Eleven Myths about the Also by Dan Haulman 1 2 The Air Force and 3 Humanitarian Airlift Operations, 1947–1994 (1998) 4 Air Force Aerial Victory Credits: 5 6 World War I, World War II, Korea, and Vietnam (1988) 7 One Hundred Years of Flight: USAF Chronology of 8 Significant Air and Space Events, 1903–2002 (2003) 9 Inspirations (2005) 10 11 : An Illustrated History (2011) 12 The Tuskegee Airmen and the 13 “Never Lost a Bomber” Myth (2011) 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 1 2 3 Eleven Myths 4 5 6 7 about the 8 9 10 11 Tuskegee 12 13 14 15 Airmen 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Dan Haulman 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 NewSouth Books 33 Montgomery 34 NewSouth Books 1 105 S. Court Street Montgomery, AL 36104 2 3 4 Copyright © 2012 by Daniel Haulman All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright 5 Conventions. Published in the United States by NewSouth Books, a division of 6 NewSouth, Inc., Montgomery, Alabama. 7 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 8 9 Haulman, Daniel L. (Daniel Lee), 1949– Ten myths about the Tuskegee Airmen / Dan Haulman. 10 11 p. cm. 12

Includes bibliographical references and index. 13 14 ISBN-13: 978-1-60306-147-6 (pbk.) 15 ISBN-10: 1-60306-147-9 (pbk.) ISBN-13: 978-1-60306-148-3 (ebook) 16 ISBN-10: 1-60306-148-7 (ebook) 17 18 1. United States. Army Air Forces. Fighter Group, 332nd—History. 2. World War, 1939–1945—Participation, African American. 3. World War, 1939– 19 1945—Aerial operations, American. 4. African American air pilots—History. 5. 20 United States. Army Air Forces. Air Force, 15th—History. [1. Tuskegee Army Air Field (Ala.)—History.] I. Title. 21 D790.252332nd .H38 2012 22 940.54’4973—dc23 23

2011052274 24 25 Printed in the United States of America 26

27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I would like to dedicate this 8 to the late Lt. Col. William H. Holloman III, 9 one of the original Tuskegee Airmen. I knew him well. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 1 2 Contents 3 4 Eleven Myths About the Tuskegee Airmen / 9 5 6 Myth 1 Inferiority / 11 7 Myth 2 “Never Lost a Bomber” / 14 8 9 Myth 3 The Deprived Ace / 20 10 Myth 4 Being the First to Shoot Down German Jets / 30 11 Myth 5 The Tuskegee Airmen Sank a 12 German Destroyer / 33 13 14 Myth 6 The “Great Train Robbery” / 34 15 Myth 7 Superiority / 36 16 17 Myth 8 The Tuskegee Airmen Units were All Black / 44 18 Myth 9 All Tuskegee Airmen were Fighter Pilots who Flew 19 Red-Tailed P-15s to Escort Bombers / 47 20 Myth 10 Eleanor Roosevelt Persuaded the President to 21 Establish a Black Flying Unit in the 22 Army Air Corps / 49 23 24 Myth 11 The Tuskegee Airmen Earned 150 Distinguished 25 Flying Crosses during World War II / 51 26 Conclusion / 59 27 28 Notes / 60 29 About the Author / 64 30 31 32 33 34 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 1 2 3 4 5 Eleven Myths About 6 7 the Tuskegee Airmen 8 9 10 he members of the 332d Fighter Group and the 99th, 100th, 11 301st, and 302d Fighter Squadrons during World War II are 12 remembered in part because they were the only African-American 13 pilotsT who served in combat with the Army Air Forces during World War 14 II. Because they trained at Tuskegee Army Air Field before and during the 15 war, they are sometimes called the Tuskegee Airmen. In the more than 16 sixty years since World War II, several stories have grown up about the 17 Tuskegee Airmen, some of them true and some of them false. This paper 18 focuses on eleven myths about the Tuskegee Airmen that, in light of the 19 historical documentation available at the Air Force Historical Research 20 Agency, and sources at the Air University Library, are not accurate. That 21 documentation includes monthly histories of the 99th Fighter Squad- 22 ron, the 332d Fighter Group and the 477th Bombardment Group, the 23 332d Fighter Group’s daily narrative mission reports, orders issued by 24 the Twelfth and Fifteenth Air Forces, mission folders, 25 and missing air crew reports. 26 I will address each of the following eleven myths separately: 27 1. The Myth of Inferiority 28 2. The Myth of “Never Lost a Bomber” 29 3. The Myth of the Deprived Ace 30 4. The Myth of Being First to Shoot Down German Jets 31 5. The Myth that the Tuskegee Airmen sank a German destroyer 32 6. The Myth of the “Great Train Robbery” 33 7. The Myth of Superiority 34 8. The Myth that the Tuskegee Airmen units were all black 10 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

9. The Myth that all Tuskegee Airmen were fighter pilots who flew 1 red-tailed P-51s to escort bombers 2 10. The Myth that Eleanor Roosevelt persuaded the President to 3 establish a black flying unit in the Army Air Corps 4 11. The Myth that the Tuskegee Airmen Earned 150 Distinguished 5 Flying Crosses during World War II 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 Inferiority 11

1 Myth 1 2 3 4 5 Inferiority 6 7 8 The first misconception regarding the Tuskegee Airmen was that they 9 were inferior. The myth was that black pilots could not perform as well in 10 combat as their white counterparts. This misconception developed even 11 before the 99th Fighter Squadron deployed as the first African-American 12 Army Air Forces organization in combat. On October 30, 1925, the War 13 College of the U.S. Army issued a memorandum entitled, “The Use of 14 Negro Manpower in War.” The memorandum noted that Negroes were 15 inferior to whites and encouraged continued segregation within the Ar- 16 my.1 Even during the squadron’s operations in North Africa, authorities 17 challenged its right to remain in combat. 18 In September 1943, Major General Edwin J. House, commander 19 of the XII Air Support Command, sent a memorandum to Maj. Gen. 20 John K. Cannon, Deputy Commander of the Northwest African Tacti- 21 cal Air Force, suggesting that the 99th Fighter Squadron had failed to 22 demonstrate effectiveness in combat, and should be taken out of the 23 combat zone. The memorandum was based on information from Col. 24 William Momyer, commander of the 33rd Fighter Group, to which the 25 99th Fighter Squadron had been attached.2 26 Following the House memorandum, which went up the chain of 27 command all the way to the headquarters of the Army Air Forces, the 28 Statistical Control Division, Office of Management Control, War Depart- 29 ment, conducted an official study to compare the performance of the 99th 30 Fighter Squadron with that of other P-40 units in the . 31 The subsequent report, released on March 30, 1944, concluded that the 32 99th Fighter Squadron had performed as well as the other squadrons.3 33 As you can see from the table below, there were seven fighter groups of 34 the Fifteenth Air Force flying primarily bomber escort missions between 12 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

June 1944 and the end of April 1945. In terms of aerial victory credits, 1 which is one good measure of combat performance, the 332d Fighter 2 Group did not score the lowest number. In fact, its total number of aerial 3 victory credits was higher than that of two of the white groups. 4 5 Table I: Fighter Groups of the Fifteenth Air Force in World War II 6 Organization Aerial victories June 1944–April 1945 7 1st Fighter Group 72 8 14th Fighter Group 85 9 31st Fighter Group 278 10 52d Fighter Group 224.5 11 82d Fighter Group 106 12 325th Fighter Group 252 13 14 332d Fighter Group 94 15 Sources: USAF Historical Study No. 85, “USAF Credits for the Destruc- 16 tion of Enemy Aircraft, World War II” (Washington, DC: Office of Air 17 Force History, 1978); Maurer Maurer, Air Force Combat Units of World 18 War II (Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1983). 19 20 I should mention, however, that both of the groups scoring lower num- 21 bers of aerial victories than the Tuskegee Airmen in the same period were 22 flying P-38 aircraft, and the 332d Fighter Group was flying, for all but 23 one month of the period, P-51 aircraft, which had a higher speed and 24 range than the P-38s. Of the four P-51 fighter groups in the Fifteenth 25 Air Force, the 31st, 52nd, 325th, and 332nd, the 332nd Fighter Group 26 shot down fewer enemy aircraft in the same period. It is possible that the 27 Tuskegee Airmen shot down fewer enemy aircraft than the other P-51 28 fighter groups, and did not have any aces, because they were staying closer 29 to the bombers they were escorting, as ordered, and not abandoning the 30 bombers to chase after enemy aircraft in the distance. Twenty-seven of 31 the bombers in groups the 332d Fighter Group was assigned to escort 32 were shot down by enemy aircraft. The average number of bombers shot 33 down by enemy aircraft while under the escort of the other groups of 34 Inferiority 13

1 the Fifteenth Air Force was 46. The Tuskegee Airmen lost significantly 2 fewer bombers than the average number lost by the other fighter groups 3 in the Fifteenth Air Force. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 14 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

Myth 2 1 2 3 4 “Never Lost a Bomber” 5 6 7 nother misconception that developed during the last months of 8 the war is the story that no bomber under escort by the Tuskegee 9 Airmen was ever shot down by enemy aircraft. A version of this 10 misconceptionA appears in Alan Gropman’s book, The Air Force Integrates 11 (Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1985), p. 14: “Their re- 12 cord on escort duty remained unparalleled. They never lost an American 13 bomber to enemy aircraft.” This misconception originated even before 14 the end of World War II, in the press. A version of the statement first 15 appeared in a March 10, 1945 issue of Liberty Magazine, in an article 16 by Roi Ottley, who claimed that the black pilots had not lost a bomber 17 they escorted to enemy aircraft in more than 100 missions. The 332d 18 Fighter Group had by then flown more than 200 missions. Two weeks 19 after the Ottley article, on March 24, 1945, another article appeared 20 in the Chicago Defender, claiming that in more than 200 missions, the 21 group had not lost a bomber they escorted to enemy aircraft. In reality, 22 bombers under Tuskegee Airmen escort were shot down on seven dif- 23 ferent days: June 9, 1944; June 13, 1944; July 12, 1944; July 18, 1944; 24 July 20, 1944; August 24, 1944; and March 24, 1945.4 Moreover, the 25 Tuskegee Airmen flew 311 missions for the Fifteenth Air Force between 26 early June 1944 and late April 1945, and only 179 of those missions 27 escorted bombers. 28 Alan Gropman interviewed General Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., years 29 after World War II, and specifically asked him if the “never lost a 30 bomber” statement were true. General Davis replied that he questioned 31 the statement, but that it had been repeated so many times people were 32 coming to believe it (AFHRA call number K239.0512-1922). 5 Davis 33 himself must have known the statement was not true, because his own 34 “Never Lost a Bomber” 15

1 citation for the Distinguished Flying Cross, contained in Fifteenth Air 2 Force General Order 2972 dated August 31, 1944, noted that on June 3 9, 1944,“Colonel Davis so skillfully disposed his squadrons that in spite 4 of the large number of enemy fighters, the bomber formation suffered 6 5 only a few losses.” 6 In order to determine whether or not bombers under the escort of the 7 Tuskegee Airmen were ever shot down by enemy aircraft during World 8 War II, I practiced the following method. 9 First, I determined which bombardment wing the Tuskegee Airmen 10 were escorting on a given day, and when and where that escort took 11 place. I found this information in the daily narrative mission reports 12 of the 332d Fighter Group, which are filed with the group’s monthly 13 histories from World War II. The call number for these documents at 14 the Air Force Historical Research Agency is GP-332-HI followed by the 15 month and year. 16 Next, I determined which bombardment groups were in the bom- 17 bardment wing that the Tuskegee Airmen were escorting on the day in 18 question. I found this information in the daily mission folders of the 19 Fifteenth Air Force. The Fifteenth Air Force daily mission folders also 20 contain narrative mission reports for all the groups that took part in 21 missions on any given day, including reports of both the fighter and 22 bombardment groups, as well as the wings to which they belonged. The 23 call number for these documents at the Air Force Historical Research 24 Agency is 670.332 followed by the date. The bombardment group daily 25 mission reports show which days bombers of the group were shot down 26 by enemy aircraft. 27 Next, I checked the index of the Missing Air Crew Reports, to see 28 if the groups that the Tuskegee Airmen were escorting that day lost any 29 aircraft. If any aircraft of those groups were lost that day, I recorded the 30 missing air crew report numbers. This index of Missing Air Crew Reports 31 is located in the archives branch of the Air Force Historical Research 32 Agency. The Missing Air Crew Reports usually confirmed the bomber 33 loss information contained in the bombardment group daily narrative 34 mission reports. 16 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

Finally, I looked at the individual Missing Air Crew Reports of the 1 Tuskegee Airmen-escorted groups that lost airplanes on that day to see 2 when the airplanes were lost, where the airplanes were lost, and whether 3 the airplanes were lost because of enemy aircraft fire, enemy antiaircraft 4 fire, or some other cause. The Missing Air Crew Reports note that in- 5 formation for each aircraft lost, with the aircraft type and serial number, 6 and usually also contain witness statements that describe the loss. For 7 lost bombers, the witnesses were usually the crew members of other 8 bombers in the same formation, or members of the crews of the lost 9 bombers themselves, after they returned. The Missing Air Crew Reports 10 are filed on microfiche in the archives branch of the Air Force Historical 11 Research Agency. 12 Using this procedure, I determined conclusively that on at least seven 13 days, bombers under the escort of the Tuskegee Airmen’s 332d Fighter 14 Group were shot down by enemy aircraft. Those days include June 9, 15 1944; June 13, 1944; July 12, 1944; July 18, 1944; July 20, 1944; August 16 7 24, 1944; and March 24, 1945. 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 “Never Lost a Bomber” 17

1 2

3 Report Missing Missing Air Crew Air Crew 6856 7034 6895 6894 6097 6179 6317 6976 6975 6954 6953 4 5 6

7 Group 483 461 461 461 484 459 459 483 483 483 483 8 9

10 WG 5 49 49 49 49 304 304 5 5 5 11 5 12 13 14 Sserial Number 15 42-107008 42-107179 42-78291 42-78202 42-52723 42-94741 42-52318 42-78219 42-97671 44-6174 42-102862 16 17

18 Type B-17 B-17 B-24 B-24 B-24 B-24 B-24 B-24 B-17 B-17 19 B-17 20 21 22 23 Location

24 was Assigned to Escort Group the 332D Fighter 25 near Memmingen near Memmingen 43 N, 05 23 E 10 miles E of France Mirabeau, 20 miles SE of France Mirabeau, Porogruardo, Porogruardo, 46 00 N, 12 40 E 46 40 N, 12 E near Memmingen near Memmingen near Memmingen 26 27

28 in Groups while Flying Airccraft Enemy by Down II: Bombers Shot Table Time 29 1045–1100 1045–1100 1105 1051 1050 0900 0907 0905 1045–1100 1045–1100 1045–1100 30 31 32

33 Date 18 July 1944 18 July 18 July 1944 18 July 12 July 1944 12 July 12 July 1944 12 July 12 July 1944 12 July 13 June 1944 13 June 9 June 1944 9 June 9 June 1944 9 June 18 July 1944 18 July 18 July 1944 18 July 34 1944 18 July 18 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

1 2 3 13375 13274 13278 7971 6919 6914 7310 7153 7099 7098 7097 6981 6980 6979 6978 6977 4 5 6 7 463 463 463 97 485 485 301 483 483 483 483 483 483 483 483 483 8 9 10 5 5 5 5 55 55 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 11 12 13 14 15 44-8159 44-6761 44-6283 42-31645 42-78361 44-40886 42-102943 42-107172 44-6177 42-102422 42-46267 42-97584 42-102927 42-102923 42-107170 42-102382 16 17 18 B-17 B-17 B-17 B-17 B-24 B-24 B-17 B-17 B-17 B-17 B-17 B-17 B-17 B-17 B-17 B-17 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Berlin target area Berlin 51 00 N, 13 10 E 52 05 N, 13 10 E 49 28 N, 15 25 E 45 38 N, 12 28 E 45 38 N, 12 28 E 47 54 N, 10 40 E near Memmingen near Memmingen near Memmingen near Memmingen near Memmingen near Memmingen near Memmingen near Memmingen near Memmingen 26 27 28 29 1227 1208 1200 1245–1247 0954 1000 1104 1045–1100 1045–1100 1045–1100 1045–1100 1045–1100 1045–1100 1045–1100 1045–1100 1045–1100 30 31 32 33 24 Mar 1945 24 Mar 24 Mar 1945 24 Mar 24 Mar 1945 24 Mar 24 Aug 1944 24 Aug 20 Jul 1944 20 Jul 20 Jul 1944 20 Jul 18 July 1944 18 July 18 July 1944 18 July 18 July 1944 18 July 18 July 1944 18 July 18 July 1944 18 July 18 July 1944 18 July 18 July 1944 18 July 18 July 1944 18 July 18 July 1944 18 July 18 July 1944 18 July 34 “Never Lost a Bomber” 19

1 Primary Sources: Daily mission reports of the 332d Fighter Group (Air 2 Force Historical Research Agency call number GP-332-HI); Daily mis- 3 sion reports of the bombardment groups the 332d Fighter Group was 4 assigned to escort per day, from the daily mission folders of the Fifteenth 5 Air Force (Air Force Historical Research Agency call number 670.332); 6 Microfiche of Missing Air Crew Reports (MACRs) at the Air Force 7 Historical Research Agency, indexed by date and group. 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 20 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

Myth 3 1 2 3 4 The Deprived Ace 5 6 7 nother popular misconception that circulated after World War 8 II which is not true is that white officers were determined to 9 prevent any black man in the Army Air Forces from becoming 10 anA ace, and therefore reduced the aerial victory credit total of 11 from five to less than five to accomplish their aim. A version of this 12 misconception appears in the Oliver North compilation, War Stories III 13 ((Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, Inc., 2005), p. 152.8 In reality, 14 according to the World War II records of the 332d Fighter Group and 15 its squadrons, which were very carefully kept by members of the group, 16 Lee Archer claimed a total of four aerial victories during World War II, 17 and received credit for every claim.9 18 The myth that Lee Archer was an ace was perpetuated in part because of 19 an excerpt in the book The Tuskegee Airmen (Boston: Bruce Humphries, 20 Inc., 1955), by Charles E. Francis. In that book, Francis notes an aerial 21 victory for July 20, 1944, but the history of the 332d Fighter Group 22 for July 1944, the mission report of the 332d Fighter Group for July 23 20, 1944, and the aerial victory credit orders issued by the Fifteenth Air 24 Force in 1944 do not support the claim.10 25 World War II documents, including monthly histories of the 332d 26 Fighter Group and Twelfth and Fifteenth Air Force general orders award- 27 ing aerial victory credits show that Lee Archer claimed and was awarded 28 a total of four aerial victory credits during World War II, one on July 29 18, 1944, and three on October 12, 1944. There is no evidence among 30 these documents that Lee Archer ever claimed any more than four enemy 31 aircraft destroyed in the air during the war, and he was never awarded 32 any more than four. A fifth was never taken away or downgraded to half. 33 Moreover, there is no evidence, among the documents, that there was any 34 The Deprived Ace 21

1 effort to prevent any members of the 332d Fighter Group from becom- 2 ing an ace. When claims were made, they were recorded and evaluated 3 by a victory credit board that decided, using witness statements and gun 4 camera film, whether to award credits, which were confirmed by general 5 orders of the Fifteenth Air Force. There is no evidence that the black 6 claims were treated any differently than the white claims. If there had 7 been such discrimination in the evaluation of claims, Colonel Benjamin 8 O. Davis, Jr., the leader of the group would have most likely complained, 9 and there is no evidence of any such complaint. To think that someone 10 or some group was totaling the number of aerial victory credits of each 11 of the members of the various squadrons of the 332d Fighter Group and 12 intervening to deny credit to anyone who might become an ace is not 13 consistent with the aerial victory credit procedures of the day. 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 22 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

1 2 3 4 5

GO # 6 7 8 9 32 XII ASC 7 Sep 43 32 XII ASC 7 Sep 44 66 XII AF 24 May 44 122 XII AF 7 Aug 44 66 XII AF 24 May 44 122 XII AF 7 Aug 44 66 XII AF 24 May 44 122 XII AF 7 Aug 44 66 XII AF 24 May 44 66 XII AF 24 May 44 122 XII AF 7 Aug 44 66 XII AF 24 May 44 81 XII AF 22 Jun 44 122 XII AF 7 Aug 44 64 XII AF 22 May 44 66 XII AF 24 May 10 11 12 13

Downed Downed 14

1 FW-190 0.5 FW-190 1 FW-190 1 FW-190 1 FW-190 0.5 FW-190 1 FW-190 1 FW-190 1 FW-190 1 FW-190 1 FW-190 1 FW-190 1 FW-190 1 FW-190 1 ME-109 1 FW-190 15 16 17

Unit 18

99 FS 99 FS 99 FS 99 FS 99 FS 99 FS 99 FS 99 FS 99 FS 99 FS 99 FS 99 FS 99 FS 99 FS 19 20 21 22 23 24 Name 25 26 27

Table III: Chronological Table of 332d Fighter Group Aerial Victory Credits Aerial Group of 332d Fighter Table III: Chronological Table 28 2 Lt Clarence W. Allen W. 2 Lt Clarence Ashley Jr. Willie 1 Lt Bailey 2 Lt Charles P. Baugh 1 Lt Howard Cpt Lemuel R. Custis Deiz W. 1 Lt Robert Eagleson V. Wilson 2 Lt 1 Lt Leon C. Roberts 2 Lt Lewis C. Smith Toppins L. 1 Lt Edward Deiz W. 1 Lt Robert Cpt Charles B. Hall Driver T. 1 Lt Elwood 1 Lt Charles B. Hall 29 30 31

Date 32 33 27 Jan 1944 27 Jan 1944 28 Jan 1944 5 Feb 2 Jul 1943 2 Jul 34 The Deprived Ace 23

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 122 XII AF 7 Aug 44 122 XII AF 7 Aug 44 66 XII AF 24 May 44 66 XII AF 24 May 44 1473 XV AF 30 Jun 44 1473 XV AF 30 Jun 44 1473 XV AF 30 Jun 44 1473 XV AF 30 Jun 44 2032 XV AF 23 Jul 44 2466 XV AF Aug 44 2030 XV AF 23 Jul 44 2029 XV AF 23 Jul 44 2350 XV AF 6 Aug 44 2350 XV AF 6 Aug 44 2350 XV AF 6 Aug 44 2350 XV AF 6 Aug 44 2484 XV AF 11 Aug 44 2350 XV AF 6 Aug 44 2202 XV AF 31 Jul 44 2202 XV AF 31 Jul 10 11 12 13 14

15 1 FW-190 1 FW-190 1 FW-190 1 ME-109 2 ME-109s 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 FW-190 3 FW-190 1 MA-205 1 MA-202 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 FW-190 1 ME-109 2 ME-109s 3 ME-109s 16 17 18

19 99 FS 99 FS 99 FS 302 FS 301 FS 302 FS 302 FS 301 FS 301 FS 332 FG 302 FS 302 FS 302 FS 302 FS 302 FS 99 FS 302 FS 100 FS 100 FS 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 2 Lt Leonard M. Jackson 2 Lt Leonard 1 Lt Clinton B. Mills 1 Lt Charles M. Bussy D. Funderburg 2 Lt Frederick Jackson T. 1 Lt Melvin O. Pruitt Wendell 1 Lt E. Sawyer 1 Lt Harold D. Elsberry 1 Lt Joseph Davis W. 1 Lt Alfonza Jr Green W. William 2 Lt Jr. H. Smith 1 Lt Luther H. Smith 2 Lt Robert Wilkins D. 1 Lt Laurence 2 Lt Lee A. Archer Bailey 1 Lt Charles P. K. Groves Weldon 1 Lt D. Holsclaw 1 Lt Jack D. Lester 2 Lt Clarence 2 Lt Wilson V. Eagleson V. Wilson 2 Lt 29 30 31 32 33 9 Jun 1944 9 Jun 1944 12 Jul 1944 16 Jul 1944 17 Jul 1944 18 Jul 1944 18 Jul 34 1944 7 Feb 24 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2202 XV AF 31 Jul 44 2202 XV AF 31 Jul 44 2350 XV AF 6 Aug 44* 2484 XV AF 11 Aug 44 2350 XV AF 6 Aug 44 2284 XV AF 3 Aug 44 2202 XV AF 31 Jul 44 2284 XV AF 3 Aug 44 2484 XV AF 11 Aug 44 2284 XV AF 3 Aug 44 2350 XV AF 6 Aug 44 2484 XV AF 11 Aug 44 2350 XV AF 6 Aug 44 2484 XV AF 11 Aug 44 2284 XV AF 3 Aug 44 2284 XV AF 3 Aug 44 2284 XV AF 3 Aug 44 2485 XV AF 11 Aug 44 2484 XV AF 11 Aug 44 2350 XV AF 6 Aug 10 11 12 13 14

1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 FW-190 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 2 FW-190s 2 FW-190s 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 15 16 17 18

100 FS 302 FS 99 FS 302 FS 301 FS 100 FS 301 FS 99 FS 301 FS 302 FS 99 FS 302 FS 99 FS 301 FS 301 FS 301 FS 100 FS 99 FS 302 FS 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 2 Lt Roger Romine 2 Lt Roger Toppins L. Cpt Edward Warner S. 2 Lt Hugh D. Elsberry Cpt Joseph 1 Lt Langdon E. Johnson Cpt Armour G. McDaniel Toppins L. Cpt Edward E. Sawyer 1 Lt Harold E. Hutchins 1 Lt Freddie M. Jackson 1 Lt Leonard Romine 2 Lt Roger Toppins L. Cpt Edward C. Gleed 1 Lt Edward M. Gorham 2 Lt Alfred Cpt Claude B. Govan Hall W. 2 Lt Richard M. Jackson 1 Lt Leonard J. Kirkpatrick 1 Lt Felix 2 Lt Walter J. A. Palmer Walter 2 Lt 29 30 31 32 33

20 Jul 1944 20 Jul 1944 25 Jul 1944 26 Jul 1944 27 Jul 34 The Deprived Ace 25

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2485 XV AF 11 Aug 44 2485 XV AF 11 Aug 44 2831 XV AF 25 Aug 44 3538 XV AF 21 Sep 44 3153 XV AF 6 Sep 44 3174 XV AF 7 Sep 45 449 XV AF 31 Jan 44 4287 XV AF 1 Nov 44 4287 XV AF 1 Nov 44 4287 XV AF 1 Nov 44 4287 XV AF 1 Nov 44 4287 XV AF 1 Nov 44 4604 XV AF 21 Nov 44 4990 XV AF 13 Dec 45 1734 XV AF 24 Mar 45 2293 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2293 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2293 XV AF 12 Apr 10 11 12 13 14

15 1 RE-2001 1 FW-190 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 FW-190 1 FW-190 3 ME-109s 1 ME-109 1 HE-111 1 HE-111 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 HE-111 2 ME-109s 1 ME-109 1 ME-262 1 ME-262 1 ME-262 16 17 18

19 100 FS 100 FS 302 FS 100 FS 302 FS 302 FS 302 FS 302 FS 302 FS 302 FS 302 FS 302 FS 302 FS 301 FS 100 FS 100 FS 100 FS 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 2 Lt George M. Rhodes Jr. 2 Lt George L. Hill William FO Briggs F. 1 Lt John 1 Lt Charles E. McGee H. Thomas William 1 Lt 1 Lt Lee A. Archer R. Brooks Cpt Milton Jr. Green W. William 1 Lt O. Pruitt Wendell Cpt Romine 1 Lt Roger Jr. H. Smith 1 Lt Luther Weathers J. Cpt Luke III S. Price William 1 Lt Brantley V. 2 Lt Charles C. Brown 1 Lt Roscoe 1 Lt Earl R. Lane 2 Lt Carl E. Johnson 29 30 31 32 33 14 Aug 1944 14 Aug 1944 23 Aug 1944 24 Aug 1944 12 Oct 1944 16 Nov 1945 16 Mar 1945 24 Mar 34 1944 30 Jul 26 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2293 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2293 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2292 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2293 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2292 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2292 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2292 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2293 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2293 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2292 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2292 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2293 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2293 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2294 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2294 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2294 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2294 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2294 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2294 XV AF 12 Apr 45 2294 XV AF 12 Apr 10 11 12 13 14

1 FW-190 1 FW-190 1 FW-190 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 2 FW-190s 1 FW-190 2 FW-190s 2 ME-109s 1 FW-190 1 FW-190 1 FW-190 3 FW-190s 2 ME-109s 15 16 17 18

100 FS 99 FS 100 FS 99 FS 99 FS 99 FS 100 FS 100 FS 99 FS 99 FS 100 FS 100 FS 301 FS 301 FS 301 FS 301 FS 301 FS 301 FS 301 FS 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 2 Lt Thomas P. Brasswell P. 2 Lt Thomas C. Brown 1 Lt Roscoe A. Campbell William Maj Davis W. 2 Lt John L. Hall 2 Lt James 1 Lt Earl R. Lane H. Lyle FO John L. Rich 1 Lt Daniel White J. 2 Lt Hugh Williams W. 1 Lt Robert Jr. Wilson W. 2 Lt Bertram 2 Lt Carl E. Carey E. Edwards 2 Lt John H. Fischer FO James Manning P. Walter 2 Lt M. Morris 2 Lt Harold Stewart T. 1 Lt Harry White 1 Lt Charles L. 2 Lt Raul W. Bell W. 2 Lt Raul 29 30 31 32 33 31 Mar 1945 31 Mar 1945 1 Apr 31 Mar 1945 31 Mar 34 The Deprived Ace 27

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3484 XV AF 29 May 45 3484 XV AF 29 May 45 3362 XV AF 23 May 45 3362 XV AF 23 May 45 2990 XV AF 4 May 10 11 12 13 14

15 1 ME-109 2 ME-109s 1 ME-109 1 ME-109 16 17 18

19 301 FS 301 FS 301 FS 100 FS 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 2 Lt Thomas W. Jefferson W. 2 Lt Thomas Lanham 1 Lt Jimmy A. Simons 2 Lt Richard 1 Lt Jimmy Lanham 1 Lt Jimmy 29 30 31 32 33 26 Apr 1945 26 Apr 34 1945 15 Apr *Order says credit was 16 Jul 1944, but history says 18 Jul 1944 1944, but history says 18 Jul was 16 Jul says credit *Order 28 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

During World War II, the only African-American pilots in the Army Air 1 Forces who flew in combat served in the 99th, 100th, 301st, and 302nd 2 Fighter Squadrons and the 332nd Fighter Group. None of these pilots 3 earned more than four aerial victory credits. None of them became an 4 ace, with at least five aerial victory credits. Were the Tuskegee Airmen 5 who earned four aerial victory credits sent home in order to prevent a 6 black pilot from becoming an ace? 7 That is very doubtful. First Lieutenant Lee Archer was deployed back 8 to the United States the month after he scored his fourth aerial victory 9 credit, and the same month he received his fourth aerial victory credit. 10 Captain Edward Toppins was deployed back to the United States the 11 second month after he scored his fourth aerial victory credit, and the 12 month after he received credit for it. However, Captain Joseph Elsberry 13 earned his fourth aerial victory credit in July 1944, and received credit 14 for it early in August 1944. He did not redeploy to the United States 15 until December 1944. If there was a policy of sending Tuskegee Airmen 16 with four aerial victory credits home, in order to prevent a black man 17 from becoming an ace, the case of Captain Joseph Elsberry contradicts 18 it, because he was not sent home until four months after his fourth aerial 19 victory credit was awarded, and five months after he scored it. It is more 20 likely that the pilots who deployed back to the United States did so after 21 having completed the number of missions they needed to finish their 22 respective tours of duty. 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 The Deprived Ace 29

1 2 3 4

5 of Month redeployment to redeployment

6 States the United November 1944 November December 1944 December 7 1944 September 8 9 10 11 12 13 aerial victory credit Date of award of fourth of award Date 1 Nov 1944 1 Nov 3 Aug 1944 3 Aug 14 1944 11 Aug 15 16 17 18

19 aerial victory Date of fourthDate 12 October 1944 12 October 20 July 1944 20 July 20 1944 26 July 21 22 Fighter Fighter Squadron 302 301 23 99 24 25 Group Fighter Fighter 332 332 332

26 Victories Aerial Airmen with Four Tuskegee of Table IV: Table 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 Name and rank at time of Name fourth aerial victory credit 1st Lt Lee Archer Captain Joseph Elsberry Captain Joseph 34 Toppins Captain Edward Sources: Fifteenth Sources: Air Fifteenth general Force orders awarding aerial victory credits; monthly histories of the 332d Group Fighter and December 1944. Daniel Researcher: L. Haulman, Air Historian, November, Force October, for September, August, Agency Research Historical 30 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

Myth 4 1 2 3 4 Being the First to 5 6 Shoot Down German Jets 7 8 9 ometimes one hears the claim that the Tuskegee Airmen were the 10 first to shoot down German jets.11 Three Tuskegee Airmen, 1st 11 Lt. , 1st Lt. Earl R. Lane, and 2nd Lt. Charles V. 12 Brantley,S each shot down a German Me-262 jet on March 24, 1945, 13 during the longest Fifteenth Air Force mission, which went all the way to 14 Berlin.12 However, American pilots shot down no less than sixty Me-262 15 aircraft before March 24, 1945. Most of these American pilots served in 16 the .13 17 The Tuskegee Airmen were also not the first Fifteenth Air Force 18 pilots to shoot down German jets, as is sometimes alledged.14 Two such 19 pilots, 1st Lt. Eugene P. McGlauflin and 2d Lt. Roy L. Scales, both of the 20 Fifteenth Air Force’s 31st Fighter Group and 308th Fighter Squadron, 21 shared a victory over an Me-262 German jet on December 22, 1944, and 22 Capt. William J. Dillard, also of the Fifteenth Air Force’s 31st Fighter 23 Group and 308th Fighter Squadron, shot down an Me-262 German jet 24 on March 22, 1945. 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 Being the First to Shoot Down German Jets 31

1 2 3 4 Authority 5 15 AF GO 327, issued 22 Jan 1945 15 AF GO 327, issued 22 Jan 1945 15 AF GO 2591, issued 21 Apr 1945 6 7 8 9 10 11 Aircraft shot down Aircraft 12 Me-262 Me-262 Me-262 13 0.5 0.5 1.00 14

15 Credits 16 17 18 Date 19

20 1944 22 Dec 1944 22 Dec 1945 Mar 22 21 22 23 24 25

26 Organization 27 308th Fighter Sq, 31st Sq, 308th Fighter AF Fifteenth Gp, Fighter 31st Sq, 308th Fighter AF Fifteenth Gp, Fighter 31st Sq, 308th Fighter AF Fifteenth Gp, Fighter 28 29 30 Table V: Fifteenth Air Force Aerial Victories over German Me-262 Jets before March 24, 1945 March before Jets Me-262 German over Victories Aerial Air Force Fifteenth V: Table 31 Name

32 P. Eugene McGlauflin L. Scales Roy J. William Dillard 33 Rank 34 1 Lt. 2 Lt. Capt Sources: Fifteenth Air Force General Order 327 dated Jan 22, 1945, p. 2, under call number 670.193 at Air Force Historical Historical Force Air at 670.193 number call under 2, p. 1945, 22, Jan dated 327 Order General Force Air Fifteenth Sources: Research Agency; General Air 21, Order 2591 Fifteenth Force 1945, dated p. 3, Apr. under call number 670.193 at Air SQ-FI-308-HI number call under 1945, 1942-Jun Jan History, Squadron Fighter 308 Agency; Research Historical Force Agency. Research Historical at Air Force 32 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

Moreover, on the day three Tuskegee Airmen shot down three German 1 jets over Berlin on March 24, 1945, five other American pilots of the 2 Fifteenth Air Force, on the same mission, with the 31st Fighter Group, 3 also shot down German Me-262 jets. They included Colonel William 4 A. Daniel, 1st Lt. Forrest M. Keene, 1st Lt Raymond D. Leonard, Capt. 5 15 Kenneth T. Smith, and 2nd Lt. William M. Wilder. 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 The Tuskegee Airmen Sank a German Destroyer 33

1 Myth 5 2 3 4 5 The Tuskegee Airmen 6 7 Sank a German Destroyer 8 9 10 he 332d Fighter Group mission report for June 25, 1944 notes 11 that the group sank a German destroyer in the Adriatic Sea 12 near Trieste that day. The pilots on that mission undoubtedly 13 believedT they had sunk a German destroyer, but other records cast doubt 14 on whether the ship actually sank. 15 The only German ship in the Trieste area of the Adriatic Sea reported 16 to have been hit by Allied aircraft on June 25, 1944 was the TA-22, the 17 former Italian destroyer Giuseppi Missori. The date and the place match 18 the group mission report. However, the TA-22 had been converted by the 19 Germans into a torpedo boat, and was no longer a destroyer. Although 20 it was so heavily damaged that it was put out of action permanently, it 21 did not sink. It was decommissioned on November 8, 1944, and scuttled 22 at Trieste on February 5, 1945. It might as well have been sunk on June 23 25, 1944, because it never fought the Allies again.16 24 Some sources suggest that the Tuskegee Airmen sank the German 25 ship TA-27, which had been the Italian warship Aurige. The TA-27 was 26 actually sunk on June 9, 1944 off the coast of Elba, west of the Italian 27 peninsula, far from the Adriatic Sea, which is east of the Italian peninsula. 28 The Tuskegee Airmen would not have sunk the TA-27, because the date 29 and place do not match the group mission report.17 30 31 32 33 34 34 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

Myth 6 1 2 3 4 The “Great Train Robbery” 5 6 7 ne of the popular stories about the Tuskegee Airmen is some- 8 times nicknamed the “Great Train Robbery.”According to 9 the story, the 332d Fighter Group would not have been able 10 Oto escort its assigned bombers all the way to Berlin on the March 24, 11 1945 mission without larger fuel tanks, and members of the 96th Air 12 Service Group, which serviced the airplanes of the 332d Fighter Group 13 at Ramitelli Air Field in Italy, obtained those larger fuel tanks by force 14 from a train the day before the mission. By working all night, the crews 15 had the P-51s equipped with the larger fuel tanks just in time for the 16 escort mission to succeed.18 17 The story is questionable, however, because the 332d Fighter Group 18 was not the only one of the seven fighter escort groups of the Fifteenth 19 Air Force to fly the Berlin mission. In fact, four other fighter escort 20 groups, the 31st, 52nd, 82nd, and 325th Fighter Groups, all flew on 21 the Berlin mission as well as the 332d Fighter Group. These four other 22 groups would have also needed the larger fuel tanks to take them all the 23 way to Berlin, because all of them had aircraft over the target area on 24 March 24, 1945. Of these other fighter groups on the Berlin mission, 25 three flew P-51s like the 332d Fighter Group. It is not likely that these 26 other fighter groups also had to rob a train in order to obtain the larger 27 fuel tanks they needed to go all the way to Berlin.19 28 James Sheppard was a crew chief in the 301st Fighter Squadron, and 29 took part in preparing P-51s of the 332d Fighter Group for the March 30 24, 1945 mission to Berlin during the night before the mission. As an 31 experienced aircraft maintenance technician, he did not experience any 32 difficulty in mounting larger fuel tanks to the wings of the P-51s he was 33 maintaining so that they could carry out the mission to Berlin. He did 34 The “Great Train Robbery” 35

1 not remember the maintenance personnel needing to rob any train or 2 warehouse in order to obtain the larger fuel tanks they needed for the 20 3 mission. 4 The legend might have been based on the fact that the larger 110- gal- 5 lon auxiliary fuel tanks were delivered to Ramitelli by truck, not from the 6 depot at Foggia, where the smaller fuel tanks had been obtained, but from 7 a railhead at Chieuti instead. On March 23, 1945, the 55th Air Service 8 Squadron of the 380th Air Service Group dispatched trucks from the 9 depot at Foggia to the railhead at Chieuti for fuel tanks. The squadron’s 10 diary entry for 24 March notes that it received “one trailer load of 110 gal 11 auxiliary tanks for 366th Air Service Squadron.” The 366th Air Service 12 Squadron was based at Ramitelli, Italy, with the 332d Fighter Group, to 13 service its P-51 aircraft. Another 55th Air Service Squadron diary entry 14 in March 1945 notes that the squadron also used trucks to deliver 110- 15 gallon fuel tanks from Chieuti to the 52d Fighter Group, which, like the 16 332d Fighter Group, flew P-51s for the Fifteenth Air Force and which 21 17 was based near Ramitelli. The fact that trucks delivered the larger fuel 18 tanks not from the depot at Foggia, as the smaller fuel tanks had been, 19 but from the railhead at Chieuti instead, might have evolved into a “we 20 had to rob a train” story. 21 The larger 110-gallon fuel tanks the 332nd Fighter Group needed for 22 the Berlin mission were not new to the 332nd Fighter Group. The group 23 had used those larger tanks in previous months. Indications are that the 24 supply ran out just before the Berlin mission. The group did need to 25 obtain the larger tanks again for the longer mission, but the group did 26 not have to suddenly find out how to adapt the tanks to fit their P-51s, 22 27 since it had used such larger tanks on previous missions. 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 36 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

Myth 7 1 2 3 4 Superiority 5 6 7 nother popular story, not verified by any historical evidence, is 8 that the members of the 332d Fighter Group were so much bet- 9 ter at bomber escort than the members of the other six fighter 10 groups,A the bombardment groups requested that they be escorted by the 11 332d Fighter Group. According to the story, white fighter pilots, unlike 12 the black ones, abandoned the bombers they were assigned to escort in 13 order to chase after enemy fighters to increase their aerial victory credit 14 scores for fame and glory. One version of this story appears in Kai Wright’s 15 book Soldiers of Freedom: An Illustrated History of African Americans 16 in the Armed Forces (New York: Black Dog and Leventhal Publishers, 17 2002), p. 181: “Throughout the war, it [the 332d Fighter Group] flew 18 bomber escorts- duty rejected by white pilots because it didn’t offer as 19 much opportunity to earn kills, and thus praise and promotion- and 20 earned a reputation as the air force’s most reliable escort.”23 21 There were a great many fighter escort groups in the Army Air Forces 22 during World War II. In Europe they served with the Eighth and Fif- 23 teenth Air Forces. The Fifteenth Air Force alone had seven such fighter 24 groups. To say that the 332d Fighter Group did a better job at escorting 25 bombers than any of the other fighter groups is very difficult to prove 26 from an examination of the World War II documents. 27 The World War II records of the Fifteenth Air Force’s seven fighter 28 groups and twenty-one bombardment groups, and the daily mission 29 reports of the Fifteenth Air Force between June 1944 and April 1945, 30 do not support the claim that the 332d Fighter Group was the only 31 one to provide effective fighter escort protection. The evidence shows 32 that all of the fighter groups, black or white, were flying the same kinds 33 of escort missions. Each day, each group was assigned by Fifteenth Air 34 Superiority 37

1 Force headquarters to escort a bombardment wing or set of bombard- 2 ment wings at certain times and places, and apparently each flew, for 24 3 the most part, as assigned. None of the twenty-one bomber groups 25 4 was stationed at the same airfield as any of the seven fighter groups. 5 The assignments rotated, and one fighter group was not always assigned 6 to escort the same bombardment wing or wings, or to provide the same 7 kind of escort day after day. For example, sometimes a group would be 8 assigned penetration escort, sometimes withdrawal escort, sometimes 9 escort over the target, and sometimes a combination of them. The daily 10 mission reports show that all the groups were flying the same kinds of 11 missions, for the most part, and do not indicate that only one was escort- 12 ing in an effective way. On many days, more than one fighter group was 13 escorting many bomber groups. Because the assignments were made on 14 a rotational basis by headquarters, apparently without discrimination, 15 the idea that bombardment crews could request one fighter group over 16 another for escort duty, and get it, is not likely. 17 The history of the Fifteenth Air Force covering November 1943- 18 May 1945, vol. I, notes that “Before the summer of 1944, the fighters 19 always maintained close escort. The original policy of the Air Force, in 20 fact, stipulated that the fighters were never to leave the bombers in order 21 to make an attack unless enemy aircraft were obviously preparing to 22 strike at the bomber formation. As enemy fighter opposition declined, 23 however, one squadron, at the discretion of the group commander, was 24 sometimes detached for a fighter sweep against the enemy. This was done 25 on withdrawal only, and in no case before the bombers had reached the 26 26 target.” 27 Another interesting quote from the same document: “During the 28 counter-air campaign early in 1944, a particularly high level of efficiency 29 was reached by the escort fighters. On four consecutive days in February, 30 penetrations into Germany were covered by an escort of 31 P-38s and P-47s. Bomber pilots reported that the cover provided on 32 these missions was the best ever furnished in the Air Force up to that 33 time.” It bears noting that the 332d Fighter Group had not started to 34 escort Fifteenth Air Force bombers yet. The 332d Fighter Group started 38 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

escorting bombers for the Fifteenth Air Force in June 1944. From this 1 important document, it seems clear that the policy of the Fifteenth Air 2 Force in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations, unlike the policy of 3 the Eighth Air Force after Lt. Gen. James Doolittle took charge of it, was 4 to furnish close escort for the bombers, and not leave them to go after 5 enemy fighters in the distance. Apparently the 332d Fighter Group was 6 not the only fighter group providing close escort in the Fifteenth Air Force, 7 and doing it well enough for the bomber crews to express appreciation, 8 27 although they did not specify any particular fighter group. 9 All of the bombardment groups were stationed at bases miles away 10 from the 332d Fighter Group at Ramitelli Air Field in Italy, and their 11 personnel had little or no interaction with the personnel of the fighter 12 groups that escorted them. Most of them did not have the option of 13 choosing one group over another. 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 Superiority 39

1 2 3 4 aircraft type aircraft Predominate Predominate 5 B-17 B-17 B-17 B-17 B-17 B-17 B-24 B-24 B-24 B-24 B-24 B-24 B-24 B-24 B-24 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Airfield 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Amendola, Italy Amendola, Italy Italy Tortorella, Italy Lucera, Celone, Italy Italy Sterparone, Lecce, Italy Italy Pancrazio, San Italy Grottaglie, Italy Manduria, Castelluccio, Italy Italy Torretto, Italy Torretto, Italy Spinazzola, Italy Pantanella, 22 23 24 25

26 Wing 27 Table VI: Stations of Fifteenth Ait Force Groups, June 1944–May 1945 1944–May June Groups, Ait Force of Fifteenth VI: Stations Table

28 5 Bombardment 5 Bombardment 5 Bombardment 5 Bombardment 5 Bombardment 5 Bombardment 47 Bombardment 47 Bombardment 47 Bombardment 47 Bombardment 49 Bombardment 49 Bombardment 49 Bombardment 55 Bombardment 55 Bombardment 29 30 31

32 Group 33

34 2 Bombardment 97 Bombardment 99 Bombardment 301 Bombardment 463 Bombardment 483 Bombardment 98 Bombardment 376 Bombardment 449 Bombardment 450 Bombardment 451 Bombardment 461 Bombardment 484 Bombardment 460 Bombardment 464 Bombardment 40 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

1 2 3 4

B-24 B-24 B-24 B-24 B-24 B-24 P-38 P-38 P-38 P-51 P-51 P-51 P-51 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Pantanella, Italy Pantanella, Italy Venosa, Italy Giovanni, San Italy Giovanni, San Italy Stornara, Italy Giulia, then Lesina, Italy then Salsolo, Vincenzo, then Salsola, Italy Triolo, Italy Vincenzo, Italy then Mondolfo, Severo, San Italy then Piagiolino, Madna, Italy Lesina, then Rimini, Mondolfo, Ramitelli, Italy 22 23 24 25 26 27

55 Bombardment 55 Bombardment 304 Bombardment 304 Bombardment 304 Bombardment 304 Bombardment 305 Fighter 305 Fighter 305 Fighter 306 Fighter 306 Fighter 306 Fighter 306 Fighter 28 29 30 31 32 33

465 Bombardment 485 Bombardment 454 Bombardment 455 Bombardment 456 Bombardment 459 Bombardment 1 Fighter 14 Fighter 82 Fighter 31 Fighter 52 Fighter 325 Fighter 332 Fighter 34 (Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1983). History, Force DC: Office of Air II (Washington, War World of Combat Units Air Force Maurer, Maurer Source: Superiority 41

1 At least one of the bombardment groups had become acquainted with 2 the 332d Fighter Group, and knew it consisted of black pilots flying 3 bomber escort duty. On December 29, 1944, eighteen B-24 bombers 4 were forced by bad weather to land at Ramitelli Air Field in Italy, the 5 home base of the 332d Fighter Group, which was flying P-51s. Seventeen 6 of those bombers came from the 485th Bombardment Group, and the 7 other one came from the 455th Bombardment Group. Most of the white 8 bomber crews spent five days with the Tuskegee Airmen, enjoying their 9 hospitality at a very crowded base. The 332d Fighter Group left a note 10 in each bomber noting that the 332d Fighter Group’s red-tailed escort 11 fighters were there to protect them on their bombing missions. If any 12 bomber crews requested that the 332d Fighter Group escort them, they 13 probably belonged to the 485th or 455th Bombardment Groups, some 14 of whose personnel had met members of the 332d Fighter Group and 15 shared accommodations with them. The request would have been based 16 on the bomber crews’ experience at Ramitelli, and not because the 332d 17 Fighter Group had demonstrated its obvious superiority to the other 28 18 fighter groups of the Fifteenth Air Force. 19 That might be one reason Col. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. flew a P-51 29 20 aircraft with “By Request” painted on the side. There is another explana- 21 tion. During the spring of 1944, Major General Ira C. Eaker, commander 22 of the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces, reassigned the 332d Fighter Group 23 from the Twelfth Air Force to the Fifteenth Air Force because he sought 30 24 its help with bomber escort duty. In effect, Eaker had “requested” the 25 332d Fighter Group for the bomber escort mission, even before the group 26 had flown any heavy bomber escort missions. 27 At times, the bombardment crews would mistake one set of escorts 28 for another. For example, World War II B-24 bomber pilot John Son- 29 neborn remembered gratefully that his aircraft was saved by a red-tailed 30 P-51 pilot when he was flying a mission to Ploesti, Rumania, on May 31 5, 1944. He assumed that he had been escorted by a Tuskegee Airman, 32 since he learned after the war that they had flown red-tailed P-51s in his 33 theater. What Mr. Sonneborn did not realize was that the 332d Fighter 34 Group did not begin flying missions to escort heavy bombers such as 42 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

B-24s until June 1944, and the 332d Fighter Group did not begin flying 1 P-51 aircraft until July 1944. If Sonneborn were saved by a pilot in a 2 red-tailed P-51, that fighter pilot must have belonged to the 31st Fighter 3 Group, because the 31st Fighter Group escorted B-24s to Ploesti on May 4 5, 1944, and the tails of the 31st Fighter Group P-51s were painted with 5 red stripes. After the war, bomber crews sometimes gave fighter escort 6 31 credit to the wrong group. 7 In November 1945, the War Department published a report called 8 “Policy for Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Post-War Army.” 9 Since the report had been prepared by a committee of generals headed 10 by Lt. Gen. Alvan C. Gillem, Jr., it was sometimes called the “Gillem 11 Report.” Part of the report compared the four P-51 fighter escort groups 12 of the Fifteenth Air Force, which included the all-black 332nd Fighter 13 Group and the all-white 31st, 52nd, 325th, and 332nd Fighter Groups 14 (the other three fighter escort groups of the Fifteenth Air Force, the 1st, 15 14th, and 82nd, flew P-38 aircraft). While the report praised the 332d 16 Fighter Group for successfully escorting bombers, it also criticized the 17 group for having fewer aerial victory credits than the other groups because 18 it did not aggressively chase enemy fighters to shoot them down, but 19 stayed with the bombers it was escorting. The report also claimed that 20 each of the three white P-51 fighter groups shot down more than twice 21 as many aircraft as it lost in combat, but that the 332d Fighter Group 22 lost more of its own aircraft in combat than it destroyed of the enemy. 23 The implication is that the black 332d Fighter Group might have lost 24 fewer bombers it escorted than the other three white P-51 fighter escort 25 groups, it also shot down the least number of enemy aircraft. Depending 26 on what the criterion was, the 332d Fighter Group was the worst and 27 32 also the best at the same time. 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 Superiority 43

1 Table VII: Comparison of Fifteenth Air Force P-51 Fighter Groups 2 Victories per aircraft lost in Fighter Group Predominant race 3 combat 4 31st White 2.49 5 52nd White 2.08 6 325th White 2.22 7 332nd Black 0.66 8 9 Source: “Policy for Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Post-War Army,” 10 Report of War Department Special Board on Negro Manpower, November 11 1945, Air Force Historical Research Agency call number 170.2111-1, 12 November 1945), section on historical evaluation of the Negro’s Military 13 Service, subsection 9, evaluation of combat performance of the Negro 14 in World War II, under g., “combat aviation,” p. 15. 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 44 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

Myth 8 1 2 3 4 The Tuskegee Airmen Units 5 6 were All Black 7 8 9 nfortunately, many articles and references to the Tuskegee Air- 10 men are so short that they mislead the reader into thinking that 11 all the members of the Tuskegee Airmen organizations were 12 black,U and that they faced unanimous opposition from white members 13 of the Army Air Forces with whom they had to struggle for equal oppor- 14 tunity even as they struggled against the overseas Axis enemy. In truth, 15 white officers were always involved in the Tuskegee Airmen experience, 16 sometimes hindering their progress, but more often facilitating it. 17 The most famous of the Tuskegee Airmen military organizations were 18 the 99th Fighter Squadron, the first black flying unit in the American 19 military; the 332d Fighter Group, the first black fighter group; and the 20 477th Bombardment Group, the first black bomber group. All of these 21 Tuskegee Airmen military organizations began with both black and white 22 members. The first three commanders of the 99th Fighter Squadron 23 (originally called the 99th Pursuit Squadron) were white. They included 24 Captain Harold R. Maddux, 2nd Lt. Clyde H. Bynum, and Captain 25 Alonzo S. Ward. The first two commanders of the 332d Fighter Group 26 were white. They included Lt. Col. Sam W. Westbrook and Col. Robert 27 R. Selway. The first commander of the 477th Bombardment Group, 28 after it was activated as a predominantly black group, was white.He was 29 Col. Robert R. Selway (who had earlier commanded the 332nd Fighter 30 Group). All of these military organizations eventually became all-black, 31 but they did not begin that way. Of course, the white members of the 32 organizations were in leadership positions, and black officers did not 33 command white officers.33 34 The Tuskegee Airmen Units were All Black 45

1 Many of the flight instructors at Tuskegee were white. This was true 2 at all three of the bases around Tuskegee, including Kennedy Field, where 3 civilian pilot training took place; at Moton Field, where the primary 4 flight training occurred; and at Tuskegee Army Air Field, where the basic, 5 advanced, and transition training was completed. White officers retained 6 leadership positions in the flying training organizations at Moton Field 34 7 and Tuskegee Army Air Field throughout World War II. 8 For more than a year before the 99th Fighter Squadron was assigned 9 to the 332d Fighter Group, it served in combat overseas while attached 10 to various white fighter groups, as if it were one of the squadrons of those 11 groups. In effect, those groups included both black and white personnel 12 while the 99th Fighter Squadron was attached to them. Some of the 13 members of the 99th Fighter Squadron, which by then had become an 14 all-black organization, resented being assigned to the 332d Fighter Group, 15 because they had become accustomed to serving in white groups, flying 16 alongside white fighter squadrons, and did not relish being placed with 17 the black fighter group simply because they were also black. In a sense, 18 it was a step back toward more segregation. At any rate, many Tuskegee 19 Airmen during World War II served in units with both black and white 20 personnel, although as the war progressed, their organizations increas- 35 21 ingly became all-black. 22 To be sure, some of the white officers who were in command of 23 Tuskegee Airmen opposed equal opportunities for them. Colonel Wil- 24 liam Momyer of the 33rd Fighter Group opposed the continued combat 25 role of the 99th Fighter Squadron when it was attached to his group, and 26 Colonel Robert Selway, commander of the 477th Bombardment Group 27 at Freeman Field, attempted to enforce segregated officers’ clubs at that 28 base, and had many of the Tuskegee Airmen arrested for opposing his 36 29 policy. But for every white officer who discouraged equal opportunity 30 for the Tuskegee Airmen under their command, there were other white 31 officers who sincerely worked for their success. They included Forrest 32 Shelton, who instructed pilots in civilian and primary pilot training at 33 Kennedy and Moton Fields near Tuskegee; Major William T. Smith, 34 who supervised primary pilot training at Moton Field; Captain Robert 46 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

M. Long, a flight instructor who taught the first Tuskegee Airmen pilots 1 to graduate from advanced pilot training at Tuskegee Army Air Field; 2 Colonel Noel Parrish, commander of the pilot training at Tuskegee Army 3 Air Field; and Colonel Earl E. Bates, commander of the 79th Fighter 4 Group for most of the time the 99th Fighter Squadron was attached to 5 37 it (from October 1943 to April 1944.) 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 All Tuskegee Airmen were Fighter Pilots who Flew Red-Tailed P-15s to Escort Bombers 47

1 Myth 9 2 3 4 5 All Tuskegee Airmen 6 7 were Fighter Pilots 8 9 who Flew Red-Tailed P-15s 10 11 to Escort Bombers 12 13 14 useum displays, World War II history books, magazine articles, 15 pamphlets, newspaper articles, television programs, and even 16 movies sometimes describe only one part of the Tuskegee 17 MAirmen story, misleading readers or observers into thinking that all the 18 Tuskegee Airmen flew red-tailed P-51s on bomber escort missions deep 19 into enemy territory. The Tuskegee Airmen story is much more complex 20 than that. In fact, the Tuskegee Airmen flew four kinds of 21 in combat, and also bombers not in combat. Many of the Tuskegee Air- 22 men who flew in combat during World War II and earned distinguished 23 records never saw a red-tailed P-51. A good example is Charles Dryden, 24 who returned from Italy months before any of the Tuskegee Airmen flew 25 any P-51s overseas, and months before they received the assignment to 26 escort heavy bombers deep into enemy territory.38 27 To be sure, the most famous Tuskegee Airmen flew red-tailed P-51 28 Mustangs to escort Fifteenth Air Force heavy bombers on raids deep into 29 enemy territory, but not all of them did so. Before July 1944, the 99th 30 Fighter Squadron flew P-40 fighters on patrol and air-to-ground attack 31 missions against enemy targets on tactical missions for the Twelfth Air 32 Force. Sometimes these missions involved escorting medium bombers, but 33 more often they involved supporting Allied surface forces and defending 34 them from attack by enemy aircraft in Italy. During June 1944, the 332d 48 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

Fighter Group flew P-47 aircraft on bomber escort missions. Before then, 1 the group and its three fighter squadrons flew P-39 aircraft on tactical 2 missions for the Twelfth Air Force, supporting Allied ground forces in 3 Italy. Neither the P-39s nor the P-40s had . Only in July 1944 4 was the 99th Fighter Squadron assigned to the 332d Fighter Group, and 5 only in that month did the group begin to fly red-tailed P-51s. The group 6 painted the tails of the aircraft red because the Fifteenth Air Force had 7 seven fighter escort groups, including three P-38 and four P-51 groups. All 8 four of the P-51 groups had distinctively-painted tails. The 31st Fighter 9 Group had red-striped tails; the 52nd Fighter Group had yellow tails; 10 the 325th Fighter Group had black and yellow checkerboard-patterned 11 39 tails. The tails of the 332d Fighter Group were painted solid red. The 12 assigned colors for each group helped distinguish it from other groups 13 in large formations flying to, from, and over enemy targets. The various 14 colored tails also helped bomber crews tell which groups were escorting 15 them, and whether distant fighters were friend or foe. 16 Some of the African-American pilots who trained at Tuskegee Army 17 Air Field during World War II never became fighter pilots at all. They 18 became bomber pilots, and were assigned after their Tuskegee training to 19 the 477th Bombardment Group, which flew twin-engined B-25s. That 20 40 group never deployed overseas to take part in combat during the war. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 Eleanor Roosevelt Persuaded the President to Establish a Black Flying Unit in the Army Air Corps 49

1 Myth 10 2 3 4 5 Eleanor Roosevelt Persuaded 6 7 the President to Establish 8 9 a Black Flying Unit in 10 11 the Army Air Corps 12 13 14 ontrary to a persistent myth, Eleanor Roosevelt’s visit to Tuskegee 15 Institute at the end of March 1941, during which she was given 16 an airplane ride by Charles Anderson, who taught civilian pilot 17 Ctraining at the institute, did not result in her convincing her husband, 18 President Franklin D. Roosevelt, to establish a black flying unit in the 19 Army Air Corps.41 20 In fact, the decision to establish a black flying unit in the Army Air 21 Corps had been announced by the War Department on January 16, 22 1941, more than two months before Eleanor Roosevelt’s visit to Tuskegee. 23 The announcement included mention of plans to train support person- 24 nel for the unit at Chanute Field, Illinois, followed by pilot training at 25 Tuskegee. On March 19, 1941, the War Department established the 26 first black flying unit, the 99th Pursuit Squadron, and on March 22, the 27 unit was activated at Chanute Field.42 According to the plans, it would 28 move to Tuskegee later, when facilities for the training of the pilots had 29 been constructed. 30 Eleanor Roosevelt undoubtedly supported the efforts to establish 31 black flying training at Tuskegee, and her visit to Tuskegee Institute at 32 the end of March 1941 encouraged contributions for the building of a 33 primary flying base at Tuskegee (which later became Moton Field), but 34 she did not convince her husband the President to establish the first black 50 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

flying unit, because the unit had already been planned, constituted, and 1 activated by the time of her Tuskegee visit. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 The Tuskegee Airmen Earned 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses during World War II 51

1 Myth 11 2 3 4 5 The Tuskegee Airmen 6 7 Earned 150 Distinguished 8 9 Flying Crosses during 10 11 World War II 12 13 14 or many years the Tuskegee Airmen were said to have earned 150 15 Distinguished Flying Crosses during World War II. According to 16 Dr. Roscoe Brown, an original Tuskegee Airmen who earned his 17 Fown Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC), 150 is the usual number one 18 hears or reads for DFCs that were earned by Tuskegee Airmen. He said 19 the number was based on the book, The Tuskegee Airmen: The Men 20 Who Changed a Nation, by Charles Francis. Francis noted that there 21 was evidence for 95 DFCs awarded to Tuskegee Airmen, but possibly 22 there were as many as 150.43 23 Craig Huntly of the Tuskegee Airmen Incorporated’s Harry A. Shep- 24 pard historical research committee checked all the Fifteenth Air Force 25 general orders that awarded DFCs to Tuskegee Airmen, and found 95 26 had been awarded. He knew that the Tuskegee Airmen units in combat 27 had also served with the Twelfth Air Force, before joining the Fifteenth 28 Air Force, and that Twelfth Air Force general orders would also probably 29 note additional DFCs awarded to Tuskegee Airmen. However, Huntly 30 found only one Twelfth Air Force general order that awarded a DFC to 31 a Tuskegee Airman. It recognized the aerial victory credit of Charles B. 32 Hall, the first black pilot in military service to shoot down an enemy 33 airplane. He found no other Twelfth Air Force orders that awarded 34 DFCs to Tuskegee Airmen. Tuskegee Airmen who earned other aerial 52 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

victory credits, while flying with the Twelfth Air Force, earned Air Med- 1 als instead of DFCs. The total number of DFCs awarded to Tuskegee 2 Airmen was therefore was 96: 95 of which were awarded by Fifteenth 3 Air Force orders, and 1 awarded by a Twelfth Air Force order. Moreover, 4 one Tuskegee Airman, Captain William A. Campbell, earned two DFCs. 5 Therefore, 95 Tuskegee Airmen earned DFCs, but 96 DFCs were awarded 6 to Tuskegee Airmen. 7 I searched through every one of the orders that Huntly listed, and 8 found the dates of the events for which each of the Tuskegee Airmen 9 DFCs were awarded. I placed the events in chronological order so that 10 I could include them in my larger Tuskegee Airmen Chronology. The 11 correct number of DFCs earned by the Tuskegee Airmen, for which there 12 is documentation, is 96, not 150. The table below shows the numbers 13 of all the Fifteenth and Twelfth Air Force general orders that awarded 14 DFCs to Tuskegee Airmen. 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 The Tuskegee Airmen Earned 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses during 53 World War II

1 2 3 4 5 6

7 of Issue Date except first one) except 8

9 and Number Order General

10 Force Air Fifteenth by issued (all 1944 (12 AF) 64, 22 May 1944 4041, 19 Oct 1945 449, 31 Jan 1945 449, 31 Jan 1944 4041, 19 Oct 1944 4876, 5 Dec 1945 449, 31 Jan 1944 2972, 31 Aug 1944 2466, 10 Aug 1944 3541, 22 Sep 1945 49, 3 Jan 1944 5068, 18 Dec 1945 49, 3 Jan 1944 3167, 6 Sep 11 12 13 14 15 16 Fighter Squadron of Squadron Fighter

17 Group 332D Fighter 99 18 99 99 99 99 99 99 Gp) (332 Fighter 301 Gp) (332 Fighter 302 302 302 100 19 20 21 22 23 Name 24 25 by date of the Action for which each DFC was Awarded date of the Action by 26 Capt. Charles B. Hall 27 L. Baugh Capt. Howard Tate W. 1 Lt. Charles Dart W. 1 Lt. Clarence Toppins L. Capt. Edward M. Jackson Capt. Leonard Driver T. Capt. Elwood Jr. O. Davis, Col. Benjamin D. Elsberry Capt. Joseph Davis W. Capt. Alphonza Green W. William 1 Lt. H. Smith 1 Lt. Luther Wilkins D. 1 Lt. Laurence D. Lester 2 Lt. Clarence 28 29

30 Winners, Cross Flying Airmen Distinguished Tuskegee List of VIII: Chronological Table 31 Date 32 33 28 Jan 1944 28 Jan 34 1944 12 May 1944 21 May 1944 27 May 1944 4 June 1944 4 June 1944 5 June 1944 9 June 1944 12 July 1944 16 July 1944 16 July 1944 17 July 1944 17 July 1944 18 July 54 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3167, 6 Sep 1944 3167, 6 Sep 1944 4009, 17 Oct 1945 654, 13 Feb 1945 3484, 29 May 1944 4993, 14 Dec 1944 4876, 5 Dec 1944 3106, 4 Sep 1944 5068, 18 Dec 1945 49, 3 Jan 1945 49, 3 Jan 1945 49, 3 Jan 1945 49, 3 Jan 1945 231, 15 Jan 1944 3689, 29 Sep 1945 287, 19 Jan 1945 839, 21 Feb 1945 1153, 5 Mar 1945 49, 3 Jan 1945 449, 31 Jan 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

100 100 100 99 99 301 Gp) (332 Fighter 301 100 100 302 301 100 302 302 301 301 100 302 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

1 Lt. Jack D. Holsclaw 1 Lt. Jack Turner D. Capt. Andrew J. A. Palmer Walter 1 Lt. Bailey 1 Lt. Charles P. Capt. Henry B. Perry E. Sawyer Capt. Harold C. Gleed 1 Lt. Edward Capt. Lee Rayford Crockett W. Woodrow Capt. Mattison T. William Capt. E. Hutchins 1 Lt. Freddie B. Jefferson 1 Lt. Lawrence C. Steward 1 Lt. Lowell Jackson T. Capt. Melvin Pierson W. 1 Lt. Gwynne Cisco W. Capt. Arnold Ballard Capt. Alton F. Briggs F. 1 Lt. John H. Thomas William 1 Lt. 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

18 July 1944 18 July 1944 18 July 1944 18 July 1944 18 July 1944 20 July 1944 25 July 1944 27 July 1944 12 August 1944 12 August 1944 12 August 1944 12 August 1944 12 August 1944 12 August 1944 14 August 1944 14 August 1944 14 August 1944 14 August 1944 24 August 1944 24 August 34 The Tuskegee Airmen Earned 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses during 55 World War II

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 1944 3950, 15 Oct 1944 4009, 17 Oct 1944 5068, 18 Dec 1945 1811, 27 Mar 1945 137, 8 Jan 1945 3484, 29 May 1945 158, 10 Jan 1945 231, 15 Jan 1945 255, 16 Jan 1945 449, 31 Jan 1945 449, 31 Jan 1945 231, 15 Jan 1945 287, 19 Jan 1945 517, 6 Feb 1945 839, 21 Feb 1945 1811, 27 Mar 1944 4215, 28 Oct 1944 4425, 10 Nov 1944 4876, 5 Dec 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

18 302 302 302 301 Gp) (332 Fighter 99 100 100 301 99 100 99 100 99 100 301 99 99 302 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

27 O. Pruitt Wendell Capt. Watson M. Capt. Dudley Romine 1 Lt. Roger H. Bradford Capt. Clarence S. Roberts George Maj. C. Houston 1 Lt. Heber L. Curtis 1 Lt. Samuel Morgan 1 Lt. Dempsey Capt. Claude B. Govan A. Lawson 1 Lt. Herman Woods L. Willard 1 Lt. Temple N. 1 Lt. Alva E. Dickson Capt. Lawrence M. Thomas 1 Lt Edward L. Martin 1 Lt. Robert J. Friend Capt. Robert A. Campbell William Capt. E. Gray 1 Lt. George J. Kirkpatrick 1 Lt. Felix 28 29 30 31 32 33

34 1944 27 August 1944 27 August 1944 27 August 1944 30 August 1944 8 September 1944 8 September 1944 4 October 1944 4 October 1944 4 October 1944 4 October 1944 4 October 1944 6 October 1944 6 October 1944 6 October 1944 6 October 1944 6 October 1944 11 October 1944 11 October 1944 11 October 56 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

836, 21 Feb 1945 836, 21 Feb 1944 4876, 5 Dec 1945 255, 16 Jan 1945 287, 19 Jan 1945 449, 31 Jan 1945 836, 21 Feb 1945 1430, 15 Mar 1945 1811, 27 Mar 1945 1811, 27 Mar 1945 3484, 29 May 1945 719, 16 Feb 1945 49, 3 Jan 1944 5068, 18 Dec 1944 5228, 28 Dec 1944 4876, 5 Dec 1944 5068, 18 Dec 1945 836, 21 Feb 1945 836, 21 Feb 1945 3484, 29 May 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

99 302 302 100 100 301 301 301 99 99 99 100 302 302 99 99 99 100 99 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

1 Lt. Richard S. Harder 1 Lt. Richard 1 Lt. Lee Archer R. Brooks Capt. Milton E. Roberts 1 Lt. Frank N. Ellington 1 Lt. Spurgeon Turner F. 1 Lt. Leonard Capt. Armour G. McDaniel L. Harris Capt. Stanley R. Rodgers 1 Lt. Marion Walker C. 1 Lt. Quitman S. Hays 1 Lt. Milton M. Rhodes, Jr. 1 Lt. George Haywood V. Vernon Capt. Weathers J. Capt. Luke Capt. Albert H. Manning Daniels Capt. John N. Alsbrook William 1 Lt. Scales W. 1 Lt. Norman G. Clifton Capt. Emile 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

11 October 1944 11 October 1944 12 October 1944 12 October 1944 12 October 1944 12 October 1944 12 October 1944 12 October 1944 12 October 1944 12 October 1944 12 October 1944 13 October 1944 14 October 1944 21 October 1944 16 November 1944 19 November 1944 19 November 1944 19 November 1944 19 November 1945 16 February 34 The Tuskegee Airmen Earned 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses during 57 World War II

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 1945 2362, 14 Apr 1945 1430, 15 Mar 1945 2270, 11 Apr 1945 3484, 29 May 1945 2362, 14 Apr 1945 3031, 5 May 1945 3031, 5 May 1945 3484, 29 May 1945 3484, 29 May 1945 2834, 28 Apr 1945 2834, 28 Apr 1945 2834, 28 Apr 1945 2834, 28 Apr 1945 2834, 28 Apr 1945 3484, 29 May 1945 3484, 29 May 1945 2834, 28 Apr 1945 3484, 29 May 1945 3484, 29 May 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

18 301 100 100 301 99 99 99 99 99 301 301 301 100 100 100 100 301 301 301 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

27 Capt. Louis G. Purnell C. Brown 1 Lt. Roscoe E. Thompson 1 Lt. Reid M. Downs Walter Capt. Westbrook F. 1 Lt. Shelby M. Cox 1 Lt. Hannibal I. Mitchell Vincent 2 Lt. Braswell P. 1 Lt. Thomas Davis W. 2 Lt. John Moody W. 1 Lt Roland 1 Lt. Henry R. Peoples III S. Price William 1 Lt. 1 Lt. Earl R. Lane Brantley V. 2 Lt. Charles Williams W. 1 Lt. Robert Jr. Wilson W. 1 Lt. Bertram White 1 Lt. Charles L. E. Edwards 1 Lt. John Jr. Stewart T. 1 Lt. Harry 28 29 30 31 32 33

34 1945 17 February 1945 25 February 1945 25 February 1945 12 March 1945 14 March 1945 14 March 1945 14 March 1945 14 March 1945 14 March 1945 16 March 1945 16 March 1945 16 March 1945 24 March 1945 24 March 1945 31 March 1945 31 March 1945 1 April 1945 1 April 1945 1 April 58 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3484, 29 May 1945 3484, 29 May 1945 3324, 21 May 1945 3484, 29 May 1945 3484, 29 May 1945 3484, 29 May 1945 3343, 22 May 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

301 301 99 99 301 301 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

2 Lt. Carl E. Carey M. Rapier Capt. Gordon 1 Lt. Gentry E. Barnes A. Campbell William Capt. Lanham 1 Lt. Jimmy Jefferson W. 1 Lt. Thomas 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

1 April 1945 1 April 1945 15 April 1945 15 April 1945 15 April 1945 15 April 1945 26 April 34 Conclusion 59

1 2 3 4 5 Conclusion 6 7 8 9 Whoever dispenses with the myths that have come to circulate around 10 the Tuskegee Airmen in the many decades since World War II emerges 11 with a greater appreciation for what they actually accomplished. If they 12 did not demonstrate that they were far superior to the members of the 13 six non-black fighter escort groups of the Fifteenth Air Force with which 14 they served, they certainly demonstrated that they were not inferior to 15 them, either. Moreover, they began at a line farther back, overcoming 16 many more obstacles on the way to combat. The Tuskegee Airmen proved 17 that they were equal to the other fighter pilots with whom they served 18 heroically during World War II. Their exemplary performance opened 19 the door for the racial integration of the military services, beginning with 20 the Air Force, and contributed ultimately to the end of racial segregation 21 in the United States. 22 23 Daniel L. Haulman, PhD 24 Chief, Organizational Histories Branch 25 Air Force Historical Research Agency 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 60 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

1 2 3 4 Notes 5 6 7 1 Alan L. Gropman, The Air Force Integrates, 1945–1964(Washington, DC: Office of 8 Air Force History, 1985), p. 2–3. 9 2 Alan L. Gropman, The Air Force Integrates, 1945–1964(Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1985), p. 12; Ulysses Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops 10 (Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, 11 1966), 157. 12 3 Air Force Historical Research Agency call number 134.65-496. 13 4 Daniel L. Haulman, “Tuskegee Airmen-Escorted Bombers Lost to Enemy Aircraft,” paper prepared at the Air Force Historical Research Agency. This paper is based 14 on histories of the 332d Fighter Group, daily mission reports of the Fifteenth Air 15 Force, and Missing Air Crew Reports that show the times, locations, and causes of 16 aircraft losses. 5 Interview of General Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., by Alan Gropman, AFHRA call num- 17 ber K239.0512-122. 18 6 Fifteenth Air Force General Order 2972 issued on Aug. 31, 1944. 19 7 332d Fighter Group histories, under call number GP-332-HI at the Air Force 20 Historical Research Agency; Fifteenth Air Force daily mission folders, under call number 670.332 at the Air Force Historical Research Agency; Missing Air Crew 21 Reports, indexed and filed on microfiche in the Archives Branch of the Air Force 22 Historical Research Agency. 23 8 Oliver North, War Stories III (Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, Inc., 2005), p. 152. 24 9 Monthly histories of the 332d Fighter Group, June 1944-April 1945; Fifteenth Air 25 Force General Order 2350 dated Aug. 6, 1944; Fifteenth Air Force General Order 26 4287 dated Nov. 1, 1944. 27 10 Charles E. Francis, The Tuskegee Airmen(Boston: Bruce Humpries, Inc., 1955), pp. 92 and 194. 28 11 The author heard this statement repeated at one of the four Tuskegee Airmen 29 Incorporated national conventions he attended in the successive years 2007, 30 2008, 2009, and 2010. Dr. Roscoe Brown did not make the claim himself, but he was aware of it. The claim also was published in George Norfleet’s book, A Pilot’s 31 Journey: Memoirs of a Tuskegee Airman, Curtis Christopher Robinson (Washington, 32 DC: Robnor Publishing, 2006 and 2008), p. 217. 33 12 Fifteenth Air Force General Order 2293 dated Apr. 12, 1945. 34 Notes 61

1 13 USAAF (European Theater) Credits for the Destruction of Enemy Aircraft in Air- to-Air Combat, World War 2, Victory List No. 5, Frank J. Olynyk, May 1987; 2 USAAF (Mediterranean Theater) Credits for the Destruction of Enemy Aircraft 3 in Air-to-Air Combat, World War 2, Victory List No. 6, Frank J. Olynyk, June 4 1987; USAF Historical Study No. 85, USAF Credits for the Destruction of En- emy Aircraft, World War II, Albert F. Simpson Historical Research Center, 1978; 5 Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II, edited by Maurer Maurer, 1969; 6 Air Force Combat Units of World War II, edited by Maurer Maurer, 1983. This information was compiled by Ms. Patsy Robertson, a historian at the Air Force 7 Historical Research Agency. 8 14 John B. Holway, Red Tails, Black Wings (Las Cruces, NM: Yucca Tree Press, 1997), 9 p. 262. 10 15 Fifteenth Air Force General Orders 2525, dated Apr. 19, 1945 and 2709 dated Apr. 24, 1945. 11 16 332d Fighter Group history for June 1944; 332d Fighter Group mission report 12 for June 25, 1944; David Brown, Warship Losses of World War II (Annapolis, 13 MD: Naval Institute Press, 1990); “Fighting Ships of the World,” website of Ivan Gogin (http://www.navypedia.org/ships/germany/ger_tb_ta22.htm). 14 17 Myth contained in Wikipedia under Ariete Class Torpedo Boat; more correct 15 information from H. P. Willmott’s The Last Century of Sea Power, volume 2, From 16 Washington to Tokyo, 1922–1945 (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University 17 Press, 2010), p. 207. 18 J. Todd Moye, Freedom Flyers: The Tuskegee Airmen of World War II (Oxford Uni- 18 versity Press, 2010), p. 121; John B. Holway, Red Tails, Black Wings (Las Cruces, 19 NM: Yucca Tree Press, 1997), p. 260. 20 19 Narrative Mission Reports of the 31st, 52nd, 82nd, 325th, and 332nd Fighter Groups, contained in the Fifteenth Air Force mission folder for March 24, 1945, 21 AFHRA call number 670.332, March 24, 1945. 22 20 E-mail from James Sheppard, an original Tuskegee Airmen, and a member of the 23 Tuskegee Airmen Incororated, with whom the author has spoken and corre- 24 sponded. 21 55th Air Service Squadron history for March 1945. The AFHRA call number is 25 SQ-SV-55-HI Jul 1942-May 1945. 26 22 55th Air Service Squadron histories for December 1944-March 1945, AFHRA call 27 number SQ-SV-55-HI Jul 1942-May 1945. 28 23 Kai Wright, Soldiers of Freedom: An Illustrated History of African Americans in the Armed Forces (New York: Black Dog and Leventhal Publishers, 2002), p. 181. 29 24 Fifteenth Air Force daily mission folders, containing narrative mission reports of 30 all the groups flying on missions that day, call number 670.332 at the Air Force 31 Historical Research Agency. 25 Maurer Maurer, Air Force Combat Units of World War II (Washington, DC: Office 32 of Air Force History, 1983), under each group designation. 33 26 History of the Fifteenth Air Force, November 1943-May 1945, vol. I (Air Force 34 Historical Research Agency call number 670.01-1), pp. 277 and 286. 62 Eleven Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen

27 History of the Fifteenth Air Force, November 1943-May 1945, vol. I (Air Force 1 Historical Research Agency call number 670.01-1), pp. 286–287. 2 28 Fifteenth Air Force mission folder for December 29, 1944; 485th Bombardment Group history for January 1945. 3 29 Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., American (Washington, DC: 4 Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), photograph between pages 54 and 55. 5 30 332d Fighter Group history, Mar-Apr 1944; 332d Fighter Group War Diary, Apr 6 1944. 31 Ryan Orr, “Veteran’s Life Saved by Tuskegee Airman,” Victorville Daily Press, 7 November 10, 2008; 332d Fighter Group histories for May, June, and July 1944; 8 31st Fighter Group history for May 1944; Fifteenth Air Force Daily Mission 9 Folder for May 5, 1955; E. A. Munday, Fifteenth Air Force Combat Markings, 1943–1945 (London, UK: Beaumont Publications), pp. 15–18. 10 32 “Policy for Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Post-War Army,” Report of War 11 Department Special Board on Negro Manpower, November 1945, Air Force His- 12 torical Research Agency call number 170.2111-1, November 1945), section on historical evaluation of the Negro’s Military Service, subsection 9, evaluation of 13 combat performance of the Negro in World War II, under g., “combat aviation,” 14 p. 15. 15 33 Lineage and honors histories of the 99th Fighter Squadron, the 332rd Fighter Group, and the 477th Bombardment Group, and their monthly histories from 16 World War II, stored at the Air Force Historical Research Agency. 17 34 History of Tuskegee Army Flying School and AAF 66th FTD, book published by 18 Wings of America and filed at the Air Force Historical Research Agency under 19 call number 289.28-100. 35 Conversations of the author with various original Tuskegee Airmen that took place 20 during his attendance at five successive Tuskegee Airmen Incorporated national 21 conventions, in 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2011. 22 36 Alan L. Gropman, The Air Force Integrates(Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History 1985), pp. 12–14 and 17–18. 23 37 History of Tuskegee Army Flying School and AAF 66th FTD, book published by 24 Wings of America and filed at the Air Force Historical Research Agency under 25 call number 289.28-100; Robert J. Jakeman, The Divided Skies(Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1992), pp. 264–265; Lineage and honors history of 26 the 53rd Test and Evaluation Group (formerly the 79th Fighter Group) at the Air 27 Force Historical Research Agency. 28 38 Charles W. Dryden, A-Train: Memoirs of a Tuskegee Airman (Tuscaloosa: University 29 of Alabama Press, 1997), pp. 144–147. 39 Lineage and honors histories of the 99th Flying Training Squadron (formerly 99th 30 Fighter Squadron) and 332nd Expeditionary Operations Group (formerly 332nd 31 Fighter Group) at the Air Force Historical Research Agency, in addition to their 32 monthly histories from 1943–1945. 40 477th Fighter Group (formerly 477th Bombardment Group) lineage and honors 33 history, and monthly histories of the 477th Bombardment Group in 1944 and 34 Notes 63

1 1945, at the Air Force Historical Research Agency. 41 Conversations of the author with several of the original Tuskegee Airmen at a series 2 of fiveTuskegee Airmen Incorporated national conventions between 2007 and 3 2011. 4 42 Robert J. Jakeman, The Divided Skies(Tuscaloosa, AL: The University of Alabama ; Maurer Maurer, Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War 5 Press, 1992, p. 221 II (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1969), p. 329. 6 43 Information from Dr. Roscoe Brown, telephone conversation with Dr. Daniel 7 Haulman on December 13, 2011. 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 1 2 3 4 About the Author 5 6 7 Dr. Daniel L. Haulman is Chief, Organizational History Division, at the 8 Air Force Historical Research Agency, where he has worked since 1982. 9 He has authored four books, including Air Force Aerial Victory Credits: 10 World War I, World War II, Korea, and Vietnam; The United States and Air 11 Force and Humanitarian Airlift Operations, 1947–1994; One Hundred 12 Years of Flight: USAF Chronology of Significant Air and Space Events, 13 1903–2002; and The Tuskegee Airmen, An Illustrated History: 1939–1949 14 (NewSouth Books, 2011). 15 16 To learn more about Daniel Haulman and The Tuskegee Airmen, An Il- 17 lustrated History, visit www.newsouthbooks.com/tuskegeeairmen. 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 1 Also by Daniel Haulman 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Experience the visual history of the Tuskegee Airmen . . . 18 19 Many documentaries, articles, museum exhibits, books, and movies have 20 now treated the subject of the Tuskegee Airmen, the only black American 21 military pilots in World War II. Most of these works have focused on 22 their training and their subsequent accomplishments during combat. 23 The Tuskegee Airmen: An Illustrated History goes further, using cap- 24 tioned photographs to trace the Airmen through the various stages of 25 training, deployment, and combat in North Africa, Italy, and over oc- 26 cupied Europe. Included for the first time are depictions of the critical 27 support roles of nonflyers: doctors, mechanics, and others, all of whom 28 contributed to the Airmen’s success. This volume makes vivid the story of 29 the Tuskegee Airmen and the environments in which they lived, worked, 30 played, fought, and sometimes died. 31 32 ISBN 978-1-58838-244-3 33 Available in hardcover format 34 Visit www.newsouthbooks.com/tuskegeeairmen