention: “I didn’t see everything the first time around. By returning to the text to find phrases for the found poem, I reread things I may have not seen the first time around or expanded on something I thought at first” (Clarissa).

• 2 of the 11: looking for words narrowed the focus of attention: “Writing the poem helped me look more closely at the text. When reading an entire novel, the focus is on the book as a whole and then re-examining sections, you can focus more closely and examine things individually” (Kat).

• 9 (43%): gained new insights into the text’s contributions to the reading experience: “Writing the found poem…allowed me to draw new understanding and conclusions from the text and pick up on things I had missed with the first reading. This was important because it allowed me to see new things and information about the text to justify my conclusions or change my mind” (Carla).

• 4 of the 9: perceptions of themes: “By extracting the lines that I wanted to use in my poem, I realized what the main themes in the text were. I noticed motifs and symbols, and I was able to learn a lot more from the lessons the book had to teach” (Jenny).

• 2 of the 9: perceptions of character: “I was more aware of character development in the book. My poem was about a certain character and his evolution and I realized different aspects of those changes while writing the poem” (Kendra).

• 2 of the 9: perceptions of plot: “My awareness of the book definitely increased. I was able to pick out important parts both plot-wise and imagery-wise” (Allie).

• 2 (10%) writing process specifically strengthened the reader/text relationship: “I felt that writing the found poem made the novel, which was already powerful, even more powerful” (Mitch).

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Table 17: Written Reflection Part B Question Three

25 20 Did the process of writing the found poem impact your reflection over 15 your reading experience? 10

5 (21 respondents) 0 No Yes

Category # % Example Answer Yes 21 100% “I enjoyed going back through the book and reflecting in the process” (Allie).

Observations

• 19 (90%) explained the impact on their reflection: “You have to reflect on what you read and what really impacted your experience reading so you could apply it to the poem” (Morgan).

• 14 instances of active phrases to imply a sense of agency within the process, with the most common being “helped me” (4); “I realized” (4); and “made me” (4): “Yes, because it had me go through the section I used for the found poem again and notice things I might have missed the first time I read it” (Annie).

• 3 (14%) appreciated having a choice over the topic and/or text for the poem: “I also liked being able to pick which book I wanted to go back and look at” (Teri).

Explanations

• 8 (38%) impacted personal feelings and connection to the text: “The poem made me consider the art of the book and of my poem which helped me love and understand the book even better” (Amber).

• 5 of the 8: promoted personal connection to/involvement with the text: “It helped me find my favorite parts of the book and dig further into it” (Kristen).

Table Continued

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Table 17: Continued

• 3 of the 8: impacted positive feelings toward the text: “I really loved the book to begin with, but absolutely adored it after the poem...Since I was only able to write the poem with the help of quotes from the book, my appreciation/love for the book grew exponentially” (Kristy). • 12 (57%) impacted understanding of the text: “It impacted my reflection because when I saw certain words I thought of different themes that could stand for the novel” (Kelly).

• 6 of the 12: experienced new realizations: “Through my choices of lines to use in my poem, I realized what parts of the story meant the most to me, and how the story really impacted me and helped me to grow as a reader and as a person” (Jenny).

• 3 of the 12: enriched understanding of text: Found poetry gives “the reader a greater understanding of the text by simply revisiting it” (Mike).

• 3 of the 12: supported memory of the book: “I realized that certain things stuck with me for longer than I thought” (Kendra).

• 12 (57%) impacted quality of the reading experience: “I think it really made me reflect. I am the kind of reader who reads, then puts the book away and moves on to the next one but this made me stop and really dive back into the book” (Kim).

• 5 of the 12: narrowing of the reading experience: “After considering what I might like to write about, I began reflecting on the more subtle relationships between characters, which I found to be far more enticing than the original, overbearing first impression that I had” (Belinda).

• 4 of the 12: deepening of the reading experience: “I think this helped me reflect more deeply on an issue that I focused on” (Clarissa).

• 2 of the 12: extending of the reading experience: “The ideas I gained from the text shifted from simply existing within the work itself to feeling more like it applied in the real world” (Tyler).

• 1 of the 12: widening of the reading experience: “Reading more and writing the found poem caused me to reflect on several things in the story rather than just the main idea. Now when I reflect on it, I recall every relationship in the book” (Barb).

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Table 18: Written Reflection Part C Questions One and Two

25 How likely would you be to include 20 found poetry writing experiences in 15 your future classroom? Please 10 explain your rationale for the choice 5 you marked above. 0

Very

(23 respondents) Likely Likely Unlikely Unlikely Somewhat Somewhat

Category # % Very Likely 21 91% “Writing a found poem really builds/activates a student’s experience with the book, yet it is fun and not time consuming. It can also bring poetry into a lesson play” (Kristy). Somewhat Likely 2 9% “I feel I need to be more educated on the subject to include it in my class” (Morgan).

Somewhat 0 0% Unlikely Very Unlikely 0 0%

Descriptions of the Found Poetry Writing Process

• 6 instances of affective words to describe the writing process, with the most common being “fun” (4): “It’s a great way to read a novel, and make a fun learning experience from it” (Sally).

• 5 instances of descriptive words to characterize the writing process, with the most common being “creative” (2): “It’s a good way to introduce poetry to a class so that kids don’t feel overwhelmed and they can become engaged in a fun and creative way” (Allie).

Explanations for 21 “Very-Likely” Answers

• 17 (81%) identified poetic aspects of teaching found poetry: “This [found poetry] makes it fun and simultaneously takes pressure off coming up with one’s own words – great!” (Amber).

Table Continued

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Table 18: Continued

• 8 of the 17: identified usefulness of found poetry for introducing poetry: “It eases children into writing poetry and I think it serves as a great transition into poetry” (Madison).

• 4 of the 17: identified advantage of using words from text: “It’s a great way to introduce poetry without provoking anxiety because you’re not responsible for the words, just the art of putting everything together” (Belinda).

• 3 of the 17: identified accessibility of found poetry: “This is one of my new favorite kinds of poetry. It’s something children of all abilities can do” (Kim).

• 2 of the 17: expressed a strongly positive portrayal of found poetry: “I think found poetry is amazing” (Sally).

• 9 (43%) addressed transactional reading relationships: “They [found poems] are useful for Transactional Reading” (Mike).

• 4 of the 9: addressed found poetry’s role in supporting transactional reading: “I think this is a wonderful way to both introduce the subject of writing poetry to students and to deepen a student’s relationship with a book. I think that students can get more out of this than a book analysis paper” (Jenny).

• 3 of the 9: addressed found poetry’s role in reflection: “This is a great tool for students to reflect on their reading experiences as well as writing poetry at the same time” (Clarissa).

• 2 of the 9: addressed found poetry’s role in sharing a reading experience: “It’s simple, easy, and it really demonstrates what you took out of a book” (Kendra).

• 6 (29%) addressed found poetry’s potential role in supporting future pedagogy: “If I teach older children, I would love to do found poetry. I feel like it will improve their outlook on poetry” (Lida).

• 4 of the 6: addressed found poetry’s potential role in supporting future students’ poetry attitudes: “Poetry is so often associated with negative feelings. Found poetry helps to work against that. It’s more relaxing and open-ended” (Kristen).

• 2 of the 6: addressed found poetry’s role in supporting participants’ own negative poetry attitudes: “I do not like poetry much at all, so including found poetry in my classroom will allow me to enjoy teaching poetry and give students a chance to reflect on a particular text” (Mitch).

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Table 19: Written Reflection Part C Question Three

25 Please describe your level of 20 confidence around teaching poetry 15 writing in your future classroom. 10 Has your sense of confidence 5 changed during this quarter? 0

Very

(21 respondents) Likely Likely Unlikely Unlikely Somewhat Somewhat

Category # % Positive Change 19 90% “My confidence in myself as a future teacher has increased exponentially through this class” (Allie). No Change 2 10% “I’m not extremely confident…This class helped me realize I could write poetry, but didn’t really effect my understanding or confidence with it” (Kristy).

Range of Positive Change

• 9 of the 19: slight positive change: “I still don’t have a lot of confidence but it has grown a little” (Kendra).

• 5 of the 19: significant positive change: “ Yes . I found types of poetry I actually enjoy and want to teach” (Kim).

• 3 of the 19: significant positive change for teaching found poetry, but not other poetry forms: “I would be confident teaching found poetry…I am not sure about poetry in itself” (Kristen).

• 2 of the 19: began confident and grew: “It has only grown stronger. My past teachers showed me the love of poetry and I stuck to it. You just made it even better” (Lida).

Table Continued

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Table 19: Continued

Explanations for Positive Change

• 2 of the 19: acknowledged the benefit of becoming a practicing poet: “I was a bit unsure at first but after writing my own I am more confident and look forward to doing this in my own classroom” (Sally).

• 2 of the 19: acknowledged the benefit of easing students into poetry with found poetry: “Found poems could ease into the workshops by destigmatizing poetry. So I suppose I’m slightly more inclined” (Mike).

• 1 of the 19: acknowledged the usefulness of found poetry for novice poets: “My confidence regarding teaching poetry has increased significantly, since found poetry would be perfect for inexperienced poets” (Tyler).

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Table 20: Codes and Frequencies

Code Frequency School Poetry Experiences Dislike poetry analysis 16 Dislike restrictive poetry rules and forms 10 Like fun poetry projects and units 7 Love/Hate relationship with poetry 4

School Reading Experiences Dislike being forced to read boring books 15 Like choosing own reading materials 7 Dislike comprehension tests over books 5 Dislike literary analysis of books 4

Poets Before Study Lack of confidence in poetic ability 12 Dissatisfaction with poetry writing processes and products 5 Not creative enough to be a poet 3 Struggle to find the write words 3

Poets After Study Favorable comparisons to past poetry experiences 19 Shift in positive feelings toward poetry 17 Feelings for poem: like/love 11 Feelings for poem: pride 9 Shift in poetic self-efficacy 4 Less intimidated by poetry 3 More confident around poetry 3

Found Poetry Writing Process Using words in text for poem 28 Enjoyable 12 Easy 9 Creative 5 Like/Love 5 Less stressful than other forms 5 Accessible 4 Fun 4 Compare to puzzle/scavenger hunt 3 Condensing large text challenging 3 Table Continued

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Table 20: Continued

Steps in the found poetry writing process Step one: return to the text 9 Step two: extend the reading experience 15 Step three: impact the reading experience 15

Impact on Transactional Relationship Positive impact on reader/text relationship 24 Positive impact on reflection upon reading experience 21 Positive impact on awareness of text and its contributions 20 New realizations about text 17 Experienced a sense of agency in reflective process 14 Process of revisiting text enriched reader awareness 11 Search for words expanded or narrowed focus of attention 11 New insights into text’s contributions 9 Strengthened relationship with text 8 Method for communicating reading experience 7 Feelings for book reinforced/intensified 6 Strengthened personal connection to text 5 Found poetry as a bridge between reader and text 5 Appreciation for choice of book/topic 3 Enriched understanding of text 3 Supported memory of the story 3 New perception of literary elements Character 12 Theme 10 Plot 4 Impacted quality of reading experience Narrowed 5 Deepened 4 Extended 4 Widened 1

Feelings Toward Future Poetry Teaching Before Study Lack of confidence in poetry writing teaching ability 7 Unprepared: need to become poets themselves 6 Desire to prevent future students from negative poetry attitudes 4 Desire to change their own negative poetry attitudes 3 Table Continued

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Table 20: Continued

Feelings Toward Future Poetry Teaching After Study Very-likely to use found poetry with future students 21 Positive shift in level of teaching confidence 19 Usefulness for introducing new poets to poetry 13 Usefulness for supporting future students as readers 9 Appreciation of experiential learning as practicing poets 7 Positive description of poetic writing process 6 Accessibility for all poets 4 Usability as a poetic form 4 Support for future students’ positive poetry attitudes 4 Support for prospective teachers’ attitudes too 2

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Data Analysis: Thematic Networks

Explication of Thematic Networks

Refined themes. After the researcher codes the material and identifies themes,

the comprehensive results must be reduced into a “manageable set of significant themes

that succinctly summarize the text” (Attride-Stirling, 2001p. 392). Termed “refined

themes,” these themes represent “simple premises characteristic of the data” (p. 390). The

process of thematic refinement requires “close attention to conceptual detail” in order to

ensure that each is neither too specific nor too broad (p. 392). This meticulous process led

the researcher back into the raw data in order to verify each set of refined themes. The

iterative practice of revisiting and rereading the original data uncovered discrepancies in

the coding which led to a more accurate and trustworthy analysis. Each set of refined

themes represents the consequential themes most essential to answering the research

questions. The refined themes from the three sets of data are utilized to construct the

thematic networks (See Appendix O for a complete set of refined themes).

Levels of themes. The thematic networks analytical tool involves three classes of

themes: Basic, Organizing, and Global Themes (Attride-Stirling, 2001). The first class of

themes consists of the refined themes, which are also known as Basic Themes. These are

grouped into Organizing Themes, which are defined as “middle-order” themes

representing “clusters of signification that summarize the principal assumptions of a

group of Basic Themes” (p. 389). The Basic Themes are matched to Organizing Themes,

“according to the underlying story they are telling” (p. 389). Klaus Krippendorff (2004)

speaks to this notion of clustering, suggesting that the method “operationalizes something

humans do most naturally: forming perceptual wholes from things that are connected,

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belong together, or have common meanings, while separating them from things whose relationships seem accidental or meaningless” (p. 208). Finally, these Organizing Themes are clustered together into a single Global Theme, which represents an essential theme from the text. Each Global Theme, along with its accompanying Organizing and Basic

Themes, constitutes a thematic network.

Construction. Construction of a thematic network involves a six-step process: 1)

Arrange themes; 2) Select Basic Themes; 3) Rearrange into Organizing Themes; 4)

Deduce Global Theme(s); 5) Illustrate as thematic network(s); and 6) Verify and refine

the network(s) (Attride-Stirling, 2001). One Global Theme, along with its representative

Organizing and Basic Themes, completes a thematic network. Networks are presented

graphically in the form of webs, and they serve as an interpretive tool with which to

organize and illustrate the themes in the text.

As presented in Chapter 1, each of the three major research questions contains

two conceptual issues. These issues generate their own sub-questions, and each acts as a

Global Theme for a thematic network. Therefore, a total of six thematic networks were

constructed from the results of the data analysis, yielding two networks for each of the

three major research questions. The construction of the networks followed a highly

detailed and iterative process. First, Basic Themes most pertinent to each sub-question

were selected and arranged into Organizing Themes. Then, the thematic networks were

represented as webs on large dry-erase boards using different colors for the various

Organizing and Basic Themes. Finally, once all six rough networks were constructed,

each one was verified and refined in terms of its corresponding conceptual issue.

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Description and exploration. After the thematic networks have been constructed, the researcher proceeds to the fourth step, which calls for the description and exploration of the thematic networks. The researcher describes the contents of each network and supports this description with segments from the original text. The descriptive process helped to uncover discrepancies in the constructed networks, which resulted in the movement of some Organizing Themes to other networks. As well, quantitative inconsistencies were discovered. For example, the data analysis percentages for question one were factored on the total number of participants, rather than on the total number of novice poets. This issue was rectified during step four in the process, reinforcing Attride-Stirling’s analytical tool as a safeguard for data trustworthiness. Each of the six thematic networks is described in detail, using representative quotations from the original data to illustrate salient themes.

After thoroughly describing the thematic network, the researcher then explores the contents of the network. It is during this exploratory process that the researcher begins to notice the emergence of “underlying patterns” (Attride-Stirling, 2001, p. 393).

This deep level of textual exploration merges the data analysis and interpretation processes (Richard, 2011). After exploration, the researcher returns to the original data to read and interpret it through the lens of the thematic networks. This step also resulted in adjustments made to the thematic networks. Rereading the raw data helped to refine the naming of the Organizing Themes, as well as the clustering of the Basic Themes. The exploratory step is represented through the form of found data poems.

The research poems serve the dual purpose of analyzing and representing the data.

First, the poetic process facilitates the integrity of data analysis and interpretation

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(Furman et al., 2010; Sullivan, 2005). Because found poetry is crafted using words from the data itself, the poetic form helps the researcher to “stay faithful to the data” (Szto,

Furman, & Langer, 2005, p. 145). Second, the found data poems function as a means of data representation. Research poems help to illuminate research by rendering “the abstract concrete” (Sullivan, 2005, p. 29) and bringing “clarity and life to the findings”

(Willis, 2002, p. 4). When the found data poems are read alongside the description of the

network they represent, it is hoped that the reader will understand van Manen’s (1990)

profound claim: “The poem itself is the result. The poem is the thing” (p. 13). Louise

Borden (2013), a writer of nonfiction books for children, writes research poems as part of

her research process. These “poems of observation” become a part of the “invisible

foundations” of her finished books (para. 2). Found data poems are a key component of

this researcher’s visible foundation of the dissertation report. It is hoped that these found

poems will both illustrate and communicate the “drama and poetry of qualitative research” (Saldaña, 2008, p. 222).

Summarization. After the thematic networks have been described and explored,

the researcher proceeds to the fifth step, which calls for the summarization of the

thematic networks. The researcher presents a summary of the main patterns and themes

that characterize each network: “The objective here is to summarize the principal themes

that began to emerge in the description of the network, and to begin to make explicit the

patterns emerging in the exploration” (Attride-Stirling, 2001, p. 394). Although these

patterns are revealed earlier in the thematic networks process, the summarization step

allows the researcher to “succinctly and explicitly” represent the themes in order to make

for a more compelling interpretation (Attride-Stirling, 2001, p. 394).

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Interpretation of patterns. After the thematic networks have been summarized, the researcher proceeds to the sixth and final step in the analytical process, which calls for the interpretation of patterns within and across the thematic networks. The researcher

returns “to the original research questions and the theoretical interests underpinning

them” and addresses “these with arguments grounded on the patterns that emerged in the

explorations of the texts” (Attride-Stirling, 2001, p. 394). This final stage of analysis

pools together the “key conceptual findings” of each thematic network “into a cohesive

story” by relating them back to the original research questions in order to ground the

answers in the theoretical frameworks that inform the study (Attride-Stirling, 2001, p.

402). Capturing the thematic networks on large dry-erase boards helped to make the

thematic patterns apparent across all six networks.

Summary. A found poem created from the explication of thematic networks:

Six Steps to Signification

1) Arrange Themes underlying story

2) Select Basic Themes simple premise

3) Rearrange into Organizing Themes middle-order premise

4) Deduce Global Theme essential premise

5) Illustrate Themes as Networks web-like clusters

6) Verify and Refine Networks separate the accidental from the meaningful

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Research Question One

How might writing found poetry support novice poets? This question addresses two major conceptual issues, each of which generates its own sub-question. A thematic network was created to answer each sub-question, which acts as the Global Theme. An outline of the two thematic networks for research question one is presented below. At the end of this section, the researcher interprets patterns across both sub-question networks in light of the overriding question.

Thematic Network 1.A

Global Theme: Q1A: How might writing found poetry impact the writing

experiences of novice poets?

• Construction

• Description and Exploration

o Thematic found data poems

• Summarization

o Thematic found data poem

Thematic Network 1.B

Global Theme: Q1B: How might writing found poetry impact efforts to disrupt negative school poetry practices by providing students with positive poetry experiences?

• Construction

• Description and Exploration

o Thematic found data poems

• Summarization

o Thematic found data poem 195

Figure 1: Thematic Network 1.A

How might writing found poetry impact the writing experiences of novice poets?

Construction.

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Description and exploration. The Global Theme of this thematic network explores how writing found poetry might impact the writing experiences of novice poets.

Over three quarters of the study participants, 16 in all, positioned themselves as novice poets. When asked on the poetry questionnaire whether or not they considered themselves to be poets, two of the answers were quite vehement: “Absolutely not” and

“No, with a resounding ‘no.’” It is important to note that 13 of the 16 novice poets plan on becoming English/Language Arts teachers. It is reasonable to assume that most, if not all, will be responsible at some point in the future for teaching students to write poetry.

Three Organizing Themes emerged in the construction of this thematic network, each with a cluster of Basic Themes. The first Organizing Theme speaks to attitudes toward writing poetry that the participants reported at the start of the study. The other two

Organizing Themes cover reactions to the found poetry writing experience after the study, specifically to the poetic product and process.

Within the first Organizing Theme, all 16 of the novice poets began the experience with negative feelings toward writing poetry (as did over three quarters of the total number of participants). Writing poetry caused participants to feel anxious, insecure, and stressed. Many participants’ feelings were quite fervent, as evidenced by Morgan’s comment: “Poetry is probably the last thing I’d like to write.” Carla alone uses the words:

“insecure,” “suffocated,” and “anxiety” in her answer. Clearly, writing poetry caused feelings of distress in many of the novice poets. Participants gave a number of reasons for these negative feelings. The reasons fell into three Basic Themes. The first Basic Theme identifies a lack of confidence in poetic abilities. Almost half of the novice poets revealed that they did not feel “creative” or “artistic” enough to write poetry. As well, participants

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reported a sense of inadequacy; they felt “unable,” “unqualified,” and “uninspired” to be poets. The novice poets did not believe they were capable of being poets. A representative comment illustrates this first Basic Theme: “I think that I don’t really feel like I am artistic enough to put words together poetically” (Jenny). The second Basic

Theme addresses dissatisfaction with previous poetry writing experiences. Almost a quarter of the participants (all were novice poets) reported feeling displeased with the products of their prior poetic efforts and challenged by the poetic process. They felt unsatisfied with previously written “inauthentic” poems, and the participants “never got” what they wanted out of their words. They struggled with the writing process as well.

Three participants “got stuck” trying to think of words and put them together for a poem.

Kristy’s comment reflects this Basic Theme: “I am not very creative and struggle to find the right words.” In the third Basic Theme, almost one third of the novice poets (38% of the total participants) held restrictive rules and formats responsible for their negative feelings toward writing poetry. On the whole, participants did not enjoy following criteria and guidelines for writing poetry, as seen in this comment: “I usually struggle with all the poetic rules teachers try to pin on us” (Kristen). The first Organizing Theme accounts for the negative feelings toward writing poetry and the reasons for those feelings. Kendra’s answer summarizes the first Organizing Theme: “Writing poetry gives me anxiety. I feel like I’m pretending. Any poems I’ve ever written come off as inauthentic and trying to be deep and meaningful.”

The second Organizing Theme refers to the poetic product. When asked how they felt about their final found poem, 100% of the novice poets reported favorable reactions toward their final found poem, as did 83% of the total respondents. These emotions fell

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into three Basic Themes. First, half of the novice poets used either the word “like” or

“love” to characterize their feelings for the poem. A number of adverbs, such as “really” and “very,” were used to add emphasis. According to Amber: “I love my poem. I don’t know or care if anyone else would, but it is enough for me to love it alone.” The second

Basic Theme reveals that almost 40% of the novice poets felt a sense of pride and accomplishment in their found poem. Found poems were described as “powerful” and

“great.” Tyler’s pride in his poem is reflected in his comment: “I was actually quite proud of it, I was actually eager to turn it in.” The third Basic Theme shows that almost 20% of the novice poets did not expect to feel these positive emotions toward their final poem.

Their use of the word “actually” registered a feeling of surprise over the quality of their final product, as seen in this representative comment: “I actually really like my poem”

(Kendra). Every novice poet conveyed positive feelings for their final found poem.

Kristy’s reflection captures the essence of the second Organizing Theme: “I loved my final poem. I was very proud of my work. I have never enjoyed poetry before but found that writing a poem I love is worth it!” (emphasis in original).

The third Organizing Theme contains participants’ reflections upon the poetic process. Two of the novice poets reported mixed feelings toward the process, and one did not answer, which left 81% of the novice poets with purely positive feelings about the writing process. Almost three quarters of the total respondents replied favorably with regard to the found poetry writing process. Three Basic Themes comprise this Organizing

Theme. First, participants used a variety of positive words to describe the writing process.

The activity was most commonly characterized as “enjoyable, “easy,” and “fun.”

Participants also described the process as creative. A few respondents offered analogies

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for the process, such as a scavenger hunt or a puzzle. According to Kristen: “I really enjoyed picking out the phrases I liked and reworking them into something I created.”

The second Basic Theme pertains to the method of finding words for the poem in the text itself. This approach offered the participants a great deal of poetic support. Not having to come up with their own words gave them a place to start and made the overall process more accessible and easier compared to other poetry writing experiences. Writers liked the approach of finding and choosing words and then “rearranging” and “reworking” them into a “cohesive” poem. This approach removed the pressure from inventing words for the poem, relieving “worry…anxiety…stress…intimidation.” This theme is reflected in Annie’s comment: “I really like writing found poems because it is less stressful than writing actual poems since I am not using my own words.” The third Basic Theme notes challenges with regard to the found poetry writing process. One main area of challenge was reported by three participants: Choosing words from and condensing down a large text into a single poem proved to be a time-consuming task, as represented by Kat’s comment “I did find it difficult to work with a large text and condense it into a page.”

Overall, the respondents positively responded to the found poetry writing process, especially in terms of using words from the text for the poem. Jenny’s reflection

summarizes this Organizing Theme:

I thoroughly enjoyed the process. It was a bit difficult to pick out words from the novel, but it was fun, almost like a scavenger hunt. Once I had chosen all the lines I wanted I loved rearranging them to create a cohesive poem.

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Found data poems. The following found poems were crafted using participants’ words from the original data to represent found poetry’s potential for impacting the writing experiences of novice poets.

Do You Consider Yourself a Poet?

Absolutely not. No, with a resounding no!

Poetry is probably

the last thing

I’d like to write.

Pretending to be Robert Frost

I pretend I’m a poet, but really, I’m just

Unable

Unsure

Unqualified

Uninspired

Uncreative

I pretend I’m a poet, but really, I’m not.

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How do I Feel About my Poem?

I liked it! I really liked it! I actually really liked it!

I don’t know or care if anyone else would…

I was proud of it! I was actually proud of it! I was actually quite proud of it!

…but it is enough for me to love it alone.

Scavenger Hunt

I don’t have to use my own words.

All I have to do is find and rearrange them into my own creation.

So easy So simple

Summarization. Over three quarters of the study participants, 16 in all, positioned themselves as novice poets. All 16 of the novice poets began the found poetry writing experience with negative feelings toward writing poetry. Writing poetry caused participants to feel anxious and insecure. Almost half of the novice poets lacked confidence in their poetry writing abilities; they felt inadequate as poets. When they did write poetry, they were challenged by the writing process and dissatisfied with the outcome of their efforts. After the found poetry writing experience, 100% of the novice

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poets reported favorable feelings toward their poem, as did 83% of the total respondents.

They liked their poem and felt a sense of pride in their poetic accomplishment. Over half of the novice poets noted purely positive feelings with regard to the writing process, as did almost three quarters of the total respondents. They found the writing process to be easy and enjoyable, especially the supportive method of finding and reframing words from the text for the poem. Using the author’s words lessened the novice poets’ worry and anxiety over writing poetry.

Found data poem. The following found poem was crafted using words from the

Thematic Network 1.A found data poems.

Novice to Expert

Novice at Liking poetry

Inadequate Insecure

Novice at Writing poetry

Unable Unsure

Expert at Liking poetry

Easy Enjoyable

Expert at Writing poetry

Proud Poet

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Figure 2: Thematic Network 1.B

How might writing found poetry impact efforts to disrupt negative school poetry practices by providing students with positive poetry experiences?

Construction.

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Description and exploration. The Global Theme of this thematic network explores how writing found poetry might impact efforts to disrupt negative school poetry practices by providing students with positive poetry experiences. When asked how they felt about poetry in general on the poetry questionnaire, almost one quarter of the participants reported feeling less than enthusiastic toward poetry, and one third of the participants reported a mix of feelings. Taken together, well over half of the participants did not report wholly positive feelings toward the art form. Almost a fifth of the respondents noted a clear “love/hate” relationship with poetry, leaving them feeling indifferent to poetry or biased against the interpretation of the art form. The only significant theme from the positive respondents concerned fun school poetry projects and units. Three Organizing Themes emerged in the construction of the thematic network, each with a cluster of Basic Themes. The first Organizing Theme encompasses past school poetry experiences. The second Organizing Theme compares the found poetry experience to the above past school poetry experiences. Finally, the third Organizing

Theme speaks to a shift in participants’ attitudes toward poetry.

The first Organizing Theme addresses past school poetry experiences. Two Basic

Themes comprise this Organizing Theme. In reflecting over past positive and negative school poetry experiences, it became clear that students harbored intensely strong feelings toward the analysis of poetry. Analysis was mentioned in one third of the poetry questionnaires. This approach to reading poetry was uniformly cited as the sole reason for the respondents’ negative feelings toward poetry. Analysis was also mentioned by one third of the participants on the written reflection. In the first Basic Theme, participants characterized poetry analysis as exceedingly challenging. Many spoke of their inability to

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“analyze” and “interpret” poems that were “complicated…difficult…hard to understand.”

In the words of Kristen: “Positive: Not any I can think of. Negative: Picked it [poetry]

apart too much, very difficult poems, always analyze, analyze, analyze, analyze.” In the

second Basic Theme, participants reported that the practice of picking poetry apart

negatively impacted their confidence around poetry and their willingness to engage with

the art form. They found the task of analyzing poems hard to face; the practice felt

“daunting” and “stressful.” Approaching the reading of poetry from an analytical

perspective left students feeling “unsure” and “annoyed.” Allie shares: “A lot of school

poetry has been so hard to interpret, I can’t stand it.” Incidentally, the theme of analysis

was also mentioned in part one of the literacy autobiography by 17% of the respondents

as a negative school reading memory. Kendra’s comment concludes this Organizing

Theme:

The only negative memories I have associated with reading deal with my least favorite subject in the world: poetry…[In high school] I was suddenly expected to dissect every little part of a poem. This always frustrated me. How was I supposed to know what the heck the author meant when he was talking about a red wheelbarrow? Couldn’t he just be talking about a wheelbarrow? I don’t think it’s dramatic to say that high school absolutely ruined poetry for me.

The second Organizing Theme compares the found poetry writing experience to

past school poetry experiences. First, found poetry was favorably compared to other

poetry writing experiences by 83% of the respondents. Participants found the experience

much “easier…more enjoyable…less stressful” and all around “better” than other writing experiences. They used an assortment of adverbs to emphasize these positive answers, such as: “much” (5); “more” (4); “much more” (3); “significantly” (1); “so” (1); and

“way” (1), as illustrated by this comment: “It was bizarre in that it was significantly

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easier to write than most of the poetry I’ve produced and yet I actually felt strongly about what I had composed” (Tyler). The second Basic Theme offers reasons for these favorable comparisons. A little over one quarter of the participants credited the method of finding and using the author’s words as responsible for supporting the poet through the writing process. As Kat reflects: “I think this was easier and more fun than other poetry experiences because you start with something more concrete than a blank page and a head full of thoughts.” Using the words from the text for the poem lessened the stress and pressure to come up with one’s own words for the poem. Kim’s comment offers a conclusion to this Organizing Theme: “Compared to the poems I was forced to write in middle/high school this was a day at the beach.”

The third Organizing Theme reflects a shift in attitudes toward poetry. Almost three quarters of the participants (94% of the novice poets) reported a positive shift in their attitudes toward poetry as a result of the found poetry writing experience. Four of these were slight shifts, but shifts nonetheless. These shifts fell into three Basic Themes.

The first Basic Theme identifies a shift in feelings toward the art of poetry. Over one third of the participants expressed negative feelings toward poetry at the beginning of the writing experience. Many writers felt “afraid…nervous… scared…worried…unsure.”

But by the end of the project, almost three quarters of the participants noted a positive

shift in feelings toward poetry. The experience made poetry in general, “fun” and “easy.”

Poetry became “less scary” and the poets became “more comfortable” with the art form.

Lida affirms that found poetry “makes you a poet without the stigma of poetry…it

encouraged us students to not be afraid.” The second Basic Theme addresses a shift in

thinking about poetry and form. A number of students traced their fear of poetry to the

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difficult poems they had to analyze in high school. Found poetry helped to make the world of poetry seem “less scary.” As Jenny shares: “I always avoided poetry at all costs because I thought it was all about obscure interpretation and analyzing, but this gave me a new appreciation for it.” A few participants changed their thinking about poetic forms.

Participants noted a shift from previous experiences with restrictive rules and formats to a new understanding of found poetry’s accessibility. According to Kristen: “Writing the poem was like having all the pieces of the puzzle and just having to put them together

(with no right or wrong answer) just what you liked.” A new appreciation for poetry as an art form emerged. The third Basic Theme touches on the self-efficacy of poets.

Participants noted a shift in their self identity as poets. Whereas before the experience, 16 had positioned themselves as novice poets, after the experience these same participants self-identified as practicing poets, as seen in Jenny’s representative comment: “My final poem made me feel like I was a poet, even though I always thought I couldn’t write poetry.” The poets noted an increase in confidence and a decrease in fear and intimidation. Carla shares that her experience “shifted my feeling because I now feel that there is a type of poetry for me and I am not completely hopeless.” The participants became much more comfortable in their role as poet. Tyler summarizes this Organizing

Theme: “I’m no different than a typical student in that I can’t stand having to write it

[poetry]. I feel like working on a found poem for this class helped immensely.”

Found data poems. The following found poems were crafted using participants’ words from the original data to represent found poetry’s potential to impact efforts to disrupt negative school poetry practices by providing students with positive poetry experiences.

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I Just Don’t Get It

Pinned beneath the puzzle of poetry.

Picking apart each word…

Searching for hidden meanings…

Stuck there, I struggle to get free.

Avoid Poetry at all Costs!

A blank page and a head full of thoughts, afraid and scared nervous and worried insecure and intimidated.

Page by page through the book, find a word put it together with other words.

The poem was there, all I had to do was find it.

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Found Poetry

Poetry is for me, I am not completely hopeless.

I am a poet, even though I always thought I wasn’t.

Compared to the other poems I was forced to write in school …

Much better Much better Much better Much less stressful Much less stressful

More fun More enjoyable

Much more enjoyable Much more enjoyable Much more positive Much more thoughtful

Much much better

…this was a day at the beach.

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Summarization. Over half of the participants reported less than wholly positive feelings toward poetry. In reflecting over past school poetry experiences, it became clear that one third of the participants harbored strong feelings toward the analysis of poetry.

This approach to reading poetry was uniformly cited as the sole reason for their negative feelings toward poetry. The practice of picking poetry apart negatively impacted their confidence around poetry and willingness to engage with the art form. Over 80% of the participants favorably compared found poetry to past school poetry experiences. Found poetry was characterized as easier and more enjoyable. Using the words of the text lessened the stress and pressure of having to come up with one’s own words for a poem.

Almost three quarters of the participants (94% of the novice poets) reported a positive shift in their attitudes toward poetry as a result of the found poetry writing experience.

Feelings of fear and worry were transformed to feelings of fun and comfort. Respondents formed an appreciation for a poetic form that was accessible; their self-efficacy shifted as they became more comfortable and confident in their role as a poet.

Found data poem. The following found poem was crafted using words from the

Thematic Network 1.B found data poems.

Pick your Harbor

Leave daunting analysis in the past.

Shift to found poetry.

Less stress, more fun.

Transform yourself into a poet.

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Interpretation of Patterns

The first research question asks how writing found poetry might support novice poets. Of the 16 total novice poets, almost half lacked confidence in their poetry writing

abilities at the beginning of the study. When they did write poetry, they felt insecure and

challenged by the writing process, as well as dissatisfied with the outcome of their

efforts. After the found poetry writing experience, 100% of the novice poets reported

positive feelings for their poem, expressing a sense of pride in their poetic

accomplishment. This personal pride in poetic ability, especially by participants who

began the study with negative attitudes toward the art form, is particularly gratifying to

see. With regard to the writing process itself, 81% of the novice poets noted purely

positive attitudes, finding the process to be easy and enjoyable. The accessible and

structured approach of using words from the text for the poem supported the novice poets

and lessened anxiety and worry over writing poetry. The novice poets formed an

appreciation for a poetic form that offered them a stress-free mentorship opportunity

through finding and reframing words for their found poem. The found poetry writing

experience certainly appears to have supported the writing efforts of the novice poets.

When asked about their feelings toward poetry writing, all 16 novice poets

expressed negative attitudes toward the art form. The analysis of poetry was uniformly

held responsible for these negative feelings. The practice of picking poetry apart in the

search for hidden meanings negatively impacted participants’ confidence around poetry

and their willingness to engage with the art form. The majority of the participants

favorably compared the found poetry writing experience to past school poetry

experiences. As well, 15 of the 16 novice poets (94%) reported a positive shift in their

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attitudes toward poetry as a result of the writing activity. Feelings of fear and worry were transformed to feelings of fun and comfort. Participants experienced a shift in self- efficacy, becoming much more comfortable and confident in their role as poet. It is evidently possible that a single positive poetry writing experience has the potential to shift students’ poetic self identity. As well, the found poetry writing experience undoubtedly appears to have disrupted negative school poetry practices by providing students with a positive school poetry experience.

In order to illustrate the dramatic shifts in poetry attitudes that occurred as a result of just one found poetry activity, a comparison is made between the novice poets’ attitudes before and after the study. “Then” answers are paraphrased from the poetry questionnaire, and “Now” answers are taken directly from the written reflection part A.

Almost every “Now” comment reflects a transformation in attitudes over the course of the study, especially toward the found poems, the writing process, and the participants’ self-efficacy as poets. 13 of the 16 novice poets are prospective poetry teachers.

Abby Then: Harbored a lot of stress and anxiety about making poetry good. Now: “I was nervous at first, but I actually like it. I didn’t have to use my own words but could still be creative.”

Amber Then: Absolutely did not feel that what she produced was creative or beautiful. Now: “I love my poem. I don’t know or care if any one else would, but it is enough for me to love it alone.”

Annie Then: Did not like poetry, especially if it had to follow some kind of format or guidelines. Now: “I liked this way better than other poetry writing experiences, because I get stressed out a little when writing poetry but I like writing found poetry.”

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Barb Then: Never felt creative with words; had a tough time getting started. Now: “It was much less stressful!! I liked not having to come up with each thought on my own.”

Belinda Then: Felt like she could not share her emotions easily in poetry; felt insecure and unqualified to write a poem. Now: “I was proud of my work…the pressure was off because…I could just focus on finding the phrase in order to share my thoughts… makes me believe it’s doable.”

Carla Then: Did not feel qualified to write advanced poetry like Robert Frost; felt insecure and anxious. Now: “I now feel that there is a type of poetry for me and I am not completely hopeless.”

Jenny Then: Always got stuck; did not feel artistic enough to put words together poetically. Now: “I felt proud of my final poem; it made me feel like I was a poet, even though I always thought I couldn’t write poetry.”

Kat Then: Rarely, if ever, wrote poetry. Now: “I think this was easier and more fun than other poetry experiences because you start with something more concrete than a blank page and a head full of thoughts.”

Kendra Then: Did not feel like she had enough creativity to come up with a poem. Now: “I actually really like my poem. I’m not sure if I feel comfortable showing it to the world but it says a lot that I’m actually proud of it.”

Kristen Then: Felt that any poetry was forced. Now: “Made me see not all forms of poetry are a struggle. It can be fun to solve the puzzle.”

Kristy Then: Did not feel creative; struggled to find the right words to use. Now: “I really liked the process…I have never enjoyed poetry before but found that writing a poem I love is worth it!”

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Madison Then: Did not really like poetry. Now: “I felt more accomplished this time, like my final poem was better.”

Mitch Then: Did not enjoy most poetry; preferred writing in other forms. Now: “It was much more enjoyable. Other poetry writing experiences seemed forced while the found poem was reflective and allowed me to think about the text further.”

Morgan Then: Probably the last thing she would ever like to write. Now: “I actually really liked mine. I think I captured the character’s feelings well.”

Steve Then: Answered with a “resounding” no; did not write poetry and did not like poetry. Now: He didn’t answer the poetry questionnaire, but had this to say in the written reflection: “The poem allowed me to revisit how the book talked about truth, and how each character handled the same truth – and made it more real to me.”

Tyler Then: Did not particularly enjoy writing poetry; never wrote anything he’d call poetry. Now: “I was actually quite proud of it, I was actually eager to turn it in.”

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Research Question Two

How might writing found poetry support transactional reading relationships between readers and texts? This question addresses two major conceptual issues, each of which generates its own sub-question. A thematic network was created to answer each sub-question, which acts as the Global Theme. An outline of the two thematic networks for research question two is presented below. At the end of this section, the researcher interprets patterns across both sub-question networks in light of the overriding question.

Thematic Network 2.A

Global Theme: Q2A: How might writing found poetry impact the development of

reader/text transactional relationships?

• Construction

• Description and Exploration

o Thematic found data poems

• Summarization

o Thematic found data poem

Thematic Network 2.B

Global Theme: Q2B: How might writing found poetry impact readers’ reflections upon transactional experiences with texts?

• Construction

• Description and Exploration

o Thematic found data poems

• Summarization

o Thematic found data poem 216

Figure 3: Thematic Network 2.A

How might writing found poetry impact the development of reader/text transactional relationships?

Construction.

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Description and exploration. The Global Theme of this thematic network explores how writing found poetry might impact the development of reader/text transactional relationships. When asked if the process of writing the found poem impacted their relationship with the text, 100% of the respondents answered in the affirmative, and all of the answers painted a picture of positive effects. Additionally, when asked if the poetic writing process impacted their awareness of the text and its contributions to the reading experience, all but one respondent also answered in the affirmative. Three Organizing Themes emerged in the construction of the thematic network, each with a cluster of Basic Themes. The first Organizing Theme discusses the mechanics of the actual found poetry writing process. The second Organizing Theme examines the impact that the found poetry writing process had on the reader’s textual relationship. Finally, the third Organizing Theme speaks to the impact that the found poetry writing process had on the reader’s awareness of the text.

The first Organizing Theme encompasses the poetry writing process itself. Two

Basic Themes comprise this Organizing Theme. In the first Basic Theme, almost 40% of the respondents noted that the search for words for the poem returned them to the text.

The word “back” was used frequently: “go…dive…dig” back. The use of the prefix “re” was also noticeable; the opportunity to revisit the book led to “rereading…reliving…re- evaluating…re-engaging” with favorite parts of the novel. Kat shares her experience:

“When writing the found poem, I went back and reread parts of the novel that most

impacted me. It was great to re-engage in this experience and relive the most profound

aspects of the book.” The second Basic Theme addresses what happened once the readers

went back into the text. Over half of the respondents discussed two main activities while

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there: “looking” and “thinking.” While taking a second sweep through the book in the search for topics, themes, characters, and words, readers looked at various aspects of the text more closely, even discovering things they had missed during the first reading of the book. As well, readers thought about aspects of their reading experience more deeply, as shown in Clarissa’s reflection: “I didn’t see everything the first time around. By returning to the text to find phrases for the found poem, I reread things I may have not seen the first time around or expanded on something I thought at first.” The found poetry writing process invited readers to revisit the text chosen for the poem, providing them with the opportunity to re-engage with their reading experience. As Mitch shares: “The found poem allowed me to go back and spend more time with the text really thinking about the character and take in the most important parts in my mind.”

The second Organizing Theme encompasses the impact made by the found poetry writing process on the reader’s textual relationship. Three Basic Themes comprise this

Organizing Theme. First, a little over half of the respondents mentioned literary elements when discussing the effect of the writing process on their relationship with the text.

Revisiting and rereading the text resulted in a change in readers’ relationships with the characters. The writing process transformed how readers perceived, understood, related to, or empathized with the characters. Participants were “able to see the character in a new way.” As Tyler shares: “I found greater depths in the character I chose to write my found poem about. The character already intrigued me, but by giving him a second look, I had a better idea of how exactly he felt, or perhaps didn’t feel.” In the second Basic

Theme, (13%) of readers’ personal connection to the actual book was reinforced and intensified. Readers “liked the book even more” after writing the poem; they “felt a

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stronger connection to the text.” The poem created “a bond” between the reader and the text, giving the reader “a fun new way” to enjoy a book. Found poetry had a “wonderful ability” to literally bridge readers and their reading experiences. As Mike reflects:

“Poetry’s power lies in its very personal character. Found poems allow the reader to take the text and experience it on a personal level inherent in poetry.” In the third Basic

Theme, the quality of the relationship with the text was impacted. The nature of the reader/text relationship was strengthened, deepened, and extended. Jenny’s reflection captures this theme: “I definitely feel like I have a deeper relationship with the text after writing the found poem.” As well, over half of the respondents’ comprehension of the text was enriched; they were able to “better understand” the text. As Kat attests: “When writing the actual poem out of selected phrases, I found a new meaning or a new dimension to the text I already loved. I was able to take on a new perspective and look at the same text from another angle.” The poetic writing process transformed readers’ relationship with the book chosen for the found poem. As Clarissa explains:

I already had a relationship after my first read. However, after reading it again, the thoughts and feelings I had during certain portions of the book deepened…I questioned how I read it the first time, and then returned to those portions and thought about my reading experience again, which strengthened my relationship with the text.

The third Organizing Theme encompasses the impact on the reader’s awareness of the text made by the found poetry writing process. All but one respondent affirmed a positive effect on their awareness of the text’s contributions to the reading experience.

Two Basic Themes comprise this Organizing Theme. In the first Basic Theme, writing the found poem served to point readers’ awareness back toward the text. The simple act of returning to a text to reread portions of the book and revisit the reading experience

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deepened readers’ awareness of the book. As Kim shares: “I think looking through the text to find what I wanted my poem to be about and what I wanted to say made me much more aware about what I had read.” In the second Basic Theme, readers’ awareness of the text was enriched, either through expanding or narrowing the awareness of the text.

Over half of the respondents reported an expansion of their awareness over the text’s contributions to the reading event. The writing process made them “more aware,” giving them “a new way to look at the text,” which enabled almost half of the participants to gain new insights into the text. These fresh insights covered a broad range of literary elements. As Teri reports: “I was able to see the character in a different way than I did when I originally read the book.” The writing process also helped to “focus” two readers’ attention on a specific part of the book, rather than “everything that was going on.” As

Kat reflects: “Writing the poem helped me look more closely at the text. When reading an entire novel, the focus is on the book as a whole and then re-examining sections, you can focus more closely and examine things individually.” The found poetry writing process had a powerful influence on participants’ awareness of the text’s contributions to the reading experience. Tyler summarizes this Organizing Theme: “The original work already left its mark on me, but going back into the text helped to crystallize the feelings and impressions I originally had.”

Found data poems. The following found poems were crafted using participants’

words from the original data to represent found poetry’s potential for impacting the

development of reader/text transactional relationships.

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Poetry’s Power

Go back Dig Dive

Back into questions And speculations

Revisit Reread Relive

Relationships and Friendships

Spend a second Seeing another angle Of surprise

Find a New Way

To imagine Critical dimensions

Discover Beautiful Art

Take on a voice Take on a vision

Write the truth Of your Bond

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Second Sweep go dig dive back into the book take another look revisit reread relive

Mike

Poetry’s power lies in its very personal character.

Found poems allow the reader to take the text and experience it on a personal level inherent in poetry.

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Book Love

How can I express the profound love I feel for my book?

My love is reflected in the dual-voice of a book poem.

A poem that artistically illustrates our beautiful friendship.

Crystallized Art

My original reading experience left its mark on me.

But then I looked through a lens of art.

Of art, and I saw instead its beauty.

Its beauty, that I could translate into a poem.

A poem, wise and deep.

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Summarization. Every respondent replied in the affirmative that the process of writing the found poem impacted their relationship with the text. The search for words for the poem returned readers to the text; and once there, they revisited the reading experience and reread portions of the book. This iterative process involved a continual back and forth movement between reader and text, supporting the development of an active partnership between the two primary components of the transactional relationship.

Revisiting and reliving the reading experience moved readers to think deeper about that experience. Rereading the text also resulted in a change in readers’ perceptions of various literary elements in the novels, especially with regard to characters. The writing process transformed how readers perceived, understood, related to, or empathized with the characters. The poetic writing process also created a bond between the reader and the text, reinforcing the connection between the two. As well, the writing process strengthened the quality of the textual relationship and enhanced readers’ understanding of the text. All but one respondent affirmed that the poetic writing process impacted their awareness of the text and its contributions to the reading experience. This process served to deepen readers’ awareness by pointing the attention back toward the text. Reader awareness was enriched by expanding to encompass new insights into the text and narrowing down to specific segments of the text. The poetic writing process enriched readers’ relationship with the book chosen for the found poem and significantly impacted participants’ awareness of the text’s contributions to the reading experience.

Found data poem. The following found poem was crafted using words from the

Thematic Network 2.A found data poems.

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Wise Readers

Dive into poetry’s power to express the beauty of books.

Take the reading experience to a deep level of artistic love and friendship.

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Figure 4: Thematic Network 2.B

How might writing found poetry impact readers’ reflections upon transactional experiences with texts?

Construction.

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Description and exploration. The Global Theme of this thematic network explores how writing found poetry might impact readers’ reflections upon transactional experiences with texts. When asked if the process of writing the found poem impacted their reflection upon the reading experience, 100% of the respondents answered in the affirmative. Qualifying statements with regard to this general impact were made by 19 respondents, as seen in Morgan’s answer: “You have to reflect on what you read and what really impacted your experience reading so you could apply it to the poem.” Three

Organizing Themes emerged in the construction of the thematic network, each with a cluster of Basic Themes. The first Organizing theme addresses the impact that the actual found poetry writing process had on the reader’s reflection upon the reading experience.

The second Organizing Theme explores the impact that the writing process had on the reader’s reflection upon the relationship with the text. Finally, the third Organizing

Theme examines the impact that the writing process had on the reader’s reflection upon

the nature of the reading experience.

The first Organizing Theme encompasses aspects of the found poetry writing

process itself that impacted the participants’ reflection upon the reading experience. Four

Basic Themes comprise this Organizing Theme. The first Basic Theme illustrates how

the found poetry writing activity supported the process of reflection. Thinking about the

book, themes, characters, topics for the poem, etc., supports readers in their reflection

upon the reading experience. A number of active phrases implied a sense of agency

within this activity, as if the writing process itself acted upon the reader to promote

reflection. The most common phrases used were: “helped me” and “made me.” As Kim

shares: “I think it [the process of writing the found poem] really made me reflect. I am

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the kind of reader who reads, then puts the book away and moves on to the next one but this made me stop and really dive back into the book.” The second Basic Theme examines found poetry’s ability to direct the reader’s attention toward reflection upon aspects of the reading experience. Respondents used words such as: “notice” and “saw” to illustrate how the writing activity guided readers to see the book in a new way. For instance, Annie notes that the reflective writing process “had me go through the section I used for the found poem again and notice things I might have missed the first time I read it.” The third Basic Theme reveals participants’ appreciation for the ability to “focus” on whatever they chose to in the text for the poem. As Teri notes: “I also liked being able to pick which book I wanted to go back and look at.” Finally, the fourth Basic Theme addresses the words from the text used for the poem. This theme was the least frequent, but it is important to mention because it appears in other thematic networks. The search for words in the text contributed to the process of reflection, as seen in Kelly’s comment:

“It [the process of writing the found poem] impacted my reflection because when I saw certain words I thought of different themes that could stand for the novel.” Various aspects of the found poetry writing process itself affected the participants’ reflection upon their reading experience, as succinctly explained by Clarissa: Found poetry “is a great tool for students to reflect on their reading experiences.”

The second Organizing Theme encompasses the impact that the found poetry writing process had on the respondents’ reflection upon their relationship with the text used for the poem. Four Basic Themes comprise this Organizing Theme. In the first Basic

Theme, 14% of the participants reported that the reflective writing process impacted their

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feelings for the book. Writing the found poem helped readers “love” their book “even better.” These participants liked the book more after writing the poem, as Kristy portrays:

The writing process really improved my experience. I really loved the book to begin with, but absolutely adored it after the poem. I am not a poetry person, yet was proud of the results of my found poem. Since I was only able to write the poem with the help of quotes from the book, my appreciation/love for the book grew exponentially.

In the second Basic Theme, respondents noted that the writing process promoted almost

one quarter of the participants’ personal connection to, and involvement with, the text

chosen for the poem. Kristen’s reflection about writing the found poem expresses this

theme: “It helped me find my favorite parts of the book and dig further into it.” The third

Basic Theme encompasses the impact that the found poetry writing process had on the

respondents’ understanding of the text. Writing the found poem enriched almost 30% of

the readers’ understanding of the book. New realizations ranged from recognizing the

“importance” of a particular “section” of the book “to the rest of the story,” to

considering new aspects of the text, such as “the art of the book.” As Mike notes: Found

poetry gives “the reader a greater understanding of the text by simply revisiting it.”

Finally, in the fourth Basic Theme, 14% of the participants mentioned that the writing

process impacted their memory of the book. Revisiting and rereading the book to write

the poem helped the respondents to remember “certain things” that “stuck with” them and

they were able to “recall every relationship in the book.” As Amber shares: “Because I

wrote the found poem, I remember elements of the book better.” Writing the found poem

affected a number of different aspects of the participants’ reflection upon the reader/text

relationship. Jenny offers a summary for the second Organizing Theme: “Through my

choices of lines to use in my poem, I realized what parts of the story meant the most to

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me, and how the story really impacted me and helped me to grow as a reader and as a person.”

The third Organizing Theme encompasses the impact that the found poetry writing process had on the respondents’ reflection upon the nature of the reading experience. Four Basic Themes comprise this Organizing Theme. The answers pointed to a distinct shift between the first reading of the book and the subsequent rereading activity for the purpose of writing the found poem. Over half of the readers noted a narrowing, deepening, extending, and widening of their transactional reading experiences. In the first

Basic Theme, almost one quarter of the readers noticed a narrowing of their reading

experience based on the reflective writing process. The found poem allowed participants

to focus on a smaller section of the text. This breaking up of the whole book into “bits

and pieces” helped the readers to concentrate on a more specific aspect of the text, as

Mitch’s comment illustrates: “It [the process of writing the found poem] allowed me to

reflect on one part of the novel and realize that section’s importance to the rest of the

story.” In the second Basic Theme, almost 20% of the readers noticed a deepening of their reading experience based on the reflective writing process. They were able to “dig further into” the text and carry out a more in-depth exploration of the book. As Mike shares: “Found poetry…explores the text on a deeper level than is possible through the first read. I think this helped me reflect more deeply on an issue that I focused on.” In the third Basic Theme, 10% of the readers noticed an extending of their reading experience based on the reflective writing process. The poetic writing process provided a “different way to take away” what had been “learned from the novel,” enabling them to carry this knowledge with them to future experiences in literature and in life. As Tyler reflects:

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“The ideas I gained from the text shifted from simply existing within the work itself to feeling more like it applied in the real world.” Finally, in the fourth Basic Theme, one reader noticed a widening of the reading experience based on the reflective writing process. While only one participant fell into this thematic category, it is mentioned because the comment is part of the larger Organizing Theme on the impact the writing process had on the nature of the reading experience. According to Barb: “Reading more and writing the found poem cause me to reflect on several things in the story rather than just the main idea. Now when I reflect on it, I recall every relationship in the book.” The found poetry writing process impacted readers’ reflection upon their reading experience and transformed the nature of their transaction with the text. Clarissa’s comment summarizes the third Organizing Theme:

Found poetry allows the reader to interpret thoughts and interpretations of the text not as a whole (which could be overwhelming) but in bits and pieces that are a part of the big picture. I think this helped me reflect more deeply on an issue that I focused on.

Found data poems. The following found poems were crafted using participants’

words from the original data to represent found poetry’s potential for impacting readers’

reflections upon their transactional experiences with texts.

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Revisiting

I see new ideas and ways of understanding that

I missed the first time.

I am the kind of reader who reads a book, who puts the book away, who moves on to the next one.

But writing the found poem made me stop

and really

dive back into the book.

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Jenny

Through my choices of lines to use in my poem,

I realized what parts of the story meant the most to me and how the story really impacted me and helped me to grow as a reader and as a person.

Kristy

I really loved the book to begin with, but I absolutely adored it after the poem.

I am not a poetry person, yet I was proud of the results of my found poem.

Since I was only able to write the poem with the help of quotes from the book, my appreciation and love for the book grew exponentially.

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The Nature of the Reading Experience

Narrow:

Focus on

bits

and

pieces

Widen:

Recall

every

relationship

within the book

Deepen:

Dig further into

explore

on a deeper

level

Extend:

Take the

reading experience

and shift to

the real world.

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Summarization. Every respondent replied in the affirmative that the process of writing the found poem impacted their reflection upon the reading experience. The actual poetic writing process itself helped support reflection by directing readers’ attention back toward aspects of the reading experience in the search for words. The poetic writing process increased readers’ positive feelings toward the book chosen for the poem and helped promote a personal connection to the book. The process of revisiting and rereading the text brought new realizations that enriched readers’ understanding of the text and reminded them of what they had remembered from their first reading event. A significant number of respondents noted a distinct change in their reading experience between the first reading of the book and the subsequent rereading for the purpose of writing the found poem. This change took the form of four particular aspects of the reading experience. The poetic writing process narrowed, widened, deepened, and extended readers’ transactional experiences. The found poetry writing process impacted readers’ reflection upon their reading experience and transformed the nature of their transactional relationship with the text. The entire thematic network is comprehensively captured by Jenny’s comment: “Through my choices of lines to use in my poem, I realized what parts of the story meant the most to me, and how the story really impacted me and helped me to grow as a reader and as a person.”

Found data poem. The following found poem was crafted using words from the

Thematic Network 2.B found data poems.

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Reflection

I dive back into the book that I remember loving so well.

I narrow my focus to bits and pieces that I missed the first time.

I dig further into my favorite parts of the story.

I widen my exploration to find new ways of understanding.

I extend my reading experience out into the real world where I grow as a reader.

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Interpretation of Patterns

The second research question asks how writing found poetry might support transactional reading relationships between readers and texts. Writing found poetry impacted every participant’s relationship with the text chosen for the poem, as well as their reflection upon the reading experience. The search for words for the poem returned readers to the text, where they revisited the reading experience and reread portions of the book. These reflective and rereading processes changed readers’ understanding of various aspects of the text, especially with respect to literary elements, namely the characters.

The poetic writing process appears to have strengthened and enriched readers’

relationship with the book chosen for the found poem and significantly impacted

awareness of the text’s contributions to the reading experience. This awareness led to a

narrowing, deepening, extending, and widening of the transactional experiences. Writing

the found poem increased readers’ positive feelings toward the book, creating a bond

between the reader and the text and reinforcing the connection between the two. New

realizations were reached regarding understanding and memories of the text. It seems

probable that the found poetry writing process transformed the nature of readers’

transactional relationships with the texts. The process of writing the found poem acted as

a metaphorical bridge between the reader and the text, building up a more meaningful

transactional relationship.

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Research Question Three

How might writing found poetry support prospective teachers of poetry? This question addresses two major conceptual issues, each of which generates its own sub- question. A thematic network was created to answer each sub-question, which acts as the

Global Theme. An outline of the two thematic networks for research question three is presented below. At the end of this section, the researcher interprets patterns across both sub-question networks in light of the overriding question.

Thematic Network 3.A

Global Theme: Q3A: How might writing found poetry impact the confidence of

prospective teachers toward teaching poetry writing to their future students?

• Construction

• Description and Exploration

o Thematic found data poems

• Summarization

o Thematic found data poem

Thematic Network 3.B

Global Theme: Q3B: How might writing found poetry impact the attitudes of prospective teachers toward teaching poetry writing to their future students?

• Construction

• Description and Exploration

o Thematic found data poems

• Summarization

o Thematic found data poem 239

Figure 5: Thematic Network 3.A

How might writing found poetry impact the confidence of prospective teachers toward teaching poetry writing to their future students?

Construction.

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Description and exploration. The Global Theme of this thematic network explores how writing found poetry might impact the confidence of prospective teachers toward teaching poetry writing to their future students. At the beginning of the study, many participants expressed the desire to avoid passing on their own negative feelings toward poetry writing to future students by learning how to teach poetry in a way that would disrupt patterns of destructive school poetry practices. They also desired to learn how to redeem the art form and destigmatize poetry, as well as to teach poetry in a manner that students would enjoy. This network is split into two Organizing Themes, each with a cluster of Basic Themes. The first Organizing Theme examines participants’ confidence before the study with regard to their future poetry teaching responsibilities.

The second Organizing Theme examines how the experience of becoming a practicing poet impacted participants’ confidence with regard to their future poetry teaching responsibilities.

The first Organizing Theme represents participants’ confidence at the beginning of the study toward their future poetry teaching responsibilities. Of the 21 participants who answered the prompt on the poetry questionnaire: How do you feel about teaching your future students to write poetry? eight shared a positive outlook on their future teaching; seven expressed a lack of confidence in their teaching ability (two are not prospective poetry teachers); and six expressed the need to learn more in order to successfully teach poetry (one is not a prospective poetry teacher). Fully 62% of the respondents (48% of the prospective poetry teachers) felt unconfident and/or unprepared to teach poetry writing. Two Basic Themes emerged in terms of how confident

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participants reported feeling before the study toward teaching their future students to write poetry.

In the first Basic Theme, one third of the respondents expressed a lack of confidence regarding this expectation. The participants felt “nervous” and “insecure,” revealing qualms over their perceived ability to teach poetry writing. Their uncertainty was almost uniformly influenced by their own lack of poetry writing skills. Thirteen of the prospective poetry teachers were novice poets; they simply did not feel qualified to teach poetry writing because they themselves were not poets. As Jenny confesses: “I am honestly nervous about teaching students to write poetry because I feel like I never mastered the skill myself. Although some students love writing poetry, in my experiences, many students dread it.” In the second Basic Theme, almost 30% of the respondents stated an awareness that they needed to learn more in order to be able to confidently and successfully teach poetry writing to their future students. As Tyler honestly admits: “I haven’t the slightest clue how I would address poetry for future students. I’m hoping for some sort of epiphany within the next few years.” Four of these participants wished to prevent their future students from developing a “hatred” of poetry.

They desired to learn how to redeem the art form and destigmatize poetry, as well as to teach poetry in a manner that students would enjoy. Three of the 30% also wished to avoid passing on their own negative feelings toward poetry writing by learning how to teach poetry in a way that would disrupt patterns of destructive school poetry practices.

These participants were attuned to the benefits of experiential learning, understanding the impact that shifting their own feelings toward poetry could have on their future students’ perceptions of the art form. As Allie speculates: “It will be an important thing to teach

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and I think I need to learn more about it myself as well so that I will be able to teach it in a way that my students don’t hate.” Steve’s hopeful attitude concludes this Organizing

Theme: “With any luck, I can learn a way to redeem it [poetry], in which case I might be excited to redeem it in the lives of others.”

The second Organizing Theme represents how the experience of becoming a practicing poet impacted participants’ confidence with regard to their future poetry teaching responsibilities. Of the 23 participants who answered the prompt: Please describe your level of confidence around teaching poetry writing in your future classroom. Has your sense of confidence changed during this quarter? on part C of the written reflection, a full 19 participants (90%) reported a positive shift in their level of confidence (95% of the prospective poetry teachers). A little over 40% of the total participants reported a slight shift in their teaching confidence, and almost one quarter reported a significant shift using phrases such as “increased significantly” and “increased exponentially” to describe their experience. Despite the high number of participants who would be very likely to use found poetry in their future classrooms, the level of confidence around teaching poetry in general varied widely, as well as the reasons offered for these shifts in confidence. Two Basic Themes emerged in terms of how confident participants reported feeling after the study toward teaching their future students to write poetry.

In the first Basic Theme, a variety of reasons were given to account for the shift in confidence; however, none of these represented a high number of respondents. First, the experience of actually being able to write a found poem helped some participants become more confident in their teaching abilities: “I was a bit unsure at first but after writing my

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own I am more confident and look forward to doing this in my own classroom” (Sally).

Second, found poetry was appreciated by some for its ability to introduce students to the world of poetry: “I think starting with found poetry would ease the transition for both me and my students” (Barb). Third, found poetry was identified by others as a good match for novice poets: “My confidence regarding teaching poetry has increased significantly, since found poetry would be perfect for inexperienced poets” (Tyler). Finally, the poetic writing experience was described as enjoyable, one that a few participants predicted their future students would also enjoy: “I think I am a little nervous about teaching poetry, but

I think I am more confident now with it, because I think students would enjoy found poetry a lot more” (Annie). In the second Basic Theme, respondents reported a high level of confidence in teaching the poetic form of found poetry, specifically: “My level of confidence for found poetry is rather high. This has changed from low to high this quarter” (Carla, emphasis in original). However, this confidence in teaching found poetry did not seem to translate to other poetic forms. Building confidence in one poetic form did not appear to be enough to shift these participants’ confidence toward teaching poetry writing in general: “I would be confident teaching found poetry and would do it by teaching by example. I am not sure about poetry in itself” (Kristen). This Organizing

Theme is well represented in Clarissa’s reflection: “I am confident about teaching poetry writing in the classroom and I think that this class has definitely helped to build that confidence.”

Found data poems. The following found poems were crafted using participants’

words from the original data to represent found poetry’s potential for impacting the

confidence of prospective teachers toward teaching poetry writing to their future students.

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Dread

Honestly, I haven’t the slightest clue what to do with a room full of students and poetry.

I’m nervous and insecure having never mastered the skill myself.

I’m a fraud and afraid they’ll see right through me.

I dread poetry and I dread teaching it even more.

I guess I’m just hoping for some sort of epiphany.

Epiphany

I have always worried about how I would teach poetry because I am not a huge fan.

But writing a found poem has opened new doors for how I would teach poetry.

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Summarization. At the outset of the study, many of the prospective teachers

expressed significant reservations regarding their future poetry teaching responsibilities.

Fully 62% of the respondents (48% of the prospective poetry teachers) felt unconfident

and/or unprepared to teach poetry writing. In light of the fact that they did not feel

qualified to teach poetry writing because they themselves were not poets, the respondents

were aware that they needed to learn more about the art form if they were to confidently

and successfully teach poetry writing. They were attuned to the benefits of experiential

learning, understanding the impact that shifting their own negative feelings toward poetry

could have on their future students’ perception of the art form. At the end of the study,

fully 90% of the respondents (95% of the prospective poetry teachers) reported a positive

shift in their level of teaching confidence. The experience of becoming practicing poets

helped the participants to become more confident in their teaching abilities. Found poetry

was appreciated for its ability to introduce novice poets to the world of poetry in an

enjoyable manner. Although a high level of confidence was reported for teaching the

specific form of found poetry, this newfound confidence did not appear to translate to

other poetic forms for many of the participants. In general, writing found poetry

positively impacted the confidence of prospective teachers toward teaching poetry

writing to their future students.

Found data poem. The following found poem was crafted using words from the

Thematic Network 3.A found data poems.

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Just Like Me

In the end, writing a found poem was my epiphany.

I am a poet, therefore

I can teach students to be poets, just like me.

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Figure 6: Thematic Network 3.B

How might writing found poetry impact the attitudes of prospective teachers toward teaching poetry writing to their future students?

Construction.

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Description and exploration . The Global Theme of this thematic network explores how writing found poetry might impact the attitudes of prospective teachers toward teaching poetry writing to their future students. In answer to the prompt on the written reflection: How likely would you be to include found poetry writing experiences in your future classroom? an overwhelming number, 21 respondents in all (91%), answered that they would be “very likely” to include found poetry writing experiences in their future classrooms (95% of prospective poetry teachers). Only two participants (9%) answered that they would be “somewhat likely” to use found poetry with their future students. On the portion of the literacy autobiography part 2 that asks participants what practices/philosophies regarding poetry they plan to carry forward to their future students, one quarter of the respondents voluntarily pledged to use found poetry with their future students. This thematic network contains four Organizing Themes, each with a cluster of

Basic Themes. The first Organizing Theme examines respondents’ reflections around found poetry’s capacity to support their future teaching of poetry. The second Organizing

Theme examines participants’ reflections around found poetry’s capacity to impact their future students’ attitudes toward poetry. The third Organizing Theme examines found poetry’s capacity to support future students as readers. Finally, the fourth Organizing

Theme examines found poetry’s capacity to support the prospective poetry teachers themselves.

The first Organizing Theme examines participants’ views of found poetry as a means for supporting their future students as poets. Three Basic Themes comprise this

Organizing Theme. First, found poetry’s usability is noted. The found poetry form offers students an “easy… fun…quick” way to write poetry: “They [kids] can become engaged

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in a fun and creative way” (Allie). The second Basic Theme speaks to found poetry’s accessibility. “Every single person can do” found poetry. “Anyone can write a found poem,” which means that “everyone can be a poet.” Belinda, the only participant not planning on becoming a teacher, claims that the poetic form is “even doable by laymen like myself.” Carla still feels that she cannot write original poetry but that she can write found poetry. As a result, she plans to teach the poetic form in her future classroom “so that all of my students could feel like there is some kind of poetry for them.” The third

Basic Theme points to the usefulness of found poetry for introducing students to the art of poetry. This benefit was mentioned by almost 40% of the respondents. Madison reflects that found poetry “eases children into writing” and “serves as a great transition into poetry.” Kim summarizes this Organizing Theme: “This is one of my new favorite kinds of poetry. It’s something children of all abilities can do.”

The second Organizing Theme examines found poetry’s potential for supporting future students’ attitudes toward poetry. Two Basic Themes comprise this Organizing

Theme. The first Basic Theme speaks to the general usefulness of found poetry for positively impacting students’ attitudes toward poetry. Found poetry is described as “less intimidating” for those “reluctant” to write poetry. Kristen endorses found poetry’s ability to “work against” the “negative feelings so often associated with” poetry. The second

Basic Theme refers to the advantage afforded to poets by not having to think up words for the poem. Respondents felt that this process could impact their future students’ attitudes toward poetry. According to Amber: “Many people, myself included, are afraid of writing poetry. This [found poetry] makes it fun and simultaneously takes pressure off coming up with one’s own words –great!” Lida summarizes found poetry’s potential to

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improve future students’ attitudes toward poetry: “I would love to teach found poetry. I feel like it will improve their [children’s] outlook on poetry.”

The third Organizing Theme examines found poetry as a means for supporting future students as readers. Three Basic Themes comprise this Organizing Theme, each exploring different aspects of found poetry’s potential for impacting future students’ reading experiences. First, found poetry’s potential for fostering reading relationships is noted: Jenny finds the poetry writing experience to be “extremely helpful in developing a transactional relationship with a book” as well as a “wonderful way to deepen a student’s relationship with a book.” In the second Basic Theme, found poetry’s ability to provide reflective opportunities is mentioned: Kat thinks found poetry offers “a great way to reflect on a book and share your own personal experience.” In the third Basic Theme, found poetry’s capacity for communicating and expressing reading experiences is identified: Kendra describes found poetry as “simple, easy, and it really demonstrates what you took out of a book.” Sally summarizes found poetry’s effectiveness for supporting the participants’ future readers: “It’s a great way to read a novel.”

Finally, the fourth Organizing Theme examines found poetry as a means for supporting the prospective poetry teachers themselves. Two Basic Themes comprise this

Organizing Theme. First, found poetry may provide those prospective teachers who carry negative attitudes toward poetry with a safe way to approach the art form in their future classroom. For example, Kendra shares: “I sometimes think, how can I make students write poetry when I hate writing poetry? But I actually liked the poetry writing we did in class so I can always start out with that.” Mitch’s reflection reveals the support found poetry can offer to teachers who still struggle with their own adverse feelings toward

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poetry: “I do not like poetry much at all, so including found poetry in my classroom will allow me to enjoy teaching poetry.” The second Basic Theme illustrates the power of experiential learning to potentially impact future classrooms of students. A little over one fifth of the respondents to the literacy autobiography part 2 volunteered a connection between their own personal experiences with poetry in the study and their newfound confidence in teaching poetry to their future students. Carla’s reflection especially illustrates the power of experiential learning to shift attitudes toward teaching: “Because I have learned these lessons I have a better relationship with poetry and I feel better trying to write myself and teaching it.” Inviting the prospective teachers to learn poetry through a hands-on experience impacted their willingness to engage their future students in similar poetic activities. Sally’s reflection provides a fitting summary of this entire thematic network: “I think found poetry is amazing. So much creativity is involved with this process. It’s a great way to read a novel and make a fun learning experience from it.”

Found data poems. The following found poems were crafted using participants’

words from the original data to represent found poetry’s potential for impacting attitudes

of prospective teachers toward teaching poetry writing to their future students.

Doable by Laypeople

Found poetry tells everyone, every single person, that there is some kind of poetry for them.

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Amazing Introduction

It’s so simple and easy. It’s so fun and relaxing.

Ease students into poetry with this creative tool.

Take the Pressure Off

Don’t worry, you’re not responsible for your own words.

Just find some words in a book and put them together in a poem.

It’s simply the art of words.

Not Your Usual Analysis Paper

Improve your outlook: read a novel with poetry.

Activate and build your personal relationship with a book.

Develop and deepen your reflection upon a reading experience.

Share what the book is to you.

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I Hope I Won’t Have to Fake It

I don’t like poetry much at all. I actually hate writing poetry.

How can I make my students do what I don’t do myself?

But I do like found poetry.

So maybe if I start with that,

I will find a way to teach poetry that my students

will enjoy and I will enjoy.

Summarization. At the conclusion of the study, 91% of the participants (95% of the prospective poetry teachers) reported that they would be “very likely” to include found poetry writing experiences in their future classrooms. Found poetry’s accessibility, usability, and effectiveness for introducing students to poetry were all cited as reasons to include the art form in future teaching. Respondents also felt that the advantage afforded to poets by not being responsible for thinking up words for the poem could positively impact their future students’ attitudes toward poetry. Found poetry was credited with the

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potential to support future students’ reading experiences by fostering reading relationships and providing opportunities for reflection upon, and communication of, reading experiences. Participants also connected their own personal experiences with poetry to their confidence in teaching poetry to future students. One third of the respondents to the literacy autobiography part 2 volunteered that the found poetry project positively influenced their personal relationship with poetry. Positioning the prospective teachers as practicing poets positively impacted their willingness to engage their future students in writing poetry.

Found data poem. The following found poem was crafted using words from the

Thematic Network 3.B found data poems.

I Won’t Have to Fake It

There is a kind of poetry

for students and for teachers

that can support transactional reading relationships.

Found poetry,

this simple art of words can improve

everyone’s outlook on poetry.

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Interpretation of Patterns

The third research question asks how writing found poetry might support prospective teachers of poetry. At the outset of the study, almost half of the prospective teachers expressed significant reservations regarding their future poetry teaching responsibilities. They did not feel confident in their ability to teach future students to write poetry. One reason that the participants felt unprepared and unqualified was that they themselves were not poets. At the end of the study, fully 90% of the respondents

(95% of the prospective poetry teachers) reported a positive shift in their level of teaching confidence. The experience of becoming a practicing poet supported confidence in future teaching abilities. Participants recognized and appreciated found poetry’s ability to introduce novice poets to the world of poetry in an enjoyable manner. All but two would be “very likely” to include found poetry writing experiences in their future classrooms, and the other two would be “somewhat likely.” Found poetry’s accessibility, usability, and effectiveness for introducing students to poetry, as well as the advantage afforded to poets by not being responsible for thinking up words for the poem, were all cited as reasons to use the art form in future teaching. Participants also embraced found poetry’s potential to support future students’ reading experiences by fostering reader/text relationships and providing opportunities for reflecting upon and sharing reading experiences. Positioning the prospective teachers as practicing poets appears to have supported their confidence in teaching poetry to their future students. A shift in their own negative feelings toward poetry resulted in a shift in attitudes toward teaching the art form. In general, writing found poetry positively impacted the attitudes and confidence of prospective teachers toward teaching poetry writing to their future students.

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Data Interpretation: Study Findings

Research Question One

How might writing found poetry support novice poets?

Finding 1

Found poetry supports the poetic writing efforts of novice poets.

Novice poets at the beginning of the study:

• All reported negative feelings toward poetry in general

• All reported negative feelings toward poetry writing

Novice poets at the conclusion of the study:

• 94% reported a positive shift in overall feelings toward poetry

• 100% reported positive feelings for their final found poem

Finding 2

Using words from a text for a found poem offers poets a high level of support.

• 81% of the novice poets positively characterized the found poetry writing process

• Found poetry was favorably compared to past poetry writing experiences:

• Using words from the text increased writing confidence and decreased feelings of

anxiety, resulting in a positive shift toward poetic self-efficacy

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Research Question Two

How might writing found poetry support transactional reading relationships between readers and texts?

Finding 3

Found poetry supports transactional reading relationships between readers and texts.

• 100% affirmed a positive impact on the reader/text relationship

• 100% affirmed a positive impact on reflection upon the reading experience

• 95% affirmed a positive impact on awareness of the text and its contributions to

the reading experience

Finding 4

Revisiting and rereading the book in the search for words enriches the reader/text

transactional relationship.

• Feelings for the book on the part of the reader were reinforced and intensified

• Personal connections between the reader and the text were deepened

• The quality of the reading experience was strengthened

• Readers experienced new realizations and gained new insights into the text,

especially with respect to literary elements

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Research Question Three

How might writing found poetry support prospective teachers of poetry?

Finding 5

Found poetry supports prospective teachers of poetry.

Prospective poetry teachers at the beginning of the study:

• 48% expressed a lack of confidence in poetry teaching abilities

• 30% connected their inadequacy as poets to this lack of teaching confidence

• They felt unprepared to teach poetry writing and desired to learn more about the

art form in order to better meet their future students’ poetic needs

Prospective poetry teachers at the conclusion of the study:

• 95% reported a positive shift in their level of poetry teaching confidence

• 95% “very-likely” to use found poetry with their future students

• While becoming a practicing poet increased confidence with regard to teaching

found poetry, it did not widely extend to other poetry forms

Finding 6

Found poetry is perceived as a useful tool for teaching future students to write poetry.

• Found poetry identified as a means for introducing new poets to poetry writing

• The accessibility and usability of the poetic writing process identified as a support

• Found poetry identified as a means for supporting future students as readers

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Reflection upon the Findings

Prose reflection. Anatole Broyard (1988) states: “To approach poetry you must start somewhere - in the dark, in the rain, in the shadow of the medical building, on the way to someplace else” (p. 2). Starting with found poetry supported the novice poets’ fledgling writing efforts. Using words from a book to write a found poem offered the writers a high level of support. As Kristy reflected: “I loved my final poem. I was very proud of my work. I have never enjoyed poetry before, but found that writing a poem I love is worth it!” Louise Rosenblatt (1983) essentializes the Transactional Theory of the

Literary Work: “Reading is a relationship between a human being and a text…” (p. 118).

Writing a found poem had a significant impact on the participants’ reader/text relationships. Revisiting and rereading the book in the search for words supported and enriched transactional relationships between the readers and their texts. As Jenny reflected: “Found poetry is “extremely helpful in developing a transactional relationship with a book.” Michelann Parr (2005/2006) believes that “in order to teach, we must know, and that in order to effect change and truly understand the world around us and others, we must do, and then reflect on that doing” (p. 135). Positioning the prospective teachers as poets in practice supported their confidence levels for future poetry teaching responsibilities. The accessibility and usability of found poetry contributed to their perception of the art form as a useful tool with which to introduce poetry and support reader/text relationships. As Sally reflected: “I was a bit unsure at first but after writing my own I am more confident and look forward to doing this in my own classroom.”

Belinda’s comment aptly closes this final reflection upon the findings: Found poetry is a

“delicious way to experience a profound novel.”

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Poetic reflection. The following found poem was crafted using words from the found data poems for all six thematic networks.

Dissertation Epiphany

In the end, teaching readers to write found poetry was my epiphany.

Found poetry’s simple art of words transformed my students into poets.

Poets who dove deep down into the beauty of books.

Who made friends of books and friends of poetry.

So that one day, they may go out into the real world and teach their own students

to befriend books and poetry.

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Data Trustworthiness

Representative Reflections

Lest it be assumed that the researcher read the data with rose-colored glasses looking only for confirmation of the research questions, a thorough report of the negative and mixed answers from the primary data set, which consists of the written reflections over the found poetry writing experience, will be presented. While the themes with three or more negative comments were included in the tables of results and thematic networks, they are also included here for the purpose of seeking transparency in data analysis. Only one respondent consistently wrote negative comments throughout the written reflection; therefore, Mike’s portion of the reflections will be reviewed at the end of this trustworthiness section.

Negative and mixed reflections. In terms of part A, which covers the poetry writing process and product, three participants reported negative feelings toward the process of writing the actual found poem, queried in question one. Kat found it “difficult to work with a large text and condense it into a page;” Jenny felt it “was a bit difficult to pick out words from the novel;” and the topic that Barb chose for her poem made it “time consuming to go back through the book.” Under question two, one participant expressed purely negative feelings toward the final poem and three participants shared mixed reactions. Kat, who contributed the single purely negative reaction, “wasn’t very happy” with her final poem. She felt that it was hard “to do justice to such an amazing book like

Looking for Alaska ” (Green, 2005). Kat wrote her poem from the perspective of the main character before and after the death of Alaska (See Appendix I). She used line breaks to build emotion and brought the reader directly into Pudge’s experience of Alaska. Kat

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reported a very strong transactional experience with the text, so perhaps this respect for the book challenged her confidence in being able to poetically represent the book.

Under the first mixed reaction to the final poem, Kelly felt “satisfied” with her poem, but she “felt self-conscious because it was sort of short.” The poem is 14 lines long or 18 lines if one counts the white space. In the class lesson about the found poetry writing process, the researcher emphasized that poems could be any length, even reciting the world’s shortest poem by Paul B. Janeczko (Rosen, 1996). The poem’s title, August

Ice-Cream Cone Poem , is longer than the actual poem: “Lick/Quick.” However, Kelly still appeared to be insecure over her poem’s length. She wrote her poem from the main character’s perspective in Milo: Sticky Notes and Brain Freeze (Silberberg, 2010). Kelly included a number of poetic elements, such as imagery, repetition, and white space (See

Appendix J). In the second mixed reaction, Barb felt that her poem captured the meaning that she wanted it to, but she “thought it was too wordy” and “struggled with removing words.” Her poem is 27 lines long or 33 lines long if one counts the white space (See

Appendix K). She used a narrative style to paint a picture of the main character’s relationship with her brother in Shine (Myracle, 2011).

Mike, the participant who most often reported mixed or negative views of the found poetry project, contributed the third mixed reflection. He felt that found poetry could never reflect his “best work” due to the “infinite possibilities;” he was sure that there would always be lines in the text that could work better. Despite this perceived drawback to the art form, he did acknowledge feeling particularly proud of his poem,

“but never completely.” Mike’s poem tells the story of the clockmaker and his son from

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The Invention of Hugo Cabret (Selznick, 2007). The poem is written using a complex and striking structure (See Appendix L).

In terms of part B of the written reflection, which covers the transactional reading experience, Mike was the only participant to report negative reactions to the found poetry writing experience with regard to the reader/text transactional relationship. His reaction is reviewed in detail at the end of this section.

In terms of part C of the written reflection, which covers the likelihood of, as well as the attitudes and confidence toward, including found poetry writing experiences in future classrooms, only two participants did not mark “very likely” on the first prompt, one of which was Mike. The other “somewhat likely” respondent was Morgan, who was not a prospective poetry teacher. She felt that she needed “to be more educated on the subject to include it in my class.” Therefore, all but one of the prospective poetry teachers would be very likely to use found poetry with future students. In describing their level of confidence around teaching poetry to future students, three participants recorded a low level of confidence, although it is important to note that all three marked “very likely” to include found poetry in their future classrooms. Teri reflected: “I am not very confident about teaching other kinds of poetry because personally I hate poetry.” Kristy reported a mixed reaction: “I’m not extremely confident. I feel I would rely heavily on books and examples. This class helped me realize I could write poetry, but didn’t really affect my understanding or confidence with it.” Finally, Kelly shared: “I’m still not very confident in teaching poetry because I don’t think you can teach it. I think poetry can be anything a student writes. So how can you tell them what to write? I guess as a teacher I can introduce the different styles of poetry.” For these three participants, a single found

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poetry writing experience did not appear to be enough to dramatically shift levels of confidence toward their future teaching of poetry writing in general.

Mike’s voice. Bhattacharya (2008), in reflecting on whose voices get heard and whose voices get silenced when writing research poetry from participants’ words, concludes: “Thus, the only voice I can really ‘claim’ is mine, re-presented through/with/against the contested voices of the participants, which inevitably leads to messy spaces of knowing and being known” (p. 86). In the following section, I work to ensure that all voices from the research are heard and known by exploring the contested space of the single participant in the dissertation study who consistently shared negative and/or mixed reflections upon the found poetry writing experience. On the poetry questionnaire, Mike’s most memorable school experience with poetry was analyzing

“poems in college for a research paper,” which he “thoroughly enjoyed.” When asked how he felt about teaching his future students to write poetry, Mike wrote: “I think it could be fun, it allows creativity and builds writing skills. It could be hard to destigmatize poetry, though.” In the literacy autobiography part one, Mike again mentioned his joy in literary analysis when reminiscing about his memorable school reading experiences: “I hope that like me, everybody else has experienced the pleasure in analyzing a complex and impacting book.” He went on to compare adult classical texts, which he loved, to young adult literature: “Adolescent literature’s philosophy tends to be a bit less sophisticated, more personal, but often without the ‘holy cow that was deep’ reaction [of adult classics].” Mike’s answers to the three-part written reflection are bulleted below, for ease of reading.

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• A1: The multitude of words and phrases to choose from is overwhelming.

• A2: Because there are infinite possibilities it’s hard for me to feel like any found poem is my best work. I’m sure there are lines in the text that could work better. I can be proud of the work, but never completely.

• A3: Found poems are more likely to personalize the text than traditional analyses. However, using somebody else’s words detaches the reader from the actual poem. The personal expression that makes poetry wonderful is diminished through the found poem process. Thus, in terms of transaction relationships, they offer something analyses don’t, but as poems they lack the things that make poetry great.

• A4: No, [shift in feelings about poetry] again, the lack of personalness in found poems separate them from other poems.

• B1: Poetry’s power lies in its very personal character. Found poems allow the reader to take the text and experience it on a personal level inherent in poetry.

• B2: Found poems are useful for exploring themes, motifs, and symbols and possibly organizing them into a cohesive argument.

• B3: Found poetry, like traditional analysis, explores the text on a deeper level than is possible through the first read. Both activities give the reader a greater understanding of the text by simply revisiting it.

• C1: “Somewhat likely” to include found poetry writing experiences in the future.

• C2: They are useful for Transactional Reading. However, as an analysis I don’t believe they’re as strong as traditional methods and they’re not as powerful or personal as poetry . They still offer a fun, creative option in lieu of essays, and are good introductions to poetry writing. Useful, but not extremely.

• C3: Poetry is so personal and stigmatized the class would have to be open and close to make poetry exercises worthwhile. Found poems could ease into the workshops by destigmatizing poetry. So I suppose I’m slightly more inclined.

Mike did have some positive things to say with regard to found poetry’s usefulness for introducing students to poetry; its potential for exploring, understanding, and personalizing a text; and its capacity for supporting transactional relationships.

Nevertheless, overall this participant was not a fan of found poetry as a poetic form.

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Jenny’s voice. van Manen (1990) maintains that “some descriptions [of lived experience] are richer than others…we tend to learn more about life from some people than from others” (p. 92). A review is offered here of the participant whose voice most

often appeared to capture the essence of a thematic result. In the poetry questionnaire,

Jenny identified herself as a novice poet. She sometimes enjoyed reading poetry, but she

generally did not enjoy writing it: “I always get stuck…I think that I don’t really feel like

I am artistic enough to put words together poetically.” In terms of future responsibilies

for teaching students how to write poetry, Jenny shared: “I am honestly nervous about

teaching students to write poetry because I feel like I never mastered the skill myself.

Although some students love writing poetry, in my experiences many students dread it.”

The following comments are from part A of the written reflection, which covers

the experience of writing the found poem. Jenny “thoroughly enjoyed” the process of

writing the actual found poem: “It was a bit difficult to pick out words from the novel,

but it was fun, almost like a scavenger hunt. Once I had chosen all the lines I wanted I

loved rearranging them to create a cohesive poem.” Jenny’s poem was by far the longest.

I can see why the process was a bit challenging because she picked out a large number of

words, phrases, and lines from the text (See Appendix M). Jenny felt “proud” of her

found poem, written using words from Allan Wolf’s (2011) verse novel about the Titanic:

The Watch that Ends the Night : “It made me feel like I was a poet, even though I always

thought I couldn’t write poetry.” She found the experience to be “much more enjoyable”

compared to other poetry writing experiences. This particular experience shifted Jenny’s

feelings about poetry: “I always avoided poetry at all costs because I thought it was all

about obscure interpretation and analyzing, but this gave me a new appreciation for it.”

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The following comments are from part B of the written reflection, which covers the transactional relationship with the text. The found poetry writing experience significantly impacted Jenny’s relationship with the text:

I definitely feel like I have a deeper relationship with the text after writing the found poem. By taking the voice of the characters in the story in order to write the poem, I was able to learn more from it and empathize with the characters in it over the events that occurred. I also was more aware at how artistic and beautiful the text was.

The writing process also impacted Jenny’s awareness of the text and its contributions to her reading experience: “By extracting the lines that I wanted to use in my poem, I realized what the main themes in the text were. I noticed motifs and symbols, and I was able to learn a lot more from the lessons the book had to teach.” As well, the writing process impacted Jenny’s reflection upon her reading experience: “Through my choices of lines to use in my poem, I realized what parts of the story meant the most to me, and how the story really impacted me and helped me to grow as a reader and as a person.” In her literacy autobiography part two, Jenny reflects on the growth of her personal relationship with reading during the course:

I definitely think that my personal relationship with reading grew this quarter ….Throughout the quarter, I was able to develop a deeper, more transactional relationship with each book that I read, which helped me to get more out of reading than ever before. This class contributed to my development by emphasizing the importance of always enjoying reading, of choosing books that interest you, and of creating your own, individual interpretation and experience through reading books.

The following comments are from part C of the written reflection, which covers teaching poetry writing in the future. Jenny would be “very likely” to include found poetry writing experience in her future high school English classroom: “I think this is a wonderful way to both introduce the subject of writing poetry to students and to deepen a

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student’s relationship with a book. I think that students can get more out of this than a book analysis paper.” In terms of her confidence level around teaching poetry writing in her future classroom, Jenny shares: “I was very nervous about teaching poetry because I was never taught it well, and I feel like I knew nothing about it. Now I feel much more comfortable with it.” In the literacy autobiography part two reflection upon her future teaching responsibilities, Jenny voluntarily commits: “I will definitely include found poetry in teaching poetry. It just really helps poetry to seem less intimidating and more fun, and it is extremely helpful in developing a transactional relationship with a book.”

Following Jenny’s answers throughout the data sets gives the reader a clear view into her attitudes toward poetry writing at the beginning of the study, as well as her views toward writing and teaching found poetry at the end of the study. As well, Jenny’s reflection upon the impact of the found poetry writing experience on her transactional relationship with the text chosen for her poem provides a compelling endorsement for the use of found poetry with readers and writers in the literacy classroom. Rosenblatt

(1978/1994) repeatedly challenges teachers to encourage readers to adopt the aesthetic stance for reading literature. When teachers encourage and support the aesthetic stance, they help their students to find pleasure and personal meaning in reading, as illustrated by

Jenny’s positive experiences (Many, 2004). The evolution of Jenny’s pleasure in poetry and reading as she moved through the found poetry writing experience is clearly evident.

Secondary Dissertation Data Set

The methodology of this study incorporates a variety of processes to facilitate the trustworthiness of the research findings. One such process is the triangulation of data

(Creswell & Miller, 2000). Findings are shared here from the analysis of the secondary

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dissertation data set, which consists of the reflective writings gathered from the OSU

Literature for Adolescents course in the winter quarter 2012. Twenty-seven students completed the in-class written reflection upon the found poetry writing experience. A similar reflective writing prompt to the prompt used for the primary dissertation data set was used. The same sections were included, but the individual prompts were more open- ended (See Appendix H). In order to avoid invalidation of the primary dissertation data, this secondary data set was analyzed before the primary data set. Analyzing the reflections first prevented the possibility of unconsciously searching for themes that echoed those uncovered in the primary dissertation data. An abbreviated version of

Attride-Stirling’s (2001) thematic networks process was used to uncover broad themes, which were then compared to the themes uncovered in the primary dissertation data.

Following is a brief summary of the themes uncovered in the data analysis. Correlations to the dissertation findings will then be made explicit in order to support data validity.

Section one. Section one of the reflective writing asked participants to respond to the poetry writing experience. The first broad theme in this section relates to affective words used to describe found poetry. Fourteen students mentioned positive words when discussing their experience with found poetry; these ranged from “fun” and “enjoyable” to “loved” and “liked.” The second broad theme signifies reactions to the finished found poem. Many students reported feeling positively toward the final product: two students

“loved” their poem; three were “proud” of their poem; and two were “happy” or

“pleased” with their poem. Four students mentioned how they were able to make the poem their own, even though the words were not originally theirs. One student mentioned feeling surprised by her poem, and another shared a sense of accomplishment from

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writing the poem. Yet another felt that the writing process enhanced her relationship with poetry.

The third broad theme under section one concerns the actual process of writing the found poem. By far the most common remark, mentioned by seven students, was the creative aspect of found poetry. The next most common statement, mentioned by three students, was the freedom of not having to come up with one’s own words for the poem.

Common descriptions of the writing process were: “easy…accessible…less stressful.” A full eleven students favorably compared the writing experience to past school poetry writing experiences; all of the reflections noted that found poetry was much more rewarding and enjoyable than other poetic forms.

The fourth broad theme under section one reveals a shift in attitudes toward poetry. Twelve students experienced a change in feelings toward poetry as a result of the found poetry writing experience. Students mentioned feeling more confident in their poetry writing abilities; feeling less overwhelmed by poetry; being more willing to write poetry; and experiencing an enhanced relationship with poetry. As well, students expressed moving from anxiety to comfort; from apprehension to relief; and from dread to surprise. As one student reflected: “This experience made me consider looking at more poetry and it made me want to give it a chance.”

Section two. Section two of the reflective writing asked the students to reflect on

the found poetry writing process and its impact on their transactional relationship with

the text chosen for the poem. This section was by far the most developed and detailed

portion of the written reflection. Only three students did not mention having their

relationship with the text impacted by the found poetry writing experience. Of the 24

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students who did mention an effect on their reading experience, all were described as positive. The first broad theme in section two addresses how students described the effect the found poetry writing process had on their partnership or relationship with the book. A key part of this writing process, or “going back into the book,” was mentioned repeatedly through the use of such words as: “reread…revisit…re-examine.” A great many students mentioned that the experience of rereading the text as they searched for topics and words for the found poem impacted their relationship with the text. Words such as:

“strengthened…enhanced…highlighted…helped” were used to describe the impact that rereading the text had on the reader/text relationship.

Within the broad theme of the rereading experience, four general sub-themes were revealed. First, students reported that rereading the text had an affective impact on their relationship with the text. A heightened emotional reaction to the text was noted, as well as an enjoyment of the experience “diving back into the text.” Second, students mentioned that rereading affected aspects of textual comprehension. Under this sub- theme, thinking and understanding were most often mentioned. Rereading allowed students to think about the content of the text in a more in-depth manner, as well as to think about the parts of the story that most impacted them as a reader and as a writer.

Students reported a deeper understanding of the story as a result of rereading. Students traced this increased understanding to the fact that during rereading they noticed aspects of the book that they had missed during the first reading. Two students even went so far as to observe that the revisiting of the text gave them a completely different experience and view of the book. Under the third sub-theme, students connected the rereading of the text to personal notions of the self in relation to the text. Personally relating and

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connecting to the book were most often noted. Under this sub-theme’s personal relationship category, students gained insight into the self as reader. As well, they reported an increase in awareness: of the book; of the book’s message to readers; and of how they personally related to the text. Students felt that the found poetry writing process helped them to personally “grow with the book” and to “feel really close to the novel.”

Under this sub-theme’s book connection category, students felt like the writing of the found poem brought them closer to the text by highlighting their personal relationship with the text. One student noted that the found poem allowed her to connect to the text again, “but this time via a poet’s eyes.” Using a more personal lens during the rereading experience appeared to move readers closer to the novel.

The fourth sub-theme under the broad theme of rereading concerned story elements. Four respondents mentioned connecting to the story’s theme. One student wrote in detail about John Green’s (2005) Looking for Alaska . One of the book’s main themes, the “Great Perhaps,” struck a chord with the reader. Her found poem was about how she herself rediscovered her own personal “Great Perhaps.” Two reflections mentioned a deeper appreciation for the author’s writing style. By far the most commonly noted literary element was that of character. Seven students wrote at length and in detail concerning connections to characters. A general theme emerged of readers seeing a particular character as “more than just a character.” Revisiting the book appeared to draw readers into a closer, more personal relationship with the main character, one that showed characters in a new light. An interesting sub-theme emerged with regard to the novel

Sold , by Patricia McCormick (2006). Two students wrote at length about their deeply personal relationship with the main character. One student wrote that during her first

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reading of the novel she did not form a deep connection with Lakshmi, the main character. However, rereading passages for her found poem impacted that connection: “It really sank in just how real she was. I tried to convey how real of a person she realized she was through my found poem because she lost sight of that for a moment.” Another student also developed an emotional attachment to Lakshmi. The entire section of that student’s reflection is printed below because it illustrates the depth of the reader’s personal connection to the main character:

The text [ Sold ] itself was powerful and affected me in a huge way, but the writing of the found poem only heightened the emotional response I had to the text. After writing and rereading my found poem I felt a certain responsibility. I was concerned that someone who had not read the entire text would think the poem was too intense. I briefly considered re-writing my poem, but then I remembered the text itself was intense and I became emotionally attached to the character Lakshmi. Writing the poem only made me form more of a relationship with her. I felt like I was fighting with her and for her…it was difficult at first to pick “the right words” for the poem because I wanted to tell her story well and I wanted to honor this character with my poem. But as I skimmed the text again it became easier to write my poem because I realized she had already told her story and I was using her words to honor her and didn’t have to worry about coming up with the right words myself.

Writing a found poem to honor a character in a book certainly illustrates this reader’s deeply personal connection to the character. The story elements of theme and character had the strongest impact on the participants’ textual relationships.

The second broad theme under section two related to reasons given for choosing a particular text with which to use for the found poem. The most common motives ranged from favorite books; to books that had a powerful impact or effect on the reader; to books that readers had a strong relationship with; to books with main characters that readers connected to; and to themes that “struck a chord” with the reader. A related theme

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concerns reasons given for choosing a topic and words for the poem. Many students pointed to passages imbued with strong emotions as their choice for the source of topics and words. Other common answers listed the important “meaning…message… moment” of the text that had the greatest impact and influence on the reader. Finally, students noted that the most memorable and striking parts of the book, or those that they personally connected to and resonated with, served as powerful poetic resources.

The third broad theme under section two positions the reader as co-author. Eight reflections noted this role. Comments such as: “helped me step into the author’s shoes” and “made me feel part of the story-telling process” revealed a sense of creative agency; the participants experienced a feeling of partnership with the author and participation in the storytelling process.

Section three. Section three of the reflective writing asked students to discuss their willingness to use found poetry with their future students. Twenty-four students

(89%) welcomed the idea of using found poetry in classroom settings, and twenty (74%) embraced the idea of using poetry in general with their future students. The four participants who did not write specifically about using found poetry in the future did note that found poetry made a useful tool for introducing poetry to students. Of the

respondents who did plan on using found poetry in future classrooms, eight used the

word “definitely” to articulate this commitment, making it the most commonly used word

in section three of the reflection. Other words and phrases used were: “absolutely…can’t

wait…love to…totally.” These participants cited a variety of reasons for their commitment to use found poetry with future students. They ranged from the most popular two reasons: inspiring creativity and lacking intimidation, to reasons such as freedom of

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expression, accessibility, and fostering interaction with texts. Four of the twenty students mentioned a shift in attitudes toward teaching poetry, moving from a place of discomfort to a place of comfort, ease, and confidence. Almost 90% of the prospective teachers had such positive experiences with found poetry that they willingly committed to using the poetic form with their future students.

Comparison of Themes Between Dissertation Data Sets

A report of the consistencies across the two data sets follows. “P” statements refer

to findings from the primary data set; “S” statements refer to the secondary data set.

Research question one.

P1: Over half of the novice poets noted purely positive attitudes toward the found poetry writing process, finding it to be easy and enjoyable.

S1: Over 40% of the students mentioned positive words when discussing their experience with found poetry; ranging from “fun…enjoyable” to “loved…liked.” Students also reported positive feelings about their final poem: two students “loved” their poem, three were “proud” of their poem, and two were “happy” or “pleased” with their poem.

P2: The accessible and structured approach of using words from the text for the poem supported the novice poets and lessened their anxiety and worry over writing poetry. The novice poets formed an appreciation for a poetic form that offered them a stress-free mentorship opportunity through finding and reframing words for their found poem.

S2: Students mentioned the freedom of not having to come up with one’s own words for the poem. They found the writing process: “less stressful,” “accessible,” and “easy.”

P3: The majority of the participants favorably compared the found poetry writing experience to past school poetry experiences.

S3: Almost one third of the students favorably compared the writing experience to past school poetry writing experiences; all of the reflections noted that found poetry was much more rewarding and enjoyable in comparison to other poetic forms.

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P4: All but one of the novice poets reported a positive shift in their attitudes toward poetry as a result of the writing activity. Feelings of fear and worry were transformed to feelings of fun and comfort. Participants experienced a shift in self-efficacy, becoming much more comfortable and confident in their role as a poet.

S4: 35% of the students experienced a shift in attitudes toward poetry as a result of the found poetry writing experience. Students felt more confident in their poetry writing abilities and less overwhelmed by poetry. They were also more willing to write poetry and experienced an enhanced relationship with poetry. As well, students expressed moving from anxiety to comfort; from apprehension to relief; and from dread to surprise with regard to writing poetry.

Research question two.

P1: The search for words for the poem returned readers to the text, where they revisited the reading experience and reread portions of the book.

S1: A key part of the found poetry writing process, “going back into the book,” was mentioned repeatedly through the use of such words as “reread…revisit…re-examine.”

P2: The processes of reflection and rereading changed readers’ understanding of various aspects of the text.

S2: Rereading resulted in a deeper understanding of the text.

P3: The found poetry writing process transformed how readers perceived, understood, related to, or empathized with the characters. Understanding of the book’s theme(s) was also impacted.

S3: Writing a found poem to honor a character in a book highlighted readers’ deeply personal connection to characters. By far the story elements of theme and character had the strongest effect on readers’ textual relationships.

P4: Writing the found poem increased readers’ positive feelings toward the book, creating a bond between the reader and the text and reinforcing a connection between the two.

S4: Personally relating and connecting to the book were consistently noted.

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P5: The poetic writing process strengthened and enriched readers’ relationship with the book chosen for the found poem and significantly impacted awareness of the text’s contributions to the reading experience. This awareness led to a narrowing, widening, deepening, and extending of the transactional experiences.

S5: Students’ partnership or relationship with the book was impacted by the found poetry writing process: It was strengthened, enhanced, and highlighted.

Research question three.

P1: At the end of the study, fully 90% of the respondents reported a positive shift in their level of teaching confidence.

S1: Almost 90% of the participants welcomed the idea of using found poetry with their own future students, and almost three quarters embraced using poetry in general in their future classrooms.

P2: Participants recognized and appreciated found poetry’s ability to introduce novice poets to the world of poetry in an enjoyable manner.

S2: Respondents characterized found poetry as a perfect tool for introducing their future students to poetry.

P3: Found poetry’s accessibility, usability, and effectiveness for introducing students to poetry, as well as the advantage afforded to poets by not being responsible for thinking up words for the poem, were all cited by respondents as reasons to teach the art form to their future students.

S3: Participants cited a variety of reasons for their commitment to use found poetry with future students. These ranged from the most popular two reasons: inspiring creativity and lacking intimidation, to reasons such as freedom of expression, accessibility, and fostering textual interaction.

P4: Positioning the prospective teachers as practicing poets appeared to support their confidence in teaching poetry to their future students. A shift in their own negative feelings toward poetry resulted in a shift in attitudes toward teaching the art form in their future classrooms.

S4: Students mentioned a shift in attitudes toward teaching poetry, moving from a place of discomfort to a place of comfort, ease, and confidence.

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Data discrepancy. Only two significant themes emerged in the secondary data set that did not appear as noteworthy themes in the primary data set. First, in the secondary data set, almost one quarter of the students positioned themselves as co-authors through comments such as: “helped me step into the author’s shoes;” “enabled me to make my own story out of a text I loved…made me feel like it was partly mine too;” “I was creating my own adaptation to go along with the story;” “made me feel part of the storytelling process;” and “I borrowed and blended the author’s words verbatim, thus making my own patchwork of the author’s writing.” These comments reveal a sense of creative agency, a feeling of partnership with the author and ownership of the storytelling. Peter

Adams (1987) recommends that students be given opportunities to “write from inside the world of the text” (p. 121). Found poetry appears to fit this recommendation because the poetic form positions writers as “co-poets in the process of response” (Gorrell, 1989, p.

34). However, only one participant in the primary data set mentioned this same theme: “It

[the found poem] allowed me to merge my own creativity with the author’s vision for the book” (Allie). On a side note, this theme did appear throughout the pilot studies.

The second discrepant theme relates to reasons given by participants from the secondary dissertation set for choosing a particular text with which to use for the found poem. This theme did not appear in the primary dissertation data. A logical explanation for this discrepancy is found in the difference between the written reflections. Part B of the writing prompt for the secondary dissertation data set offers a list of bulleted steps in the found poetry writing process. The first step reads: “Deciding which text to choose for the poem.” The steps for the poetic writing process were not included as part of the writing prompt for the primary dissertation data set.

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Post Dissertation Data Sets

The researcher taught two literature classes at OSU after the dissertation study took place: Introduction to Children’s Literature in the autumn quarter of 2012 and

Literature for Adolescents in the spring quarter of 2013. As a very informal triangulation effort toward ensuring even further data trustworthiness, the researcher collected a short in-class written reflection upon the found poetry writing experience, much like the pilot studies. Curious to see what a completely open invitation would yield, the students in both classes were asked to briefly share anything they wished about the found poetry writing experience. The results from the children’s literature course reinforce two aspects of the dissertation findings. First, found poetry appears to have a unique power to impact attitudes and feelings toward poetry. The following comments illustrate a powerful shift in students’ poetry perspectives:

• I really don’t like poetry but loved the found poem. • The found poem did help me not be as afraid of poetry. • I really enjoyed the found poem and I usually hate poetry. • I hate poems and I actually enjoyed making my found poem. • I feel much more comfortable writing and interacting with poetry now! • I never considered myself a poet, but I’m inspired to continue found poetry. • I used to be terrified of poetry but since found poetry I am now open to it and really enjoy it.

Second, found poetry also appears to have the ability to impact readers’ relationships with texts. The following comments illustrate students’ thoughts about reader/text transactions:

• I was able to connect in a new way with the book. • The found poem helped me look more in depth in the book. • It [the found poem] does make books more interactive and I enjoyed it. • I definitely think found poetry provides a new way of thinking about a book. • I felt like I was able to interact deeply and think more analytically about the text. 280

The results from the young adult literature course reinforce five aspects of the dissertation findings. First, found poetry is easy to write: “Best poetry experience I have ever had…easy to put thoughts on paper without being embarrassed or judged.” Second, easing novice poets into poetry helps to build writing confidence: “Found poetry made me feel more confident in my attempt at poetry.” Third, found poetry supports self- efficacy: “I do not consider myself as a poet in any sense of the word. However, found poems are fun and easy to create. I think I actually made you believe I was a poet for a second there?!” Fourth, the writing process supports reader/text relationships: “Found poetry is a worthwhile activity for readers to get the chance to think about their relationships, impacts and lessons from the book and use those words to compile artistically and personally evidence of those transactions through poetry.” Finally, the value of the poetic form is affirmed by prospective teachers: “I will absolutely use found poetry with future students when I’m a teacher because I think it will help them feel comfortable with poetry, and it will allow them to feel like a poet without having to come up with their own language.” The following comment from a student in the young adult literature course enthusiastically endorses and encapsulates the overall experience:

I love that I don’t have to make my own beautiful words but still get to put my feelings into the poem! I love it! I became so much more attached to The Fault in our Stars by remembering how deeply I loved the beautiful phrasing in it! I loved getting to steal John Green’s [2012] incredible way of putting my thoughts into incredibly beautiful words! It makes you think deeper of what overall feelings I, as the reader, felt about the book and then get to remember the lines that made me feel that way and rearrange them in a way that felt right to me !!

So, what does happen when prospective teachers write found poetry using young adult

literature? After twelve pilot studies, two sets of dissertation data, and two sets of post-

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dissertation data, this researcher is confident in found poetry’s ability to support the writing efforts of novice poets; reader/text transactional relationships; and the confidence of prospective poetry teachers.

Summary

Prose Summary

The first component of the research question asks how writing found poetry might support novice poets. Of the 16 total novice poets, almost half lacked confidence in their poetry writing abilities at the beginning of the study. When they did write poetry, they felt insecure and challenged by the writing process, as well as dissatisfied with the outcome of their efforts. After the found poetry writing experience, 100% of the novice poets reported positive feelings for their poem, expressing a sense of pride in their poetic accomplishment. With regard to the writing process itself, 81% of the novice poets noted purely positive attitudes, finding the process to be easy and enjoyable. The accessible and structured approach of using words from the text for the poem supported the novice poets and lessened their anxiety and worry over writing poetry. The participants formed an appreciation for a poetic form that offered them a stress-free mentorship opportunity through finding and reframing words for their found poem. The majority also favorably compared the found poetry writing experience to past school poetry experiences, helping to disrupt these past negative experiences. As well, 15 of the 16 novice poets reported a positive shift in their attitudes toward poetry as a result of the writing activity. They experienced a shift in self-efficacy, becoming much more comfortable and confident in their poetic role. Overall, the found poetry writing experience supported the novice poets’ writing efforts.

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The second component of the research question asks how writing found poetry might support transactional reading relationships between readers and texts. Writing a found poem positively impacted every participant’s relationship with the text chosen for the poem, as well as their reflection upon the reading experience. The search for words for the poem returned readers to the text, where they revisited the reading experience and reread portions of the book. These reflective and rereading processes impacted readers’ understanding of various aspects of the text. The poetic writing process strengthened and enriched readers’ relationship with the book chosen for the found poem and significantly

impacted awareness of the text’s contributions to the reading experience. This awareness

led to a narrowing, widening, deepening, and extending of the transactional experiences.

Writing the found poem increased the poets’ positive feelings toward the book and

reinforced the connection between readers and texts. The found poetry writing process

transformed the nature of the readers’ transactional relationships with the texts.

The third component of the research question asks how writing found poetry

might support prospective teachers of poetry. At the outset of the study, over half of the

participants (48% of prospective poetry teachers) expressed significant reservations

regarding their future poetry teaching responsibilities. They did not feel confident in their

ability to teach future students to write poetry. The primary reason accounting for this

lack of confidence was that the participants themselves did not identify as poets. At the

end of the study, fully 90% of the respondents (95% of the prospective poetry teachers)

reported a positive shift in their level of teaching confidence. The experience of

becoming practicing poets helped the participants to become more confident in their

teaching abilities. They recognized and appreciated found poetry’s ability to introduce

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novice poets to the world of poetry in an enjoyable manner. All but two respondents would be “very likely” to include found poetry writing experiences in their future classrooms. Found poetry’s accessibility, usability, and effectiveness for introducing students to poetry, as well as the advantage afforded to poets by not being responsible for thinking up their own words for the poem, were all cited as reasons to include the art form in future teaching. Positioning the prospective teachers as practicing poets supported their confidence in teaching poetry to their future students. Shifting their own negative feelings toward poetry also resulted in a shift in attitudes toward teaching the art form. In general, writing found poetry positively impacted the attitudes and confidence of the prospective teachers toward teaching poetry writing to their future students.

Poetic Summary

A Sophisticated Tool for Improving the Rigor of Qualitative Analysis

A tool for the highly intuitive and theoretically driven stage of data analysis.

Reduce the text

Explore the text

Integrate the text

A method for conducting thematic analyses that is:

Methodical Practical Effective Rich Sensitive Insightful

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Exploration of a text’s structures and patterns:

Systemizes analytical procedures Discloses interpretative processes Organizes and presents analytical results

Break down the text:

Code the data Identify themes Refine the themes neither too specific, nor too broad

Thematic Networks:

Construct Basic Themes Simple premises characteristic of the data Organizing Themes Basic themes clustered into similar issues Global Theme A principal metaphor in the data as a whole

Describe and Explore the underlying patterns that emerge and support with segments from the original text

Summarize the principle themes succinctly

Interpret Patterns within and across the thematic networks

Return to the original research questions and the theoretical frameworks underpinning the study and address both with arguments grounded on the thematic patterns that emerged

Rest assured your validity is rigorous and robust

thanks to Jennifer Attride-Stirling

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PREVIEW of the DISCUSSION

Bern Porter (1972)

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CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

Chapter 5 presents an in-depth discussion of the research findings with the

express intent of “capturing the meaning or essence of the phenomenon and expressing it

so that it fits into a larger picture” (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2008, p. 134). This chapter is

organized into two major sections. First, each set of findings corresponding to the three

research questions will be thoroughly interpreted in light of the relevant theories and

literature. Second, the findings will be reinterpreted through two complementary

theoretical frames. The chapter ends with a prose and poetic summary.

The purpose of this qualitative classroom-based study was to investigate how the practice of writing found poetry might support the participants as novice poets, readers, and prospective poetry teachers. Found poetry was examined as a possible tool with which to support the literacy activities of students enrolled in a college course on young adult literature. The primary data set for the study consisted of the participants’ written reflections upon the found poetry experience. The prompts were divided into three sections, one for each of the three research questions. Attride-Stirling’s (2001) thematic networks tool was used to analyze and interpret the data. Six thematic networks were created in the process of analyzing the results of the study. The results of the data analysis yielded six major findings, two for each of the three research questions.

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Discussion of the Findings

Research Question One

How might writing found poetry support novice poets?

Finding 1. The first finding, which pertains to the first research question, points to found poetry’s support of novice poets’ writing efforts. At the beginning of the study, all 16 of the novice poets reported negative feelings for poetry; feelings of fear and dislike were uniformly blamed on poetry analysis. The challenging practice of analyzing poetry impacted the participants’ confidence around poetry and their general willingness to engage with the art form. Destructive school poetry practices (Dressman & Faust,

2006), such as the over analysis of poetry (Sullivan, 2005), appears to have left the participants feeling alienated from poetry (Keil, 2005). Just as Perfect (1999) and Sloan

(2003b) found with their students, negative school poetry experiences had a significant impact on the participants’ attitudes toward poetry. As Allie’s reflection illustrates: “A lot of school poetry has been so hard to interpret, I can’t stand it.” The novice poets began the study with negative attitudes toward poetry, attitudes that they had carried with them from past school poetry experiences to the present classroom poetry experience.

At the beginning of the study, all 16 of the novice poets also reported negative feelings toward writing poetry. Whereas before the study, one third of the novice poets felt dissatisfied with the results of their previous poetic writing efforts, at the end of the study, 100% of the novice poets reported positive feelings for their final found poem.

Poets “liked” and “loved” their poems, with many using adverbs such as “really” to emphasize these positive feelings. As well, almost half of the novice poets expressed a sense of pride in their poetic accomplishment: “I loved my final poem. I was very proud

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of my work. I have never enjoyed poetry before but found that writing a poem I love is worth it!” (Kristy). The Expressive Theory of Poetry Writing (Fike, 2000), which primarily focuses on the poet’s feelings, is reflected in Mitch’s reaction to his found poem: “I thought my found poem was very powerful and made me emotional to think about the rest of the story.” It is encouraging to see that every novice poet in the study reported feeling satisfied with the results of their poetic efforts.

Giving students opportunities to enjoy poetry may help to shift negative attitudes toward the art form (Nodelman, 1992). It seems likely that the found poetry writing experience proved to be one such opportunity. At the conclusion of the study, 94% of the novice poets reported a positive shift in their overall feelings toward poetry. Found poetry appears to have provided the participants with a positive school poetry experience, supporting efforts to disrupt previous school poetry practices that left participants feeling disenfranchised from the world of poetry. These results support Sloan’s (2001) belief that negative poetry attitudes can indeed be transformed. Jenny’s reflection exemplifies the transformation in attitudes that may result from engaging in positive poetry practices: “I always avoided poetry at all costs because I though it was all about obscure interpretation and analyzing, but this [the found poetry writing experience] gave me a new appreciation for it.” For the participants in this study, it is probable that a single positive poetry writing experience shifted attitudes toward the art of poetry.

Finding 2. The second finding, which also pertains to the first research question, points to the high level of support provided by the process of using words from a text for a found poem. The found poetry writing process was positively responded to by 81% of the novice poets. This process was favorably compared to past poetry writing

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experiences, many of which engendered feelings of anxiety, insecurity, and stress in the participants. The process of writing a found poem was more creative and less stressful than past experiences. The experience proved to be much easier and more accessible, as well as more enjoyable and fun: “It was bizarre in that it was significantly easier to write than most of the poetry I’ve produced and yet I actually felt strongly about what I had composed” (Tyler). Whereas before the study, participants reported feeling worried, unsure, and nervous about their ability to write poetry, after writing a found poem they reported feeling more comfortable with the art form: Found poetry “makes you a poet without the stigma of poetry…it encouraged us students to not be afraid” (Lida). Found poetry’s apprenticeship model of using words from a text is credited for this attitude shift.

The process of finding and using the author’s words appears to have supported the novice poets by decreasing the pressure often associated with writing original poetry

(Apol, 1998; Murdoch, 2010). Just like Lubarsky (2002) found with her students, the participants from the study were less intimidated by using the words found in a novel than if they’d had to use their own words for the poem: “I think this was easier and more fun that other poetry experiences because you start with something more concrete than a blank page and a head full of thoughts” (Kat). Using words from the text increased writing confidence and decreased feelings of stress, resulting in a positive shift toward poetic self-efficacy: “I now feel that there is a type of poetry for me and I am not completely hopeless” (Carla). It is possible that the mentorship opportunity afforded by found poetry supports novice poets in becoming more comfortable and confident in their new role as poets. Just a single experience of using someone else’s words to craft a poem appears to be enough support to build up the confidence of beginning poets.

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Research Question Two

How might writing found poetry support transactional reading relationships between readers and texts?

Finding 3. The third finding, which pertains to the second research question, points to found poetry’s support of transactional relationships between readers and texts.

The found poetry writing process impacted the reader/text relationship, reflection upon the reading experience, and awareness of the text and its contributions to the reading experience. At the conclusion of the study, 100% of the participants affirmed a positive impact of the found poetry writing experience on their relationship with the text chosen for the poem, as Jenny’s reflection shows: “I definitely feel like I have a deeper relationship with the text after writing the found poem.” Rather than being rushed away to engage in efferently oriented activities, as students in many university literature classrooms tend to be (Rosenblatt, 1985b, 1995, 2004), the students in this study were engaged in a writing activity designed to enhance their overall aesthetic reading experience by maintaining the connection between readers and their transactional experiences (Many, 2004; Roen, 2000; Rosenblatt in Karolides, 1999). Participants were positioned as poets in order to aesthetically communicate and depict aspects of their reading experience (Lewis, 2000; Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, 1988), as seen here in Belinda’s reflection: “Once finished, I was proud of my work. Though it was the author’s words, I was able to manipulate them in order to articulate my reaction to the novel and characters.”

Just as Bleeker and Bleeker (1996) found, asking the participants to write poetry in reaction to reading young adult literature encouraged them to creatively and

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thoughtfully construct personal meanings from the text: “I found it [writing a found poem] enriched my understanding and caused me to think critically and creatively about the text. I drew a new understanding from the text through this process” (Carla). Similar to what Steenstra (Steenstra, Hunt, & Hunt, 2006) found with his high school students, writing poems about literature fostered the participants’ deep level of textual understanding:

By extracting the lines that I wanted to use in my poem, I realized what the main themes in the text were. I noticed motifs and symbols, and I was able to learn a lot more from the lessons the book had to teach. (Jenny)

Like Courtney-Smith and Angelotti (2005) found with their high school students, writing poetry after reading a novel enhanced the participants’ literary skills while also fostering a vital experience of the work. As Barb shares, the found poetry writing process impacted her relationship with the text:

because it forced me to go back through the book. I chose a specific relationship in the book that I felt a connection with and in searching through, I discovered way more on the relationship than I ever thought there was. It made my connection with the relationship even stronger.

The findings of this study confirm Probst’s (2000) assertion that broadening the range of discourse forms for extending readers’ experiences with texts opens them up to the pleasures of artistic creation. Allie’s reflection offers evidence of this creative activity: “It

[the found poetry writing process] was enjoyable. I also enjoy art so I incorporated colors and fonts into it. It helped me see the book through a more creative lens.” One of the primary goals of this dissertation study was to take up Rosenblatt’s (1995) challenge to foster fruitful transactions between readers and texts. The found poetry writing experience appears to have met this goal of nurturing reader/text relationships.

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Rosenblatt (1982, 1985b) recommends that readers be given opportunities to recollect and recapture their transactional reading experiences. 100% of the participants affirmed a positive impact of the found poetry writing experience on reflection upon the reading experience. Kim relates that the process of writing the found poem: “really made me reflect. I am the kind of reader who reads, then puts the book away and moves on to the next one but this made me stop and really dive back into the book.” Rosenblatt

(1978/1994) explains that when a reader engages in the process of reflection upon a literary experience, she re-experiences and re-enacts the work-as-evoked. Kat’s experience validates Rosenblatt’s explanation: “When writing the found poem, I went back and reread parts of the novel that most impacted me. It was great to re-engage in this experience and relive the most profound aspects of the book” (emphasis added). The

found poetry writing process gave participants a reflective opportunity, allowing them to

both savor and elaborate on the transactional experience (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994, 1985b,

1986b), as Amber’s reflection illustrates: “[B]ecause I wrote the found poem, I remember

elements of the book better. The poem made me consider the art of the book and of my

poem which helped me love and understand the book even better.”

Writing the found poem also impacted the participants’ reflection upon the nature

of the reading experience; the quality of the experience was narrowed, widened,

deepened, and/or extended. The writing process impacted Annie’s reflection over her

reading experience “because it had me go through the section I used for the found poem

again and notice things I might have missed the first time I read it.” The reflective

process also helped to illuminate and clarify the reading experience (Rosenblatt, 1986b),

as Kendra’s reflection reveals: “I hadn’t really thought about any of the themes in the

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book before writing the poem. When I decided that my poem would be about bravery, I started to notice how that the theme was present throughout the book.” Additionally, reflecting upon the reading experience supported reading ability and self-criticism

(Rosenblatt in Karolides, 1999), as Belinda’s reflection highlights below:

It [the process of writing the found poem] allowed me to better understand the relationship between the two characters that I was trying to illustrate with the poetry. As I searched, my initial idea for the poem changed and developed into a dual-voice poem, reflecting the love and friendship between two characters. I would not have realized the depth of their relationship had I not worked to find it through the found poetry.

The transactional paradigm encourages teachers to “never underestimate” their role in

“enriching the quality” of students’ reading experiences (O’Flahavan & Wallis, 2005, p.

33). It appears that the quality of the participants’ reflections over their reading

experiences was enhanced by engaging in an aesthetic writing activity that referred them

back to the reading experience itself (Beach, 1993).

Rosenblatt (1993b) explains that a reciprocal relationship develops between a

reader and a text during a transactional reading event. This relationship is strengthened by

reader awareness of the contributions made by both the text and the self to the

transactional relationship, an awareness that appears to be activated by the found poetry

writing process: “I think looking through the text to find what I wanted my poem to be

about and what I wanted to say made me much more aware about what I had read”

(Kim). 95% of the participants affirmed a positive impact of the found poetry writing

experience on their awareness of the text and its contributions to their reading experience.

The process of gathering words for a found poem focuses the reader/writer’s attention at

the word level, increasing awareness of words in a text (Alexander, 2006), as Kelly’s

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reflection illuminates: “By writing my found poem, it impacted my awareness of the text and contributed to my reading experience because it broadened my vocabulary since I was looking for words to use.” Rosenblatt (1966, 1995) contends that when readers actively participate in literature through the creation of, and reflection over, evocations, then they may reap a number of benefits. First, active participation in a transactional reading experience appears to provide the reader with a source of truth and insight

(Rosenblatt, 1982), as Carla’s reflection portrays below:

I think that writing the found poem impacted my awareness of the text. It allowed me to draw new understanding and conclusions from the text and pick up on things I had missed with the first reading. This was important because it allowed me to see new things and information about the text to justify my conclusions or change my mind.

Aesthetic experiences with literature are also likely to help nurture readers’ imaginative

and emotional capabilities (Rosenblatt, 1966, 1995; Sloan, 2002; Soter et al., 2008), as

Madison’s reflection shows: “I was able to relate more to the character whose voice I

took on in my poem. I was able to get to know her on a deeper level.” The found poetry

activity appears to have had a significant impact on participants’ relationship with the

text chosen for their poem.

Finding 4. The fourth finding, which also pertains to the second research question, points to the enrichment of the reader/text transactional relationship due to activities of revisiting and rereading the book in the search for words to use in the found poem. A natural consequence of engaging in imaginative writing about a reading experience is that the writer may revisit and reread the text (Knoeller, 2003). Found poetry specifically necessitates these activities because the poet must revisit and reread the text in the search for words, as Steve explains: “The poem allowed me to revisit how

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the book talked about truth, and how each character handled the same truth – and made it more real to me.” Students’ aesthetic reading capabilities may be enhanced by such rereading of known texts (Corcoran, 1992). Clarissa’s experience supports this claim: “I didn’t see everything the first time around. By returning to the text to find phrases for the found poem, I reread things I may have not seen the first time around or expanded on something I thought at first.”

Four outcomes from the found poetry writing process are related to the revisiting and rereading activities described above. First, feelings for the book chosen for the found poem were reinforced and intensified, as Kristy’s reflection expresses:

The writing process really improved my experience. I really loved the book to begin with, but absolutely adored it after the poem. I am not a poetry person, yet was proud of the results of my found poem. Since I was only able to write the poem with the help of quotes from the book, by appreciation/love for the book grew exponentially.

Second, the personal connection, or bond, between readers and texts was deepened: “By writing the poem, I felt a stronger connection to the text” (Kristy). Just as Hobgood

(1998) found with her middle school students, the participants were able to experience personal meanings in the novels that they read: “Poetry’s power lies in its very personal character. Found poems allow the reader to take the text and experience it on a personal level inherent in poetry” (Mike). Kat’s reflection upon her poetic writing experience provides a second illustration of Hobgood’s finding:

When writing the actual poem out of selected phrases, I found a new meaning or a new dimension to the text I already loved. I was able to take on a new perspective and look at the same text from another angle.

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Experiencing such personal meanings allowed the participants to “take from the literature a deeply felt meaning for their lives” (Hobgood, 1998, p. 26). Jenny’s found poetry writing experience eloquently echoes Hobgood’s finding:

Through my choices of lines to use in my poem, I realized what parts of the story meant the most to me, and how the story really impacted me and helped me to grow as a reader and as a person.

Hobgood maintains that when reader/writers create found poems from the novels that

they read, they “crystallize a little meaning and feeling of their own from the author’s

original work” (p. 26). Tyler’s reflection is synonymous with Hobgood’s finding: “The

original work already left its mark on me, but going back into the text helped to

crystallize the feelings and impressions I originally had” (emphasis added).

Third, the quality of the participants’ reading experience was strengthened by engaging in the found poetry writing process, as seen in Clarissa’s reflection:

Finally, readers experienced new realizations and gained new insights into the text, especially with respect to literary elements. Similar to Lubarsky’s (2002) middle school students, using the language of a novel as the raw material for a found poem gave the participants an artistic method for understanding their reading experience, as Amber’s reflection illustrates: “I loved that the poem made me look at the book from a more artistic lens, not just reading for plot. But I saw it instead for its beauty that I could then translate into a poem.” Specifically, readers’ attentiveness to literary elements was supported (Rief, 2002), as Mike explains: “Found poems are useful for exploring themes,

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motifs, and symbols and possibly organizing them into a cohesive argument.” Just like

Phillips’ (1989) high school students, the most common literary element to be enriched by the found poetry writing experience was that of character, as Teri’s reflection reveals:

Writing provides students with an artistic method with which to explore their reading

experiences (Burchell, 2010; Collom & Noethe, 2005; Langer & Applebee, 1987;

Rosenblatt, 2004). The findings from this study point to found poetry as a likely method

for extending reading experiences and enriching reader/text transactional relationships.

Research Question Three

How might writing found poetry support prospective teachers of poetry?

Finding 5. The fifth finding, which pertains to the third research question, points

to found poetry’s support of prospective teachers. At the beginning of the study, almost

half of this pool of participants expressed a lack of confidence in their poetry teaching

abilities. Like Perfect’s (1999) students, they expressed anxiety over their lack of self-

assurance with regard to their future responsibility for teaching students to write poetry.

Almost one third of the prospective poetry teachers connected this lack of confidence to

their own perceived inadequacy as poets. Feeling ill-prepared to teach poetry writing

because they themselves were not poets, they expressed a desire to learn more about the

art form in order to benefit their future students. Turning the classroom into a

constructivist-based site of hands-on, experiential learning positioned the participants as

practicing poets (Cremin et al., 2009; Johnson, 2011; Lesley, 2011; Szabo, 2008).

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In order to build confidence, the prospective teachers were treated as apprentices to the art of poetry writing (Keil, 2005). It seems likely that this apprenticeship model succeeded in nurturing the participants’ confidence. At the conclusion of the study, 95% of the prospective poetry teachers (90% of the total number of respondents) reported a positive shift in their level of teaching confidence. Sally’s answer to the prompt: Please describe your level of confidence around teaching poetry writing in your future classroom. Has your sense of confidence changed this quarter? provides an example of the impact made by experiential learning: “I was a bit unsure at first, but after writing my own [found poem] I am more confident and look forward to doing this in my own classroom.” The fifth finding endorses Glover’s (1999) assertion that one must be a poet to teach a poet. Confronting their own anxiety and fears around poetry certainly appears to have positively shifted the prospective teachers’ confidence and attitude toward their future poetry teaching responsibilities (Parr, 2005/2006; Parr & Campbell, 2006).

The prospective teachers embodied the empowering idea that growing to love poetry themselves could in turn help them to become better at teaching poetry

(Lockward, 1994). Kim’s reflection portrays this philosophy: “I found types of poetry I actually enjoy and want to teach.” It is hoped that if one could visit the participants in their future literacy classrooms, one might see these teachers, who themselves experienced the joy of poetry, fostering a positive disposition toward poetry in their students (Boyd, 1973; Fisher, 1993). However, it must be acknowledged that this confidence in teaching found poetry did not appear to uniformly translate to other poetic forms. Building confidence in one poetic form did not seem to provide enough support to shift confidence toward teaching poetry writing in general: “I would be confident

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teaching found poetry and would do it by teaching by example. I am not sure about poetry in itself” (Kristen). While becoming a practicing poet increased confidence in teaching found poetry specifically, it did not extend to teaching all forms of poetry.

Finding 6. The sixth and final finding, which also pertains to the third research question, points to found poetry as a valuable tool identified by prospective teachers for use in their future literacy classrooms. All but one of the prospective teachers (95%)

(91% of the total number of respondents) affirmed that they would be “very-likely” to use found poetry with their future students: “I will definitely include found poetry in teaching poetry. It just really helps poetry to seem less intimidating and more fun, and it is extremely helpful in developing a transactional relationship with a book” (Jenny). Three

main attributes of found poetry were highlighted as advantageous for supporting novice

poets. First, the tool was endorsed for its suitability for introducing new poets to the art of

poetry writing by gently easing them into the world of poetry. As well, found poetry’s

accessibility and usability were identified as positive characteristics for easily inviting all

students into the art of writing poetry. Permission to use words from a text for the found

poem, rather than from the poet’s own intellect, provided a significant level of writing

support. Finally, found poetry’s ability to support students as readers was credited with

widening its circle of advantages. Kat’s reflection summarizes the above benefits: “I

think this [found poetry] is a great way to reflect on a book and share your own personal

experience. I also think that it is a great thing to do with reluctant poetry writers because

they have a starting off point.” Found poetry may likely provide prospective poetry

teachers with a promising tool for supporting their future students as they cross the

threshold into the world of poetry (Dorfman & Cappelli, 2007).

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Complementary Frameworks for Interpreting the Findings

Stances During Envisionment Building

Judith Langer (1995), a professor of literacy education, advances a theory of envisionment, one which describes the “complexity of the text-worlds in people’s minds when they engage in the literary experience” (p. 9). This theory offers a complementary framework with which to interpret the findings regarding the steps of the found poetry writing process. Langer uses the term envisionment to refer to “the world of understanding a person has at any point in time” (p. 9). Envisionment-building is characterized as “an activity in sense making, where meanings change and shift and grow as a mind creates its understandings of a work” (p. 14). Similar to Rosenblatt’s (1990) theory of reading, which consists of a particular reader and a particular text at a particular moment in time, Langer’s theory adds the concept of particular meaning to the equation above, maintaining that the “constant interaction…between the person and the piece, and the particular meaning that is created represent a unique meeting of the two” (p. 14). An envisionment represents a reader’s understanding at any moment in time, the result of the

“ongoing transaction” between a reader and a text (p. 14).

A key component of envisionment-building is that of stance. Langer’s description of stance is considerably different from Rosenblatt’s concept of aesthetic and efferent stances along a continuum. Readers have four options, or stances, with which to develop their understanding of a literary experience. Langer describes the reader’s adoption of these stances during an initial encounter with a text ; however, this researcher is choosing to adapt her concept of stance to a reader’s return to a text for the express purpose of writing a found poem. The stances are not linear in fashion; readers may move among

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them at any point while reading. So too, the found poetry process in nonlinear and iterative in nature. The following explanation of stance is grounded in Langer’s book:

Envisioning Literature (1995, p. 16-19). The found poetry writing process is mapped onto each stance, and participants’ reflections upon their poetic writing experiences are included to illustrate each of the four stances.

Stance 1: Being out and stepping into an envisionment. When a reader begins to engage in a literary experience, she is out of, and then steps into, an envisionment. In this “idea-gathering stage,” the reader accesses pertinent knowledge and experiences, along with any available textual clues, and uses these to begin building the envisionment

(Langer, 1995, p. 16). This stance is mirrored in the step of the found poetry writing process whereby the reader returns to a literary experience with the express purpose of gathering ideas for possible poem topics. This process invites the poet to step back into the created text-world in the search for the poem’s focus. As Kristen shares with regard to the first stance: “I enjoyed reading the book and didn’t want it to end. Creating the poem gave me another reason to dive back into the book.” During this step of the found poetry writing process, the reader steps back into the envisionment in order to revisit the text and relive the literary experience in preparation for writing the found poem.

Stance 2: Being in and moving through an envisionment. When a reader becomes immersed in a text-world and moves through an envisionment, she develops an understanding of the literary experience. In this “meaning begets meaning” stage, the reader uses her moment by moment understanding of the piece to develop and build her overall understanding of the text-world (Langer, 1995, p. 17). This stance is mirrored in the step of the found poetry writing process whereby the reader searches the text for

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words to use in the poem. The poet must move within and through the text, rereading portions of the text and seeking out words for the poem. As Kat shares with regard to the second stance: “When writing the found poem, I went back and reread parts of the novel that most impacted me. It was great to re-engage in this experience and relive the most profound aspects of the book.” During this step of the found poetry writing process, the reader returns to the text and develops her thinking around the literary experience.

Stance 3: Stepping out and rethinking what one knows. When a reader steps out of an envisionment and rethinks what she knows of her own world, she adds her developing understanding of that text-world to her existing repertoire of knowledge and experience. In this “powerful” and “pervasive” stage, the focus of the reader’s meaning development shifts from the text-world under construction to an ongoing reflection over what the meaning of that constructed world holds for the life of the reader (Langer, 1995, p. 18). This stance is mirrored in the step of the found poetry writing process whereby the reader steps out of the text and writes the actual found poem. The writing process may lead the poet to rethink what she knows about the text-world she has created, allowing her to apply this new knowledge and experience to the world outside of the text. As Tyler shares with regard to the third stance: “The ideas I gained from the text shifted from simply existing within the work itself to feeling more like it applied in the real world.”

The potential impact of the third stance has powerful implications for readers’ lives. In fact, Langer asserts that this impact is the principal reason for people to read literature:

As readers, we know that the lessons of literature can be a valued aspect of the experience. They provide us with a set of mirrors in which to view our possible as well as our present selves. They also help us reconsider what we have done and imagine alternative values, beliefs, and emotions. (p. 18)

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Allie’s reflection captures the potential impact of the third stance on readers’ lives:

“Reading is an experience like no other. It allows your mind to be taken on a journey in which you can see the vision of an author combined with your own experiences and imagination to create something truly unique.” During this step of the found poetry writing process, the reader connects her experience of the text-world to her broader experiences in literature and in life.

Stance 4: Stepping out and objectifying the experience. When a reader steps out of an envisionment and objectifies the literary experience, she distances herself from the text-world in order to reflect back upon it. In this “critical” and “analytical” stage, the reader objectifies her understanding of the literary experience, working to become a critic who is able to view the text and its meaning from a distance (Langer, 1995, p. 19). Like the previous stance, the fourth stance is mirrored in the step of the found poetry writing process whereby the reader steps out of the text and writes the found poem. The writing process may lead the poet to objectify the literary experience, allowing her to analyze and interpret her understanding of the text-world. As Barb shares with regard to the fourth stance: “I think it [writing a found poem] is a perfect way to gain more from the book. In a way, it is actually a deep form of analysis. Even more powerful though because it’s personal.” During this step of the found poetry writing process, the reader’s awareness of the text and its contributions to the reading event is enriched, which leads the reader to new realizations regarding the text-world and the literary experience. As Langer points out, readers operating in this stance may become more aware of such things as the writer’s craft or literary elements. This finding certainly occurred in the study, as participants mentioned fresh insights into characters, themes, and plots in twenty-six

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instances; some participants mentioned multiple literary elements. An example is located in Teri’s reflection: Writing the found poem “made me go back through the book and look at the character and the character’s thoughts…I was surprised with what I came up with and I was able to see the character in a new way.” Found poetry provides reader poets with a framework for stepping out of an envisionment and objectifying the literary experience.

Stance in the literature classroom. The first, second, and fourth stances involve

envisionment-building, wherein the reader uses her wealth of knowledge and experiences

to make sense out of the developing text-world. The third stance is qualitatively different

from the other three stances; rather than building an envisionment, the reader adds her

developing understanding of the envisioned text-world to her existing set of real world

knowledge and experiences. Langer (1995) encourages teachers to develop an

understanding of these stances because this information is helpful for designing learning

environments that will be more likely to create rich literary experiences for students. This

researcher is confident that found poetry meets Langer’s qualifications for literature

activities that will provoke readers’ thoughts “in a grand sense” about their

understandings of envisioned text-worlds (p. 22). The found poetry writing process

appears to naturally facilitate reader interaction within Langer’s four stances. Carla’s

reflection provides a fitting illustration of how the experience of writing a found poem

may foster envisionment-building and sense-making of text-worlds and reader-worlds:

I found it [writing a found poem] enriched my understanding and caused me to think critically and creatively about the text. I drew a new understanding from the text through this process…This was important because it allowed me to see new things and information about the text to justify my conclusions or change my mind.

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As reader poets move among stances while engaged in literary and found poetry experiences, they develop meaning and build understanding of their created text-worlds.

Such expansive envisionments make possible: “fuller, more thoughtful, and more informed members of the world – in both literature and life” (p. 8).

Bridging Reader/Text Worlds

On the very first page of this dissertation, the researcher posed the following

question: What transformative power exists along the border where poetry and prose

meet? This study sits at the intersection of worlds: the world of the poet reader and the

world of the prose text. The concept of reader/text worlds, as well as the border that

exists between them, will be explored as a complementary framework with which to

interpret the findings regarding the transformative power of found poetry. First, support

for the configuration of reader/text worlds will be sought in the work of various literary

scholars. Then, a bridge metaphor will be advanced as a means with which to negotiate

the border between these two worlds. Finally, findings from the study will be provided to

illustrate this metaphor at work in the dissertation.

A number of literary theorists claim the existence of two distinct worlds in their

effort to describe what happens in an encounter between a reader and a text (Beach, 1993;

Sloan, 2003a). Each theorist below advances a unique set of names and descriptions for

their particular characterization of these worlds. Judith Langer (1995) discriminates

between the real world of the reader and the imagined world of the text. Readers take the

knowledge and experiences they develop from their created text-worlds and add them to

their evolving understanding of their real world. Louise Rosenblatt (1983) speaks of the

reader operating from her world and text operating from its world when they come

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together in a transaction. The raw material of a reading event is essentially comprised of interactions between these two worlds (Rosenblatt, 1978/1994). Northrop Frye (1963) refers to these two worlds as the world of action and the world of imagination. He states that art exists in the world of imagination, a world created by writers of literary texts who construct models of possible human action and experience. W. H. Auden (1977) classifies these two worlds as the primary world and the secondary world. He envisions the primary world as the everyday world that the reader experiences through her senses.

Conversely, he describes the secondary world as the world that the reader creates in her imagination. James Britton (1977) expands on Auden’s classification, suggesting that writers create secondary worlds “because we never cease to long for more lives than the one we have; in the role of spectator we can participate in an infinite number” (p. 111).

Finally, Ted Hughes (1976) labels the two worlds: the inner world and the outer world, viewing each as interdependent at every moment in time. He conceives of the reader as the “locus of their collision” and characterizes the relationship between the reader and this collision of worlds as follows:

Two worlds, with mutually contradictory laws, or laws that seem to us to be so, colliding afresh every second, struggling for peaceful coexistence. And whether we like it or not our life is what we are able to make of that collision and struggle. So what we need, evidently, is a faculty that embraces both worlds simultaneously. A large, flexible grasp, an inner vision which holds wide open, like a great theatre, the arena of contention, and which pays equal respects to both sides…This really is imagination. (p. 91-92)

The literary theorists above make a convincing argument for the existence of two distinct worlds, the world of the reader and the world of the text.

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If one acknowledges the construct of reader/text worlds, then it follows that a border would exist at the place where these two worlds meet. Gloria Anzaldúa (2007) defines a border between worlds as: “a dividing line, a narrow strip along a steep edge”

(p. 25). Two literary scholars situate this model of borders within the context of

reader/text worlds. Richard Beach (1998) claims: Readers need to “examine the

boundaries and borders that distinguish” real worlds from text worlds (p. 184, emphasis

added). Margaret Mackey (2003) contends: “The ability to move across fictional borders

with flexibility is no small element in the making of a sophisticated reader” (p. 626,

emphasis added). Negotiating the border between reader/text worlds requires a means for

connecting these two worlds. The symbolic construct of a bridge is adopted by the

researcher to figuratively span the border at the juncture where reader/text worlds meet.

Bernice Cullinan (1996) claims that “humanity and civility depend upon words. If

we use words well, we build bridges across incomprehension and chaos” (p. 10). The

findings of this study point to found poetry as a possible linguistic bridge of words

capable of joining the reader’s world to the text’s world, as seen in Mitch’s description of

the found poetry writing experience: “The found poem was reflective and allowed me to

think about the text further.” The poetic bridge facilitates the reader poet’s movement

across the fictional border between worlds, connecting the two via a conduit of words.

This metaphor is evident in Belinda’s reflection upon her feelings for her found poem:

“Once finished, I was proud of my work. Though it was the author’s words, I was able to

manipulate them in order to articulate my reaction to the novel and the characters.” The

following participants’ reflections over the found poetry writing process illustrate the

actual poetic process of bridge building:

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• “I really enjoyed picking out the phrases I liked and reworking them into something I created” (Kristen). • “It was fun, almost like a scavenger hunt. Once I had chose all the lines I wanted I loved rearranging them to create a cohesive poem” (Jenny). • “It’s so interesting how powerful it can be when words are rearranged or mean something else” (Abby).

The following participants’ reflections upon the found poetry writing process illustrate found poetry’s transformative border-crossing potential.

• Morgan explains the bridge-building process: “You have to reflect on what you read and what really impacted your experience reading so you could apply it to the poem.”

• Kim illustrates the difference between bridged worlds and worlds that remain disconnected: “I think it [the process of writing the found poem] really made me reflect. I am the kind of reader who reads, then puts the book away and moves on to the next one but this made me stop and really dive back into the book.”

• Lida’s poetry bridge connected her to the text-world: “It was more of a bond between the book and I. When I remember the book I will remember the poem.”

• Two students reveal poetry’s power to personally connect reader/text worlds: o Mitch: “I felt that writing the found poem made the novel, which was already powerful, even more powerful.” o Mike: “Poetry’s power lies in its very personal character. Found poems allow the reader to take the text and experience it on a personal level inherent in poetry.”

• Sally’s bridge of words, which communicates what she carried away from the text world, deepened her relationship with the text: “It’s a different way to take away what I learned from the novel or what stood out to me. It’s so many words that hold a strong relationship to the novel.”

• Amber’s poetic bridge reflects a change in her vision of the text world: “I loved that the poem made me look at the book from a more artistic lens, not just reading for plot. But I saw it instead for its beauty that I could then translate into a poem.”

• Kristy’s feelings for the text were strengthened by building a found poem bridge of words: “The writing process really improved my experience. I really loved the book to begin with, but absolutely adored it after the poem. I am not a poetry person, yet was proud of the results of my found poem. Since I was only able to write the poem with the help of quotes from the book, my appreciation/love for the book grew exponentially.” 309

Found poetry is a figurative bridge built by a reader out of words from a text, a bridge capable of connecting multiple worlds. Found poets may travel this bridge back and forth, moving in and out of reader/text worlds as they build transactional relationships.

So, what transformative power does exist along the border where poetry and prose meet?

The power of transactional reader/text relationships, supported by the found poetry bridge, dwells along the border where found poets meet prose texts. Jenny, whose voice has echoed throughout the pages of this dissertation, captures found poetry’s power to transform reader/text relationships at the border where their worlds meet:

Through my choices of lines to use in my poem, I realized what parts of the story meant the most to me, and how the story really impacted me and helped me to grow as a reader and as a person.

Summary

Prose Summary

The researcher engaged in an extensive discussion of the six major study findings.

Two significant findings for each of the three research questions were covered. It appears that found poetry may support the poetic writing efforts of novice poets through the mentorship opportunity of using a text’s words for the poem. It seems likely that found poetry enriches transactional relationships by inviting the reader to revisit and reread the text in the search for words to use in the poem. Finally, it is probable that found poetry is perceived by prospective teachers as a useful tool for teaching future students to write poetry, thus supporting the prospective poetry teachers’ attitudes and confidence toward their future teaching responsibilities.

310

Two complementary theoretical frames were advanced with which to reinterpret the study findings. Langer’s (1995) theory of envisionment offered an alternative lens for viewing the found poetry writing process. The steps of the poetic process were mapped onto Langer’s four stances, offering the reader a fresh interpretation of the research results. The characterization of reader/text worlds, and the border that exists between them, offered an alternative lens for viewing the found poetry writing experience. Found poetry was explored as a mechanism for bridging these two worlds, a bridge of words that releases the transformative power of transactional reader/text relationships.

Poetic Summary

Poet Builders

Envision a place where readers and texts might meet.

A border of sorts, an in between place balanced over a narrow ledge of worlds.

A border where, an infinite number of poetic possibilities bloom and collide.

Step into the text’s world to gather words.

Step into the reader’s world to transform words into a bridge of imagination.

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PREVIEW of the CONCLUSION

Bern Porter (1972)

312

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

The final chapter of this dissertation presents conclusions of the research study, recommendations for making these conclusions actionable, and implications for further research. Tom Hansen (1980), a college English teacher, writes:

We do not ask if there are undiscovered lands still waiting to be named. We are too busy to waste our time chasing mythological beasts. Each morning we wake up and rub the sleep from our eyes. And each night we sink into sleep. Our eyes are opened and filled with darkness again. (p. 282)

It is hoped that this dissertation study has helped to open the reader’s eyes to the previously undiscovered land of found poetry. It is this researcher’s desire that the final chapter of this dissertation will stimulate the reader to “think more deeply about the findings” of this particular study “and the implications thereof” (Bloomberg & Volpe,

2008, p. 155). Chapter 6 is organized into three major sections. First, conclusions will be presented based on the discussion of findings from the previous chapter. Second, recommendations will be made based on the aforementioned conclusions. Finally, implications for future research will be outlined with reference to the study design and findings. The chapter ends with a final prose and poetic reflection.

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Conclusions

Research Question One

How might writing found poetry support novice poets? Overall, found poetry offers writers a positive poetry experience, one that shifts negative attitudes toward poetry and supports novice poets in their writing efforts. The structured process of using words found in a text for a poem is easier and more enjoyable compared to other, more stressful and often intimidating poetry forms. The mentorship opportunity increases new poets’ comfort and confidence around poetry and nurtures their poetic self-efficacy.

Research Question Two

How might writing found poetry support transactional reading relationships between readers and texts? Overall, found poetry offers support for readers in developing transactional relationships with texts. The found poetry writing process fosters reader reflection upon the transactional experience and nurtures reader awareness of the text and its contributions to the reading event. Searching the text for words to use in a found poem invites the reader to revisit and reread the text. These activities extend the reading experience and enrich the overall quality and nature of the reader/text relationship.

Research Question Three

How might writing found poetry support prospective teachers of poetry? Overall,

found poetry offers prospective poetry teachers with support for their future teaching

responsibilities. Becoming a poet in practice helps prospective teachers to shift their

confidence and attitudes toward these responsibilities. Found poetry’s accessibility and

usability, as well as its capacity for introducing students to poetry and supporting them as

readers, make it an advantageous poetic form for use in the literacy classroom.

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Recommendations

Supporting Novice Poets

Poetry faces an ongoing struggle to find a place of welcome in school. The words of poetry educator, Elizabeth McKim, could have been written today: “In a time of drastic budget cutting and a new emphasis on ‘Back to the Basics,’ people often ask me

‘why poetry?’” (McKim & Steinbergh, 1983, p. 7). McKim answers that poetry is a tool belonging to us all, helping us to “say what we need to say in the fullest and most authentic way we know” (p. 7). Found poetry is recommended as a tool for supporting novice poets in saying what they need to say about their reading experiences. It is hoped that the results of this dissertation study might support literacy educators in their efforts to introduce their novice poets to the world of poetry writing. Found poetry offers teachers a promising tool for inviting their students into a poetic world brimming with

“unrepentant fun” (Wormser & Cappella, 2000, p. 319). This invitation is a gentle one, since the words for the poem are housed in the texts that students read. All the poet has to do is “find” them. This finding process is one that nurtures poetic confidence and self- efficacy. As one of the students in the researcher’s most recent young adult literature course shared in her reflection over the found poetry writing experience:

I am one who really doesn’t like poetry. However, with the found poetry it made it a little easier. When you don’t have to come up with words yourself and you can take words from a book it really helped me. It took off the stress I have about writing a poem and allowed me to relax and think.

Perhaps found poetry, by virtue of its supportive method of poetic mentoring, may help to rectify the historical abuse and neglect of poetry in school.

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Supporting Reader/Text Transactional Relationships

Rosenblatt (1995) asserts that transactional experiences with literature can be a

“potent force in the growth of critically minded, emotionally liberated individuals who

possess the energy and the will to create a happier way of life for themselves and others”

(p. 276). Yet, the field of education is currently under strong scrutiny and pressure from

curricular mandates and high-stakes testing (Mills, Stephens, O’Keefe, & Waugh, 2004;

O’Flahavan & Wallis, 2005; Swafford & Akrofi, 2005). In their book on navigating the

new Common Core State Standards , Calkins, Ehrenworth, and Lehman (2012) report: “In

short, the Common Core deemphasizes reading as a personal act and emphasizes textual

analysis” (p. 25). The current state of literacy education appears to be reverting back to

the very tenets of New Critical Theory that Rosenblatt (1978/1994) fought so hard to

overcome. This state of affairs threatens the Transactional Theory’s legacy because it

may prove quite difficult for literature teachers to “hold onto Rosenblatt’s theory and

vision” in the face of such overwhelming pressure (Mills et al., 2004). It is hoped that the

results of this dissertation study might contribute to the scholarship on the Transactional

Theory and support literature teachers in their efforts to foster students’ aesthetic reading

and writing experiences. As one of the students in the researcher’s most recent young

adult literature course shared in her reflection over the found poetry writing experience:

I became so much more attached to The Fault in our Stars by remembering how deeply I loved the beautiful phrasing in it! I loved getting to steal John Green’s (2012) incredible way of putting my thoughts into incredibly beautiful words!

Perhaps found poetry, by virtue of its support of transactional reader/text relations, may

help to rectify the historical neglect of aesthetic reading in school.

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Supporting Prospective Poetry Teachers

Peter Benton (1984) found that over one third of the teachers in his study indicated that their lack of qualification to teach poetry affected their perceived ability to teach poetry. Indeed, a full 20% of these participants agreed with the following statement: “I don’t know enough about poetry myself to feel confident when teaching it”

(p. 326). This lack of knowledge and competence led the teachers to largely ignore poetry in the curriculum. Benton concludes that a “lack of resources in terms of personal experience of poetry” is at the heart of challenges surrounding poetry pedagogy (p. 326).

The findings of this dissertation study reveal that Benton’s study is not outdated; rather, challenges to poetry pedagogy stemming from prospective teachers’ lack of confidence and personal experiences of poetry are still relevant today. It is hoped that the results of this dissertation study might support teacher educators in their efforts to develop prospective teachers’ confidence and attitudes around their poetry pedagogy. Found poetry offers a promising tool for positioning prospective teachers as practicing poets, an experiential method designed to nurture confidence in teaching their own students to write poetry someday. As one of the students in the researcher’s most recent young adult literature course volunteered in her reflection over the found poetry writing experience:

I will absolutely use found poetry with future students when I’m a teacher because I think it will help them feel comfortable with poetry, and it will allow them to feel like a poet without having to come up with their own language.

Perhaps by experiencing found poetry’s accessibility and usability first hand in the role of practicing poet, prospective poetry teachers may be supported in building their confidence and attitudes around their future responsibility for teaching the art form.

317

Implications

The narrow design of this study holds many implications for future research that seeks to generalize the applicability of the findings.

Sample and Setting

First, the study was conducted with only two groups of undergraduate students.

Subsequent research could be conducted with multiple groups of college readers to provide the researcher with a more substantial pool of participants. Second, the study was limited to college readers. Subsequent research could be conducted with other age groups to investigate how readers across grade levels take up the found poetry writing project.

Classroom Practices

Third, the participants in this study wrote found poetry from young adult literature. Subsequent research could be conducted into writing found poetry from a range of textual genres and formats, such as nonfiction texts and picturebooks. Fourth, the students only wrote one found poem independently. Subsequent research could be conducted to investigate what happens when students write multiple found poems.

Participants as Poets and Readers

Fifth, found poetry is only one poetic teaching strategy among many that an educator may use to support novice poets in their writing efforts. Subsequent research could be conducted in literacy classrooms to investigate the effectiveness of other poetry instructional strategies and approaches. Sixth, while this study inquired into found poetry’s support of reader reflection, it did not inquire into support of reader interpretation. Subsequent research could be conducted with readers to investigate found poetry’s ability to support the interpretive step of the transactional reading process.

318

Participants as Prospective Teachers

Seventh, while this study examined the poetry pedagogy of prospective teachers,

it did not examine the reading pedagogy of those prospective teachers. Subsequent

research could be conducted with prospective teachers to investigate what impact the

found poetry writing project may have on their reading pedagogy, especially with regard

to reader/text transactional relationships. Eighth, although this study asked participants

about their confidence and attitudes toward future poetry teaching responsibilities, these

answers are necessarily speculative. Subsequent research could be conducted by

following the prospective teachers into their future classrooms to investigate the

connection between experiential learning and actual poetry writing instruction.

Final Reflection

Prose Reflection

Leila Christenbury (2005) passionately avows:

If Rosenblatt the radical is correct, our classrooms can foster readers who understand what they read, are immeasurably changed by what they read, and, finally, will continue to read long after they have forgotten their teachers’ names. There is no finer goal. There is no brighter North Star. There is, for us, no more compelling reason to teach literature and, in the spirit and honor of Louise Rosenblatt, to turn to our students and ask them, profoundly, to engage and respond radically and make the text their own. This is the legacy of Louise Rosenblatt, and it is our challenge as teachers to ensure that it endures and that it prevails. (p. 24)

This study has endeavored to embody Christenbury’s challenge to continue Rosenblatt’s

legacy by investigating students’ transactional reading relationships through the art of

found poetry.

319

Eleanor Duckworth’s (1986) view of the teacher researcher is mirrored in the design and execution of this dissertation study:

caring about some part of the world and how it works enough to want to make it accessible to others; she would be fascinated by the questions of how to engage people in it and how people make sense of it; she would have time and resources to pursue these questions to the depth of her interest, to write what she learned , and to contribute to theoretical and pedagogical discussions on the nature and development of human learning. (p. 494, emphasis added)

This teacher researcher cares about how found poetry works to support novice poets and transactional reading relationships and wants to make this art form accessible to others; she is fascinated by the questions of how to engage prospective teachers in the writing of found poetry and how they make sense of those found poetry writing experiences; this dissertation afforded her the time and resources to pursue these research questions to the depth of her interest, as well as the opportunity to write what she learned ; and she hopes that the findings will contribute to theoretical and pedagogical discussions on the nature and development of literacy learning about poetry writing, transactional reading, and poetry pedagogy. According to Stake (1995), qualitative research is highly personal. So personal in fact, that Stake bases the “quality and utility” of such research on “whether or not the meanings generated, by the researcher or the reader, are valued” (p. 135). The greatest value that may be afforded to a study is to have readers desire to take up the work; therefore, it is this researcher’s desire that the findings from this dissertation might entice literacy teachers and teacher educators to introduce their readers and writers to the art of found poetry.

320

Poetic Reflection

Radical Dissertation

Radically caring about poets readers prospective teachers.

Radically researching about poets readers prospective teachers.

Radically writing about poets readers prospective teachers.

Radically contributing to the pedagogy about poets readers prospective teachers.

321

Bern Porter (1972)

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Appendix A: Course Syllabus

EDU T&L 656-Literature for Adolescents The Ohio State University-Spring 2012

Teacher: Lisa Patrick Office Hours: By appointment Meeting Time: Thursdays from 12:30-2:48 Meeting Place: 200A Ramseyer Hall Email: [email protected] Mailbox: 200B Ramseyer Hall

Course Description This course is designed to introduce students to contemporary young adult literature. The primary focus of this class is on aesthetic reading experiences framed by The Transactional Theory of Reading and The Social Constructivist Theory of Learning.

Course Objectives • To apply knowledge of selection and evaluation criteria in the exploration of a variety of genres and themes in young adult literature • To engage in aesthetic reading experiences of literary texts in an effort to help readers explore the human condition and their connection to the diverse and complex world • To promote transactional relationships between readers and texts that will serve as the foundation of appreciation, analysis and interpretation of literary works • To experience how literary discussion and social interaction can help readers broaden their frame of reference for reflecting on and interpreting reading experiences • To become familiar with various literary practices in the secondary classroom and how these practices can affect students’ reading relationships

Course Readings • A variety of young adult novels chosen from a list provided by the teacher • Articles provided by the teacher

Books can be borrowed from: • Local libraries such Columbus Metropolitan Library (columbuslibrary.org) and Upper Arlington Public Library (www.ualibrary.org) • CML books can be picked up and returned to the Thompson Library

Books can be purchased from: • Amazon (Amazon Prime 2 day shipping with Buckeye email) • Cover to Cover (local children’s bookstore at 3560 North High Street) • OSU Barnes & Noble Bookstore 366

University Policies

Academic Integrity It is the obligation of faculty and students to uphold the academic integrity of OSU by adhering to the Code of Student Conduct. Academic misconduct (Rule 3335-23-04), defined as: “Any activity that tends to compromise the academic integrity of the university, or subvert the educational process,” will be subject to disciplinary action by the university.

Center for the Study and Teaching of Writing For assistance with written assignments, students may contact the OSU Writing Center at 614-688-4291 or [email protected]. The center offers free in person help & online tutorials.

Disability Accommodations Students with documented disabilities who require adjustments for this class should contact me directly to discuss specific needs. Students may also contact the Office of Disability Services at (614) 292-3307 in 150 Pomerene Hall to coordinate support services and programs. Students may also access the office via: http://www.ods.ohio- state.edu/.

Grievances and Solving Problems According to University policy, if you have a problem with the class, “you should seek to resolve a grievance concerning a grade or academic practice by speaking first with the instructor. If this does not work, contact the supervising instructor.”

Statement on Diversity The College of Education and Human Ecology affirms the importance and value of diversity in the student body. Discrimination against any individual based upon protected status, which is defined as age, color, disability, gender identity or expression, national origin, race, religion, sex, sexual orientation or veteran status, is prohibited.

University Grading Scale

A=95-100 A-=90-94 B+=87-89 B=83-86 B-=80-82 C+=77-79 C=73-76 C-=70-72 D+ =67-69 D=60-66 E=below 60

It should be noted that grades of A and A- are only used where the work is of an excellent standard. The Ohio State University Bulletin states guidelines for marking (grading) that indicate the above quality determinations are based on a comparison with other students in the course, and/or with students who have taken the course previously, and/or the instructor’s personal expectations relative to the stated objectives of the course, based on the instructor’s experience and expertise. Additionally, you cannot earn an A unless you turn in all your work, regardless of your point total.

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Course Information

Attendance Attendance is extremely critical in this course, as much of your learning will develop through class discussions, activities and peer collaborations. If you must miss a class, please notify me as soon as possible. We only meet 10 days, so attendance is a large portion of your grade.

0 classes missed: A+ (rock star status) 1 class missed: A (“get out of jail free” card) 2 classes missed: A (with extra credit) 3 classes missed: B (with above extra credit: almost a third of the course missed) 4 classes missed: C (with above extra credit: almost half of the course missed) 5 classes missed: D (with above extra credit: half of the course missed) 6-10 classes missed: Fail the course

Commitment to Success My overall goal is for everyone to complete this class with a broader and deeper understanding of young adult literature. Please don’t hesitate to email me or to make an appointment if you have any questions or concerns regarding any aspect of the class.

Evaluation Criteria My focus is on supporting the development of your relationship with reading. I believe that traditional grading policies risk disrupting this relationship. Therefore, I use a mastery grading system complimented by written feedback. I will make every effort to be clear on my expectations for assignments; please don’t hesitate to ask for clarification.

Preparation/Participation Please try your best to complete the weekly readings and assignments on time. These assignments are designed to help prepare you to actively participate in class discussions and activities. If you experience difficulty completing any of the reading assignments, please let me know immediately so we can make a plan to support you.

Respect for Fellow Students Out of respect for your fellow students, please refrain from texting or playing on laptops. These activities interfere with meaningful discussions and interactions. If there is a critical situation you must take care of on the phone, please step out of the room for a moment. Additionally, it is crucial that each of us takes full responsibility for creating a safe learning environment in which open and respectful dialogue can occur.

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Course Assignments

• Join Goodreads.com • Reading and Book Cards (10) • Discussion Questions for Novels (8) • Book Play (ungraded) 1. Pinterest Board 2. Letter James 3. Character Theme Song 4. Graphic Panel 5. Wordle or Tagxedo 6. Bumper Sticker • Literacy Autobiography Part 1 and 2 (ungraded) • Found Poem (ungraded) • Final Book Project

Extra Credit You may complete an extra credit assignment to offset one absence. Read one extra young adult novel on the book list and write a book card. Join Goodreads Goodreads is my favorite resource for children’s literature. You can read book reviews and create your own. You can friend people and follow their reviews. Go to www.goodreads.com to create a free account. Then you can create your own bookshelves and add the books you read for this class to your shelves, along with your ratings/reviews.

Reading and Book Cards Each week, you will read one work of young adult literature that corresponds with a selected genre. Book groups will be formed from student preferences based on a list of book choices. After reading each book, you will complete a book card to document your personal reaction to the book and your reading experience ( not a summary ). Please respond as a reader first and a future teacher second. Copy the template below into Word (or the equivalent), type, print and attach it to a 4x6 note card. ************************************************************************ Student Name: Genre: Title of Book: Author of Book:

Personal Reaction to the Book and your Reading Experience : What did you think of the book? What resonated with you? Where were you most drawn into the story? Where was your transaction with the text the most powerful? What will you carry with you from the reading experience? Would you recommend the book?

Number of stars out of five stars: Three words to describe the book: ************************************************************************ 369

Discussion Questions for Novels Write three questions that would prompt deep discussion about each novel. Work towards open-ended questions that have no correct answer; questions that would challenge us to think deeply, thereby prompting an engaging conversation. These questions should pertain directly to your book and your personal reading experience, rather than to general analysis of literary elements or queries over authorial intentions. You will use these questions to guide your group dialogues about the books.

Book Play

For each novel that you read, you will have the opportunity to engage in a short activity to help support your response to your reading experience. Each of the “Book Play” mini- projects requires an EXPLANATION on the back of the project to explain your design choices and how they connect to your experience of reading of the book. I will introduce you to the various technology tools in class, and we can experiment with them together.

Pinterest Character Board (Short Story) Create a Pinterest board (www.pinterest.com) for one of the characters in the short story. You can choose any theme for your board. The pins should reflect as many aspects of your character as possible. Include comments for each pin from the character’s perspective/voice and/or quotes from the book pertinent to the pins.

Letter James (Dystopian Novel) Create an e-card at www.letterjames.com for your dystopian novel. You can choose from an extensive selection of text-ready pictures and then dictate which word(s) you wish to appear on the e-card, from graffiti on famous landmarks, to the froth of a cappuccino.

Character Theme Song (Realistic Fiction Novel) Pick a theme song for one character from your realistic fiction novel. Include the lyrics.

Graphic Panel (Graphic Novel) Use your graphic novel for inspiration to create a graphic panel page. You may illustrate a favorite scene from the book, or you can design an original panel for a new scene. You can use any media, both handmade and digital. If you are like me, you can use stick figures or get an artistic friend to help, as long as you design the panel. See Toondoo.com for panel layout options: (http://www.toondoo.com/createToon.do)

Wordl or Tagxedo (Fantasy Novel) Use Wordl.net or Tagxedo.com to create a shaped tag cloud that demonstrates important words, such as characters, themes, setting, etc., in the book.

Bumper Sticker (Diversity Novel) Create a motto based on your diversity novel that you could use as a bumper sticker. Illustrate your bumper sticker with digital images or your own art; the illustrations should help convey the message of your motto. 370

Literacy Autobiography You will write a two-part reflection on your school experiences around literacy practices.

Part 1 (Beginning of the course) This is an invitation to recall and record the experiences that have shaped your relationship with, and attitudes and feelings toward, reading and poetry. This is also an opportunity to share any information about yourself as a reader that would help me support you in this class. Please answer the following questions in narrative format. Please type and double-space.

Literacy History • What are your memorable (positive/negative) school experiences with reading? • What are your memorable (positive/negative) school experiences with poetry? Current Literacy Attitudes and Interests • How do you currently feel about reading? • What part does reading play in your life today? Do you read for pleasure? • If so, what are your favorite genres to read? Who are your favorite authors? • How do you currently feel about poetry? Do you consider yourself a poet? Future Literacy Goals • What are your personal reading goals, hopes or dreams for yourself, both personally and professionally?

Each person’s relationship with reading is unique. Perhaps you absolutely hate to read. Perhaps you are a voracious reader. I will make no judgments on your reading life. Your experiences, attitudes, feelings and thoughts are all welcome. Your reflection will be kept strictly private. I hope the process of recalling and recording your experiences and feelings will give you insight into your life as a reader and the reading lives of your future students.

Part 2 (End of the course) I am interested in the development of your relationship with reading and poetry during your time in this class. Please answer the following questions in narrative format, typed:

• What was (were) your favorite book(s) that you read this quarter? • Did your personal relationship with reading grow or change during this course? If so, how? What classroom practices do you think contributed to your development? • Did your personal relationship with poetry grow or change during this course? If so, how? What classroom practices do you think contributed to your development? • What practices/philosophies regarding reading, adolescent literature and poetry do you plan to carry forward to your future students, and why? • What books from the book list and mentioned in class would you still like to read? 371

Found Poem Found poetry is created by choosing words and phrases from a text and reframing them to create an original poem. Found poetry gives readers an opportunity to reread texts and revisit reading experiences. It also gives novice poets a non-threatening opportunity to write poetry because you don’t have to come up with any of your own words.

I will teach you how to write found poetry, and we will practice writing a found poem together in class. After you turn in your found poem, we will have an in-class reflective writing assignment where you will be asked to reflect about the process of writing the found poem and how it affected your reading experience.

Here are the steps for creating a found poem based on your choice of a young adult text you read for this class:

• Choose which text from the course that you would like to revisit.

• Reflect upon your reading experience. Think about your favorite parts of the story or parts that really impacted you and stayed with you after you finished reading. What did you notice? What moved you? Where did you experience a strong connection or strong emotion? Where were you most engaged in the reading experience, the most drawn into the story world?

• Decide what topic you’d like to write your poem on. Perhaps a certain theme resonated with you or you really connected to a specific character. Perhaps you were touched by the author’s use of poetic language or you enjoyed a particular plot line. Perhaps you were drawn to a particular scene.

• Revisit and reread portions of the book to gather words and phrases from the book that illustrate the topic of your poem.

• Take the words and phrases and move and rearrange them to create your found poem. You don’t have to use all the words you chose for your found poem.

• You may add words. You may also change verb tenses. (While a “pure found poem consists exclusively of outside texts” (Poets.org, Found Poem, para. 1), I don’t want you to feel restricted by this rule. Use poetic license as you wish.

• Read the poem out loud and add line breaks where you want to emphasize a word or stress rhythm. You may also use white space to set off words or lines.

• You may write more than one poem, especially if you are drawn to more than one topic. Some people choose to write a series of small poems.

• Please include the title of your book with your found poem.

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Final Book Project

You will craft a creative and imaginative response to your experience of reading one of the novels for this class. These creative projects are alternatives to traditional book reports and literary analysis papers. We will share these projects on the final day of class. 1. Story Collections • Create a jackdaw : A jackdaw is a bird that likes to collect things; hence, a jackdaw book project is a collection of items that reflects aspects of a book. Gather items that provide an artistic, tangible representation of your book. Objects can be used to make literal connections and/or symbolic associations with the text. Include a description of each item’s relevance. • Create a story bag : Put together a bag that contains a variety of items that would be useful or significant to a character in your novel. Include a description of each item’s relevance to the book.

2. Homemade Choice : There is no end to the possibilities for creative book play: • Create a board game based on your book • Sculpt characters and/or scenes out of play-doh or clay • Create a photo album, scrapbook or yearbook for a character • Write a new ending for the book or the beginning of a sequel • Compile a sound track for your book with an explanation of your song choices • Cast the characters for a movie adaptation with explanations for actor choices • Sketch or use fabric to create character costumes for a movie adaptation • Take a social justice lens and investigate a current issue from the book • Bake a cake and use frosting/decorations to explore a book’s symbolism • Plan a character ABC book: Create sentences for a character based on the alphabet (V=I volunteer as tribute in Primrose Everdeen’s place) • Create the front page of a newspaper about the book that includes such things as classified ads, obituaries, news items, sports articles, cartoons, etc. • Keep a diary or journal from a main character’s point of view

3. Digital Choice : Use one of the following digital tools to create a project: • Create boards for a character using Pinterest.com • Create a gallery of boards for a book using Popplet.com • Create an online poster using Glogster (edu.glogster.com) • Create an interactive plot timeline using Dipity.com • Create a comic or set of graphic panels using Comiclife.com • Create a cartoon movie using Voki.com or Xtra Normal (edu.xtranormal.com) • Create a Twitter page for a main character, including tweets and followers • Create a book trailer using Animoto, Movie Maker or VUVOX Collage • Create a short book using art and template from Storybird • Use PowerPoint, Prezi or Ahead to combine favorite quotes and images

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Book Choices One (1) book is required from each of the following seven groups. List your top three preferences in order, #1 being the book you’d most like to read. Access Goodreads to read book descriptions and reviews.

• Your preferences for “Dystopian Novel” are to be emailed to me by midnight of the first day of class . I will email you Friday morning with your book group.

The following preferences are to be turned in during class on a sheet of paper: • Preferences for “Verse Novel” & “Realistic Fiction Novel” are due the 2nd class . • Preferences for “Graphic Novel” & “Fantasy Novel” are due the 3rd class . • Preferences for “LGBTQ Novel” & “Visual Novel” are due the 4 th class.

Dystopian Novel: Week 3 Collins, Suzanne. The Hunger Games Maberry, Jonathan. Rot & Ruin Pfeffer, Susan Beth. Life as we knew It Roth, Veronica. Divergent Shusterman, Neil. Unwind Verse Novel: Week 4 Burg, Ann E. All the Broken Pieces McCormick, Patricia. Sold Wolf, Allan. The Watch that Ends the Night (Titanic) Wolff, Virginia Euwer. Make Lemonade Zimmer, Tracie Vaughn. Reaching for Sun Realistic Fiction Novel: Week 5 Alexie, Sherman. The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian Anderson, Laurie Halse. Speak Green, John. Looking for Alaska Schmidt, Gary D. Okay for Now Stork, Francisco. Marcelo in the Real World Graphic Novel: Week 6 Comic Collections Kirkman, Robert & Tony Moore. The Walking Dead Vol. 1: Days Gone Bye Moore, Alan & Gibbons, Dave. Watchmen (only need to read a few chapters) O’Malley, Bryan Lee. Scott Pilgrim’s Precious Little Life

Graphic Novels Phelan, Matt. Around the World (nonfiction) Satrapi, Marjane. Persepolis 1: The Story of a Childhood Spiegelman, Art. Maus 1: A Survivor’s Tale: My Father Bleeds History Telgemeier, Raina. Smile 374

Fantasy Novel: Week 7 McBride, Lish. Hold me Closer, Necromancer Oliver, Lauren. Before I Fall Riggs, Ransom. Miss Peregrine’s Home for Peculiar Children Rowling, J. K. Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone (“HP Challenge”) Taylor, Laini. Daughter of Smoke and Bone LGBTQ Novel: Week 8 Bray, Libba. Beauty Queens (The book on CD is amazing. I highly recommend it!) Kluger, Steve. My Most Excellent Year: A Novel of Love, Mary Poppins, & Fenway Pk. Konigsberg, Bill. Out of the Pocket Myracle, Lauren. Shine Smith, Andrew. Stick Visual/Multimodal Novel for Middle Childhood: Week 10 Angleberger, Tom. The Strange Case of Origami Yoda Selznick, Brian. The Invention of Hugo Cabret Silberberg, Alan. Milo: Sticky Notes and Brain Freeze Tan, Shaun. The Arrival Wiles, Deborah. Countdown

You may read any of the “Fiction Picturebooks” and “Nonfiction Picturebooks” on the following lists. You do not need to tell me your preferences or write discussion questions.

Fiction Picturebook: Week 9 (Pick 1 to read) Browne, Anthony. Me and You (postmodern classist retelling of Goldilocks) Polacco, Patricia: The Butterfly January’s Sparrow Pink and Say Sis, Peter. The Wall: Growing up Behind the Iron Curtain Tan, Shaun. Lost & Found (3 picturebooks in 1) Van Allsburg, Chris. The Wretched Stone Nonfiction Picturebook: Week 9 (Pick 1 to read) Doreen Rappaport’s Biographies Abe’s Honest Words: The Life of Abraham Lincoln Eleanor, Quiet No More Jack’s Path of Courage: The Life of John F. Kennedy John’s Secret Dreams: The John Lennon Story Martin’s Big Words: The Life of Martin Luther King, Jr. Sy Montgomery and Nic Bishop’s Scientists in the Field Books Kakapo Rescue: Saving the World’s Strangest Parrot Quest for the Tree Kangaroo: An Expedition to the Cloud Forest of New Guinea Saving the Ghost of the Mountain: An Expedition among Snow Leopards in Mongolia The Frog/The Snake/The Tarantula Scientist 375

Date Topics Assignments

Week 1 - Introduction to Adolescent Literature*What What is listed to read under 3/29/12 *Definition/History “assignments” is due that day. *Why Young Adult Literature Week 2 - Short Stories Read: Short Story by Crutcher 4/5/12 - Choosing Books Due: Book Card 1/Disc. ?’s *Evaluation Criteria Book Choices Weeks 4/5 *Matching Books to Readers Pinterest Board Week 3 - Science Fiction Read: Dystopian Novel 4/12/12 - Theories of Reading Literature Due: Book Card 2/Disc. ?’s *Social Constructivist Theory Book Choices Weeks 6/7 *Transactional Theory Letter James Week 4 - Poetry Read: Verse Novel 4/19/12 *Poetry Workshop Due: Book Card 3/Disc. ?’s *Verse Novels Book Choices Week 8/10 Literacy Autobiography 1 Week 5 - Books that Challenge World Views Read: Realistic Fiction Novel 4/26/12 - Censorship Due: Book Card 4/Disc. ?’s *Ideology Character Theme Song *The Problem Novel Week 6 - Graphic Novels Read: Graphic Novel (+ article on 5/3/12 - What Counts as Reading how to read a graphic novel) *In Defense of Rubbish Due: Book Card 5/Disc. ?’s *Reader Preferences Graphic Panel Week 7 - Fantasy Read: Fantasy Novel 5/10/12 - Popular Culture and YA Literature Due: Book Card 6/Disc. ?’s *Life after HP and Twilight Wordle or Tagxedo *Paranormal Romance Week 8 - Literature of Diversity Read: LGBTQ Novel 5/17/12 *Multicultural Literature Due: Book Card 7/Disc. ?’s *Windows and Mirrors Metaphor Bumper Sticker - Found Poetry Week 9 - Picturebooks for Older Readers Read: Fiction Picturebook 5/24/12 - School Literary Practices Nonfiction Picturebook *Creating Life-long Readers Due: Book Cards 8 & 9 *Rights of the Reader Found Poem Week 10 - Multimodal Literature Read: Visual Novel 5/31/12 - Alternatives to Book Reports & Papers Due: Book Card 10/Disc. ?’s - Current Trends in Children’s Lit. Final Book Project Week 11 - Finals Week: No Class Literacy Autobiography 2 6/7/12

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Appendix B: Consent Letter

Dear EDU T & L 656 students: Consent Letter This consent letter is intended to explain this teacher-researcher’s dissertation research project titled: Found Poetry as a Transactional Tool. The research sponsor is Dr. Barbara Kiefer, the researcher’s advisor. This letter contains important information about this study and what to expect if you decide to participate. Your participation is voluntary.

Purpose: The objective of this dissertation research is to study how found poetry might support the transactional relationship between readers and texts and support novice poets in writing poetry. Additionally, the objective is to study how found poetry might support the transactional and poetry pedagogy of prospective teachers.

Procedures/Tasks: All written documents to be collected for research data are part of the normal classroom requirements. Each student has written a literacy autobiography, a found poem, and a reflective piece about the poem-writing process. None of these assignments are graded. It goes against my teaching philosophy to grade poetry or reflective and autobiographical writing. Students are merely required to complete them for class requirements. Students may choose not to have their writing collected as research data. Students may also choose to have a portion of the documents collected as research. Follow-up member checks will be conducted to clarify written reflections when needed. The possible follow-up member check is not a requirement of the class. Students may choose to consent to having their writing collected as part of the dissertation data and still choose not to participate in member checks. The anticipated benefit of this research is insight into the reading process. Attempts to research readers’ experiences with texts can be challenging to scholars. Issues of methodology prevail in reading research because it is difficult to get inside the head of a reader; reading is an invisible and private act. However, investigating reading experiences may provide researchers with valuable information into the reading process. Additionally, this research may provide insight into pedagogical practices around the teaching of literature and poetry to prospective teachers.

Confidentiality: Students who consent to have their written documents collected for dissertation data will have their names removed from their documents and pseudonyms will be substituted. The code for pseudonyms will be kept in the researcher’s private locked office. Pseudonyms will be used in all writing related to the dissertation research, including the dissertation itself and any subsequent publications regarding the research findings. You may refuse to have your written documents collected as part of the dissertation data without penalty; your decision will not affect your grade.

Contacts and Questions: For questions or concerns about the study you may contact: Lisa Patrick 614-578-3866 [email protected] 377

Appendix C: Consent Form

The Ohio State University Consent to Participate in Research Dissertation Research: Study Title: Found Poetry as a Transactional Tool Researcher: Dr. Kiefer

This is a consent form for research participation. It contains important information about this study and what to expect if you decide to participate. Your participation is voluntary. Please consider the information carefully. Feel free to ask questions before making your decision whether or not to participate. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this form and will receive a copy of the form.

Purpose: The objective of this dissertation research is to study how found poetry might support the transactional relationship between readers and texts and support novice poets in writing poetry. Additionally, the objective of this dissertation research is to study how found poetry might support the poetry pedagogy of prospective teachers.

Procedures/Tasks: All written documents to be collected for research data are part of the normal classroom requirements. Each student has written a literacy autobiography, a found poem, and a reflective piece about the poem-writing process. Students may grant permission for the teacher researcher to access the above course work for research purposes. If students do not grant permission, then the course work is read, commented on and returned as part of normal course work. The above activities are non-graded. Simply completing the assignments meets the course requirements for these activities. Follow-up member checks may be sought based on analysis of found poetry reflections.

Duration: The time required from each participant will vary. The standard course work, described above in the “Activities which are Part of the Standard Course,” which is expected of all students as part of normal class activities, will take anywhere from 3-8 hours. The time required of participants who agree to have their course work accessed for research will also vary. The time required of students to listen to the description of the research and read the consent letter and consent form is approximately 30 minutes. This will take place during class, so there is no outside class time required to hear about the research. Beyond the 30 minutes in class to hear about the research, students who agree to have their course work accessed for research will incur either zero or 15-30 minutes of time outside the 378

classroom. If they are not asked to participate in a follow-up member check, they will incur no time outside of the classroom beyond the standard coursework. If they are asked to participate in a follow-up member check, they will incur 15-30 minutes of time outside the classroom. Therefore, out of class activities, beyond those required of all students as part of standard course work, total a maximum of 30 minutes.

Risks and Benefits: There are no risks to participating in this study. The found poem and reflection piece, as well as the literacy autobiography, while part of classroom requirements, are not graded assignments. It goes against my teaching philosophy to grade poetry, reflective writing or autobiographical writing. You may participate in the writing activities and choose not to have your writing collected as research data. The possible follow-up member check is not a requirement of the class. You may choose to consent to having your writing collected as part of the dissertation data and still choose not to participate in member checks.

The anticipated benefit of this research is insight into the reading process. Attempts to research readers’ experiences with texts can be challenging to scholars. Issues of methodology prevail in reading research because it is difficult to get inside the head of a reader; reading is an invisible and private act. However, investigating transactional reading experiences may provide researchers with valuable information into the reading process. Additionally, this research may provide insight into pedagogical practices around the teaching of literature and poetry to prospective teachers.

Confidentiality: Pseudonyms for names will be used in all writing related to the dissertation research, including the dissertation itself and any subsequent publications regarding the research findings. Efforts will be made to keep your study-related information confidential. However, there may be circumstances where this information must be released. For example, personal information regarding your participation in this study may be disclosed if required by state law. Also, your records may be reviewed by the following groups (as applicable to the research): • Office for Human Research Protections or other federal, state, or international regulatory agencies; • The Ohio State University Institutional Review Board or Office of Responsible Research Practices; • The sponsor, if any, or agency (including the Food and Drug Administration for FDA-regulated research) supporting the study.

Incentives: None

Participant Rights: You may refuse to participate in this study without penalty or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. If you are a student or employee at Ohio State, your decision will not affect your grades or employment status.

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If you choose to participate in the study, you may discontinue participation at any time without penalty or loss of benefits. By signing this form, you do not give up any personal legal rights you may have as a participant in this study.

An Institutional Review Board responsible for human subjects research at The Ohio State University reviewed this research project and found it to be acceptable, according to applicable state and federal regulations and University policies designed to protect the rights and welfare of participants in research.

Contacts and Questions : For questions, concerns, or complaints about the study you may contact

Lisa Patrick 614-578-3866 [email protected]

For questions about your rights as a participant in this study or to discuss other study- related concerns or complaints with someone who is not part of the research team, you may contact Ms. Sandra Meadows in the Office of Responsible Research Practices at 1- 800-678-6251. If you are injured as a result of participating in this study or for questions about a study-related injury, you may contact the IRB office.

Signing the consent form: I have read (or someone has read to me) this form and I am aware that I am being asked to participate in a research study. I have had the opportunity to ask questions and have had them answered to my satisfaction. I voluntarily agree to participate in this study. I am not giving up any legal rights by signing this form. I will be given a copy of this form.

Printed name of subject Signature of subject Date and time

Investigator/Research Staff:

I have explained the research to the participant or his/her representative before requesting the signature(s) above. There are no blanks in this document. A copy of this form has been given to the participant or his/her representative.

Lisa Patrick Printed name of person obtaining consent Signature of person obtaining consent Date and time

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Appendix D: Excerpt from The Tale of Despereaux

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Appendix E: Poetry Questionnaire

Poetry Questionnaire Name: Date:

Do you consider yourself a poet? Why or why not?

How do you feel about poetry in general?

How do you feel about writing poetry?

What are your memorable school experiences with poetry? (positive and negative)

How do you feel about teaching your future students how to write poetry?

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Appendix F: Literacy Autobiography

Literacy Autobiography

You will write a two-part reflection on your school experiences around literacy practices.

Part 1 (Beginning of the course )

This is an invitation to recall and record the experiences that have shaped your relationship with, and attitudes and feelings toward, reading and poetry. This is also an opportunity to share any information about yourself as a reader that would help me support you in this class. Please answer the following questions in narrative format. Please type and double-space.

Literacy History • What are your memorable (positive/negative) school experiences with reading? • What are your memorable (positive/negative) school experiences with poetry?

Current Literacy Attitudes and Interests • How do you currently feel about reading? • What part does reading play in your life today? Do you read for pleasure? • If so, what are your favorite genres to read? Who are your favorite authors? • How do you currently feel about poetry? Do you consider yourself a poet?

Future Literacy Goals • What are your personal reading goals, hopes or dreams for yourself, both personally and professionally?

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Part 2 (End of the course )

I am interested in the development of your relationship with reading and poetry during your time in this class. Please answer the following questions in narrative format, typed:

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Appendix G: Primary Dissertation Data Set Reflective Writing Prompt

Written Reflection upon the Found Poetry Writing Experience

Name ______Age _____ Date ______Future Career: ______Ideal grade level/subject if you plan on teaching: ______

Please reflect in writing upon your experience of writing the found poem. I am interested in anything you’d like to share regarding your overall reading and writing experiences.

Part A: Writing the Found Poem

I am interested in how you view the poetry writing aspect of the experience. Think for a moment about the steps you followed to create your found poem. Please address the following questions:

1. How did you feel about the process of writing the actual found poem?

2. How did you feel about your final found poem?

3. How did this experience compare to other poetry writing experiences?

4. Did this experience shift any of your feelings about poetry? Why or why not?

5. Please use the space below to share any additional comments about your writing experience.

Part B: Transactional Relationship with the Text

I am interested in how the found poetry writing experience might have impacted your transactional relationship with the text you chose for your found poem.

1. According to Louise Rosenblatt, during a transactional reading event, a reciprocal relationship develops between a reader and a text; 2. This reader/text relationship is supported by reader awareness of the contributions made by both the text and the self to the transactional relationship; and 3. The process of reflection allows a reader to revisit the reading experience in order to relive and deepen it.

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With these concepts in mind, please address the following questions:

1. Did the process of writing the found poem impact your relationship with the text? -If yes, please describe how the process impacted your relationship. -If no, please articulate why the process didn’t impact your relationship.

2. Did the process of writing the found poem impact your awareness of the text and its contributions to your reading experience? -If yes, please describe how the process impacted your awareness of the text. -If no, please articulate why the process didn’t impact your awareness of the text.

3. Did the process of writing the found poem impact your reflection upon your reading experience? -If yes, please describe how the process impacted your reflection. -If no, please articulate why the process didn’t impact your reflection.

Part C: Teaching Poetry Writing in the Future

How likely would you be to include found poetry writing experiences in your future classroom?

__ Very likely __ Somewhat likely __ Somewhat un-likely __ Very un-likely

1. Please explain your rationale for the choice you marked above:

2. Please describe your level of confidence around teaching poetry writing in your future classroom. Has your sense of confidence changed during this quarter? Why or why not?

Part D: Open-Ended Response

Please feel free to note anything about the experience not covered by the above questions:

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Appendix H: Secondary Dissertation Data Set Reflective Writing Prompt

Written Reflection upon the Found Poetry Writing Experience

Please reflect in writing over your experience of writing the found poem. I am interested in anything you’d like to share regarding your overall reading and writing experiences.

Part 1: Writing the Found Poem

I am interested in how you view the poetry writing experience. You may wish to speak to the following: • Writing the actual found poem • Your feelings/thoughts about your final found poem • Comparing this experience to other poetry writing experiences

Part 2: Transactional Relationship with the Text

I am interested in how the found poetry writing experience may have impacted your transactional relationship with the text you chose for your found poem. You may wish to address the following questions: • Did the process of writing the found poem impact your partnership with the text? • Did the process of writing the found poem impact your awareness of the text and its contributions to your reading experience?

What was it like going back into the text, rereading and revisiting the book as you searched for words to use for your poem? You may wish to speak to any of the following steps in creating your found poem and how they impacted your overall reading experience: • Deciding which text to choose for the poem • Reflecting upon your reading experience • Deciding on the topic of your poem • Revisiting and rereading portions of the text • Searching for and choosing words for your poem

Part 3: Teaching Poetry Writing

Finally, I am interested in how this experience may have impacted your attitudes toward teaching your future students how to write poetry. Any thoughts on this? 387

Appendix I: Kat’s Found Poem

From Looking for Alaska , by John Green (2005)

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Appendix J: Kelly’s Found Poem

From Milo: Sticky Notes and Brain Freeze , by Alan Silberberg (2010)

Disappearing Act

Fog Missing laughter and orange peels of “what used to be.” Fog. Memories lost… or rather hiding from them. Milo,

Do you miss

your mom?

Say it. I’m lost. Because my dead mother is just dead.

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Appendix K: Barb’s Found Poem

From Shine , by Lauren Myracle (2011)

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Appendix L: Mike’s Found Poem

From The Invention of Hugo Cabret , by Brian Selznick (2007)

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Appendix M: Jenny’s Found Poem

From The Watch that Ends the Night , by Allan Wolf (2011)

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Appendix N: Comprehensive Themes from the Data Analysis

Poetry Questionnaire (21 respondents)

Question one. The first question of the poetry questionnaire is: Do you consider yourself a poet? Why or why not? This question is included in order to ascertain which participants identify as novice poets so that the role of found poetry in supporting new poets might be explored. Sixteen participants (76%) answered no, they did not consider themselves to be poets: “Absolutely not” (Amber). Three (14%) participants identified as occasional poets: “Sometimes enjoy writing poetry, but don’t consider myself particularly talented” (Mike). Two participants (10%) identified as poets: “Yes. Anyone can be a poet” (Clarissa). All of the novice poets expressed negative views toward poetry, and six (38% of the novice poets) specifically used the words “don’t enjoy” or “don’t like” in relation to poetry. Two of the “no” answers were quite vehement: “Absolutely not” and “No, with a resounding ‘no.’” Various reasons were given in response to the

“Why or why not?” portion of the question by the “No” respondents. Two themes emerged from these answers, one primary and one minor. Under the significant theme, six of the novice poets (38%) felt inadequate as poets, as Tyler expressed: “Not only do I not particularly enjoy writing poetry, but I have not written anything I would care to call poetry.” The novice poets cited such barriers as: never feeling “creative with words” (3); feeling unqualified in comparison to advanced poets “like Robert Frost” (2); and feeling unable to “share emotions easily in poetic writing” (1). Amber explained: “Absolutely

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not, I appreciate good poetry but what I produce is not creative or beautiful.” Under the minor theme, two participants mentioned poetry writing in the context of school: one only paid attention to poetry if it was a school assignment, and the other found poetry

“hard to understand when it’s super deep and I think the kind of poetry I had to read in school turned me off to poetry” (Morgan, emphasis in original).

Question two. The second question of the poetry questionnaire is: How do you feel about poetry in general? This question is included in order to ascertain the participants’ general feelings about poetry so that the role of found poetry in shifting attitudes toward poetry might be explored. Only two people mentioned poetry writing specifically in their answers. Everyone else appeared to interpret “general feelings about poetry” in terms of reading poetry. Out of 21 respondents, seven (33%) answered with a mix of positive and negative feelings: “Just like any art, poetry can rock or suck” (Mike); five (24%) answered with purely positive feelings: “I think it [poetry] can be powerful and beautifully written” (Barb); five (24%) answered with purely negative feelings: “I feel like it gets more credit than it deserves. People tend to assume a piece is more meaningful than it really is simply because it may be more open to interpretation”

(Tyler); and four (19%) answered with neutral feelings: “I don’t mind, but not my favorite thing to read or write” (Annie). Adding the negative and mixed feelings together, over half of the participants (57%) did not report wholly positive feelings toward poetry.

A glaring theme surfaced among a total of nine participants (43%). All five negative respondents, and even four from the mixed group, held the search for symbolism and deep/hidden meanings when reading poetry responsible for their negative feelings toward poetry. Words such as: “annoying,” “frustrating,” and “upsetting” illustrate the

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negative connotation these participants associated with the analysis of poetry. Comments such as: “It really bothers me when the poem is such a puzzle, it’s nearly impossible to

find the hidden meaning unless you’re an expert or something” (Allie) and “Once

someone lays a poem in front of me and asks me to interpret it, well forget it” (Kelly)

reveal students’ antipathy toward the critical analysis of poetry. A clear “love/hate”

theme emerged in four of the answers (19%), as seen in phrases such as “love/hate

relationship” and “either hate it or love it.” Participants mentioned loving some poets (i.e.

Langston Hughes) and poems (i.e. funny poems) but hating other poets (i.e. Emily

Dickinson) and poems (i.e. serious). Poetry appeared to have a polarizing effect on these

students, leaving two people indifferent to poetry and the other two with strongly

negative feelings toward the interpretation of poetry.

Question three. The third question of the poetry questionnaire is: How do you

feel about writing poetry? This question is included in order to ascertain the participants’ feelings toward poetry writing so that the role of found poetry in offering positive poetry writing experiences might be explored. Sixteen negative answers (76%) were given regarding feelings about poetry writing. One student was quite firm in hers: “Poetry is probably the last thing I’d like to write” (Morgan). A number of affective words were used in the negative answers: “anxiety” (3); “insecure” (2); “stress” (1); “suffocated” (1); and “tough” (1). Three participants (14%) indicated that they sometimes enjoy writing poetry: “I enjoy writing poetry, although I don’t do it too often” (Clarissa). Two participants (10%) reported that they used to write poetry for fun or to express feelings, but they no longer do so: “I used to write poetry for fun but not anymore” (Madison).

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Finally, one student provided an ambiguous answer: “I am rarely at such a loss that I would need poetry to describe my feelings” (Tyler).

Of the reasons given for these negative feelings toward writing poetry, three main themes emerged. First, eight participants (38%) pointed to poetic rules and forms as responsible for their negative attitudes. Restrictive and mystifying poetic criteria and guidelines such as rhyme, meter, and the counting of syllables felt like a “difficult struggle” because they were “too-systematic.” As Kristen wrote: “I usually struggle with all the poetic rules teachers try to pin on us.” The second theme concerned feeling unqualified to write poetry. Six participants (29%) spoke about not feeling “creative” or

“artistic” enough to write poetry. Respondents repeatedly used “un” prefixes, revealing a lack of poetic confidence: “unable,” “unqualified,” and “uninspired.” A representative comment summarizes this theme: “I feel like I’m pretending. Any poems I’ve ever written come off as inauthentic and trying to be deep and meaningful” (Kendra). The third theme revealed that five of the participants (24%) felt dissatisfied with the poetic process and product; they felt unsatisfied with both the writing process and the outcome of their writing efforts. As Barb emphasized: “I am not a huge fan b/c I always have a tough time getting started and am never satisfied w/ the outcome!” Three of these five participants specifically addressed the issue of words. All three of the reflections are included because of the importance of this theme to the study: “I am not very creative and struggle to find the right words or phrases to use” (Kristy); “I always get stuck…I don’t really feel like I am artistic enough to put words together poetically” (Jenny); and “I try too hard and never get what I want out of my words and style” (Amber). These

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reflections highlight feelings of dissatisfaction and doubt stemming from feelings of creative inadequacy and frustration with the poetic writing process and product.

Question four. The fourth question of the poetry questionnaire is: What are your memorable school experiences with poetry? This question is included in order to ascertain the participants’ past school poetry experiences so that the role of found poetry in providing overall positive school poetry experiences might be explored. Ten of the participants (48%) reported mixed memories, expressing both positive and negative school poetry experiences: “I remember writing a poem about the leaves in fall in the 4 th

grade. My teacher liked it and gave it an A. I think that’s when I peaked. It’s been

downhill from there” (Kendra). Five participants (24%) reported purely positive

memories: “I was a poetry editor for a magazine in my high school and that really helped

me appreciate writing and reading poetry” (Clarissa). Four participants (19%) reported

purely negative memories: “Stress about making it what the teacher said – negative”

(Abby). Finally, two participants (10%) reported neutral or no memories: “I can’t

remember much about poetry in school” (Kristy).

The participants shared a wide variety of school poetry reading and writing

memories, but only two significant themes emerged. Under explanations for the negative

memories, seven participants (33%) cited interpreting poems as responsible for their

negative memories. As one student noted: “Something about poetry in school sucks”

(Amber). The “daunting task” of “analyzing every part of EVERY poem we read” caused

“stress.” The practice of picking “poetry apart too much” and being required to “always

analyze, analyze, analyze, analyze” caused feelings of inadequacy, as evidenced by

Morgan’s memory: “All the poetry I read in school was hard to understand filled with

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meanings I was never able to interpret.” Two participants (10%) mentioned feeling dissatisfied with poetic rules, both involving unsuccessful attempts at writing rhyming poetry. Under explanations for the positive memories, seven participants (33%) reminisced about fun poetry projects and units. These ranged from participating in poetry slams to writing books of poems. As Madison noted: “I remember in 7 th grade we wrote a book of poetry…It was a lot of fun.”

Question five. The fifth and final question of the poetry questionnaire is: How do you feel about teaching your future students to write poetry? This question is included in order to ascertain the participants’ attitudes toward teaching their future students to write poetry so that the role of found poetry in supporting prospective teachers’ poetry pedagogy can be explored. The answers fell into three thematic categories. First, eight participants (38%) spoke positively about their future teaching of poetry. Six of these respondents used affirming phrases such as: “I definitely want to” and “I look forward to” in describing their feelings regarding teaching future students how to write poetry. Two of these participants acknowledged that while teaching poetry could be fun, it could also be “hard,” such as the challenge to “destigmatize poetry.” As Kristy shared: “I look forward to teaching poetry.” Second, seven participants (33%) (five were prospective poetry teachers) expressed a lack of confidence regarding their perceived ability to teach poetry writing. Words and phrases such as: “nervous” (3); “insecure” (2); “anxious” (1);

“not fully confident” (1); and “unqualified” (1) illustrated these prospective teachers’ qualms regarding the future teaching of poetry writing. One student summed up this theme: “I feel like I’ll be a fraud. How can I force kids to read poems when I don’t even like it?! I feel like they’ll see right through me” (Kendra).

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Third, six participants (29%) (five were prospective poetry teachers) stated an awareness that they needed to learn more in order to be able to confidently and successfully teach poetry writing to their future students, as seen in Allie’s answer: “It will be an important thing to teach and I think I need to learn more about it myself as well so that I will be able to teach it in a way that my students don’t hate it.” Interestingly, four of these respondents wanted to prevent their students from feeling “dread” toward poetry; they wished to learn how to teach poetry in a way that would redeem the art form and help their future students to enjoy it. Kat’s comment portrays this theme: “I’m worried because I do not want my students to hate poetry, yet I’m excited to learn new ways to teach it without creating that feeling.” Three of the six respondents even expressed a desire to engage in poetry practices themselves in a constructivist effort to shift their own attitudes toward poetry: “I want to change the perception of poetry that I have so that my future students will not dread poetry units” (Amber).

Literacy Autobiography Part One (24 respondents)

Question one. The first question of part one of the literacy autobiography invites students to reflect on the question: What are your memorable (positive/negative) school experiences with reading? Four themes are pertinent to this study. Of these themes, three pertain to negative memories. First, 15 participants (63%) described school reading in negative terms. A variety of descriptive words with negative connotations were used to describe reading books in school: “boring” (4); “forced” (4); “hated” (3); “burden” (1);

“chore” (1); frustrated” (1); “hassle” (1); “painstaking” (1); “stressful” (1); “struggle” (1);

“torture” (1); “uninspiring” (1); “uninteresting” (1); “unpleasant” (1); and “a waste of time” (1). Nine participants (38%) specifically noted the negative memory of being

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forced to read books that they weren’t interested in. As Kat shared: “My negative experiences with reading in High School come from being forced to read books I didn’t like. Reading something that does not interest you is torture.” Two additional participants offered the following explanations for their characterization of school reading as negative. Mitch explained: “It seems like a steady diet of Fitzgerald and Shakespeare has the potential to ignore the importance of creating a lifelong relationship with the material in the name of academia.” Teri shared:

I can honestly say that I did not read one book in high school; I used Spark Notes and Wikipedia for every book assigned. I hated the idea of having to read all of these classic books that I had absolutely no interest in.

Second, five participants (21%) mentioned being tested over their comprehension of books read for school as a negative memory: “Because of this system [Accelerated

Reader computer tests] reading became more of a chore and hassle than something to do for fun” (Teri). Third, four participants (17%) mentioned disliking the literary analysis of books. Readers found this practice “monotonous and tiresome” and it resulted in making them “hate reading.” As Kristen reflected: “I grew frustrated with…the constant need to pick every part of the text apart.” Contrary to the above themes, only one significant theme emerged in the positive school reading memories. Seven participants (29%) mentioned the freedom to choose the books that they wanted to read as a positive school reading memory, as mentioned by Annie: “In earlier school grades I always enjoyed silent reading time, especially when we were allowed to choose what we were reading.”

Question two. The second question of part one of the literacy autobiography

invites students to set reading goals: What do you hope to get out of this class, both

personally and professionally, in terms of your relationship with reading? Do you have

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any reading goals? A number of personal and professional reading goals were set, but

only two goals pertain to this study. First, six participants (25%) wished to learn how to

foster both their own and their future students’ positive relationships with reading: “I

want more than anything to learn from this class to develop my love for reading more so

that I can transfer that love to my students” (Amber). Second, three participants (13%)

wished to learn how to pass on their own current love of reading to their future students:

“I am hoping to figure out how to…foster a positive relationship with reading [in my

future students]” (Clarissa).

Literacy Autobiography Part Two (24 respondents)

Question one. The first question of part two of the literacy autobiography invites students to reflect on the question: Did your personal relationship with poetry grow or change during this course? If so, how? What classroom practices do you think contributed to your development? Eight participants (33%) specifically noted that their relationship with poetry grew as a result of the found poetry writing experience, as seen in this representative comment: “I feel better about poetry now than I ever have before”

(Carla). Five participants (21%) also characterized the found poetry activity in highly positive terms, using such words as: “enjoyed” (3) and “loved” (2). As Kim shared: “I really enjoyed writing the found poem” (Kim). Various themes emerged from the data analysis regarding participants’ reflections upon the growth of their relationship with poetry. Two primary themes reveal a change in feelings about poetry and the support afforded by found poetry in providing words for the poem.

First, nine participants (38%) reported a shift in attitudes toward poetry as a result of writing the found poem, as shown in this representative comment: “I’m no different

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than a typical student in that I can’t stand having to write it [poetry]. I feel like working on a found poem for this class helped immensely” (Tyler). Three of the nine felt less intimidated by poetry: “I’m definitely not as intimidated [by writing found poetry] anymore!” (Belinda). Three of the nine also experienced an increase in confidence around poetry; they described their comfort level with the writing process as “easy,”

“stress free,” and “not hard.” As Amber reflected: “I was able to look at my dislike of poetry and not feel like I was going to fail.”

Second, a general theme emerged concerning the art of found poetry. Four participants (17%) mentioned found poetry’s support of poets in providing them with all the words for the poem. Two reflections are especially illuminating on this subject: “The main problem I see with student poetry is that they can’t find the proper words to express what they want to say…found poetry helps to solve this problem. All of the material for them to use is already there” (Tyler). Kat speaks to the support found poetry offers to novice poets:

Poetry was always something I dreaded writing because you had to start with nothing and create a complex work of writing...Found poetry is a great thing to do with struggling poets because they have a concrete starting place and don’t have to come up with the poem on their own.

Two participants (8%) shared a sense of pride in their final found poem; one felt good putting “the lines together the way I did even if it came from a book” (Barb) and the other felt “very proud of the final product and…exited to try and write another found poem with another novel from the class” (Kristy). Two participants (8%) also referenced creativity in reflecting on the art form. One of these perceived found poetry to be a creative way to introduce poetry, and the other felt that found poetry provided the

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opportunity to use one’s creative side. As Sally mentioned: “It [found poetry] gives us a chance to have that creative side and bring our ideas to the surface.”

Question two. The second question of part two of the literacy autobiography

invites students to reflect on the question: Did your personal relationship with reading

grow or change during this course? If so, how? What classroom practices do you think

contributed to your development? Identical to the growth in poetry relationships, eight participants (33%) specifically noted that their relationship with reading grew as a result of the transactional paradigm reflected in the course pedagogy and practices: “I refound my love for reading because of this course” (Kristen) and “My experience with reading has been revitalized” (Steve). Three of these participants offered reasons for the reported shift in reading relationships, but no patterns emerged from their answers. Belinda noted that she used to read books purely for entertainment, but as a result of her transactional experiences in the class, she now pushes herself “to look into my soul and grow” as she reads. Kristy realized that all it took to turn her into a dedicated reader was to make one grand connection to a book ( Make Lemonade , by Virginia Euwer Wolff, 1993). The practice that most contributed to this grand connection was that of writing down her personal reactions to the books.

After every reading, I would contemplate how I felt about the book and my thoughts. I had never taken the time to think about my reactions and let the book sink in with me before just moving on to the next novel. I love the process and use it with all of the books I read now.

Jenny reported that throughout the course she was able to “develop a deeper, more transactional relationship with each book” that she read which helped her to “get more out of reading than ever before” and develop her transactional relationship with the text.

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She offered three classroom practices that most contributed to this development: 1)

“emphasizing the importance of always enjoying reading; 2) choosing books that interest you; and 3) creating your own, individual interpretation and experience through reading books.” Three participants (13%) made a specific connection between writing found poetry and their transactional relationships. One used the word “deepened” and another used the word “developed” to describe found poetry’s role in their reader/text relationship. Kat shared that working on found poetry helped her to see “the value of writing poetry from the literature you are studying…the story serves as a guide to writing.”

Question three. The third question of part two of the literacy autobiography invites students to reflect on the question: What practices/philosophies regarding reading and poetry do you plan to carry forward to your future students, and why? Six participants (25%) committed to using found poetry with their future students, offering various reasons for this pledge: “I thoroughly enjoyed the found poem exercise and will carry it with me into the classroom” (Mitch). Three participants’ answers fell into the affective realm; they viewed found poetry as a way to help students “enjoy” and “engage with” poetry, as well as a means to help poetry seem “less intimidating and more fun” to students. As Lida reflected: “I loved how we did found poems, because it makes you a poet without the stigma of poetry. Now, I can incorporate this into lessons that will not bore the children but engage them.” Two participants saw the benefit of using found poetry as an approach for introducing poetry: “I loved doing the found poem, and felt it was a creative way to introduce poetry” (Allie). One student alluded to found poetry’s universal poetic appeal, pointing out that the form means that “everyone can be a poet…it

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is something that every single person can do.” As Kim shared: “I would really like to use this [found poetry] with students to show that everyone can be a poet.”

Five participants (21%) connected their own classroom experiences with poetry to their future poetry teaching responsibilities. Two of these reflections especially illustrate the power of experiential learning to shift attitudes toward teaching: “Because I have learned these lessons I have a better relationship with poetry and I feel better trying to write myself and teaching it” (Carla) and “I sometimes think, how can I make students write poetry when I hate writing poetry? But I actually liked the poetry writing we did in class so I can always start out with that” (Kendra). Finally, two participants connected found poetry to the Transactional Theory, affirming that the art form allows students to

“reflect on a previous reading through found poetry” and is “extremely helpful in developing a transactional relationship with a book.” As Barb pointed out: “It [found poetry] deepened my relationship with the book.”

Written Reflection Part A (23 participants)

Question one. The first question of part A of the written reflection is: How did you feel about the process of writing the actual found poem? Sixteen participants (70%) reported a purely positive experience: “It was very relaxing” (Kelly). Four participants

(17%) reported mixed feelings: “It was a bit difficult to pick out words from the novel, but it was fun” (Jenny). Two participants (9%) spoke only of their anticipation of the activity: “When I first thought about writing the actual found poem I was a bit unsure where to start. When Lisa gave us a brief introduction it seemed as if this would be a fun experience to engage in” (Sally). One student (4%) reported a negative view of the experience: “Once I settle on a theme (which is hard by itself) the multitude of words and

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phrases to choose from is overwhelming” (Mike). The one purely negative answer and the four mixed answers share some common themes, with some respondents covering more than one theme. First, three writers found themselves overwhelmed by the time- consuming task of condensing a large text into a single poem: “I did find it difficult to work with a large text and condense it into a page” (Kat). Of the four mixed answers, all reported enjoying the experience despite the noted challenges.

The positive and mixed respondents repeatedly used a variety of words to

describe the writing experience: “enjoyed or enjoyable” (7); “easy” (5); “fun” (4);

“relaxing” (2); and “entertaining” (1), as seen in Lida’s comment: “It was easy and a lot

of fun.” Four participants “liked” the experience, and one student even “loved” the found

poetry writing process, as evidenced by Kristy’s reflection: “I really liked the process.”

Two main themes emerged in the reasons that were offered for these affirmative

descriptions. The first theme addresses poetic comments, and the second theme addresses

transactional comments. First, eight participants (35%) referred to the poetic writing

process: “I really enjoyed picking out the phrases I liked and reworking them into

something I created” (Kristen). Six of these liked finding and choosing words and then

“rearranging” and “reworking” them into a “cohesive” poem: “I really liked finding

words and lines and forming it into a poem” (Barb). The other two participants noted that

not having to use their own words for the poem made the process easier and less stressful:

“I really like writing found poems, because it is less stressful than writing actual poems

since I am not using my own words” (Annie). On a side note, two participants compared

the found poetry writing process to a “scavenger hunt.” The second theme addresses

transactional comments made in reference to the affirmative descriptions of the writing

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process. Although only three participants (13%) made these transactional comments, I include each comment below because Rosenblatt’s Transactional Theory provides one of the main theoretical frameworks for this study. Mitch found that the process allowed him

“to think about what mattered most about the story in my own mind.” Allie explained that the process of incorporating different colors and fonts into her found poem helped her to

“see the book through a more creative lens.” Finally, Kat thought it was “great to be able to reread and search for new meaning.”

Of the positive respondents, eight participants (35%) noted a shift in feelings from

the beginning of the found poetry writing experience to the end. Words like: “nervous”

(2); “scared” (2); “afraid” (1); “intimidated” (1); “unsure” (1); and “worried” (1) were

used to describe initial feelings at the beginning of the project. Abby’s reflection

illustrates this shift in attitudes toward the poetic writing process: “I was nervous at first,

but I actually like it.” Five of these participants reported that the experience turned out to

be far more “easy” (4) and “simpler” (1) than they had expected: “It was actually a lot

easier than I was expecting it to be” (Kendra). Two others “enjoyed” and “liked” the

experience, and one became “very comfortable” with the writing process. Various

explanations were offered for this shift in attitudes over the course of the found poetry

experience, but only two themes emerged from these explanations. First, simply giving

the writing process a try and getting comfortable with it supported three participants, as

expressed in this reflection: “At first I was nervous, but after a couple of tries and

familiarizing myself with the process I am very comfortable with it” (Carla). Second , the

writing process itself helped to shift the attitudes of three participants. Being able to use

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the words from the text for the poem made the process “easier,” as seen in this representative comment: “The material was there. All I had to do was find it” (Tyler).

Question two. The second question of part A of the written reflection is: How did you feel about your final found poem? The response to this question was overwhelmingly positive. Nineteen participants (83%) reported favorable feelings toward their finished found poem: “I loved my final poem. I was very proud of my work” (Kristy, emphasis in original). Three participants (13%) reported mixed feelings: “I was satisfied with it, but felt self-conscious because it was sort of short” (Kelly). One student (4%) reported a negative feeling: “I wasn’t very happy with my found poem. I felt that it was hard to do justice to such an amazing book like Looking for Alaska ” (Kat). A variety of positive

words were used to describe feelings about the poem, with the four most common being:

“like” (8); “proud” (7); and “love” (3): “I liked it [found poem] and I was proud of it”

(Madison). A number of adverbs were used in conjunction with the positive descriptors to

add emphasis, words such as: “really” (4); “very” (2); “quite” (1) and “so” (1). Sally

provided a representative comment is: “I really liked my final poem.” Feelings of surprise

over these positive attitudes were also noted, as evidenced by the use of the word

“actually” by four participants: “I was actually quite proud of it” (Tyler).

A variety of reasons were offered to explain the positive reactions to the poems.

These fell into two broad themes. The first theme represents answers from seven participants (30%) that speak to the poetic world. Three participants mentioned the meaning of the poem in terms of one of the most ubiquitous tools available to poets: words. Sally felt that her poem had “so much meaning with not many words;” Abby felt it was powerful when “words are rearranged or mean something else,” and Barb felt that

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her poem “captured the meaning I wanted it to.” Three participants described their poem as “powerful” as seen in Mitch’s reflection: “I thought my found poem was very powerful and made me emotional to think about the rest of the story.” Two participants shared a strong shift in their poetic self-image: “My final poem made me feel like I was a poet, even though I always thought I couldn’t write poetry” (Jenny) and “I have never enjoyed poetry before, but found that writing a poem I love is worth it!” (Kristy). Two participants addressed what others might think of their poem: “I’m not sure if I feel comfortable showing it to the world but it says a lot that I’m actually proud of it”

(Kendra) and “I don’t know or care if any one else would, but it is enough for me to love it alone” (Amber).

The second theme represents answers from six participants (26%) that speak to

the transactional world. Four participants pointed to the found poem as a means of

reader/text expression. Of these, two thought that the poem captured the character’s

thoughts and feelings from the book really well. Another’s reflection captured the

connection between the art of found poetry and the transactional paradigm: “Though it

was the author’s words, I was able to manipulate them in order to articulate my reaction

to the novel and characters” (Belinda). Two participants noted a shift in the reading

experience: Annie’s poem gave her “a new way to look at the text” and Mitch’s poem

impacted his thinking about the book: “Knowing what happens in the novel, I thought my

found poem was very powerful.” Finally, one participant pointed to the poem’s ability to

represent a scene in the text: Kristen’s poem “reflected the moment in the book.”

Of the three mixed answers, Kelly felt “satisfied” with the poem, but shared that

she felt self-conscious because the poem was “sort of short.” Barb reported that she felt

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her poem captured the meaning she wanted, but she thought that it was too wordy; she struggled with the process of removing words. Mike felt that found poetry could never reflect his “best work” due to the “infinite possibilities.” Only one participant reported a purely negative feeling toward her found poem. Kat was not very happy with her final poem; she felt that it was hard “to do justice to such an amazing book like Looking for

Alaska ” (Green, 2005).

Question three. The third question of part A of the written reflection is: How did

this experience compare to other poetry writing experiences? Nineteen participants

(83%) compared the found poetry writing experience favorably to other poetry writing

experiences: “I liked this way better than other poetry writing experiences, because I get

stressed out a little when writing poetry but I like writing found poetry” (Annie). Two

participants reported mixed comparisons (9%): “It was easier and challenging at the same

time. You have the words to use but putting them into the order you want is challenging”

(Clarissa). Two participants also made no comparisons (9%): “I like writing poetry, so I

love all aspects of it” (Lida). The positive respondents used a variety of descriptive words

in a total of 20 instances, such as: “enjoyed or enjoyable” (5); “much better” (5); “easier”

(4); “less stressful” (2); “liked way better” (1); “loved more” (1); “more fun” (1); and

“positive” (1): “Easier and more enjoyable” (Teri). As with the second question of part A,

an assortment of adverbs added emphasis to these positive answers such as: “much” (5);

“more” (4); “much more” (3); “significantly” (1); “so” (1); and “way” (1): “I found this

experience to be much more enjoyable” (Jenny). Four participants (17%) specifically

mentioned past negative school poetry writing experiences in their positive comparisons,

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two of whom used the word “forced.” Kim reminisced: “Compared to the poems I was forced to write in middle/high school this was a day at the beach.”

Just like the second question of part A, the reasons given for the positive

comparisons fell into two themes: poetry and transactional categories. First, nine

participants (39%) commented on the poetic aspect of the experience: “It was much less stressful!! I liked not having to come up with each thought on my own” (Barb). Six of these mentioned the method of using someone else’s words for the poem. They reflected that this approach “helps” and is not “overwhelming” due to the lack of “stress” and

“pressure” from “using someone else’s words.” Kristen’s answer captures this theme: “So

much better! I made my own poem without the stress of picking the words” (emphasis in

original). One participant felt “more accomplished” as a poet; she thought her “final

poem was better” than past poems. Another thought found poetry would make a “great

starting point” for beginning poets “because it’s not overwhelming.” Finally, Tyler

pointed out a dichotomy between the ease of writing and the depth of the found poem: “It

was bizarre in that it was significantly easier to write than most of the poetry I’ve

produced and yet I actually felt strongly about what I had composed.”

Second, three participants (13%) commented on the transactional aspect of the

experience. While no patterns emerged within the three comments, they are all included

below in light of the Transactional Theory which frames this study. Mitch noted that the

found poetry writing experience was “reflective and allowed me to think about the text

further.” Sally explained that found poetry provided her with a “different way to share

feelings thoughts and ideas.” Finally, Mike maintained that in terms of transactional

relationships, found poems offer something that traditional analyses of literature do not.

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Question four. The fourth question of part A of the written reflection is: Did this experience shift any of your feelings about poetry? Why or why not? Seventeen participants (74%) reported a positive shift in feelings toward poetry as a result of the found poetry writing experience: “Considering I did not know found poetry existed, this experience has made me appreciate poetry more” (Mitch). Two participants qualified the shift as “slightly” more positive. Six participants (26%) reported no shift in feelings.

Three of these experienced no shift because they claimed to start the study with positive feelings about poetry: “Nope- I still think poetry is a great form of expression” (Clarissa).

The other three were mixed in their comments: One held a negative view of found poetry, one still wasn’t a fan of poetry, but did concede that found poetry “made it less scary,” and one made no qualifying statement with her “no” answer. General positive shifts in feelings about poetry as compared to past poetry experiences were shared using words such as: “fun” (3); “easier” (2); “improved feelings” (2); “appreciate more” (1); “less scary” (1); “more comfortable” (1); and “relaxing” (1):

The reasons offered for the positive shift in attitudes covered a wide range of themes. Three participants (13%) addressed poetic forms. Of these, one changed her thinking that poetry “always had to rhyme or be written in a certain way” (Sally).

Another student realized that there are different ways to go about writing poetry, “but that in the end, it’s all poetry” (Barb). The final comment over poetic form noted that the experience made her see that “not all forms of poetry are a struggle. It can be fun to solve the puzzle” of found poetry (Kristen). Two participants (9%) reflected on past negative school poetry experiences involving poetry analysis: “I think I have been afraid of poetry because of all the hard poems we had to analyze in high school” (Morgan, emphasis in

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original) and “I always avoided poetry at all costs because I thought it was all about obscure interpretation and analyzing, but this gave me a new appreciation for it” (Jenny).

Two participants (9%) reported a transformation in self-efficacy. Carla shared that the experience “shifted my feeling because I now feel that there is a type of poetry for me and I am not completely hopeless” and Belinda affirmed that found poetry “makes me believe that it is doable. It’s not something just for English majors, but applicable to any reader.” Two participants (9%) made transactional shifts. Kim said that found poetry gave her “a way to enjoy a book in a fun new way” and Belinda declared that found poetry is “just another delicious way to experience a profound novel.” Finally, two participants (4%) spoke about their future teaching responsibilities; one concluded that she now had a “little less anxiety over having to teach it [poetry] to my future students”

(Kendra).

Question five. The fifth and final question of part A of the written reflection

invited participants to share additional comments about the found poetry writing

experience. Only three participants (13%) answered this invitation. One student wished

that she had not borrowed the book from the library that she used for her poem, stating

that if could have been free to underline and mark in the book it would have made the

process of searching for words easier. Another student noted that she was “very pleased”

that she had been encouraged to use her own words for the poem if she so chose. The

third student offered an analogy for the overall found poetry writing process: “Writing

the poem was like having all the pieces of the puzzle and just having to put them together

(with no right or wrong answer) just what you liked” (Kristen).

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Written Reflection Part B

Question one. (24 respondents) The first question of part B of the written reflection is: Did the process of writing the found poem impact your relationship with the text? A total of 24 participants answered this question. The one student who only answered a single question in the written reflection chose to answer this question. 100% of the respondents answered affirmatively; the poetry writing process did have a positive impact on their relationship with the text: “The process of writing the found poem impacted my relationship with the text because I had to dig back into the text to think about themes because that was the focus I wanted in my poem” (Kelly). Making multiple sweeps through this section of the data and applying a highly detailed thematic analysis revealed that many reflections broke down the writing process into three distinct steps.

Kat’s reflection is used to illustrate these because her entire answer highlights the slight nuances of each step in the process. In the first step, nine participants (38%) mentioned returning to the text, using words and phrases such as: “go back through” (3); “reread”

(2); “revisit” (2); “dig back into the text” (1); and “dive back into the book” (1). Kat wrote the following with regard to the first step: “When writing the found poem, I went back and reread parts of the novel that most impacted me.” In the second step, 15 participants (63%) wrote about what took place once they went back into the text. A variety of words and phrases were used to articulate an extension of the reading experience during this step, such as: “take a second/closer look” (4); “think creatively/critically/ deeply” (3); “search for” (2); “spend more time” (2); “focus on” (1);

“notice” (1); “question” (1); and “re-evaluate” (1). Kat wrote the following with regard to this second step: “It was great to re-engage in this experience and relive the most

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profound aspects of the book.” Finally, in the third step, participants reported that extending their reading experiences had an impact on their overall experience of reading the book, especially with regard to their understanding of the book. Fifteen readers (63%) described a shift in their understanding of various textual features, using such phrases as:

“better/enriched/new understanding” (10); “discovered way more” (1); more aware” (1);

“reinforced” (1); “found a new meaning” (1); and “saw in a new way” (1). Kat wrote the following with regard to the third step: “When writing the actual poem out of selected phrases, I found a new meaning or a new dimension to the text I already loved. I was able to take on a new perspective and look at the same text from another angle.” Following is a brief summary of the three steps. First, participants returned to the text in the search for topics and words for the found poem. Second, once there, readers took a second look at the text, noticing and thinking about the book, thereby extending their reading experiences. Third, once settled deeper into the text, participants registered an impact on their overall reading experiences.

Within the three steps in the process, three general thematic categories emerged.

The first category of themes refers to literary elements, mentioned by 13 readers (54%),

three of whom mentioned more than one element: “I was able to relate more to the

character whose voice I took on in my poem. I was able to get to know her better on a

deeper level” (Madison). They noted characters, themes, a connection between the two,

and plot, as well as the impact these elements had on the reading experience. Within the

theme on literary elements, eight participants discussed characters from the book: “It

made me go back through the book and look at the character and the character’s thoughts.

After pulling text from the book and putting it all together I was surprised with what I

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came up with and I was able to see the character in a new way” (Teri). Each of the character reflections included an explanation for how the poetic writing process impacted the student’s understanding of those elements. Every student noted a transformation in how they saw or related to the character: two “understood” the characters better; two

“realized a greater depth” to the characters; two “empathized and related to” the characters more; one was “able to see the character in a new way;” and one felt the character became “more real.” Four participants wrote about themes from the book: “I hadn’t really thought about any of the themes in the book before writing the poem. When

I decided that my poem would be about bravery, I started to notice how that the theme was present throughout the book” (Kendra). Two participants connected characters and themes: “I would say that it did impact the relationship with the text because it makes you think deeply about the themes of the book and the way the characters were tied to those themes” (Morgan). Finally, two participants referenced the plot in their reflections: “It reinforced the plot points and important features I had read, which helped me to understand” (Steve). By far the most common connection to a literary element fell in the realm of characters and character relationships.

The second thematic category represents readers’ comments over their relationship with the book used for the poem, which were dispersed across three themes.

Eleven participants (46%) touched on features of this relationship. The most common theme in this category, emerging in six reflections, pointed to the impact of the writing process on the reader/text relationship: “By writing the poem, I felt a stronger connection to the text” (Kristy). Two participants experienced a “stronger connection” to the book; one student “strengthened” her “relationship with the text;” one student had a “deeper

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relationship with the text;” and yet another developed more of a “bond” with the book.

Finally, one reader extended her relationship with the book: “I enjoyed reading the book and didn’t want it to end. Creating the poem gave me another reason to dive back into the book” (Kristen). The second most common theme in the relationship category is represented in three reflections, which expressed a strengthening of feelings toward the book: “I feel that it made me look at the novel closely and sometimes I liked it even more than before” (Sally). Writing the found poem resulted in more positive feelings toward the book in two participants, and the other felt that it was easier for her to express her

“emotions about the book” via the found poem. The third and final theme in this category reveals that two participants saw the book in a new light as a result of the writing process, as seen here in Jenny’s comment “I definitely feel like I have a deeper relationship with the text after writing the found poem…I also was more aware at how artistic and beautiful the text was.”

Finally, the third and smallest thematic category highlights a global link between the found poem and the book. Only three readers’ reflections (13%) fell into this theme, but they are all very powerful and worth noting. Lida shared that when she remembers the book, she will also “remember the poem.” Allie recollected that the process “allowed me to merge my own creativity with the author’s vision for the book.” Mike, who in other parts of the data reported a negative view of found poetry, offers a profound comment:

“Poetry’s power lies in its very personal character. Found poems allow the reader to take the text and experience it on a personal level inherent in poetry.” All three of these reflections illuminate found poetry’s ability to bridge readers and texts.

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Question two. (21 respondents) The second question of part B of the written reflection is: Did the process of writing the found poem impact your awareness of the text and its contributions to your reading experience? Out of 21 answers to this question, 20 respondents (95%) provided an affirmative answer: “By writing my found poem, it impacted my awareness of the text and contributed to my reading experience” (Kelly).

Only one student (Abby) did not feel that the found poetry writing process impacted her awareness of the text: “I don’t really think the process impacted my awareness of the text,” although she did concede that when she “went back” into the text there were “some things” that she “was like ‘oh yeah,’ but nothing too great stood out to me.” A number of words used in the reflections pointed to found poetry as a supportive vehicle for directing reader awareness back to the text, such as: “helped me” (4); “able to” (3); and “allowed”

(3): “It helped me to find key parts in the book and then meaningful words within that section” (Kristen). Two broad thematic categories emerged from the analysis of the answers to the second question. The first category addresses the actual process of returning to the text, and the second category addresses outcomes from that process.

Within the first broad category, 11 participants (52%) spoke about the actual process of going back into the text, a process that impacted their awareness of the book:

“Writing the poem helped me look more closely at the text to find what I wanted my poem to be about and what I wanted to say made me much more aware about what I had read” (Kim). An assortment of words and phrases were used to describe the search for words in the text chosen for the poem: “look” (4); “go back” (3); “find” (2); “extract” (1); and “pick out” (1): “The original work already left its mark on me, but going back into the text helped to crystallize the feelings and impressions I originally had” (Tyler).

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Different phrases were used to describe this process, such as: “go back…look through

…think back.” This act of searching for “key parts and meaningful words” impacted readers’ awareness of the text. Points of impact varied, from a heightened awareness of what had been read to a broadening of vocabulary. Kim articulated this theme: “Writing the poem helped me look more closely at the text to find what I wanted my poem to be about and what I wanted to say made me much more aware about what I had read.” Two of the eleven “process” participants pointed to a fascinating effect of the revisiting process. They noted that the practice of looking for words helped to narrow the focus of attention down from the entire text: “When reading an entire novel, the focus is on the book as a whole and then re-examining sections, you can focus more closely and examine things individually” (Kat). This first theme highlights found poetry’s natural ability to draw the reader back into the text in the search for topics and words for the poem.

In the second broad thematic category, 11 participants (52%) reported that the

poetry writing process described above allowed them to expand and enrich their

awareness of the text: “I didn’t see everything the first time around. By returning to the

text to find phrases for the found poem, I reread things I may have not seen the first time

around or expanded on something I thought at first” (Clarissa). Respondents used a

mixture of words and phrases to articulate found poetry’s impact on their textual

awareness, such as: “more aware” (6); “see” (3); “become aware” (2); “focus on” (2);

“notice” (2); and “realize” (2): “I definitely became more aware of themes and ideas after

writing the poem and going back through the book looking for quotes” (Kristy). Nine of

the eleven “expand/enrich” participants reported that they were able to gain new insights

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into the text, thus significantly affecting their awareness of the text’s contributions to the reading experience:

Writing the found poem…allowed me to draw new understanding and conclusions from the text and pick up on things I had missed with the first reading. This was important because it allowed me to see new things and information about the text to justify my conclusions or change my mind (Carla).

These insights covered a broad range of literary elements from noticing themes and symbols (4); to improving perceptions of the plot (2); to seeing a character in a new way

(2). As Amber reflected: “I loved that the poem made me look at the book from a more artistic lens, not just reading for plot. But I saw it instead for its beauty that I could then translate into a poem.” Two participants (10%) reported that the writing process took an

already rich textual relationship and made it even stronger. For Mitch, the found poem

took an “already powerful” novel and made it “even more powerful.” Tyler shared a

similar view: “The original work already left its mark on me, but going back into the text

helped to crystallize the feelings and impressions I originally had.” This second theme

highlights found poetry’s capacity for impacting the reader’s awareness of the text.

Question three. (21 respondents) The third question of part B of the written

reflection is: Did the process of writing the found poem impact your reflection upon your reading experience? Out of 21 answers to this question, 100 % of the participants replied affirmatively that the found poetry writing process did indeed positively impact their reflective experience: “I enjoyed going back through the book and reflecting in the process” (Allie). Qualifying statements regarding this impact were made by 19 of the respondents (90%), as seen in Morgan’s comment: “You have to reflect on what you read and what really impacted your experience reading so you could apply it to the poem.” A

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number of active phrases implied a sense of agency within this process, as if the process itself acted upon the reader to create an impact: “helped me” (4); “I realized” (4); “made me” (2); “allowed me” (2); “caused me” (1); and “had me” (1): “Yes, because it had me go through the section I used for the found poem again and notice things I might have missed the first time I read it” (Annie). Three participants (14%) specifically addressed the freedom to “focus” on whichever text and topic they chose for their found poem: “I also liked being able to pick which book I wanted to go back and look at” (Teri). Three broad thematic categories emerged from the answers to this final question of part B.

The first thematic category addresses the impact made by the found poetry writing process on participants’ personal feelings for and connection to the text chosen for the poem. The writing process promoted five participants’ (24%) personal involvement with the text. The process of writing the found poem helped reveal “what stood out” to the readers and “impacted” their “involvement with the text.” As Kristen mentioned: “It helped me find my favorite parts of the book and dig further into it.” The writing process also had an impact on three (15%) readers’ feelings about the book they picked for the found poem. They reported an increase in their positive feelings toward the book chosen for the poem. Writing the found poem helped them to “love and understand the book even better.” (Amber). As Kristy reminisced:

The writing process really improved my experience. I really loved the book to begin with, but absolutely adored it after the poem. I am not a poetry person, yet was proud of the results of my found poem. Since I was only able to write the poem with the help of quotes from the book, my appreciation/love for the book grew exponentially.

The second thematic category addresses the impact made by the found poetry writing process on aspects of the participants’ understanding of the text. Six participants

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(29%) apprehended something new about the text as a result of writing the found poem.

Four of these respondents specifically used the word “realize” in their reflection. Such realizations ranged from recognizing the “importance” of a particular “section” of the book “to the rest of the story,” to considering new aspects of the text, such as “the art of the book.” As Jenny shared:

Through my choices of lines to use in my poem, I realized what parts of the story meant the most to me, and how the story really impacted me and helped me to grow as a reader and as a person.

Writing the found poem helped enrich three participants’ (14%) understanding of the text. The writing process supported readers in understanding “the book even better.” As

Mike noted: Found poetry gives “the reader a greater understanding of the text by simply revisiting it.” Finally, found poetry supported three (14%) readers’ memory of the book.

The writing process helped these readers to “remember elements of the book better.”

According to Kendra: “I realized that certain things stuck with me for longer than I thought.”

The third category of themes addresses the impact made by the found poetry writing process on the nature of the reading experience. These respondents documented a distinct shift between the first reading of the book and the subsequent revisiting of the book for the purpose of writing the found poem. Twelve participants (57%) discussed the specific quality of impact that the found poetry writing process had on their transactional experiences: “I think it really made me reflect. I am the kind of reader who reads, then puts the book away and moves on to the next one but this made me stop and really dive back into the book” (Kim). These comments fell into four different thematic categories: narrowing, deepening, extending, and widening. Five participants (24%) noted a

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narrowing of their reading experiences based on the writing process. The found poem

allowed them to focus on a smaller section of the text. This breaking up of the whole

book into “bits and pieces” helped the readers focus on a more specific aspect of the

book, as illustrated by Belinda’s comment: “After considering what I might like to write

about, I began reflecting on the more subtle relationships between characters, which I

found to be far more enticing than the original, overbearing first impression that I had.”

Four participants (19%) reported a deepening of their reading experience due to the

writing experience. They were able to “dig further into” the book and explore “the text on

a deeper level than is possible through the first read.” Clarissa shared: “I think this helped

me reflect more deeply on an issue that I focused on.” Two participants (10%) reported

an extending based on the writing activity. Found poetry provided a “different way to

take away” what had been “learned from the novel.” Participants were able to carry away

the book’s impact on the reading experience: “The ideas I gained from the text shifted

from simply existing within the work itself to feeling more like it applied in the real

world” (Tyler). Finally, one student (5%) reported a widening of the reading experience.

According to Barb: “Reading more and writing the found poem caused me to reflect on

several things in the story rather than just the main idea. Now when I reflect on it, I recall

every relationship in the book.”

Written Reflection Part C

Question one. (23 respondents) The first question of part C of the written

reflection is: How likely would you be to include found poetry writing experiences in your

future classroom? Participants were given the option to check: very likely, somewhat

likely, somewhat un-likely, or very un-likely. Of the 23 participants who completed

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question one in part C, 21 respondents (91%), answered that they would be “very likely” to include found poetry writing experiences in their future classrooms. Only two participants (9%) marked “somewhat likely.” Of the 20 prospective poetry teachers, only one did not mark “very likely” (Mike); therefore, 95% of prospective teachers would be

“very likely” to use found poetry with their future students.

Question two. (21 “very-likely” respondents) The second question of part C of the written reflection is: Please explain your rationale for the choice you marked above .

Of the 23 answers to question one, 21 offered a rational for their answer, using a number of positive terms to characterize found poetry. These terms fell into two categories. The first set of terms described the actual writing process: “fun” (4); “engaging” (1); and

“relaxing” (1). The second set of terms characterized various aspects of the writing process: “creative” (2); “easy” (1); “open-ended” (1); “quick” (1); and “simple” (1). Out of the 21 “very likely” answers, three primary thematic categories emerged from the rationales, each of which matched up with one of the three research questions. The percentages in the next section are factored on the total of 21 “very likely” answers.

The first thematic category that emerged from the “very likely” rationales addresses poetic aspects of teaching found poetry: “This [found poetry] makes it fun and simultaneously takes pressure off coming up with one’s own words –great!” (Amber).

The comments made by 17 participants in this first category fall into four sub-themes.

First, eight participants (38%) identified the usefulness of found poetry for introducing students to the art of poetry: “It eases children into writing poetry and I think it serves as a great transition into poetry” (Madison). Second, four participants (19%) pointed to the advantage of not being responsible for thinking up the words for the poem: “It’s a great

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way to introduce poetry without provoking anxiety because you’re not responsible for the words, just the art of putting everything together” (Belinda). The opportunity to use words from a text removes the “anxiety,” “intimidation,” “pressure,” or “worry” of

“coming up with one’s own words” and helps “afraid” or “reluctant” poets to become

“more confident toward writing poetry.” Third, three participants (14%), addressed the accessibility of found poetry: “This is one of my new favorite kinds of poetry. It’s something children of all abilities can do” (Kim). According to Belinda, the only participant not planning on majoring in education, found poetry is “even doable by laymen like myself.” The fourth theme of the poetic category, remarked upon by two participants (10%), portrayed found poetry in highly positive terms; one described found poetry as “amazing;” the other said found poetry was her “new favorite kind of poetry.”

The second thematic category that emerged from the “very likely” rationales

addresses transactional reading relationships: “They [found poems] are useful for

Transactional Reading” (Mike). The comments made by nine participants in this second

category fall into three sub-themes. The first theme consists of comments made by four

participants (19%) regarding found poetry’s capacity for supporting reader/text

transactional relationships: Found poetry “is a great way to read a novel,” and it

“builds/activates a student’s experience with the book.” According to Jenny: “I think this

is a wonderful way to both introduce the subject of writing poetry to students and to

deepen a student’s relationship with a book. I think that students can get more out of this

than a book analysis paper.” Barb’s reflection revealed a different view of analysis. She

echoed Jenny’s belief in found poetry’s ability to help readers “gain more from a book,”

but she actually portrayed found poetry as “a deep form of analysis. Even more powerful

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though because it’s personal.” In the second theme, three participants (14%) pointed to found poetry’s role in the reflection process, as seen in Clarissa’s statement: Found poetry “is a great tool for students to reflect on their reading experiences.” Finally, in the third category, two participants (10%) pointed to found poetry’s role in demonstrating and sharing “your own personal experience” or “what you took out of a book.”

The third thematic category that emerged from the “very likely” rationales addresses the potential role found poetry might play in participants’ future classrooms:

“If I teach older children, I would love to do found poetry. I feel like it will improve their outlook on poetry” (Lida). The comments made by six participants in this third category fall into two sub-themes. First, four participants (19%) referred to the role found poetry may play in supporting their future students’ poetry attitudes: “Poetry is so often associated with negative feelings. Found poetry helps to work against that. It’s more relaxing and open-ended” (Kristen). The respondents anticipated that found poetry could

“increase the confidence” of those students “who don’t like poetry” and improve their

“outlook on poetry” by making poetry writing “fun!” Second, two participants (10%) spoke about their own negative poetry attitudes in terms of their future students. Mitch shared that he intends on using found poetry with his future students to support his own attitudes as a teacher of poetry: “I do not like poetry much at all, so including found poetry in my classroom will allow me to enjoy teaching poetry.” Although Carla admitted that she cannot write original poetry herself, she plans on using found poetry to invite her students into the world of poetry: “I would teach it in my room so that all of my students could feel like there is some kind of poetry for them.”

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Out of the two “somewhat likely” answers, Morgan (a science education major who previously shared that poetry was the last thing she would want to write) felt that she needed more education on the subject of poetry if she were to include it in her classroom.

Mike (the only student who responded negatively to found poetry as a poetic art form) shared that while found poetry is useful for “transactional reading,” it is not as strong as traditional methods of analysis.

Question three. (21 respondents) The third question of part C of the written reflection is: Please describe your level of confidence around teaching poetry writing in your future classroom. Has your sense of confidence changed during this quarter? Of the total number of participants, 21 answered this question. A full 19 participants (90%) reported a positive shift in their level of confidence (95% of prospective poetry teachers):

“My confidence in myself as a future teacher has increased exponentially through this class” (Allie). Two participants (10%) reported no change in confidence. Of these, one was not able to translate her experience as a poet to her confidence in teaching poetry:

“I’m not extremely confident…This class helped me realize I could write poetry, but didn’t really effect [sic] my understanding or confidence with it” (Kristy), and the other believed poetry could not be taught. Both of theses participants did answer “very-likely” to include found poetry writing experiences in their future classrooms.

Despite the high number of participants who would be very likely to use found poetry in their future classrooms, the level of confidence around teaching poetry in general varied widely. Four clear themes emerged from the 19 respondents who reported a positive shift in their confidence as future poetry teachers. First, nine participants (43%) conceded a change in confidence toward teaching poetry in general, but these changes

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appeared to be slight: “I still don’t have a lot of confidence but it has grown a little”

(Kendra). Seven of the respondents gave reasons for these minor shifts in confidence, but these were displaced over many low-occurring themes. Two participants felt that being able to write their own found poem helped: “I was a bit unsure at first but after writing my own I am more confident and look forward to doing this in my own classroom”

(Sally). Two respondents saw the benefit of starting with found poetry for “easing” the transition of “inexperienced poets” into poetry: “Found poems could ease into the workshops by destigmatizing poetry. So I suppose I’m slightly more inclined” (Mike).

One participant predicted that her future students would enjoy found poetry. Another felt the experience “opened new doors” for her to teach poetry. Finally, one shared the new realization that there is not a right or wrong way to understand poetry. Under the second theme, five participants (24%) reported a significant increase in their confidence as future teachers of poetry writing: “ Yes . I found types of poetry I actually enjoy and want to

teach” (Kim, emphasis in original, heavily underlined the word “yes” fully nine times).

Of these, four reported a radical shift, using such descriptors as “exponentially” and

“significantly.” Various reasons were offered for this transformation in confidence. Three

participants cited general classroom experiences with poetry and another cited her

personal “enjoyment” of found poetry.

Under the third theme, three participants (14%) shared a strong confidence in

teaching found poetry that did not necessarily translate to other forms of poetry, as

portrayed by Kristen: “I would be confident teaching found poetry…I am not sure about

poetry in itself.” Finally, two participants (10%) were already confident in their ability to

teach poetry at the start of the study. Both pointed to “good teachers” that showed them a

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“love of poetry.” However, they did acknowledge growth as a result of the found poetry experience. Lida reflected on her level of confidence: “You just made it even better,” and

Madison enthusiastically wrote: “Found poetry is something I will for sure add!”

Written Reflection Part D

Part D of the written reflection invited respondents to share anything about the

found poetry writing experience not covered in the other three sections. Two participants

answered. First, Kendra wished that she had thought about how she would write the poem

while reading the book for the first time because she felt that it would have changed the

way she wrote her poem. Belinda, the only non-education major, mentioned that while

she appreciated the found poetry experience, she did not feel comfortable teaching found

poetry in her future nursing career. Yet, she did hope that her future children would have

the opportunity to write found poetry and “open their minds to poetry.”

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Appendix O: Refined Themes from the Data Analysis

Poetry Questionnaire

Question one. Do you consider yourself a poet? Why or why not? Out of 21 respondents, sixteen (76%) answered “no,” they did not consider themselves to be poets.

Six (38%) of the 16 novice poets noted feeling inadequate as poets, three of whom mentioned not feeling creative enough to write poetry.

Question two. How do you feel about poetry in general? One third of the 21 respondents reported a mixture of positive and negative feelings; almost one quarter

(24%) reported purely positive feelings; almost one quarter (24%) reported purely negative feelings; and 19% reported neutral feelings. Adding the negative and mixed feelings together, over half of the participants (57%) did not report wholly positive feelings toward the art form. Two salient themes emerged in the refinement of the text. In the first theme, a total of nine participants (43%) harbored negative feelings toward the analysis of poetry. This approach to reading poetry was uniformly cited as the sole reason for the participants’ negative feelings toward poetry. In the second theme, a clear

“love/hate” relationship was reported by four participants (19%), leaving them indifferent to poetry or biased against the interpretation of poetry.

Question three. How do you feel about writing poetry? Over three quarters of the

21 respondents responded with negative feelings toward poetry writing. Three principle themes that account for these negative feelings emerged in the refinement of the text.

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First, 38% of the participants held restrictive rules and formats responsible for their negative emotions. The second theme was already uncovered above in question two.

Over one quarter of the participants (29%) felt unqualified to be poets; they did not feel adequately creative or artistic to write poetry. Finally, almost a quarter (24%) of the participants expressed dissatisfaction with either the poetic process or product. The most common reason for this sense of discontent had to do with thinking of, and feeling satisfied with, words for their poems.

Question four. What are your memorable school experiences with poetry?

Almost half of the 21 respondents experienced a mix of positive and negative school poetry memories. Almost one quarter reported purely positive memories, and almost one fifth reported purely negative memories. Two significant themes emerged after refinement, it is clear that the answers to this prompt covered a wide range of memories.

One third of the participants held poetry analysis responsible for their negative memories.

Another third reminisced about positive school poetry projects and units that were fun.

Question five. How do you feel about teaching your future students to write poetry? Four themes emerged concerning participants’ future teaching responsibilities.

First, almost 40% of the 21 respondents reported a positive outlook on their future poetry teaching responsibilities. Second, one third of the participants reported a distinct lack of confidence in the ability to teach their future students how to write poetry. They expressed reservations regarding their future poetry teaching responsibilities. Third, almost 30% of the participants expressed an awareness that they were in need of more learning if they were to successfully teach poetry writing with confidence. Four of these participants wished to prevent their students from developing a hatred of poetry. Three of

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the 30% also wished to avoid passing on their own negative feelings toward poetry writing by learning how to teach poetry in a way that would disrupt patterns of destructive school poetry practices. They were attuned to the benefits of constructive poetry practices, understanding the impact that shifting their own feelings toward poetry could have on their future students’ perceptions of the art form. Finally, a total of 62% of the respondents reported feeling unconfident and unprepared to teach poetry; 48% of these are in fact prospective poetry teachers.

Literacy Autobiography Part One

Question one. What are your memorable (positive/negative) school experiences

with reading? Over 60% of the 24 respondents described school reading in negative terms; the three most commonly used descriptive words were: boring, forced, and hated.

Almost 40% of the participants specifically noted the negative memory of being forced to read books that they weren’t interested in. They did not enjoy reading required books that they could not connect with or relate to. Almost one quarter of the participants counted comprehension tests over school books as a negative memory. Yet again the theme of literary analysis appears after refining the thematic patterns. This time, four participants

(29%) mentioned the literacy practice under negative school reading memories. Finally, only one noteworthy positive theme emerged: Almost 30% of the respondents mentioned the freedom to choose the books that they wanted to read as a positive school reading memory.

Question two. What do you hope to get out of this class, both personally and professionally, in terms of your relationship with reading? Do you have any reading goals? One quarter of the 24 respondents wished to learn how to foster both their own

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positive relationship with reading and those same relationships in their future students.

Three participants (13%) who already possessed positive reading relationships wished to learn how to pass that love of reading on to their future students.

Literacy Autobiography Part Two

Question one. Did your personal relationship with poetry grow or change during

this course? If so, how? What classroom practices do you think contributed to your

development? One third of the 24 respondents mentioned found poetry specifically as

having an impact on their relationship with poetry, especially in a data set with an open-

ended prompt. Five participants (21%) used glowing terms to describe the art form. Nine

participants (38%) experienced a shift in their attitudes toward poetry as a result of the

poetry activity, with the following two sub-themes represented by three participants each:

an increase in confidence and a lessening of fear and intimidation. Two participants each

felt a sense of pride in their poem and appreciated found poetry’s creative aspect.

Question two. Did your personal relationship with reading grow or change

during this course? If so, how? What classroom practices do you think contributed to

your development? One third of the 24 respondents reported growth in their reading

relationships as a direct result of the transactional classroom design. While a variety of

reasons for the positive shift in reading relationships were offered, the only one that

pertains directly to this study is the connection made between found poetry and the

development/deepening of transactional relationships. Three participants mentioned this

connection on the open-ended prompt.

Question three. What practices/philosophies regarding reading and poetry do

you plan to carry forward to your future students, and why? Three fundamental patterns

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emerged. First, one quarter of the 24 respondents voluntarily made the commitment to use found poetry with their future students. Justification for this pledge included found poetry’s potential for helping students to enjoy and engage with poetry in a less intimidating manner and usefulness for introducing poetry to all students. Second, a little over one fifth of the participants articulated a connection between their own personal poetry experiences and their perceived ability to teach poetry to future students. Third, found poetry’s capacity for promoting reader/text relationships was identified.

Written Reflection Part A

Question one. How did you feel about the process of writing the actual found poem? Almost three quarters of the 23 respondents reported purely positive feelings.

Additionally, affirmative descriptive words were used in 24 instances to characterize feelings about the writing process, the most common of which were: “enjoyed or enjoyable” (7); “easy” (5); and “fun” (4). Poets enjoyed searching for and reframing words for their poem. This supportive process felt easier and less stressful than other poetic forms. The found poetry writing process was compared to a “scavenger hunt” by two participants. This apt characterization highlights the method by which the found poet hunts through the text and scavenges words for the poem. Three participants made powerful transactional comments about the process. Over one third of the respondents noted a shift in feelings from the beginning of the writing experience to the end. Five of these participants mentioned that the experience turned out to be far easier than first anticipated, while the other three enjoyed the experience and became more comfortable with the poetry writing process. While a number of challenges to the writing process

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were reported (most notable was the time-consuming task of condensing a large text into a poem), all four mixed respondents did mention enjoying the overall experience.

Question two. How did you feel about your final found poem? Refining the

feelings about the found poem elicited a number of consequential themes. Nineteen

(83%) of the 23 respondents felt favorably toward their found poem. A variety of words

were used to describe these positive feelings, such as: “like” (8) and “love” (3). Seven

participants felt “proud” of their poem. A number of adverbs were used to add emphasis,

such as: “really” (4); “very” (2); “quite” (1); and “so” (1). Four participants used the

word “actually,” registering a feeling of surprise toward their found poem. Seven

participants (30%) spoke to the poetic world. Specifically, three shared poetry’s ability to

express much with few words and two shared a strong shift in their poetic self-identify.

Six participants (26%) spoke to the transactional world. In particular, four noted found

poetry’s ability to express aspects of the reader/text relationship.

Question three. How did this experience compare to other poetry writing

experiences? Over 80% of the 23 respondents favorably compared the found poetry writing experience to past poetry writing experiences. An assortment of descriptive words were used in a total of 20 instances, with the most common being: “enjoyed or enjoyable” (5); “much better” (5); and “easier” (4). Adverbs were added for emphasis, most commonly: “much” (5); “more” (4); and “much more” (3). These affirmative reflections were contrasted to previous negative school poetry experiences by four participants who commented that found poetry’s approach to finding words in the text felt easier and less forced or stressful. Under the comments over the poetic aspects of the experience, a little over one quarter of the participants mentioned liking the method of

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using words from the text for their poem. A little over ten percent of the participants made comments regarding the transactional aspects of the experience.

Question four. Did this experience shift any of your feelings about poetry? Why

or why not? First, almost three quarters of the 23 respondents affirmed a positive shift in

their attitudes about poetry as a result of the found poetry writing experience. A variety of

words were used to characterize the shift in feelings toward poetry, as compared to past

poetry experiences, with the most common being: “fun” (3); “easier” (2); and “improved

feelings” (2). A puzzle analogy was utilized to describe the art form. The theme of over-

analysis appears again, noted by two participants in their contrast of found poetry to past

poetry memories. Two types of shifts were noted. In the realm of poetry, two participants

experienced an increase in their self-efficacy as poets. In the realm of reading, two

participants viewed found poetry as a new or different way to experience or enjoy a book.

Finally, two participants reported a shift in confidence over teaching poetry.

Question five. Please use the space below to share any additional comments

about your writing experience . Only one theme is mentioned elsewhere in the data, which

is Kristen’s puzzle analogy. The refinement process revealed information from two

participants that can be taken into account when planning future found poetry lessons.

First, it is helpful to alert students that they may wish to purchase the book that they

choose for their found poem. Second, it is important to continue adjusting the guidelines

for found poetry by inviting students to use their own words if they wish.

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Written Reflection Part B

Question one. Did the process of writing the found poem impact your relationship with the text? A number of substantial themes remain after refining the data from question one. The found poetry writing process had a positive impact on 100% of the 24 respondents’ textual relationships. The writing process consisted of three distinct steps. First, readers returned to the text in search of words and topics. Second, readers spent time in the text noticing and thinking about their reading experience. Third, readers registered an impact on their reading experience. A little over half of the respondents mentioned literary elements when writing about this impact, with characters the most commonly mentioned. Revisiting and rereading the text impacted readers’ relationships with the characters. The writing process transformed how readers perceived, understood, related to, or empathized with the characters. Essentially, the characters became more real to the readers. A transformation in reader/text relationship was also reported in almost half of the participants. These relationships were strengthened and deepened.

Readers’ connections to the book and feelings for the book were also reinforced. Finally, the found poem acted as a bridge between readers and their reading experiences.

Question two. Did the process of writing the found poem impact your awareness of the text and its contributions to your reading experience? All but one of the 21 respondents reported that the process of writing the found poem impacted their awareness of the text. It became clear from the process of refinement that found poetry was positioned as a tool to support reader awareness. The simple act of returning to the text appeared to impact readers’ awareness of the book. Revisiting the text led to a narrowing of attention within the text. As well, over half of the respondents reported an expansion

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and enrichment of their awareness of the text’s contributions to the transactional relationship. Participants used such words and phrases as: “more aware” (6) and “see” (3) to articulate found poetry’s impact on their textual awareness. Almost half were able to gain new insights into the text, thus drastically influencing their awareness of the text’s contributions to the reading experience. These fresh insights covered a broad range of literary elements. Thus, it appears that the process of revisiting and rereading a text when writing found poetry can positively expand and enrich readers’ awareness of the text and its contributions to the reader/text relationship, resulting in a strengthened transactional relationship.

Question three. Did the process of writing the found poem impact your reflection upon your reading experience? The refinement of the themes from the last question of part B elicited key findings. First, 100% of the 21 respondents affirmed that the found poetry writing process positively impacted their reflective process; three expressed an appreciation for being able to focus on whatever texts and topics they wished to for their poem. Three categories of themes emerged. Within the affective category, readers reported an increase in warm feelings toward the book and a positive impact on their personal connection to and involvement with the text. The found poetry writing process also impacted a number of reader/text interactions, bringing about new realizations about the text; enriching understanding of the text; and supporting readers’ memory of the text.

A change was noted in the quality of the reading experience between the first reading of the text and the subsequent rereading of the text in the search for words for the poem. As a result of the reflective process, the quality of over half of the transactional reading experiences were transformed: It was narrowed, deepened, extended, and widened.

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Written Reflection Part C

Question one. How likely would you be to include found poetry writing

experiences in your future classroom? Of the 23 participants who answered the question,

21 respondents (91%) answered that they would be “very likely” to include found poetry

writing experiences in their future classrooms and two participants (9%) answered that

they would be “somewhat likely.”

Question two. Please explain your rationale for the choice you marked above .

The data analysis yielded a wide variety of themes. First, a number of words were used to

characterize the poetic writing process, with the most common being: “fun” (4) and

“creative” (2). The fundamental themes covered both poetic and transactional aspects of

the experience. Under the poetic themes, found poetry’s usefulness for introducing

students to poetry, advantage of using words from the text, and accessibility for all

students were most prominent. Under the transactional themes, found poetry’s support for

reader/text relationships, especially with regard to its role in reflecting on and sharing a

reading experience, were most notable. In terms of prospective teachers of poetry, found

poetry’s potential for supporting the attitudes of future students toward poetry was

conspicuous, as well as its capacity for supporting the prospective teachers’ attitudes.

Question three. Please describe your level of confidence around teaching poetry

writing in your future classroom. Has your sense of confidence changed during this

quarter? Fully 90% of the 21 respondents reported a positive shift in their confidence as future teachers of poetry (95% of prospective poetry teachers). Only two respondents

(10%) reported no change in confidence. Three of the major themes are worth noting.

First, nine participants (43%) experienced a slight change in confidence toward teaching

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poetry. A number of reasons were offered for this minor shift. The most pertinent to this study are writing one’s own found poem and learning the benefit of using found poetry to ease into poetry. Second, five participants (24%) experienced a significant increase in their confidence as future poetry teachers. Various reasons were offered for this change in confidence; most notable are personally enjoying found poetry and identifying its usefulness as a supportive practice for novice poets. Finally, while three participants

(14%) expressed a strong confidence in teaching found poetry, this confidence did not translate to teaching other forms of poetry. Building confidence in one poetic form did not appear to shift confidence toward teaching poetry in general.

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