Army

The or the “Terracotta Warriors and Horses”is a collection of terracotta sculptures depicting the armies of , the first . It is a form of funerary buried with the emperor in 210–209 BCE and whose purpose was to protect the em- peror in his afterlife. The figures, dating from approximately the late third cen- tury BCE,*[1] were discovered in 1974 by local farmers in Lintong , Xi'an, province. The figures vary in height according to their roles, with the tallest be- ing the generals. The figures include warriors, chariots and horses. Estimates from 2007 were that the three pits containing the Terracotta Army held more than 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots with 520 horses and 150 cavalry horses, the majority of which remained buried in the pits View of the Terracotta Army nearby Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum.*[2] Other terracotta non-military figures were found in other pits, including lennia following its construction, but archaeologists found officials, acrobats, strongmen and musicians. evidence of earlier disturbances at the site. During the excavations near the burial mound, archaeolo- gists found several graves dating from the eighteenth and 1 Background nineteenth centuries, where diggers had apparently struck terracotta fragments. These were discarded as worthless and used along with to back fill the excavations.*[8] The Terracotta Army was discovered on 29 March 1974*[3] to the east of Xi'an in Shaanxi province by farmers digging a water well approximately 1.6 kilome- tres (0.99 mi) east of the Qin Emperor's tomb mound at 3 History Mount Li (Lishan),*[4]*[5] a region riddled with under- ground springs and watercourses. For centuries, occa- According to the writings of historian (145– sional reports mentioned pieces of terracotta figures and 90 BCE), work on the mausoleum began in 246 BCE fragments of the Qin necropolis – roofing tiles, bricks and soon after Emperor Qin (then aged 13) ascended the * chunks of masonry. [6] This discovery prompted Chi- throne. The project eventually involved 700,000 work- nese archaeologists to investigate, revealing the largest ers.*[9] Geographer , writing six centuries af- pottery figurine group ever found in China. ter the First Emperor's death, recorded in Shui Jing Zhu that Mount Li was a favoured location due to its auspi- cious geology, “famed for its mines, its northern 2 Necropolis side was rich in gold, and its southern side rich in beau- tiful jade; the First Emperor, covetous of its fine reputa- tion, therefore chose to be buried there”.*[10]*[11] Sima In addition to the warriors, an entire necropolis built for Qian, in his most noted work, Shiji, finished a century the emperor was found surrounding the first emperor's after the mausoleum's completion, wrote that the First tomb mound. The earthen tomb mound is located at the Emperor was buried with palaces, towers, officials, valu- foot of Mount Li and built in a pyramidal shape with Qin able artifacts and wondrous objects. According to this Shi Huang’s necropolis complex constructed as a micro- * account, 100 rivers had their flow simulated by mercury, cosm of his imperial palace or compound. [7] and above them the ceiling was decorated with heav- It consists of several offices, halls, stables, and other enly bodies below which were the features of the land. structures placed around the tomb mound, which is sur- Some translations of this passage refer to “models”or rounded by two solidly built rammed earth walls with “imitations,”however those words were not used in the gateway entrances. Up to 5 metres (16 ft) of reddish, original text, which makes no mention of the terracotta sandy soil had accumulated over the site in the two mil- army.*[9]*[12]

1 2 5 EXCAVATION SITE

moulds were most likely used, with clay added after as- sembly to provide individual facial features.*[19] It is be- lieved that the warriors' legs were made in much the same way that terracotta drainage pipes were manufactured at the time. This would classify the process as assembly line production, with specific parts manufactured and as- sembled after being fired, as opposed to crafting one solid piece and subsequently firing it. In those times of tight imperial control, each workshop was required to in- scribe its name on items produced to ensure quality con- trol. This has aided modern historians in verifying which workshops were commandeered to make tiles and other mundane items for the terracotta army. Upon comple- tion, the terracotta figures were placed in the pits in pre- The mound where the tomb is located cise military formation according to rank and duty. The terracotta figures are life-sized. They vary in height, High levels of mercury were found in the soil of the tomb uniform, and hairstyle in accordance with rank. Most mound, giving credence to Sima Qian's account.*[13] originally held real weapons such as spears, swords, or Later historical accounts suggested that the tomb had crossbows. Originally, the figures were also painted with bright pigments, variously coloured pink, red, been looted by , a contender for the throne af- * * ter the death of the first emperor,*[14]*[15]*[16] how- green, blue, black, brown, white and lilac. [20] [21] The ever, there are indications that the tomb may not have coloured lacquer finish, individual facial features, and been plundered.*[17] weapons used in producing these figures increased the fig- ures' realism. Most of the original weapons were looted shortly after the creation of the army, or have rotted away, 3.1 Construction while the colour coating flaked off or greatly faded.

4 The tomb

The tomb appears to be a hermetically-sealed space the size of a football pitch.*[22]*[23] The tomb re- mains unopened, given concerns about preserving its artifacts.*[22] For example, after their excavation, the painted surface present on some terracotta figures began to flake and fade.*[24] The lacquer covering the paint can curl in fifteen seconds once exposed to Xi'an's dry air and can flake off in just four minutes.*[25] There is specula- tion of a possible Hellenistic link to these sculptures, due to the lack of life-sized and realistic sculptures prior to the according to some scholars.*[26]*[27]

5 Excavation site

5.1 Pits

A terracotta soldier with his horse Four main pits approximately 7 metres (23 ft) deep have been excavated.*[28]*[29] These are located approxi- The terracotta army figures were manufactured in work- mately 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) east of the burial mound. shops by government laborers and local craftsmen us- The soldiers within were laid out as if to protect the tomb ing local materials. Heads, arms, legs, and torsos were from the east, where all the Qin Emperor's conquered created separately and then assembled.*[18] Eight face states lay. 5.2 Weaponry 3

Xiang Yu and the subsequent burning of the site, which is thought to have caused the roof to collapse and crush the army figures below. The terracotta figures currently on display have been restored from the fragments. Other pits that formed the necropolis also have been exca- vated.*[34] These pits lie within and outside the walls sur- rounding the tomb mound. They variously contain bronze carriages, terracotta figures of entertainers such as acro- bats and strongmen, officials, stone armour suits, buri- als sites of horses, rare animals and labourers, as well as bronze cranes and ducks set in an underground park.*[35]

The museum complex containing the excavation sites 5.2 Weaponry

View of Pit 1, the largest excavation pit of the Terracotta Army

5.1.1 Pit one

Pit one, which is 230 metres (750 ft) long and 62 me- tres (203 ft) wide,*[30] contains the main army of more than 6,000 figures.*[31] Pit one has 11 corridors, most of which are more than 3 metres (9.8 ft) wide and paved Stone armor suit on display in the National Geographic with small bricks with a wooden ceiling supported by Museum, USA. large beams and posts. This design was also used for the tombs of nobles and would have resembled palace hall- ways when built. The wooden ceilings were covered with Weapons such as swords, spears, battle-axes, scimi- reed mats and layers of clay for waterproofing, and then tars, shields, crossbows, and arrowheads were found in * * mounded with more soil raising them about 2 to 3 metres the pits. [28] [36] Some of these weapons, such as the (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in) above the surrounding ground level swords are sharp and were coated with a 10–15 microme- when completed.*[32] tre layer of chromium dioxide and kept the swords rust- free for 2,000 years.*[37]*[38]*[39] The swords contain an alloy of , tin, and other elements including 5.1.2 Others nickel, magnesium, and cobalt.*[40] Some carry inscrip- tions that date manufacture between 245 and 228 BCE, Pit two has cavalry and infantry units as well as war chari- indicating they were used as weapons before their buri- ots and is thought to represent a military guard. Pit three als.*[41] is the command post, with high-ranking officers and a An important element of the army is the chariot, of which war chariot. Pit four is empty, perhaps left unfinished by four types were found. In battle the fighting chariots form its builders. pairs at the head of a unit of infantry. The principal Some of the figures in pit one and two show fire dam- weapon of the charioteers was the ge or dagger-axe, an age, while remains of burnt ceiling rafters have also been L-shaped bronze blade mounted on a long shaft used for found.*[33] These, together with the missing weapons, sweeping and hooking at the enemy. Infantrymen also have been taken as evidence of the reported looting by carried ge on shorter shafts, ji or halberds and spears and 4 7 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

lances. For close fighting and defence, both charioteers ,*[50] National Geographic Society Museum in and infantrymen carried double-edged straight swords. Washington, D.C. and the in The archers carried crossbows, with sophisticated trig- Toronto.*[51] Subsequently the exhibition traveled to ger mechanisms, capable of firing arrows farther than 800 Sweden and was hosted in the Museum of Far East- metres (2,600 ft).*[41] ern Antiquities between 28 August 2010 and 20 January 2011.*[52]*[53] An exhibition entitled 'The First Em- peror – China's Entombed Warriors', presenting 120 arti- 6 Exhibitions facts was hosted at the Art Gallery of New South Wales, between 2 December 2010 and 13 March 2011.*[54] An exhibition entitled “L'Empereur guerrier de Chine et son armée de terre cuite”(“The Warrior-Emperor of China and his terracotta army”), featuring artifacts in- cluding statues from the mausoleum, was hosted by the Montreal Museum of Fine from 11 February 2011 to 26 June 2011.*[55] In Italy, from July 2008 to November 16, 2008, five of the warriors of the terracotta army were exposed in at the Museum of Antiquities,*[56] and from 16 April 2010 to 5 September 2010 were exposed nine warriors in , at the Royal Palace, at the ex- hibition entitled “The Two Empires”.*[57] The group consisted of a horse, a counselor, an archer and 6 Lancers. The“Treasures of Ancient China”exhibition, showcasing two terracotta soldiers and other artifacts, including the Terracotta Warriors exhibition in Buddhist statues, was held between 19 February 2011 and 7 November 2011 in four locations in A collection of 120 objects from the mausoleum and India: National Museum of , Prince of Wales 20 terracotta warriors were displayed at the British Mu- Museum in , in seum in London as its special exhibition “The First and National Library of India in . Emperor: China's Terracotta Army”from 13 Septem- ber 2007 to April 2008.*[42] This exhibition made 2008 Soldiers and related items were on display from March the 's most successful year and made the 15, 2013, to November 17, 2013, at the Historical Mu- * British Museum the United Kingdom's top cultural at- seum of Bern. [58] traction between 2007 and 2008.*[43]*[44] The exhibi- tion brought the most visitors to the museum since the King exhibition in 1972.*[43] It was re- 7 Scientific research ported that the initial batch of tickets sold out so fast that the museum extended its opening hours until midnight In 2007, scientists at and the on Thursdays to Sundays.*[45] According to The Times, Advanced Light Source facility in Berkeley, California many people had to be turned away, despite the extended reported that powder diffraction experiments combined hours.*[46] During the day of events to mark the Chinese with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and micro-X- New Year, the crush was so intense that the gates to the ray fluorescence analysis showed that the process of pro- museum had to be shut.*[46] The Terracotta Army has ducing Terracotta figures colored with Chinese purple dye been described as the only other set of historic artifacts consisting of barium copper silicate was derived from the (along with the remnants of wreck of the RMS Titanic) * knowledge gained by Taoist alchemists in their attempts that can draw a crowd by the name alone. [45] to synthesize jade ornaments.*[59]*[60] Warriors and other artifacts were exhibited to the pub- Since 2006, an international team of researchers at the lic at the Forum de in Barcelona between 9 UCL Institute of Archaeology have been using analytical May and 26 September 2004. It was their most successful * chemistry techniques to uncover more details about the exhibition ever. [47] The same exhibition was presented production techniques employed in the creation of the at the Fundación Canal de Isabel II in Madrid between Terracotta Army. Using X-ray fluorescence spectrom- October 2004 and January 2005, their most successful * etry of 40,000 bronze arrowheads bundled in groups of ever. [48] From December 2009 to May 2010 the exhi- 100, the researchers reported that the arrowheads within bition was shown in the Centro Cultural La Moneda in * a single bundle formed a relatively tight cluster that was de Chile. [49] different from other bundles. In addition, the presence The exhibition traveled to North America and visited or absence of metal impurities was consistent within bun- museums such as the Asian Art Museum of San Fran- dles. Based on the arrows’chemical compositions, the cisco, in Santa Ana, California, Houston researchers concluded that a cellular manufacturing sys- Museum of Natural Science, High Museum of Art in tem similar to the one used in a modern factory, 5 as opposed to a continuous assembly line in the early days [3] Agnew, Neville (2010-08-03). Conservation of Ancient of automobile industry, was employed.*[61]*[62] Sites on the . Getty Publications. p. 214. ISBN 9781606060131. Retrieved 11 July 2012. Grinding and polishing marks visible under a scanning electron microscope provide evidence for the earliest in- [4] O. Louis Mazzatenta.“Emperor Qin's Terracotta Army” dustrial use of lathes for polishing.*[61] . National Geographic.

[5] The precise coordinates are 34°23′5.71″N 109°16′23.19″E / 34.3849194°N 8 Gallery 109.2731083°ECoordinates: 34°23′5.71″N 109°16′23.19″E / 34.3849194°N 109.2731083°E) • A rank of soldiers. [6] Clements 2007, pp. 155, 157, 158, 160–161, 166. • Close-up on the head of an archer. [7] 73 号 Qin Ling Bei Lu (1970-01-01). “Google maps”. • Note how the faces of these two soldiers differ Maps.google.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-12-03. from each other. Each statue was constructed to be unique. [8] Clements 2007, p. 160.

• A cavalryman and his mount. [9] Sima Qian – Shiji Volume 6《史记·秦始皇本纪》Orig- inal text: 始皇初即位，穿治郦山，及并天下，天下 • Ranks of terracotta infantrymen. 徒送诣七十余万人，穿三泉，下铜而致椁，宫观百官 奇器珍怪徙臧满之。令匠作机驽矢，有所穿近者辄 • The Terracotta Warriors were once painted. Today 射之。以水银为百川江河大海，机相灌输，上具天 only a handful of statues contain small amounts of 文，下具地理。以人鱼膏为烛，度不灭者久之。二 paint. Also notice the detail put into the soles of the 世曰：" 先帝后宫非有子者，出焉不宜。" 皆令从死， warrior's shoes. 死者甚众。葬既已下，或言工匠为机，臧皆知之，臧 重即泄。大事毕，已臧，闭中羡，下外羡门，尽闭 • Bronze chariot for the emperor. 工匠臧者，无复出者。树草木以象山。 Translation: When the First Emperor ascended the throne, the digging • Terracotta horse and two soldiers and preparation at Mount Li began. After he unified his empire, 700,000 men were sent there from all over his em- • Sword from Emperor Qin's Mausoleum pire. They dug down deep to underground springs, pour- • ing copper to place the outer casing of the coffin. Palaces Close-up on an archer's head. Notice the details put and viewing towers housing a hundred officials were built into the hair of the archer. and filled with treasures and rare artifacts. Workmen were instructed to make automatic crossbows primed to shoot • Pigments used on the Terracotta Warriors at intruders. Mercury was used to simulate the hundred • Original coloring on the warriors rivers, the Yangtze and Yellow River, and the great sea, and set to flow mechanically. Above, the heaven is de- • Original coloring on the warriors picted, below, the geographical features of the land. Can- dles were made of “mermaid"'s fat which is calculated • Restored painted archer and high-ranking officer to burn and not extinguish for a long time. The Second Emperor said: “It is inappropriate for the wives of the late emperor who have no sons to be free”, ordered that they should accompany the dead, and a great many died. 9 See also After the burial, it was suggested that it would be a se- rious breach if the craftsmen who constructed the tomb • List of World Heritage Sites in China and knew of its treasure were to divulge those secrets. Therefore after the funeral ceremonies had completed, the • Qin bronze chariot inner passages and doorways were blocked, and the exit sealed, immediately trapping the workers and craftsmen inside. None could escape. Trees and vegetation were 10 Notes then planted on the tomb mound such that it resembled a hill.

[1] Lu Yanchou, Zhang , Xie Jun; Jingzhao; Jun; [10] Clements 2007, p. 158. Xueli (1988). “TL dating of pottery sherds and baked soil from the Xian Terracotta Army Site, Shaanxi [11] Shui Jing Zhu Chapter 19《水经注·渭水》Original text: Province, China”. International Journal of Radia- 秦始皇大兴厚葬，营建冢圹于骊戎之山，一名蓝田， tion Applications and Instrumentation. Part D. Nuclear 其阴多金，其阳多美玉，始皇贪其美名，因而葬焉。 Tracks and Radiation Measurements 14 (1–2): 283–286. doi:10.1016/1359-0189(88)90077-5. [12] Portal 2007, p. 17.

[2] Portal 2007, p. 167. [13] Portal 2007, p. 202. 6 10 NOTES

[14] Shui Jing Zhu Chapter 19《水经注·渭水》Original text: [31] “The Mausoleum of the First Emperor of the Qin Dy- 项羽入关，发之，以三十万人，三十日运物不能穷。 nasty and Terracotta Warriors and Horses”. China.org.cn. 关东盗贼，销椁取铜。牧人寻羊，烧之，火延九十 2003-09-12. Retrieved 2011-12-03. 日，不能灭。Translation: Xiang Yu entered the gate, sent forth 300,000 men, but they could not finish carrying [32] Portal 2007. away his loot in 30 days. Thieves from northeast melted [33] “China unearths 114 new Terracotta Warriors”. BBC the coffin and took its copper. A shepherd looking for his News. 2010-05-12. Retrieved 2011-12-03. lost sheep burned the place, the fire lasted 90 days and could not be extinguished. [34] “Terracotta Accessory Pits”. Travelchinaguide.com. 2009-10-10. Retrieved 2011-12-03. [15] Sima Qian – Shiji Volume 8《史记·高祖本纪》Original text: 项羽烧秦宫室，掘始皇帝冢，私收其财物 Trans- [35] “Decoding the Mausoleum of Emperor Qin Shihuang”. lation: Xiang Yu burned the Qin palaces, dug up the First . 2010-05-13. Retrieved 2011-12-03. Emperor's tomb, and expropriated his possessions. [36] “Exquisite Weaponry of Terra Cotta Army”. Travelchi- [16] Han Shu《汉书·楚元王传》：Original text: " 项籍焚 naguide.com. Retrieved 2011-12-03. 其宫室营宇，往者咸见发掘，其后牧儿亡羊，羊入其 凿，牧者持火照球羊，失火烧其藏椁。" Translation: [37] Bronze Weapons “Terracotta Warriors (Terracotta Xiang burned the palaces and buildings. Later observers Army)". China Tour Guide. Retrieved 2011-07-28. witnessed the excavated site. Afterward a shepherd lost [38] Cotterell, Maurice. (2004). The Terracotta Warriors: The his sheep which went into the dug tunnel; the shepherd Secret Codes of the Emperor's Army. Rochester: Bear and held a torch to look for his sheep, and accidentally set fire Company. ISBN 1-59143-033-X. Page 102. to the place and burned the coffin. [39] Zhewen Luo (1993). China's imperial tombs and mau- [17] “Royal Chinese treasure discovered”. BBC News. 2005- soleums. Foreign Languages Press. p. 44. ISBN 7-119- 10-20. Retrieved 2011-12-03. 01619-9. Retrieved 2010-06-28. [18] “A Magic Army for the Emperor”. Upf.edu. 1979-10- [40] “Terracotta Warriors” (PDF). National Geographic. 01. Retrieved 2011-12-03. 2009. Retrieved 2011-07-28.

[19] Portal 2007, p. 170. [41]“The First Emperor - China's Terracotta Army - Teacher's ” [20] John Simpson, Greg Hurst 3 December 2011 12:01 am. Resource Pack (PDF). British Museum. “Terracotta soldier – in full colour”. The Times. UK. [42] The First Emperor: China's Terracotta Army. The British Retrieved 2011-12-03. Museum

[21]“Terracotta army emerges in its true colors”. China Daily. [43] Higgins, Charlotte (2008-07-02). “Terracotta army Retrieved 2011-12-03. makes British Museum favourite attraction”. The Guardian (London). Retrieved 2010-05-25. [22] “The First Emperor”. Channel4.com. Retrieved 2011- 12-03. [44] “British Museum sees its most successful year ever”. Best Western. 2008-07-03. Archived from the original on [23] “Application of geographical methods to explore the un- 2012-02-16. derground palace of the Emperor Qin Shi Huang Mau- soleum” (PDF). Google. Retrieved 2011-12-03. [45] “The First Emperor: China’s Terracotta Army (British Museum)". Great Exhibitions. 2008-02-09. Archived “ ” [24] Nature. Terracotta Army saved from crack up . Na- from the original on 2008-06-22. ture.com. Retrieved 2011-12-03. [46] Whitworth, Damian (2008-07-09). “Is the British Mu- [25] Larmer, Brook. “Terra-Cotta Warriors in Color.”Na- seum the greatest museum on earth?". The Times (Lon- tional Geographic June 2012: 86. Print don). Retrieved 2010-05-25.

[26] Early links with West likely inspiration for Terracotta [47] DesarrolloWeb (2007-04-19).“Los guerreros de Xian, en Warriors, argues SOAS scholar, School of Oriental and el Forum de Barcelona”. Guiarte.com. Retrieved 2011- African Studies (SOAS), University of London 12-03.

[27] Lukas Nickel, The First Emperor and sculpture in China, [48] “Guerreros de Xian”. Futuropasado.com. Retrieved SOAS, University of London, Cambridge University 2011-12-03. Press, 2013 [49] “Llegan a Chile los legendarios Guerreros de Terracota [28] “The Necropolis of First Emperor of Qin”. His- de China”. Latercera.com. Retrieved 2011-12-03. tory.ucsb.edu. Retrieved 2011-12-03. [50] “Record-Breaking Terracotta Army Exhibition at Atlanta [29] A Magic Army for the Emperor Lothar Ledderose museum”. Retrieved 16 January 2010.

[30] Ledderose 1998, pp. 51–73 A Magic Army for the Em- [51] “ROM's terracotta warriors show a blockbuster”. CBC. peror 6 January 2011. 7

[52]“China's Terracotta Army, Stockholm, Sweden, Reviews” • Portal, Jane (2007). The First Emperor: China's Ter- . Retrieved 20 January 2010. racotta Army. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978- [53] “World Famous Terracotta Army Arrives in Stockholm 0-674-02697-1. for Exhibition at Ostasiatiska Museum”. Retrieved 20 • Ledderose, Lothar (2000). “A Magic Army for January 2010. the Emperor”. Ten Thousand Things: Module and [54] “Terracotta warriors, Picassos heading to Sydney”. ABC Mass Production in Chinese Art. The A.W. Mellon News. 14 October 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2011. Lectures in the Fine Arts. Princeton, NJ: Princeton [55] “Empereur Guerrier De Chine Et Son Armee De Terre University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00957-5. Cuite”. Mbam.qc.ca. Retrieved 2011-12-03. • Perkins, Dorothy (1999). Encyclopedia of China: [56] http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/SoleOnLine4/ The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Tempo%20libero%20e%20Cultura/ Culture. New York: Facts on File. ISBN 978-0- 2008/07/celeste-impero.shtml?uuid= 8160-4374-3. 04e02b30-53d3-11dd-b517-978c7de2eb40&type= Libero [57] http://viaggi.nanopress.it/news/ 12 External links esercito-di-terracotta-dalla-cina-a-palazzo-reale-di-milano/ P18267/ • UNESCO description of the Mausoleum of the First [58]“Die Terrakotta-Krieger sind da”. Der Bund. 22 February Qin Emperor 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2015. • Official Website of the Museum of the Terracotta [59] Bertrand, Loïc; Robinet, Laurianne; Thoury, Math- Warriors and Horses of Qin Shihuang ieu; Janssens, Koen; Cohen, Serge X.; Schöder, Sebas- tian (26 November 2011). “Cultural heritage and ar- • People's Daily article on the Terracotta Army chaeology materials studied by synchrotron spectroscopy and imaging”. Applied Physics A 106 (2): 377–396. • Microsoft Photosynth Experience of the Terra Cotta doi:10.1007/s00339-011-6686-4. Warriors [60] Liu, Z.; Mehta, A.; Tamura, N.; Pickard, D.; Rong, • OSGFilms Video Article : Terracotta Warriors at B.; Zhou, T.; Pianetta, P. (November 2007). Discovery Times Square “Influence of on the invention of the pur- ple pigment used on the Qin terracotta warriors”. • The Necropolis of the First Emperor of Qin Excerpt Journal of Archaeological Science 34 (11): 1878–1883. from lecture doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.01.005. • China's Terracotta Warriors Documentary produced “ [61] Rees, Simon (6 March 2014). Chemistry unearths the by the PBS Series Secrets of the Dead secrets of the Terracotta Army”. Royal Society of Chem- istry. Retrieved 29 March 2014. [62] Martinón-Torres, Marcos; Li, Xiuzhen Janice; Bevan, Andrew; Xia, Yin; Zhao, Kun; Rehren, Thilo (20 Octo- ber 2012).“Forty Thousand Arms for a Single Emperor: From Chemical Data to the Labor Organization Behind the Bronze Arrows of the Terracotta Army”. Jour- nal of Archaeological Method and Theory 21 (3): 534. doi:10.1007/s10816-012-9158-z.

11 Bibliography

• Clements, Jonathan (18 January 2007). The First Emperor of China. Sutton. ISBN 978-0-7509- 3960-7. • Debainne-Francfort, Corrine (1999). The Search for Ancient China. Discoveries. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-2850-3. • Dillon, Michael (1998). China: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary. Durham East Asia series. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. ISBN 978-0-7007- 0439-2. 8 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text

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13.2 Images

• File:China_edcp_relief_location_map.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/China_edcp_relief_ location_map.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Uwe Dedering • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by- sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Red_pog.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/0c/Red_pog.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Soldier_Horse.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Soldier_Horse.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Subdivisions_of_Xi'an-China.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Subdivisions_of_Xi% 27an-China.png License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ASDFGHJ (talk) • File:Terra_Cotta_Warriors,_Guardians_of_China’s_First_Emperor.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/7/72/Terra_Cotta_Warriors%2C_Guardians_of_China%E2%80%99s_First_Emperor.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/drbeachvacation/4116010987/in/photostream/ Original artist: (cc) Shashi Bellamkonda www.shashi.name • File:Terra_Cotta_Warriors,_Guardians_of_China’s_First_Emperor_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/b/bc/Terra_Cotta_Warriors%2C_Guardians_of_China%E2%80%99s_First_Emperor_1.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/drbeachvacation/4116011035/ Original artist: (cc) Shashi Bellamkonda www.shashi.name • File:Terracotta_Army,_View_of_Pit_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Terracotta_Army%2C_ View_of_Pit_1.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jmhullot • File:Terracotta_Army-China2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Terracotta_Army-China2.jpg Li- cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: my father-in-law took the picture and let me upload it to commons.wikimedia.org under GFDL Original artist: see source • File:Terracotta_Army_Pit_1_-_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Terracotta_Army_Pit_1_-_2. jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Maros M r a z (Maros) • File:Terracotta_Warriors_Exhibition_San_Francisco_2013.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/ Terracotta_Warriors_Exhibition_San_Francisco_2013.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: LPS.1 • File:Terracotta_warriors_museum.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Terracotta_warriors_ museum.JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Charlie • File:Tomb_of_Emperor_Qin_Shi_Huang.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Tomb_of_Emperor_ Qin_Shi_Huang.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/-wit-/239198883/ Original artist: wit • File: 世界遗产中文标识.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E9%81% 97%E4%BA%A7%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87%E6%A0%87%E8%AF%86.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Origi- nal artist: UNESCO; Designer: Michel Olyff. Uploaded by Siyuwj

13.3 Content license

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