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First Edition, last update January 18, 2010 2 Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume VI – Experiments By Tony R. Kuphaldt First Edition, last update January 18, 2010 i c 2002-2020, Tony R. Kuphaldt This book is published under the terms and conditions of the Design Science License. These terms and conditions allow for free copying, distribution, and/or modification of this document by the general public. The full Design Science License text is included in the last chapter. As an open and collaboratively developed text, this book is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the Design Science License for more details. Available in its entirety as part of the Open Book Project collection at: openbookproject.net/electricCircuits PRINTING HISTORY • First Edition: Printed in April 2002. Source files written in SubML format. SubML is a simple markup language designed to easily convert to other markups like LATEX, HTML, or DocBook using nothing but search-and-replace substitutions. ii Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Electronics as science .................................. 1 1.2 Setting up a home lab .................................. 3 1.3 Contributors ........................................ 14 2 BASIC CONCEPTS AND TEST EQUIPMENT 15 2.1 Voltmeter usage ...................................... 15 2.2 Ohmmeter usage ..................................... 21 2.3 A very simple circuit ................................... 28 2.4 Ammeter usage ...................................... 35 2.5 Ohm’s Law ......................................... 42 2.6 Nonlinear resistance ................................... 45 2.7 Power dissipation ..................................... 48 2.8 Circuit with a switch ................................... 53 2.9 Electromagnetism .................................... 55 2.10 Electromagnetic induction ................................ 57 3 DC CIRCUITS 59 3.1 Introduction ........................................ 59 3.2 Series batteries ...................................... 60 3.3 Parallel batteries ..................................... 63 3.4 Voltage divider ...................................... 67 3.5 Current divider ...................................... 78 3.6 Potentiometer as a voltage divider ........................... 87 3.7 Potentiometer as a rheostat ............................... 93 3.8 Precision potentiometer ................................. 99 3.9 Rheostat range limiting ................................. 102 3.10 Thermoelectricity ..................................... 109 3.11 Make your own multimeter ............................... 112 3.12 Sensitive voltage detector ................................ 117 3.13 Potentiometric voltmeter ................................ 122 3.14 4-wire resistance measurement ............................. 127 3.15 A very simple computer ................................. 131 3.16 Potato battery ....................................... 136 iii iv CONTENTS 3.17 Capacitor charging and discharging .......................... 138 3.18 Rate-of-change indicator ................................. 142 4 AC CIRCUITS 145 4.1 Introduction ........................................ 145 4.2 Transformer – power supply .............................. 147 4.3 Build a transformer ................................... 151 4.4 Variable inductor ..................................... 153 4.5 Sensitive audio detector ................................. 155 4.6 Sensing AC magnetic fields ............................... 160 4.7 Sensing AC electric fields ................................ 162 4.8 Automotive alternator .................................. 164 4.9 Induction motor ...................................... 170 4.10 Induction motor, large .................................. 174 4.11 Phase shift ......................................... 177 4.12 Sound cancellation .................................... 180 4.13 Musical keyboard as a signal generator ........................ 183 4.14 PC Oscilloscope ...................................... 186 4.15 Waveform analysis .................................... 189 4.16 Inductor-capacitor ”tank” circuit ............................ 191 4.17 Signal coupling ...................................... 194 5 DISCRETE SEMICONDUCTOR CIRCUITS 201 5.1 Introduction ........................................ 202 5.2 Commutating diode ................................... 203 5.3 Half-wave rectifier .................................... 205 5.4 Full-wave center-tap rectifier .............................. 213 5.5 Full-wave bridge rectifier ................................ 218 5.6 Rectifier/filter circuit ................................... 221 5.7 Voltage regulator ..................................... 227 5.8 Transistor as a switch .................................. 230 5.9 Static electricity sensor ................................. 235 5.10 Pulsed-light sensor .................................... 238 5.11 Voltage follower ...................................... 241 5.12 Common-emitter amplifier ............................... 246 5.13 Multi-stage amplifier ................................... 251 5.14 Current mirror ...................................... 255 5.15 JFET current regulator ................................. 261 5.16 Differential amplifier ................................... 266 5.17 Simple op-amp ...................................... 269 5.18 Audio oscillator ...................................... 274 5.19 Vacuum tube audio amplifier .............................. 277 Bibliography ........................................... 288 CONTENTS v 6 ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 289 6.1 Introduction ........................................ 289 6.2 Voltage comparator .................................... 291 6.3 Precision voltage follower ................................ 294 6.4 Noninverting amplifier .................................. 298 6.5 High-impedance voltmeter ............................... 301 6.6 Integrator ......................................... 305 6.7 555 audio oscillator .................................... 311 6.8 555 ramp generator ................................... 314 6.9 PWM power controller .................................. 317 6.10 Class B audio amplifier ................................. 321 7 DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 331 7.1 Introduction ........................................ 331 7.2 Basic gate function .................................... 333 7.3 NOR gate S-R latch .................................... 337 7.4 NAND gate S-R enabled latch ............................. 341 7.5 NAND gate S-R flip-flop ................................. 343 7.6 LED sequencer ...................................... 347 7.7 Simple combination lock ................................. 356 7.8 3-bit binary counter ................................... 359 7.9 7-segment display .................................... 361 8 555 TIMER CIRCUITS 365 8.1 The 555 IC ......................................... 365 8.2 555 Schmitt Trigger ................................... 366 8.3 555 HYSTERETIC OSCILLATOR ........................... 370 8.4 555 MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR ....................... 374 8.5 555 BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR .......................... 380 8.6 CMOS 555 LONG DURATION MINIMUM PARTS RED LED FLASHER . 382 8.7 CMOS 555 LONG DURATION BLUE LED FLASHER ............... 388 8.8 CMOS 555 LONG DURATION FLYBACK LED FLASHER ............ 392 8.9 HOW TO MAKE AN INDUCTOR ........................... 395 8.10 CMOS 555 LONG DURATION RED LED FLASHER ................ 398 8.11 555 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION OSCILLATOR ................ 400 A-1 ABOUT THIS BOOK 405 A-2 CONTRIBUTOR LIST 409 A-3 DESIGN SCIENCE LICENSE 413 INDEX 416 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Contents 1.1 Electronics as science ................................ 1 1.2 Setting up a home lab ................................ 3 1.2.1 Work area .................................... 3 1.2.2 Tools ....................................... 3 1.2.3 Supplies ..................................... 12 1.3 Contributors ...................................... 14 1.1 Electronics as science Electronics is a science, and a very accessible science at that. With other areas of scientific study, expensive equipment is generally required to perform any non-trivial experiments. Not so with electronics. Many advanced concepts may be explored using parts and equipment totaling under a few hundred US dollars. This is good, because hands-on experimentation is vital to gaining scientific knowledge about any subject. When I started writing Lessons In Electric Circuits, my intent was to create a textbook suitable for introductory college use. However, being mostly self-taught in electronics myself, I knew the value of a good textbook to hobbyists and experimenters not enrolled in any formal electronics course. Many people selflessly volunteered their time and expertise in helping me learn electronics when I was younger, and my intent is to honor their service and love by giving back to the world what they gave to me. In order for someone to teach themselves a science such as electronics, they must engage in hands-on experimentation. Knowledge gleaned from books alone has limited use, especially in scientific endeavors. If my contribution to society is to be complete, I must include a guide to experimentation along with the text(s) on theory, so that the individual learning on their own has a resource to guide their experimental adventures. A formal laboratory course for college electronics
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