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Targeting Metabolism in Cancer Cells and the Tumour Microenvironment for Cancer Therapy

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Targeting Metabolism in Cancer Cells and the Tumour Microenvironment for Cancer Therapy molecules Review Targeting Metabolism in Cancer Cells and the Tumour Microenvironment for Cancer Therapy Jiaqi Li 1, Jie Qing Eu 2, Li Ren Kong 2,3, Lingzhi Wang 2,4, Yaw Chyn Lim 2,5, Boon Cher Goh 2,4,6 and Andrea L. A. Wong 2,6,* 1 School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0SP, UK; [email protected] 2 Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117599, Singapore; [email protected] (J.Q.E.); [email protected] (L.R.K.); [email protected] (L.W.); [email protected] (Y.C.L.); [email protected] (B.C.G.) 3 Medical Research Council Cancer Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XZ, UK 4 Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117600, Singapore 5 Department of Pathology, National University Health System, Singapore 119074, Singapore 6 Department of Haematology-Oncology, National University Health System, Singapore 119228, Singapore * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +65-6779-5555 Academic Editors: Jacinta Serpa and Sofia C. Nunes Received: 29 September 2020; Accepted: 16 October 2020; Published: 20 October 2020 Abstract: Targeting altered tumour metabolism is an emerging therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment. The metabolic reprogramming that accompanies the development of malignancy creates targetable differences between cancer cells and normal cells, which may be exploited for therapy. There is also emerging evidence regarding the role of stromal components, creating an intricate metabolic network consisting of cancer cells, cancer-associated fibroblasts, endothelial cells, immune cells, and cancer stem cells. This metabolic rewiring and crosstalk with the tumour microenvironment play a key role in cell proliferation, metastasis, and the development of treatment resistance. In this review, we will discuss therapeutic opportunities, which arise from dysregulated metabolism and metabolic crosstalk, highlighting strategies that may aid in the precision targeting of altered tumour metabolism with a focus on combinatorial therapeutic strategies. Keywords: cancer cell metabolism; tumour microenvironment; metabolic reprogramming; targeted therapy; immunotherapy 1. Introduction To sustain the rapid proliferation characterising cancer cells, corresponding alterations to tumour metabolism must occur to fuel the elevated bioenergetic demands. This understanding has led to the introduction of ‘Deregulating Cellular Energetics’ as a new hallmark of cancer [1]. Initial observations by Otto Warburg described an unusual reliance of cancer cells on glycolysis despite sufficient oxygen, which was later termed the ‘Warburg effect’ to describe this form of aerobic glycolysis [2]. This metabolic reprogramming, while less efficient in terms of ATP production, confers cancer cells with much-needed metabolic intermediates that can be channelled into biosynthetic pathways, such as the pentose-phosphate pathway (PPP) for nucleotide synthesis [3]. While this aerobic ‘Warburg’ glycolytic phenotype had been regarded as the norm in cancer cells, it is becoming increasingly clear that the metabolic needs of tumour cells do not rely on a single metabolic strategy. Recent studies suggest that certain subtypes of cancer cells may preferentially utilize oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) for energy production in glucose-limiting conditions [4]. In addition, OXPHOS dependency may be induced by certain therapies, such as prolonged tyrosine Molecules 2020, 25, 4831; doi:10.3390/molecules25204831 www.mdpi.com/journal/molecules Molecules 2020, 25, 4831 2 of 40 kinase inhibitor (TKI) therapy in certain oncogene-addicted cancers [5,6]. This reflects a phenomenon termed ‘metabolic flexibility’ where cancer cells adjust their metabolic phenotypes in order to gain a selective advantage for cell growth and survival under hostile conditions throughout tumorigenesis up to the time of metastasis [7]. The significance of these metabolic alterations may diverge not only according to intrinsic signalling pathways within the cancer cell, but also rely on the interaction of cancer cells with their surrounding tumour microenvironment (TME), ranging from immune cells and stromal cells to extracellular matrix (ECM) components and soluble factors [8]. There is also emerging evidence to suggest that metabolic reprogramming within cancer stem cell (CSC)-like phenotypes contributes to treatment resistance, therapeutic failure, and cancer relapse. This review aims to highlight the complex interplay of regulatory cell signalling pathways, interactions between cancer cells and their TME, and the contributions of CSCs to the intricate and coordinated induction of metabolic pathways. Understanding the regulation of cellular metabolism is key for unravelling cancer metabolism as an attractive target for therapeutic exploitation. In particular, we will focus on resistance mechanisms as a result of dysregulated metabolism and metabolic crosstalk, highlighting strategies that may lead to the improved precision targeting of cancer cell metabolism (CCM). 2. Altered Cancer Cell Metabolism 2.1. Metabolic Dependencies in Cancer Cells Cancer cells display a distinct metabolic phenotype compared to non-neoplastic cells. As a whole, these changes in metabolic fluxes are achieved by extensive metabolic reprogramming to fuel anabolic growth in nutrient-replete conditions and to support catabolism under nutrient scarcity. Broadly, this involves extracellular uptake of simple nutrients (glucose, amino acids, etc.), which are channelled into biosynthesis via the core metabolic pathways of glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, the PPP, and non-essential amino acid synthesis, which is followed by subsequent ATP-dependent processes to produce complex biomolecules (Figure1). Many cancers are known to upregulate glucose consumption, and the classical Warburg phenotype has been reported in a variety of tumour types [9–11]. However, a majority of tumours still retain oxidative capacity to produce ATP via OXPHOS [4,12–15]. Apart from glucose, fatty acids (FAs) and amino acid metabolites are diverted to the TCA cycle to sustain mitochondrial ATP production. Transporters are also upregulated to increase the extracellular uptake of raw materials, including serine and glutamine [16–23]. This not only serves as building blocks for protein synthesis, but also maintains activity of the mTORC signalling system [24]. Subsequently, in a process known as glutaminolysis, glutamine is converted to glutamate, then α-ketoglutarate (α-KG), which serves as another means utilised by cancer cells to fuel the TCA cycle [25] (Figure1). Glutamine dependency has been reported in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), breast cancer, and brain tumours, and has been associated with greater metastatic potential, therapy resistance, and aggressive clinical phenotype [26–29]. The specific metabolic dependencies of tumours may be heterogeneous and depend on the driver oncogenes present, microenvironmental interactions, and effect of treatments. Molecules 2020, 25, 4831 3 of 40 Molecules 2020, 25, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 41 Glucose essential amino acids mTORC + Glucose PPP G6P HIF-1 SREBP essential amino acids Glycolysis + + (glutamine, serine) Nucleotide Pyruvate Fatty acid Synthesis Lactate synthesis Protein Synthesis Acetyl-CoA Glutamine Acetyl-CoA Aspartate Citrate Oxaloacetate Citrate ATP I Glutamate GSH Malate II α-KG I OXPHOS II IV Glutaminolysis FigureFigure 1. 1.Overview Overview of of cancer cancer cell cell metabolic metabolic reprogramming. reprogramming. Cancer Cancer cells cells require require extensive extensive metabolic metabolic reprogrammingreprogramming to to fuel fuel anabolic anabolic growth growth via via increased increased nucleotide nucleotide biosynthesis, biosynthesis, protein protein synthesis, synthesis, and FAand synthesis.FA synthesis. There There is elevated is elevated glycolysis glycolysis even under even aerobic under conditions aerobic conditions (Warburg e(Warburgffect), which effect), allows which for theallows production for the ofproduction intermediates of intermediates to be channelled to be intochannelled the PPP into for nucleotidethe PPP for biosynthesis.nucleotide biosynthesis. However, aHowever, majority of a tumours majority still of retain tumour oxidatives still capacityretain oxidative to produce capaci ATP viaty OXPHOS.to produce Glutaminolysis ATP via OXPHOS. is also upregulatedGlutaminolysis in many is also tumours upregulated for the productionin many tumours of α-KG for to the fuel production the TCA cycle. of α Increased-KG to fuel glutaminolysis the TCA cycle. alsoIncreased produces glutaminolysis glutathione (GSH) also produces to defend glutathione against oxidative (GSH) stress.to defend Central against to these oxidative metabolic stress. changes Central isto the these PI3K metabolic/Akt/mTOR changes pathway. is the Downstream PI3K/Akt/mTOR effectors pa thatthway. are activatedDownstream by mTORC effectors signalling that are activated include theby transcription mTORC signalling factors include HIF-1 and the SREBP.transcription factors HIF-1 and SREBP. G6P,G6P, glucose-6-phosphate; glucose-6-phosphate;α-KG, α-KG,α-ketoglutarate; α-ketoglutarate; ATP, adenosine ATP, adenosine 50-triphosphate; 5′-triphosphate; GSH, glutathione; GSH, HIF-1,glutathione; hypoxia-inducible HIF-1, hypoxia-inducible factor-1; mTORC, factor-1; mTOR complex mTORC, 1; OXPHOS, mTOR complex oxidative 1; phosphorylation; OXPHOS, oxidative RTK, receptorphosphorylation;
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