Terracotta Army The Terracotta Army or the “Terracotta Warriors and Horses”is a collection of terracotta sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China. It is a form of funerary art buried with the emperor in 210–209 BCE and whose purpose was to protect the em- peror in his afterlife. The figures, dating from approximately the late third cen- tury BCE,*[1] were discovered in 1974 by local farmers in Lintong District, Xi'an, Shaanxi province. The figures vary in height according to their roles, with the tallest be- ing the generals. The figures include warriors, chariots and horses. Estimates from 2007 were that the three pits containing the Terracotta Army held more than 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots with 520 horses and 150 cavalry horses, the majority of which remained buried in the pits View of the Terracotta Army nearby Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum.*[2] Other terracotta non-military figures were found in other pits, including lennia following its construction, but archaeologists found officials, acrobats, strongmen and musicians. evidence of earlier disturbances at the site. During the excavations near the Mount Li burial mound, archaeolo- gists found several graves dating from the eighteenth and 1 Background nineteenth centuries, where diggers had apparently struck terracotta fragments. These were discarded as worthless and used along with soil to back fill the excavations.*[8] The Terracotta Army was discovered on 29 March 1974*[3] to the east of Xi'an in Shaanxi province by farmers digging a water well approximately 1.6 kilome- tres (0.99 mi) east of the Qin Emperor's tomb mound at 3 History Mount Li (Lishan),*[4]*[5] a region riddled with under- ground springs and watercourses. For centuries, occa- According to the writings of historian Sima Qian (145– sional reports mentioned pieces of terracotta figures and 90 BCE), work on the mausoleum began in 246 BCE fragments of the Qin necropolis – roofing tiles, bricks and soon after Emperor Qin (then aged 13) ascended the * chunks of masonry. [6] This discovery prompted Chi- throne. The project eventually involved 700,000 work- nese archaeologists to investigate, revealing the largest ers.*[9] Geographer Li Daoyuan, writing six centuries af- pottery figurine group ever found in China. ter the First Emperor's death, recorded in Shui Jing Zhu that Mount Li was a favoured location due to its auspi- cious geology, “famed for its jade mines, its northern 2 Necropolis side was rich in gold, and its southern side rich in beau- tiful jade; the First Emperor, covetous of its fine reputa- tion, therefore chose to be buried there”.*[10]*[11] Sima In addition to the warriors, an entire necropolis built for Qian, in his most noted work, Shiji, finished a century the emperor was found surrounding the first emperor's after the mausoleum's completion, wrote that the First tomb mound. The earthen tomb mound is located at the Emperor was buried with palaces, towers, officials, valu- foot of Mount Li and built in a pyramidal shape with Qin able artifacts and wondrous objects. According to this Shi Huang’s necropolis complex constructed as a micro- * account, 100 rivers had their flow simulated by mercury, cosm of his imperial palace or compound. [7] and above them the ceiling was decorated with heav- It consists of several offices, halls, stables, and other enly bodies below which were the features of the land. structures placed around the tomb mound, which is sur- Some translations of this passage refer to “models”or rounded by two solidly built rammed earth walls with “imitations,”however those words were not used in the gateway entrances. Up to 5 metres (16 ft) of reddish, original text, which makes no mention of the terracotta sandy soil had accumulated over the site in the two mil- army.*[9]*[12] 1 2 5 EXCAVATION SITE moulds were most likely used, with clay added after as- sembly to provide individual facial features.*[19] It is be- lieved that the warriors' legs were made in much the same way that terracotta drainage pipes were manufactured at the time. This would classify the process as assembly line production, with specific parts manufactured and as- sembled after being fired, as opposed to crafting one solid piece and subsequently firing it. In those times of tight imperial control, each workshop was required to in- scribe its name on items produced to ensure quality con- trol. This has aided modern historians in verifying which workshops were commandeered to make tiles and other mundane items for the terracotta army. Upon comple- tion, the terracotta figures were placed in the pits in pre- The mound where the tomb is located cise military formation according to rank and duty. The terracotta figures are life-sized. They vary in height, High levels of mercury were found in the soil of the tomb uniform, and hairstyle in accordance with rank. Most mound, giving credence to Sima Qian's account.*[13] originally held real weapons such as spears, swords, or Later historical accounts suggested that the tomb had crossbows. Originally, the figures were also painted with bright pigments, variously coloured pink, red, been looted by Xiang Yu, a contender for the throne af- * * ter the death of the first emperor,*[14]*[15]*[16] how- green, blue, black, brown, white and lilac. [20] [21] The ever, there are indications that the tomb may not have coloured lacquer finish, individual facial features, and been plundered.*[17] weapons used in producing these figures increased the fig- ures' realism. Most of the original weapons were looted shortly after the creation of the army, or have rotted away, 3.1 Construction while the colour coating flaked off or greatly faded. 4 The tomb The tomb appears to be a hermetically-sealed space the size of a football pitch.*[22]*[23] The tomb re- mains unopened, given concerns about preserving its artifacts.*[22] For example, after their excavation, the painted surface present on some terracotta figures began to flake and fade.*[24] The lacquer covering the paint can curl in fifteen seconds once exposed to Xi'an's dry air and can flake off in just four minutes.*[25] There is specula- tion of a possible Hellenistic link to these sculptures, due to the lack of life-sized and realistic sculptures prior to the Qin dynasty according to some scholars.*[26]*[27] 5 Excavation site 5.1 Pits A terracotta soldier with his horse Four main pits approximately 7 metres (23 ft) deep have been excavated.*[28]*[29] These are located approxi- The terracotta army figures were manufactured in work- mately 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) east of the burial mound. shops by government laborers and local craftsmen us- The soldiers within were laid out as if to protect the tomb ing local materials. Heads, arms, legs, and torsos were from the east, where all the Qin Emperor's conquered created separately and then assembled.*[18] Eight face states lay. 5.2 Weaponry 3 Xiang Yu and the subsequent burning of the site, which is thought to have caused the roof to collapse and crush the army figures below. The terracotta figures currently on display have been restored from the fragments. Other pits that formed the necropolis also have been exca- vated.*[34] These pits lie within and outside the walls sur- rounding the tomb mound. They variously contain bronze carriages, terracotta figures of entertainers such as acro- bats and strongmen, officials, stone armour suits, buri- als sites of horses, rare animals and labourers, as well as bronze cranes and ducks set in an underground park.*[35] The museum complex containing the excavation sites 5.2 Weaponry View of Pit 1, the largest excavation pit of the Terracotta Army 5.1.1 Pit one Pit one, which is 230 metres (750 ft) long and 62 me- tres (203 ft) wide,*[30] contains the main army of more than 6,000 figures.*[31] Pit one has 11 corridors, most of which are more than 3 metres (9.8 ft) wide and paved Stone armor suit on display in the National Geographic with small bricks with a wooden ceiling supported by Museum, USA. large beams and posts. This design was also used for the tombs of nobles and would have resembled palace hall- ways when built. The wooden ceilings were covered with Weapons such as swords, spears, battle-axes, scimi- reed mats and layers of clay for waterproofing, and then tars, shields, crossbows, and arrowheads were found in * * mounded with more soil raising them about 2 to 3 metres the pits. [28] [36] Some of these weapons, such as the (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in) above the surrounding ground level swords are sharp and were coated with a 10–15 microme- when completed.*[32] tre layer of chromium dioxide and kept the swords rust- free for 2,000 years.*[37]*[38]*[39] The swords contain an alloy of copper, tin, and other elements including 5.1.2 Others nickel, magnesium, and cobalt.*[40] Some carry inscrip- tions that date manufacture between 245 and 228 BCE, Pit two has cavalry and infantry units as well as war chari- indicating they were used as weapons before their buri- ots and is thought to represent a military guard. Pit three als.*[41] is the command post, with high-ranking officers and a An important element of the army is the chariot, of which war chariot. Pit four is empty, perhaps left unfinished by four types were found. In battle the fighting chariots form its builders. pairs at the head of a unit of infantry.