Narrative Games: the Frame of "The Turn of the Screw" Author(S): Jeff Williams Source: the Journal of Narrative Technique, Vol

Narrative Games: The Frame of "The Turn of the Screw" Author(s): Jeff Williams Source: The Journal of Narrative Technique, Vol. 28, No. 1 (Winter, 1998), pp. 43-55 Published by: Journal of Narrative Theory Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30225481 Accessed: 17-02-2017 14:29 UTC

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This content downloaded from 198.246.186.26 on Fri, 17 Feb 2017 14:29:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Narrative Games: The Frame of The Turn of the Screw

Jeff Williams

The Turn of the Screw has been the site of a long-standing and seemingly intractable critical controversy. What Bruce Robbins ironically calls "The Thirty Years' War" ("shooting" 192) proceeded up to the 1970s over the pivotal question of whether the governess really sees the ghosts-taking her at her word, so it is a ghost story and an entertainment-or whether she hallucinates-taking her as unreliable, innocently due to her youth and inexperience or to her sexual repression and confusion, or more ominously due to her mental disorder or her manipulative scheming. Most early (pre- New Critical) readings see the novel unproblematically as a ghost story, after the manner of the gothic, and find support in James's efforts, after failing as a playwright, to write a sensationalist bestseller-in his famous formulation, a potboiler. The first parry against these unassuming readings is generally attributed to Edmund Wilson, who, in "The Ambiguity of Henry James," finds the governess to be a patent example of Freudian psy- chology and repression (underscoring the phallic topoi, such as the tower Quint stands on, the mast Flora tries to insert into the boat at the lake, etc.), and inaugurates the more sophisticated line of reading that the governess suffers from psychosexual delusion.1 Cumulatively, this vein of criticism demonstrates an exercise of critical virtuoso, posing progres- sively more elaborate and nuanced readings of the text.

The Journal of Narrative Technique 28.1 (Winter 1998): 43-55. Copyright a 1998 by The Journal of Narrative Technique.

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This debate has become so entrenched that more recent critics question whether it is possible to read The Turn of the Screw any longer, and take it then to be an exemplary metacritical text, offering a case study of the processes of interpretation. Vincent Pecora, for example, argues that: "The story has now become almost completely a metacritical one: we cannot lit- erally see the story but through the nearly opaque screen of more than half a century of critical argument" (28). Brenda Murphy lists a plethora of interpretive variations (nearly one hundred) and concludes that the lack of critical consensus indicates a kind of critical relativism, by which readings are dependent upon where one is standing" (200). Dieter Freundlieb makes a similar point, taking The Turn of the Screw to be a case study in hermeneutics and arguing that critics apply their particular "knowledge frames" to the text, hence generating the multiplicity of interpretations. While this conclusion strikes me as reductive and finally trivial-after all, every text is encountered by the frame of the interpreter-the critical conversation clearly demonstrates a saturation of if not impasse in interpretive possibilities.2 Partly as a result of this saturation, and probably also as a result of the general poststructural attention to marginal and reflexive features, the frame has been enlisted in the recent reception as an untapped resource to help adjudicate the status of the governess's story. In the early criticism, the frame is elided or taken as a garnish to the governess's story. For those few critics who mention it, they primarily read it as a preparatory toner. Alexander Jones, in a 1959 PMLA article, represents the general tenor of this line of commentary, noting that the prologue "set[s] the mood at the proper emotional pitch" (112). More recently, Susan Crowl calls for consideration of the ignored frame, noting that the frame's open-endedness- its singulative occurrence in an introductory frame-"demands a flexible reading" (122). Still, she concludes that, "Considering the minute attention given to the rest of the tale, this inattention is probably not critical oversight. It is not uncritical to view the frame of a ghost story as a purely conventional, and critically expendable, piece of machinery" (110). William Goetz also points out the singulative occurrence of the frame, al- though he charges it more negatively than Crowl, finding that it frustrates interpretation since it refuses the completion that a closing frame would presumably provide (73). Richard Rust goes a step further, indicting the frame's incompleteness, claiming that "the story ends terribly unframed

This content downloaded from 198.246.186.26 on Fri, 17 Feb 2017 14:29:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms The Frame of The Turn of the Screw 45 with the shocking death of Miles. The horror is accentuated by the under- mining of the frame structure itself, something we counted on to provide control" (444).3 In short, then, this group of readings focuses on the frame but finds its formal asymmetry to reinforce if not precipitate problems en- gendered by the governess's story. Focusing more closely on the various layers of the frame, Anthony Mazzella, Michael Taylor, Shoshana Felman, and Bernard Duyfhuizen underscore its complications, Mazzella noting that the governess's manuscript is mediated through Douglas's transcription and editing, and Taylor the mediation of the unidentified (unnamed, uncharacterized, ungendered) first narrator. Felman, in her influential "Turning the Screw of Interpreta- tion," notes the "echoing effect" of the three narrators ("I," Douglas, and the governess) and the "narrative chain" of displacement they present, which works to dissimulate an origin and thus a fixed point of reference for the story. Felman goes on to extend the chain of displacement to the critical reception and finally to the larger question of interpretation, finding that the frame emblematizes the transferential relation and psychoanalytic process (see esp. 119-33). Duyfhuizen deciphers five layers of transmission compacted in the frame (the narrator's account, the narrator's previous transcription, Douglas's reading, Douglas's receipt of the manuscript, and Douglas's original transcription), and finds that "the prologue, which is supposed to establish a meaningful context for the manuscript, is lost in a regress of transmissions and transformations" (169). Together, these readings find that the frame, contrary to normal expectation, undermines an authoritative source and therefore lends to the ambiguity of the governess's story.4 Overall, then, current attention to the frame works to support the consensus view that the text poses an interpretive dilemma, and enlists the frame as a corroborating point of evidence. While these readings have a certain cogency and explanatory force-The Turn of the Screw and its vexed history of reception no doubt speak to the problematics of interpretation as well as the workings of the critical institution-they tacitly as- sume a particular model of the text and of textual representation. That is, they judge the text under the criteria of realism, a criteria that assigns pri- ority to the plausibility of actual occurrence. Whether or not one believes the governess, the criticism prescribes verisimilitude: if the governess is reliable, the ghosts "exist" and the tale portrays the characters in a realistic

This content downloaded from 198.246.186.26 on Fri, 17 Feb 2017 14:29:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 46 1 N T scenario reacting in plausible ways to the disturbing intrusion of what we would now call paranormal activity. As on The X Files, the paranormal activity is coded in realistic terms, that it might actually happen in the midst of otherwise normal everyday life. The ghost story is effective and fright- ening insofar as that context is believable and within the realm of plausible expectation. But even if one determines the governess is not reliable, then the criticism assigns plausible explanations for her seeing the ghosts-her delusion, her hysteria, her manipulation, and so on. Halluci- nation occurs under the code of realism, since it assigns non-realistic events to psychosis, explaining their aberration from normal and believable everyday events as a depiction of psychological disturbance. The frame, by the dictates of this code of realism, is deemed relevant insofar as it "transmits" the embedded narrative with fidelity and implicitly supports its status, giving further testimony to the reliability or unreliability of the governess's story. The frustration of the frame of The Turn of the Screw- as evidenced by the extant criticism-is that it does not provide this support or definitively figure verifying testimony, one way or the other. However, contrary to this normative assumption of realism, I would pose that the governess's story, or more precisely the story that Douglas recounts, conspicuously draws on codes of narrative fantasy-motifs from the fairy tale, as well as gothic romance-and evokes a heightened storyworld. It does this to evoke a winning narrative performance, as Douglas immodestly declares his intention at the beginning, doubling the previous stakes of their storytelling to two turns of the screw. In other words, it does not matter if it is plausible, but if it is an enthralling tale. As Mary Hallab points out in "The Governess and the Demon Lover: The Return of a Fairy Tale," the governess's story invokes two prominent fairy tale motifs: "that of the rescue of children from fairies, demons, or revenants, and that of the maiden seduced into the 'Other World' by a fairy or demon master or lover.. ." (109). Hallab also notes the consonance of the frame with that of folktales-received from a "friend of a friend" of an actual participant, in the folklorist Jan Brunvand's phrase5-and that specific analogues were widely circulated in nineteenth-century England, including those published in Popular Romances of the West of England (1865). The import of Hallab's argument is not to confirm the ghost story, but to redefine the criteria for reading The Turn of the Screw. In fairy tales, the question of plausibility or realism is of little consequence: people see

This content downloaded from 198.246.186.26 on Fri, 17 Feb 2017 14:29:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms The Frame of The Turn of the Screw 47 ghosts and do business with elves, and animals talk in fairy tales. While Hallab is careful to qualify her argument-she notes the mixing of the modes of folktale and psychological realism-I would stress that the governess's story (or, again, more exactly the story that Douglas recounts) conspicuously signals an alterior storyworld and the other-worldly topoi of fantastic events, whereby the primary aim and expectation is to en- trance rather than to depict a plausible series of events. Given this coding of the embedded narrative, the debate on The Turn of the Screw is misdi- rected in its rather single-minded attention to reliability, and the frame's work in establishing or failing to establish credibility. In this light, more than an instance of narrative authority or validation, the frame of The Turn of the Screw reinforces the expectation of storyworld and encodes the topoi of narrative performance, exchange, and valorization.6 Rather than the rhetoric of realism, it conspicuously inscribes the rhetoric of narrative in several ways: first, by invoking what I would call a narrative locus or space, an extraordinarily amenable location for narrative to take place. The characters are huddled "round the hearth," "on Christmas Eve in an old house as a strange tale should essentially be" (James 3). The narrative is depicted as natural and indigenous to that location, and seems inevitably to issue from it-again, by the dictates of the code of narrative, not of realism ("as a strange tale should essentially be"). Second, related to this, the frame evokes an exceptionally propitious time for narrative, marked not only by leisure, by a void that narrative conve- niently fills, but by anticipation and necessity (the characters are "breathless" awaiting the story). Even though the audience seemingly cannot wait for the narrative ("lost all attention for everything else"), the narrative performance is deferred until after dinner, "till such an hour of the evening as might best accord with the kind of emotion on which our hopes were fixed" (5). This exceeds the parameters of realism; one would expect that, if the group were so desperately anxious, that they would insist on hearing the story as soon as it arrived-but the reference to "such an hour" explicitly invokes the mandate of a narrative time rather than a real time. Together, the explicit attribution of a narrative space and time project a setting exempt from normal daily activities (such as work, in or out of the house), establishing an alterior world of entirely fortuitous conditions for narrative. The frame figures a space for narrative as one of preternatural comfort-at night, encircled around a fire in an elegant, old manor house,

This content downloaded from 198.246.186.26 on Fri, 17 Feb 2017 14:29:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 48 i N T dark and wintry--cold outside, but warm, light, sociably intimate, shel- tered-that harkens an almost primal scene, the family or tribe gathered almost ritualistically "round the hearth" at the end of the day, to hear ge- nealogical or ceremonial narratives, as in the mead hall scene in Beowulf While Shoshana Felman points out the psychoanalytic resonances of the text-the primal scene that she cites is that of the Oedipal struggle-I would stress rather the code of narrative that this scene draws on, depicting the act of narrative in terms of enthrallment if not magical properties, and in terms of the anthropological urge for and social cohesion enacted by the performance and exchange of narrative. Third, the frame depicts a thoroughly engaged narrative circle ("our hushed little circle"), a group of what Gerald Prince calls "narratees,"7 who receive the narrative and participate in its dynamic of exchange, as well as a narrator who delivers a narrative. In other words, the frame does not simply recount the action of what Tzvetan Todorov calls a "Narrative- Man," which he defines as a character whose primary function is the act of narrative, with passive or invisible auditors, but the full complicity and explicit characterization of the narrative circle. Expanding Todorov's de- finition, I would describe all of the characters as Narrative-People, whose function is their participation in the narrative performance. Gathered "round the hearth," they are bonded by their shared desire for (if not addiction to, as Avital Ronell puts it in Crack Wars) narrative. Fourth, this depiction charges that desire for narrative in extremely exaggerated and frequently campy terms-as one character exclaims while awaiting the narrative, "Oh, how delicious!"-and the frame is rife with hyperbolic claims for the value and entrancing power of narrative ("breathless," "lost all attention"). These tags, postulating the value of narrative in indiscrim- inately excessive terms, I would call narrative adverts. The circle is first baited when Douglas, claiming that his promised story will outdo the previous breath-taking one, states that "It's beyond everything. Nothing at all that I know touches it" (1). When his narration is postponed, the circle responds with a "unanimous groan, and much re- proach," and several "resent postponement." All of this stems, implausibly enough, from the few hints that Douglas has given. The circle, rather un- questioningly, has been "worked ... up ... subject to a common thrill," and one person unreservedly interjects, "Oh I can't wait for the story" (4). The lure of narrative is so powerful and all-consuming that the primary

This content downloaded from 198.246.186.26 on Fri, 17 Feb 2017 14:29:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms The Frame of The Turn of the Screw 49 narrator, seemingly an impartial witness, says, "We lost all attention for everything else." No ordinary entertainment, this; the promise of narrative not only transfixes the circle but suspends time, since the account elides the three days of waiting to a general state of narrative anxiety. The scene poses not a realistic scenario in which one might suspect Douglas's self- interest and discount his bragging, and in which the characters engage in other, normal activities over three days, but limits its focus and rhetorical force to the hypervalorization of narrative, invoking an allegorical tropog- raphy of a narrative world, that codes narrative in the most extreme of terms, figuring all of the characters as registers of that world (one might name them, in the manner of medieval allegories, [Narrative] Hunger, Im- patience, and Prurience). The frame of The Turn of the Screw, then, con- structs not a perfunctory lead-in to the story-to-come, but this allegorical scene of the narrative of narrative. Within this rhetorical context, the frame specifically elaborates a dramatistic scenario recounting the performance of not one embedded narrative-Douglas's delivery of the governess's story--but three: the grue- some story told on Christmas eve that holds everyone breathless and deals with a visitation to one child, which has just ended when the narrative starts, followed by a "story [that is] not particularly effective," and then finally Douglas' story, which is hinted at, baited, and teasingly delayed. In other words, the frame does not simply prepare for or launch the governess's story, but begins in media res in a larger round of storytelling, in an "imagined" world where the center of concern is narrative, and depicts the performance of competing narratives. The motivation for Douglas' story is explicitly to outdo the previous one, Griffin's. The ineffective story serves as a cushion or entre-act between the two rival stories. Dou- glas overtly demonstrates a kind of narratorial one-upsmanship; he claims to top Griffin's story: "If the child gives the effect another turn of the screw, what do you say to two children?" A more accurate title might then be Two Turns of the Screw, but the question of turns suggests not merely the twists of plot or content of the embedded narrative per se but the value of a doubly winning performance.8 The remark of a "turn" comments on the compellingness and desirability of the narrative performance, as a measure of its "price" within the narrative circle for the prize of best narration.

In this sense, the textual emblem of the frame of The Turn of the Screw

This content downloaded from 198.246.186.26 on Fri, 17 Feb 2017 14:29:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 50 1 N T is competition, all the characters constituted as Narrative-People, gleefully participating in and rooting on the game of narrative, Douglas and Griffin taking up roles as prime players, and the first narrator acting as witness as well as participant in the circle ("held us"). Against the grain of the general line of criticism on The Turn of the Screw, I would argue that the embedded narrative therefore functions to satisfy the terms of this game, and thus its significance lies in its promise as an extraordinary, phantasmal tale. And while the stakes of the narrative game seem almost frivolous- they are certainly not a matter of life and death (as in One Thousand and One Nights), or of a dire personal confession (as in, say, Sophie's Choice)-the scenario postulates the unquestioned reach and pull of narrative affectivity, implicating all who come in contact with it. In this, it codes the social force of narrative, rather than its intimate private value; a scenario depicting a limited, more intimate circle (for instance, Nelly's telling Lockwood in Wuthering Heights, or the narrator's conspiratorial whisper in Camus's The Fall) would carry the different stakes of personal investment and individual psychological need, rather than figuring a scene of ritual, group entertainment. Rather than its authenticity as an actual event, the frame of The Turn of the Screw testifies to the utter exceptionality of the story, its peerless status as a consumable entertainment, and its desirability to the narrative circle. In "The Storyteller," Walter Benjamin distinguishes two purposes of stories: first, to teach or to give useful information, whose end is truth and to establish factuality; and second, to relay a fantastic incident, as in horror stories. While The Turn of the Screw seems to fulfill this second function, the frame encodes this other purpose: the end is narrative enthrallment, re- flexively to valorize the narrative and advertise its extraordinary value in the pantheon of stories-an undeniable potboiler, in Jamesian terms. The generating textual motivation is competition rather than, say, representation or plausibility, as one might expect to establish factuality or to natu- ralize the fantastic element of a horror story. The critical conversation embedding the story uncannily echoes the tex- tualization of narrative competition, in a sense duplicating the action of the frame. Early readings do this by displacing the frame, in effect playing out the scenario that the frame draws, to establish a winning account. Later readings appropriate the frame, enlisting it as a kind of interpretive proxy to support their various competing critical frames. I would speculate that part

This content downloaded from 198.246.186.26 on Fri, 17 Feb 2017 14:29:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms The Frame of The Turn of the Screw 51 of the attractiveness of the tale is this register of competition, resonating with current professional practice to supplant previous readings and achieve a virtuoso performance. As Lawrence Lipking shows in "Competitive Read- ing" and Richard Levin demonstrates in New Readings vs. Old Plays, a cru- cial protocol of criticism is not to add cumulatively to the conversation, but precisely to discredit previous readings-in one manifestation, as Levin puts it, showing how "my theme can lick your theme"-thereby generating a winning new reading. This is not to trivialize the range of critical argument, but to underscore how it is implicated in and repeats the textual emblem, the language game that the text lays out as paradigmatic of narrative and dis- course, due not to pique or vanity but to the economy of the critical institution and codified by the parameters of professional legitimation and accomplishment: to provide more and better "scholarship." Finally, while the text codes the urge for narrative as pervasive and all-consuming, it locates the exchange socioculturally, as a distinctively classed taste, accouterment, and desire. It presents what seems a univer- sal valorization of narrative as human desire and drive, but that desire is specified as a class refinement, located in a tableau of high society-it occurs, after all, in an English "country house," on holiday-and of characters who have had governesses and the education to appreciate and purvey literature and literary refinement (the turns of the screw), and who have the leisure and resources to indulge such consumption. This explicit classing of narrative affect differs from the depiction of the narrative circle in, say, Wuthering Heights, which spans across class, as well as age and gender, lines (Nelly the old servant telling Lockwood the young gentleman). The frame of The Turn of the Screw poses literature-and specifically the literary taste for refined narratives of entertainment-as a sign of cultural capital and class accomplishment. The narrative scenario succinctly describes what Thorstein Veblen identified at the turn of the last century as the conspicuous leisure and conspicuous consumption of the upper classes, coding literature on the one hand as a property and right of those classes, and on the other as a possible attain- ment, the ideological lesson being that the lesser classes might move up the class ladder by possessing it.

East Carolina University Greenville, North Carolina

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Notes

1. To be precise, Edna Kenton was the first to focus on the governess's "disharmonies" in a 1924 article, "Henrv James and the Ruminant Reader: The Turn of the Screw." Wil- son's "The Ambiguity of Henry James" was first published in 1934. For the represen- tative positions in this long-running debate, see Gerald Willen, ed., A Casebook on Henry James's The Turn of the Screw. See Felman 119-120 for a survey of the debate. See also Christine Brooke-Rose's massive "The Squirm of the True," esp. 265-294.

2. Paul G. Armstrong's "History and Epistemology" extends the hermeneutic impasse to its bearing on historical understanding. A few very recent readings suggest a new di- rection in the criticism, for instance Bruce Robbins' "'They don't much count, do

they?': The Unfinished History of The Turn of the Screw," and Priscilla L. Walton's "'What then on earth was I?': Feminine Subjectivity and the Turn of the Screw." Both read the class relations undergirding the text; for Robbins, Quint represents the spec- tral assertion of the new underclasses, and for Walton, both class and gender constrain the governess.

3. For a response to Rust, see Paul G. Beidler, who argues that the frame heightens rather than undermines the narrative (48).

4. Two recent readings, while not focusing on the frame per se, argue that the frame records the tension in the imposition of gendered authority on the governess's story; see Newman and Pearson. Additionally, John Carlos Rowe sees the prologue as part of the general struggle for authority-in class as well as gendered terms-for rightful possession of Bly against the Uncle.

5. This apposition of a "friend of a friend" effects validation paradoxically by positing but making inaccessible a verifiable source.

6. In an application of possible world theory-which is perhaps the cutting edge of recent narratology-to The Turn of the Screw, Jose Antonio Alvarez Amoros proposes to solve the dilemma of reliability and authentification by demarcating the "global real world" indicated by the frame and the "imagined subworld" of the governess's story. According to Amoros, this split results in a hybrid of authentic and fictitious text, which generates the tension of its reliability (60-61). However, this conceptual distinction projects a literal status for the frame, as if it were outside the fictive construct of narrative; instead, I would say that it obviously elaborates a fictive scenario, of characters engaged in action-an alternative plot of a narrative performance-and, further, the frame invokes precisely the "imagined" world of narrative, of the motifs and topoi of narratives of the world (mobilizing those from the folktale on down). On

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this tendency of narrative criticism to literalize and externalize depictions of narrative performance, see Williams, Theory and the Novel.

7. As Prince astutely observes, "All narration... presupposes not only (at least) one narrator but also (at least) one narratee, the narratee being someone whom the narrator ad- dresses" (7). While the distinction between the actual author and the represented per- sona of the author is a commonplace of narrative criticism, this apposition of the "reader" has been largely neglected. And while the attribution of a narratee might be implicit (linguistically and rhetorically), in The Turn of the Screw it is very much explicit.

8. For a consideration of the title-as an emblem of the figurative "turns" of the text (i.e., its ambiguity)-see Sawyer.

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