The return of the old? The contrast and confluence of 1970’s and present day Dutch advocacy and policy

Matthew Bruno(1)(2) Henk-Jan Dekker(1) Letícia Lindenberg Lemos(3)

(1) Eindhoven University of Technology; (2) Copernicus Instituteof SustinableDevelopment, Utrecht University (3) University of São Paulo, withfinancial support by Fapesp(Fundaçãode Amparoà Pesquisado Estadode São Paulo) “A socio-technical analysis of low-carbon transitions: introducing the multi-level perspective into transport studies,” F. Geels, 2012 https://www.ssplprints.com/image/92098/singer-safety-bicycle-1890 https://www.businessinsider.nl/hippe-fietsenmaker-vanmoof-krijgt-miljoeneninvestering-om-de-wereld-verder-te-veroveren 1890 Singer Safety 2017 VanMoof Bicycle

“After decades of being largely snubbed by planners and most commuters, the old bicycle is, once again, desirable: it represents the return of an ‘old thing’ rather than the innovation of a new one (Vivanco, 2013). It started in the 1970s in cities like and (where commuter cycling never died out) and is now spreading: ‘London is going Dutch’ – (Goodman et al., 2014) and New York is being ‘Copenhagenized’ (Larsen, 2014).”

L. Larson, The Making of a Pro-Cycling City, 2017 Regimes of cycling declined across Europe during the 1960s but different forms of vanishing resulted in the patchy and partial endurance of selected elements, the survival of which continues to matter for the possibility and for the manner in which similarly sustainable systems might be revived or reintroduced (though never in quite the same form as before). The traces that endure are not preserved intact, nor are they unchanged by intervening events, but they are nonetheless relevant for what might happen next.

E. Shove, “The Shadowy Side of Innovation” (2012) Research question

What is the relevance of past cycling practices and policies on the present day efforts to increase cycling rates in the Netherlands? Social Practice Theory Summary

Via Spotswood et al 2015 Social Practice Theory and Cycling

F. Spotswood et al., “Analysing cycling as a social practice: An empirical grounding for behaviour change,” (2015) Interviews with People with a Long History in Dutch Cycling Planning and Activism

8 interviews with people who have been active in cycling in the Netherlands since the 1970’s

3 people with a history of activism

5 people with experience in both activism and planning

Semi-structured interviews

Supported by archival and policy documents for context Methodology Coding interviews based on statements made about •Meanings, materials and competencies in cycling •Goals, actors and methods in bicycle planning Stop the Child Murder (1974 – 1986)

• Many activist groups concerned with cycling and traffic safety emerge in the early 1970s • Goal is to limit automobility and make cycling safer • Activists took a pragmatic stance, making them successful in developing good working relations with (local) government. They also become more professional over time and have structural interactions with key stakeholders up to the present.

The (1990 – 1997)

“Promote the use of the bicycle while simultaneously increasing the safety and attractiveness of that bicycle use”

Bicycle Master Plan End Report, 1998

• Managed by the Ministry of Transport and Water Management • The goal of the project group was encourage provincial and local governments, businesses and institutions, public transportation companies, and national ministries to integrate cycling policies into their plans and programs. • Budget of 32.6 million guilders (14.8 million Euros) • Implemented 112 separate bicycle projects

Bicycle Master Plan Evaluation Report, 1997 Tour de Force (2015 – present) 2017-2018 budget of €800,000 (Uitvoeringsprogramma Tour de Force 2017-2018)

Collaboration between the government, businesses, advocacy groups, research groups and platforms.

The purpose is to develop cycling policy that result in a 20% increase in kilometers cycled by 2027

Nine broad goals: 1. Maintain the Netherlands position as leading cycling country 2. Give more room to cyclists in cities 3. Improve the quality of regional cycling routes 4. Develop beter connections between public transportation and cycling 5. Promote cycling in areas with lower cycling numbers 6. Improve safety 7. Reduce theft 8. Improve knoweldge networks 9. Incorporate the bicycle into livability planning (Tour de Force Website)

Sample Statements “We first got a person dedicated to safety issues and behavior. Around 2000, the focus went from safety to infrastructure.” “We didn’t finish our studies because we wanted to change the world.” “You can deny climate change but not people dying.” “Now people are saying that there are too many cyclists as the street is such a success.” “If there is no problem, there is no reason to spend money.” “If you had a meeting in the morning, the women would come and they had a better understanding of the intentions behind the street as social space.” “In the 60’s and 70s people bought a car for the first time. It was status. It was crazy to go by bicycle.” “Now its’s crazy to drive in Amsterdam because you can’t park.” “The Bicycle Master Plan was something entirely new” “There was one professor with traffic and transport as hobby.” “The law says their needs to a be a plan for communication with citizens. These plans were made by lawyers not planners.” “The cafés and restaurants now don’t want the car back because the quiet city center is their business model.” “With only cyclists and cars, you can split traffic. But the in-between is growing. For example, the stint.” Cycling Practices Cycling Policies

Goals Actors Methods Cycling as practice Basic bicycle During “Stop the Motor bikes Bike lanes Child Murder” Wayfinding signs Woonerf (1974 – 1986) Speed bumps

Dangerous Materials Unpleasant Old fashioned Basic bicycle repair Used by captive cyclists Wayfinding knowledge (women, children, workers) Parking knowledge Environmental Conditions knowledge Under threat/vanishing

Meanings Competencies Cycling policy in the time of Stop the Child Murder Goals Actors Methods Cyclists Union Implementing woonerfs Restore safe conditions for people cycling Civil Engineers (no professional Removing parking from city centers traffic engineers at the time) Restore liveliness to city Allowing bikes to travel both directions on centers Lawyers (responsible for citizen one way streets involvement) Protect nature Experimentation/Guideline development Police (influence traffic signs) Demonstrations and protests National/provincial/local governments Community meetings

Codifiying local knowledge (bottleneck guides [knelpunten nota]) Cycling as practice

During the Bicyle Basic bicycle Station (OV fiets) Master Plan Bike parking at bus/train stations (1990 – 1997) Bicycle priority streets

Negotiating with Safer Materials other Convenient around users the city Good solution to Basic bicycle repair first/last mile problems with transit Wayfinding Valued knowledge

Meanings Competencies Cycling policy in the time of the Bicycle Master Plan

Goals Actors Methods

Integrate cycling into transportation National/provincial/local Research and experimentation policy government Infrastructure development Increase the amount of KM cycled NS/Public transit operators Developing standards and Improve bicycle connections with The Cycling Union guidelines public transportation Stakeholder coalition from New and well funded financial Decrease the number of people cycling manufacturers, structures wounded or killed while firms and other advocacy groups Provide more and reduce bicycle theft Cycling as practice Basic bicycle E-bikes During Tour de Force Lease bicycles Station bicycles (2015 – present) Docked bike sharing Dockless bike sharing Stints Smart Phones Station Parking Bicycle Highways

Safe from cars Materials Negotiate with other bicycles Stress from other bike Share space with other vehicle lane users types Inexpensive Sustainable Understand parking rules Typically Dutch Healthy Using apps and smart cards

Meanings Competencies Cycling policy in the time of Tour de Force

Goals Actors Methods

Cycling Union Participatory governance Co-ordinate different departments that connect with cycling policy ANWB (auto and bike advocacy Data analysis group) Reduce congestion Development of cycle highways National/provincial/local Reduce greenhouse gas emissions governments Investments in station parking Improve livability Consultants Promotional campaigns Improve health Dutch Cycling Embassy Improve safety Cycling Research Board Preliminary Results • What cycling is as a practice is both complex and constantly shifting

• Policy gains in one period can create an obstacle to progress in another period

• The gains made in improving cycling safety in the 1970’s have reduced the political will to implement policies that restrict cars now. Safety is still a concern, but not strong enough of one to bring about activism.

• Car restrictive measures are still being implemented to promote livability, but the livability arguments of now do not have the same force as the child safety arguments in the 1970’s.

• Planning decisions went from national to local, but national consulting firms have led to a loss of local knowledge.

• What a bicycle is has become increasingly complicated and changes require new competencies and new policy approaches

• The actors remain relatively consistent over time but their relative influence is always changing

• Ongoing debate about the extent of the national governments role in developing and funding cycling policy