PERSPECTIVES

lapses in order to devise a comprehen- Ageing Large Dams and Future sive strategy to avert a monumental water crisis awaiting the country in the Water Crisis future. The questions posed in this article, thus, are: What are the down- sides of large dams that have turned out J Harsha to be blind spots in ’s water policies and water management discourse? Ageing large dams are the blind ndia’s current and future water crisis What are the consequences and cascad- spots of India’s water policies. is well-documented in India’s poli- ing effects of such blind spots on future More than 4,000 large dams Icies and water management dis- water crisis? And, what are the probable course. Large parts of India are already remedies to overcome the future water reach the minimum age of 50 water-stressed. Meanwhile, rapid growth crisis emanating from India’s ageing by 2050, preparing the ground in demand for water due to population large dams? for a future water crisis. The growth, increasing urbanisation, chan- Downsides of Large Dams consequences and probable ging lifestyle and consumption patterns, ineffi cient use of water and climate change India possesses over 5,000 large dams remedies of such a crisis (together termed as “visible knowns” in (CWC 2009), which are considered as a are analysed. this article) pose serious challenges to bulwark of India’s water security by the water security (MoWR 1987, 2002, 2012; government. The Central Water Com- Garg and Hassan 2007; Gupta and Desh- mission (CWC 2016) and Ministry of pande 2004). Apart from these “visible Water Resources, River Development knowns,” Garg and Hassan (2007) express and Ganga Rejuvenation (MoWR, RD & alarm over from the point GR 2019) have declared that of view of double counting of regene rated There are about 5,264 large dams in India groundwater and deteriorating water qua- and about 437 are under construction. In lity, thereby calling for an urgent review addition, there are several thousand smaller of water policies. dams. These dams are vital for ensuring the The large dams are projected as wa- water security of the country. ter security to tackle the water crisis Large dams in India have been emanating from “visible knowns,” and acknowledged for their contribution in their advantages get highlighted in over coming temporal variability of plans and policies (for example, CWC precipitation (that is, the variation of 2009; MoWR 1987, 2002, 2012). But, a rainfall occurrence over time), thereby very crucial and grave water crisis is providing water security directly, and emanating from over 5,000 large dams food and energy security indirectly in India, due to their ageing and struc- (Shah 1993). But, contrary to these ben- tural deterioration of service life, which efi ts, concerns are expressed that India’s has been found to be either missing, large dams get justifi ed due to scientism omitted, or ignored in various policies (Molle et al 2009), despite the several of union and state governments, and limits that they suffer from. India’s water management discourse. If this impending water crisis continues to Spatial limit: The scope of building be ignored in India’s water planning, large storage structures in India has a then the crisis will get compounded spatial limit. This has not been refl ected beyond what is currently estimated or in any of the water policies so far. The anticipated in the future. National Commission on Integrated Water It is therefore important to identify Resources Development (NCIWRD) asse- the downsides of the large dams of sses the utilisable surface water from all India—that is, the factors that turn the storage and diversion as limited to 690 Views expressed by the author are personal. advantages of large dams into liabilities km3 (cubic kilometres). Considering the J Harsha ([email protected]) is the or sources of water insecurity—the existing 5,000+ large dams, the govern- director, Central Water Commission, undercurrent of the water crisis ema- ment and scholars have stated India’s Bengaluru. nating from such downsides, and policy per capita storage capacity1 as too low in

Economic & Political Weekly EPW JUNE 29, 2019 vol lIV nos 26 & 27 37 PERSPECTIVES

Figure 1: Number of Large Dams Built during Different Periods of Time sec urity in relation Structural vulnerability: Any large 1,400 1,289 to these large stor- stor age structure, be it concrete, maso- 1,248 1,200 age structures. Fig- nry, or earth, becomes structurally weak ure 1 shows the as time progresses. Hence, their ability 1,000 number of large to overcome the temporal variability of 800 dams built during precipitation declines. This is because 605 600 493 different periods of con struction material, such as concrete, 400 time. From the fi g- steel, etc, deteriorates due to abrasion of 301 287 239 ure, it is clear that waves, silt, sand, and gravel, thermal 200 64 about 64 large dams exp ansion, and cavitation. According to 0 were built in the Portland Cement Association, corrosion Up to 1901–50 1951–60 1961–70 1971–80 1981–90 1991– Beyond 1900 2000 2001 19th century, 301 of reinforced steel over time is the lea- Source: Prepared by author on the basis of CWC (2009). large dams were ding cause of concrete deterioration which comparison with countries such as the built in the fi rst half of the 20th century, occurs due to contact with chloride United States (US), China, South Africa, and about 237 large dams were built ions, carbonation, sulphate attack, acids, and Australia (Briscoe and Malik 2007; during 1951–60 in the second half of moi sture, and expansion of aggregates PIB 2012). It is not that India possesses 20th century. Hence, as on 2015, the age (PCA 2002). infi nite space to match the per capita of these dams is as follows: about 64 Large dams are an assembly of differ- sto rage of these countries to tackle dams are more than 115 years of age, 301 ent components much like a computer any water crisis that may be arising large dams are between age 65 years system or an automobile. The compo- in future. and 115 years, and 237 large dams are nents of large dams are built with differ- According to such a comparison, more than 55 years, of age. Cumulative- ent construction materials. For example, India’s per capita storage capacity, esti- ly, about 619 large dams have already spillways are built with concrete and mated on the basis of the 253 km3 stor- cro ssed the age of 50 years as of 2015. steel reinforcement; the fl anks of the age capacity (as on 2012), is 209 m3, The scenario will turn alarming as dam are predominantly built with earth whereas the per capita storage created India approaches the years 2025 and or rockfi ll; earth dam core is built with by the US is 2,192 m3 and that created by 2050: 64 large dams will turn minimum impervious material like clay; the dam South Africa is 609 m3 (PIB 2012). Even 125 years of age, 301 will turn minimum slopes are protected with rip-rap; energy in a hypothetical case, if 690 km3 of stor- 75 years of age, 237 large dams will turn dissipation arrangements with concrete; age space is created in India, the per 65 years and an additional 496 large and concrete key walls bonding with capita storage for 1.21 billion population dams will cross a minimum age of 50. In earth component and wing walls/training (in 2011) will come to about 400–450 m3, all, about 1,115 large dams would have walls are all built with concrete. These which is nowhere close to the per capita aged at least 54 years by 2025. By the different components of a dam are de- storage of either the US, Australia or year 2050, as many as 4,264 large dams signed to withstand different loading South Africa. There is no space at all in would have aged at least 50 years, with combinations, and therefore they are India even for creating 500 m3 for every 64 large dams being 150 years old, 302 subjected to differential levels of stresses person and, therefore, any plan to tackle large dams turning minimum 100 depen ding on their load combinations. future crises—originating from rising years old and about 3,880 large dams Dams that span decades, therefore, population, climate change, etc, or other with ages varying between 50 years and experience differential settlement of fou- “visible knowns”—with the assumption 100 years. nda tion, clog of fi lters, increase of uplift of higher per capita storage has a spatial Table 1: Reservoirs with Loss of Live Storage Capacity limit: a fact blinded in various water Sl No Dam State River Year of Construction Live Storage Loss (%) Loss of Storage as on Year policies and water management dis- 1 Hirakud 1957 24 1989 course of India. 2 Bhakra Himachal Pradesh 1963 9 1997 3 Tungabhadra Tungabhadra 1953 15 2003 Temporal limit: Just like large storage 4 Srisailam Krishna 1984 24 2004 structures possess a spatial limit, they 5 Maithon Jharkhand Damodar 1955 25 2001 also possess a temporal limit, which has 6 Matatila Betwa 1956 38 1999 7 Khodiyar* Gujarat Shetrunji 1967 36 2008 not been addressed in any of the water 8 Sriram sagar Andhra Pradesh Godavari 1970 50 1999 policies of India. The CWC declares that 9 Nizam sagar Andhra Pradesh Manjira 1930 50 1960 the over 5,000 completed and ongoing 10 Lower Bhawani Tamil Nadu Bhavani 1953 28 2005 large dam projects are vital for ensuring 11 Linganamakki Karnataka Sharavati 1957 3 2002 India’s water security. But, a substantial 12 Nagarjuna sagar Andhra Pradesh Krishna 1966–67 25# 2011 number of India’s large dams were built *Medium project and the loss is gross storage; # the loss is gross storage. The data for respective dams has been taken from Rathore et al (2006); Jain et al (2012); Durbude (2014); Narasayya (2012); half a century ago. This factor is not Thakkar and Bhattacharya (2006); Majumdar (2015); Mahabaleshwara and Nagabhushan (2014); Durbude (2014); Lok accounted for while assessing water Sabha Debates 2011.

38 JUNE 29, 2019 vol lIV nos 26 & 27 EPW Economic & Political Weekly PERSPECTIVES pressures, reduction in freeboard, cracks dams were built in India, when IS: 456– Fuzzy Spot in the dam core, loss of bond between the 1978 was in force. It was not possible for The loss of storage capacity of large concrete structure and embankment, re- these dams built between 1981 and 2000 dams over time is part of the dam ageing duction in slope stability in earthen and to incorporate the durability concerns of process. It has been documented spora- rockfi ll dams, erosion of earthen slopes, concrete updated 22 years later by IS dically in India, but not for every dam. and deformation of dam body itself 456: 2000 such as permeability to in- Therefore, it is a semi-blind spot or a (USSD 2010). Thus, dam components lose gress of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, fuzzy spot of India’s water crisis. In strength differently during their lifetime chloride, sulphate and other deleterious 1999, the Ministry of Water Resources and every component within a large substances (Prasad 2000). (MoWR)-constituted NCIWRD estimated dam ages at a different rate (McCully Similarly, IS: 6512–1984 (criteria of the total loss of live storage capacity by 2001). Hence, as a dam ages, the impact the design of solid gravity dams) was fi rst 2050 from all existing, under constr- of the erosion of earthen components, published in 1972 and was fi rst revised uction and contemp lated projects as see page of water through the dam body in 1984. In the fi rst revision, modifi ca- 65 km3. The source is attributed to and foundations, and sedimentation occur tions were made to the (i) methods and computation by CWC of 46 reservoirs. at a rate different (or adverse) than what formula for computing wave height and But, no information of these 46 reser- has been assumed by the policymakers freeboard; (ii) modifi cation of minimum voirs, the particular studies, methods, and planners. freeboard; and (iii) permissible factor of or their locations is available in the safety related to the partial factor of NCIWRD report. Different generations: According to safety. During 1971–81, about 1,289 large India’s differently aged 5,000 large Bowles et al (1999), the fact that the dams were built in India with the IS: dams are located in diverse agroclimatic dams are products of different genera- 6512–1972 based on the past practices regions, diverse geomorphology, and have tions adopting different design stand- and less experience. The second revision been subjected to changes in land use ards and construction practices, is in itself has been underway since 2010 (BIS 2010). and land cover for centuries. Therefore, a greater concern than the dam ageing Almost every code of the BIS is being the sedimentation rates as well as stor- process. Table 1 (p 38) shows that India’s revised from time to time with the upda- age capacity across dams vary both large dams were constructed during dif- tion of latest and better technology from spatially from one dam to another and ferent periods of time. Therefore, the what was available at any time in the temporally within the design life of a design standards and construction prac- past; whereas the time of construction of dam. But, the varying sedimentation rates tices differ widely amongst the 5,000 large dams has spanned over several and loss of storage capacity in each of large dams. During the British rule in decades overlapping with different peri- India’s large dams have never been esti- the 19th century, India’s dams were built ods of several revisions of dam design mated or taken into account as adding to with rubble masonry (Chrimes 2009). codes and standards. So, when India’s the future water crisis. Accor ding to Tappin (2002), the adop- dams weaken with age, the assumptions In 2009, the erstwhile Planning Com- tion of British standards of concrete about their ability in addressing future mission “invented” the new fi gure of 53 technology in India was improper, given water crisis also become weaker (as km3 as the loss of live storage by 2050, the climatic differences between Britain these assumptions are based on present but without any reasonable explanation and India, poor skilled Indian workers, and past design standards), with the out- or specifi c dam studies to show how the and poor maintenance mechanisms. come that India’s water crisis will be loss of live storage could vary by 10 km3 After India’s independence, the Bureau worse than that estimated currently by in comparison to the NCIWRD fi gure of of Indian Standard’s (BIS) design codes planners and policymakers. 65 km3 of 1999. The fact that the NCIWRD have been revised from time to time, Table 2: List of Indian Standard Codes—Changes in Design Standards after a Period of Time updating the latest technology (Table 2). BIS Code No Name First Published and According to the BIS (2010), design codes Revisions 6512 Criteria for Design of Solid Gravity Dams 1972, 1984 are revised to refl ect the latest practices 6934 Hydraulic Design of High Ogee Overflow Spillways—Recommendations 1973, 1998 based on experience gained from the 11155 Construction of Spillways and Similar Overflow Structures—Code of Practice 1984, 1994 IS past. For example, Indian Standard : 7365 Criteria for Hydraulic Design of Bucket Type Energy Dissipators 1974, 1985, 2010 456: 1978 (Plain and Reinforced Con- 11527 Criteria for Structural Design for Energy Dissipators for Spillways 1985 crete) was fi rst published in 1953, revi- 11772 Design of Drainage Arrangements of Energy Dissipators and Training sed in 1964 and 1978 and then in 2000 Walls of Spillways 1986, 2009 (22 years later). The IS: 456–2000 inter 7894 Code of Practice for Stability Analysis of Earth Dams 1975, 2000 alia was an improvement over its 1978 6955 Sub-surface Exploration for Earth and Rockfill Dams—Code of Practice 1973, 2008 6966 (part–1) Hydraulic Design of Barrages and Weirs 1973, 1989 version with respect to the durability 12094 Guidelines for Planning and Design of River Embankments (Levees) 1987, 2000 concerns of concrete in line with trends 8826 Guidelines for Design of Large Earth and Rockfill Dams 1978, 2002 of concrete technology of the 21st century (reaffirmed) (BIS 2000). From Figure 1, it is clear that 9429 Drainage System for Earth and Rockfill Dams—Code of Practice 1980, 1999 during 1981–2000, about 1,861 large 14815 Design Flood for River Diversion Works—Guidelines 2000

Economic & Political Weekly EPW JUNE 29, 2019 vol lIV nos 26 & 27 39 PERSPECTIVES or Planning Commission merely consid- crisis averted due to DRIP has not found Hirakud dam have admitted that it would ered fi gures like 65 km3 or 53 km3, with- any mention in the policies and water be next to impossible to even locate the out accounting for spatial/temporal management plan documents of India. highly silted places in a reservoir, leave variability of sedimentation across 5,000 The assumption seems to be that large alone conceiving of any scope for dredging large dams for the past 100 years, indi- storage structures will continue to secure sediment successfully (Mis hra 2014). cates the extent of the underestimation the water future of India forever, which Then, dams cannot be reconstr ucted at of sedimentation science in India and is not the case. Therefore, the water crisis the same site once the reservoir is fi lled overestimation of storage capacity in the emanating from the downsides of age- with sediment; either sediment has to be future (that is, 2050). Thakkar and Bhat- ing large dams continues to be a blind removed or the site abando ned (Thakkar tacharya (2006) analysed the sedimen- spot in policies, planning and water man- and Bhattacharya 2006). tation rates of 23 dams and found that agement of India. The ideal way to make In such a scenario, the storage capacity the actual rate of sedimentation in these DRIP more effective and meaningful is of 5,000 large dams has to decline with 23 dams is not 1.3 km3 per annum as con- through the disclosure of the type of age, and correspondingly the USC and sidered by NCIWRD (1.3 multiplied by 50 rehabilitation undertaken in the case of USW should also decline instead of rem- years = 65 km3), but, instead, is 1.95 km3 each of the 223 dams and the remaining aining constant at 385 km3 and 690 km3, per annum. 4,777 large dams, the type of structural respectively; a fact ignored in the water More examples of glaring loss of live decline averted, and live storage capa- management discourse of India. Other- storage in India’s dams are shown in city and extent of years of service life wise, these constant fi gures indicate that Table 1. Till 1999, Matatila dam had restored. the live storage capacities of a number of already lost 38% of live storage capacity large dams shown in Figure 1 have un- in 43 years of its construction (Thakkar Future Water Crisis dergone zero loss of live storage till date, and Bhattacharya 2006). which is not the case as observed in had lost 24% live storage within just 20 Declining storage capacity and utilis- Table 1. The consequence of this static years span of 1984–2004 (Narasayya able surface water: The blind spots of fi gure of 385 km3 of USC and 690 km3, of et al 2012). By the year 2001, Maithon large dams further make invisible the USW is the creation of an illusion that India dam had lost 25.29% of live storage reality of India’s ultimate storage capa city is in possession of assured water security within a span of 46 years of its opera- (USC) of all of India’s major and medium in the 21st century and beyond, which is tion. Similarly, the Tungabhadra dam projects (consisting of large dams), utili- nothing but gross underestimation of the built in 1953 has lost about 15% of its live sable surface water (USW), and ultimate future water crisis. storage as of 2003 (Durbude 2014). gross irrigation potential (UGIP), based Ideally, India’s planners should have on which the current policies are de- Declining ultimate gross irrigation made the estimate of a loss of live stor- vised to address future water challeng- potential: Another consequence of this age only after disclosing the already lost es. India’s USC has been assessed as 385 deceptive static of USC and USW is on the live storage due to sedimentation in km3 (MoWR 2008; Garg and Hassan estimate of the UGIP, which has been each of the 4,000+ large dams as of 1999 2007). The erstwhile Planning Commis- assessed as 139.9 million hectare (mha), or 2011, which they have failed to do so sion estimates the USC as 397 km3 with- out of which 58.47 mha of potential is till date. Therefore, the actual live stor- out deduction for the loss of live storage from major and medium storage projects age capacity available in the 21st century in the last 100 years (PC 2009) and the (MoWR 2006). These fi gures remain asto- India is infl ated, and thus, camoufl ages CWC Annual Report 2013–14 has further nishingly constant in government docu- the creeping water insecurity. enhanced it to 408 km3, but without any ments. This ever-constant fi gure of 58.47 A scheme by the name “Dam Rehabili- substantiation for this enhancement in mha is misleading because while India’s tation and Improvement Project” (DRIP) the USC. live storage capacity continues to decline, for the rehabilitation of 223 large dams India’s ever-constant fi gures of USC, the gross ultimate irrigation potential of within four states has been initiated USW, or UGIP in its water management the country cannot remain static at the since 2012 by the MoWR, RD & GR in as- discourse do not consider the impact of level of 58.47 mha. sociation with the World Bank (CWC differential age (such as 64 large dams This is because when the USCs from all 2016; MoWR, RD & GR 2019). However, built 115 years ago, 302 large dams built reservoirs of large dams decline, conco- the information available in the public 65 years ago, and 237 large dams built 55 mitantly the irrigation potential and the domain does not clarify if the scheme years ago), different generations of dams intensity of the irrigation should also could overcome any of the downsides of built with different design codes, and reduce. And, unless the lost storage capa- ailing large dams, such as spatial limits, their declining service life and storage city is restored to its full capacity, there temporal limits, and structural decline, capacity due to sedimentation. As a matter is no way the reservoir can irrigate the and then restore the declining live storage of fact, there has not been a single instance entire command area with the planned capacity to its original capacity. Seven in India to show that sediment in a large irrigation intensity. The continuance years since 2012, any restoration of dam has been dredged completely and and projection of the static gross irriga- service life or storage capacity or water reservoir capacity restored. Engineers of tion potential of India at 139.9 mha is a

40 JUNE 29, 2019 vol lIV nos 26 & 27 EPW Economic & Political Weekly PERSPECTIVES fallacy of India’s water management documents, and the management dis- Against such a background, the coun- that is a direct consequence of having a course in India, so far, have been blind try’s water policymakers, planners, and blind spot for water crisis emanating to this escalation in the water crisis and water managers have to discover alter- from deterio rating large storage struc- its cascading effect on other interrelated natives to dysfunctional large storage tures. Therefore, with USC, USW, and sectors such as the economy, agriculture, structures. One way to overcome the UGIP being inter conne cted, dynamic, society, etc. loss of ultimate storage capacity is to and declining in time, a perilous water The current solutions envisaged in fi nd alternative sites for construction of future beckons India, albeit subtly, as various central and state policies, such water harvesting structures of varying more dams age by 2025 and 2050. as inter-basin transfer, additional large capacities wherever it is feasible. Second, dams, traditional structures of rainwa- such a loss can be compensated with a Water Management Scenario ter har ve sting, groundwater recharge, series of small storage structures with In light of the above discussion of the micro- irrigation, recycle and reuse of an emphasis on medium or minor irriga- blind spots pertaining to large dams in waste water, desalination, water audits, tion structures. A third alternative is to India, it can be concluded that any plan and virtual water trade, remain oblivi- recharge the aquifers and store water to tackle growing challenges of the ous to the water crisis emanating from underground so that the phenomenon of water sector in the 21st century, ignoring ageing large storage structures. These the depleting groundwater across the the downsides of its over 5,000 large solutions, designed to tackle only the country is reversed. dams, is seriously fl awed and bound to “visible knowns,” will be inadequate to A fourth alternative, which seems to fail. The visible challenges, such as ris- address the creeping water crisis as time be beyond the current level of thinking ing population, change in consumption hurtles towards 2025 and 2050. in India due to emotional connect with pattern, urbanisation, increase in demand large dam scientism, is the decommis- for water for agriculture, industries and The Way Forward sioning of large dams that have fulfi lled energy, and the phenomenon of climate Considering the monumental underesti- their service life, then restore the fl ow change, cannot be tackled with the false mation of the future water crisis, the exi- path of rivers or streams, research the sense of water security attributed to sting policies, plans, and water manage- site and reconstruct fresh storage struc- large dams or the fallacious statistics of ment discourse need urgent revision tures as per feasibility. From the Indian the USC, USW, or UGIP. with recognition of the crisis unfolding perspective, the research on the decom- While the demand for water and, due to ageing large dams. The compre- missioning of dams to clear the knick therefore, the confl icts continue to rise hensive damage to the water sector and point2 and restore the fl ow path is at a in the 21st century, the dwindling supply the impact of the declining storage cap- nascent stage and less encouraged in of water due to the dams’ declining abil- acity, utilisable surface water, and irri- comparison with advanced countries. ity to overcome temporal variability gation potential on the interrelated sec- For the loss of irrigation potential in will accentuate the crisis in the future. tors should be recognised in the policies canal command area due to loss of stor- For example, as the Tungabhadra dam and plan documents. Then the estima- age capacity, a short-term solution could has lost 25% of its live storage capacity tion of such damage should be made. For be to recoup the lost irrigated lands by as on date due to siltation, the irrigation this to happen, the water organisations building more but smaller water har- activities in the command area have al- in India have to be more transparent vesting and groundwater recharge stru- ready been severely disrupted (Hindu with respect to the dysfunctional and ctures in the canal command area in 2016). Similarly, the ultimate irrigation deteriorating large dams. order to, to harness the precipitation potential of the command area envis- The existing status the live storage commensurate with the loss of the stor- aged, based on the initial storage capacity, capacity of large storage structures (after age potential. Such a solution should be will shrink owing to the loss of live storage deducting the loss of live storage due to a part of the integrated and sustainable shortage in the reservoir, thereby crip- sedimentation) available throughout the plan, taking in consideration the hydro- pling the capability of the reservoirs to country should be disclosed, rather than logical units involving allied sectors or irrigate the entire command area. providing a mere display of real-time disciplines such as soil management, This impact has a cascading effect on water storages available in reservoirs. agriculture, land use, land cover, etc. In food security and the socio-economic The latter actually blinds the loss of live the long term, research on dam decom- status of the farmers, as their ability to storage capacity of the reservoirs over a missioning, study of river morphology, grow crops and the contemplated yield period of time. A realistic estimate of ul- removal of knick points, and assessment get severely crippled. With the decline timate gross irrigation potential has to of feasibility to rebuild storage struc- in ability to irrigate the whole command be made based on the actual estimate of tures are the solutions to retrieve some area, the area of irrigated land retreats live storage available as on date. Simi- of the lost storage capacity and lost uti- with the concomitant advance of the larly, the utilisable surface water should lisable surface water, so that the future rain-fed area or groundwater irrigation be revi sed deducting the live storage water crisis emanating from ageing and in the same command area. This is a capacity of those dams whose service deteriorating large dams in the 21st paradox. The present policies, plan life has been completed. century can be tackled.

Economic & Political Weekly EPW JUNE 29, 2019 vol lIV nos 26 & 27 41 PERSPECTIVES

Notes Durbude, G D (2014): “Assessment of Sedimentation — (2012): “National Water Policy,” River Develop- in Major Reservoirs of Hard Rock Terrain of ment and Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of 1 Per capita storage capacity is estimated by di- India using RS Technique,” Journal of Earth Water Resources, Government of India. viding the cumulative storage capacity as- Science Research, Vol 2, No 1, pp 13–22. sessed from all the large dams of a country by MoWR, R D and G R (2019): “Dam Rehabilitation the total population of that country. The per Garg, N K and Q Hassan (2007): “Alarming Scarcity and Improvement Project,” Ministry of Water capita storage capacity varies with the popula- of Water in India,” Journal of Current Science, Resources, River Development and Ganga tion and decline in storage capacity over time. Vol 93, No 7, pp 932–41. Rejuvenation, Government of India, https:// 2 Knick point is the point of abrupt change in the Gupta, S K and R D Deshpande (2004): “Water for www.damsafety.in/. longitudinal profi le of stream or its deepest India in 2050: First-Order Assessment of Avail- Mishra, A (2014): “Silt Deposit Threatens Hirakud,” point known as “thalweg,” due to change in the able Options,” Journal of Current Science, Telegraph, 19 August, http://www.telegraphin- base level. Removal of a dam lowers the base Vol 86, No 9, pp 1216–24. dia.com/1140818/jsp/frontpage/story_ level of the stream upstream of the dam and Hindu (2016): “Steps to Recoup Water Share in the 18731006.jsp#.VrrfE_l96M9. increases the hydraulic gradient resulting in TB Dam Need of the Hour,” 19 May, http:// Molle, F, P P Mollinga and P Wester (2009): “Hy- erosion and entrainment of sediments stored in www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnata- draulic Bureaucracies and the Hydraulic Mis- the reservoir. ka/steps-to-recoup-water-share-in-the-tb- sion: Flows of Water, Flows of Power,” Water dam-need-of-the-hour/article8618505.ece. Alternatives, Vol 2, No 3, pp 328–49. Jain, S K, P Singh and S M Seth (2002): “Assess- Narasayya, K, U C Roman, S Sreekanth and S Jatwa References ment of Sedimentation in Bhakra Reservoir in (2012): “Assessment of Reservoir Sedimentation the Western Himalayan Region Using Remotely Using Remote Sensing Satellite Imageries,” Bowles, D S, L R Anderson, T F Glover and Sensed Data,” Hydrological Sciences Journal, Asian Journal of Geo-informatics, Vol 12, No 4. S S Chauhan (1999): “Understanding and Man- Vol 47, No 2, pp 203–12. PC (2009): “Report of the Task Force on Irrigation,” aging the Risks of Aging Dams: Principles and Lok Sabha Debates (2011): “Need to Take Measures Planning Commission, Government of India. Case Studies,” Nineteenth USCOLD Annual for De-silting of Nagarjuna Sagar and Srisailam PCA (2002): “Types and Causes of Concrete Deteri- Meeting and Lecture, Atlanta, Georgia, 16–21 May. Dams in Andhra Pradesh,” 29 November, http: oration,” Portland Cement Association, https: Briscoe, J and R P S Malik (2007): Handbook of //indiankanoon.org/doc/113972194/. //www.cement.org/docs/default-source/fc_ Water Resources of India: Development, Man- Mahabaleshwara, H and H M Nagabhushan (2014): concrete_technology/durability/is536-types- agement and Strategies, New Delhi: Oxford “A Study on Soil Erosion and Its Impacts on and-causes-of-concrete-deterioration.pdf? University Press. Floods and Sedimentation,” International Jour- sfvrsn=4. BIS (2000): “Indian Standard: Plain and Rein- nal of Research in Engineering and Technology , PIB (2012): “Water Storage Capacity,” Press Infor- forced Concrete-Code of Practice (Fourth Revi- Vol 3, No 3, pp 443–51. mation Bureau, Ministry of Water Resources, sion),” Bureau of Indian Standards, Govern- Majumdar, P K (2015): “New Dimensions of Reser- Government of India, http://pib.nic.in/newsite ment of India. voir Sedimentation: A Case Study of Khodiyar /PrintRelease.aspx?relid=83836. — (2010): “Indian Standard: Criteria of Design of Reservoir, India,” Lakes and Reservoirs: Research Prasad, S (2000): “A Study of New IS 456:2000 vis- and Management, Vol 20, No 1, pp 42–53. Solid Gravity Dams (Second Revision of IS6512): à-vis IS 456: 1978,” http://www.upe.bsnl.co.in/ Dams and Spillways Sectional Committee McCully, P (2001): Silenced Rivers: The Ecology and pcelko/pdf/is456_2000.pdf. WRD 09 (519),” Bureau of Indian Standards, Politics of Large Dams, London: Zed Books. 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Review of Rural Affairs June 30, 2018 Rural Change in Times of ‘Distress’ —Surinder S Jodhka Agricultural Revival and Reaping the Youth Dividend —M Vijayabaskar, Sudha Narayanan, Sharada Srinivasan Contemporary Farmers’ Protests and the ‘New Rural–Agrarian’ in India —Sudhir Kumar Suthar Widows of Farmer Suicide Victims in : Differential Dependence in Early and Later Cases —Kota Neelima Are Gold Loans Glittering for Agriculture? —Meenakshi Rajeev, Pranav Nagendran Agrarian Transformation and New Sociality in Western Uttar Pradesh —Satendra Kumar

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42 JUNE 29, 2019 vol lIV nos 26 & 27 EPW Economic & Political Weekly