Field Actions Science Reports The journal of feld actions
Vol. 9 | 2016 Vol. 9
Electronic version URL: http://journals.openedition.org/factsreports/4030 ISSN: 1867-8521
Publisher Institut Veolia
Electronic reference Field Actions Science Reports, Vol. 9 | 2016, « Vol. 9 » [Online], Online since 12 September 2016, connection on 08 March 2020. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/factsreports/4030
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sanitary mapping of well waters in the commune of Bimbo in the Central African Republic (CAR) E. Foto, F.C.S OuokoDelombaut, C.L. DjebebeNdjiguim, J. SongueleBomagayen, N. Poumaye and J. Mabingui
Innovation platforms as a tool for improving agricultural production: the case of Yatenga province, northern Burkina Faso Gabriel Teno and Jean-Joseph Cadilhon
Evaluation of the productivity of seven varieties of wheat (Triticum aestivum) through integrated soil fertility management in Kaziba, South Kivu, DR Congo Serge Shakanye Ndjadi, Bite Mubalama Mirindi, Paul Musafiri, Géant Chuma Basimine, Eloïs Cinyabuguma Lwahamire and Espoir Bisimwa Basengere
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Sanitary mapping of well waters in the commune of Bimbo in the Central African Republic (CAR)
E. Foto, F.C.S OuokoDelombaut, C.L. DjebebeNdjiguim, J. SongueleBomagayen, N. Poumaye and J. Mabingui
Introduction
1 In the Central African Republic, water is a commodity for which there is increasing demand, but supplies are vulnerable and largely unsatisfactory—a situation that highlights the impact of water quality on public health. It is therefore important that sources of groundwater, such as the wells in the town of Bimbo, located in the province of Ombella M’poko, are adequately protected against pollutants and are tested to verify their quality. To date, there has been no systematic analysis of the well waters, nor regular control of their quality. Serious health monitoring, in which data for each well is made available, is lacking.
2 Nevertheless, results from various studies carried out in the past provide an insight into the physicochemical composition of the water. They also highlight specific problems in quality that are linked to the source of the water or its geographical location. Hence, while there is a sufficient quantity of groundwater in the country, it may be of extremely poor quality, depending on its origin. On top of this, only a fraction of the population has access to it—so all things considered, water supplies are insufficient for the growing needs of the population. The need for drinking water is partially met by exploiting surface water sources, but these are of mediocre quality and can contain significant quantities of pollutants—hence the need for this sanitary mapping of the wells of Bimbo.
3 After an analysis of the principal physicochemical and bateriological characteristics of the well waters, this study discusses a possible correlation between the various compounds present. Finally, we will establish a map of water quality in the studied zone.
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Presentation of the study zone
4 The commune of Bimbo, in the province of Ombella-M’Poko, is located in the southern part of CAR’s capital city, Bangui. It covers an area of 3095 km2, and a 2012 projection puts its population at 244,441. Its climate is similar to Forested Guinea, having nine months of rainy season and three months of dry season [2]. A report on work carried out by the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA,1999) shows the existence of two aquifers : one shallow, consisting of laterite covered by layers of clay, sand and conglomerate ; the other quite deep, composed of sandstone, quartzite, schist and limestone, separated by layers of clay.
Geology of the study area
5 The commune of Bimbo is largely covered in limestone. Prior geological studies of neighbouring Bangui (Cornachia & Giorgi, 1986) revealed the presence of mico-schist, sericito-schist, schist, quartzite, granite intrusions, magmatite, limestone, sandstone, conglomerate covered in laterite layers of various thickness.
Health context
6 Data collected from hospital centres in the Commune of Bimbo indicate that there are more than 700 cases per month of waterborne diseases among those aged 0 to 75 (Centre Regional de l’Ombella M’Poko).
7 According to our study, this can be explained by limited access to good quality water, a lack of information on the rules of hygiene, and above all on basic sanitation.
Materials and Methods
Materials
Sampling
8 After a preliminary phase of familiarisation with the terrain, sampling of water wells for this study was carried out over several field trips. The water was sampled and acidified for iron analysis, then conserved in an icebox and brought back to the laboratory for physicochemical and bateriological analyses.
9 At each sampling location, the following in situ analyses were carried out :
• pH (pH-meter WTW 340i) ;
• electrical conductivity and temperature (conductimeter WTW 340i) ; and
• alkalinity (HACH alkalinity test kit).
10 Subsequently, samples were taken in polystyrene vials for physicochemical analyses and in glass for bacteriological analyses.
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Field materials
11 To create the mapping of the study area, we used a GPS to take geographical coordinates of the different wells studied. Table 1 summarises the various fieldwork carried out.
Table 1. Geographical coordinates of test sites
Figure 1. Location of wells
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Methods
12 Our methodology consisted of two stages :
• Questionnaire and data collection ;
• Analytical methods used in the laboratory.
Questionnaire and data collection
13 A questionnaire was prepared for the local population. Among other issues, questions addressed their hygiene practices, equipment for drawing water, and waterborne diseases common in their households. Based on data from the questionnaire responses, we identified the various wells that would serve as our sampling points for analysis. Finally, we carried out sampling at these points over four field trips.
Analytical methods used in the laboratory
14 For this study, ten physicochemical parameters and two bacteriological parameters were measured. The physicochemical parameters chosen were those that allowed us to test (approximately) the chemical composition of the water, those for which there are thresholds beyond which the water is no longer considered fit for drinking. The bacteriological parameters chosen for analysis were those that indicate fecal contamination, because an absence of such contaminants is a strict requirement for potability.
15 The parameters tested and the methods used are summarised in Table 2 below.
Table 2. Summary of parameters tested and methods used
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Results and Discussion
Physicochemical parameters
pH variation in water analysed
Figure 2. Variation in pH
16 pH, measured in pH units, which measures the acidity or alkalinity of a sample, is a very important parameter in water analysis. The pH of our samples varied between 5.3 and 7.8.
17 In general, groundwater has an acid pH. The slight neutrality we observed could be due to infiltrations of surface water from above, or could result from the geological composition of the substrate traversed by the water.
18 Nevertheless, the pH values obtained are within the acceptable range of 6.5 to 9, according to current WHO regulations.
Evolution of the conductivity of the waters
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Figure 3. Conductivity measured on each field trip
19 The extent to which water is mineralised (strong, average or weak) can be deduced from measures of electrical conductivity. Results from our analysis show average mineralisation for the well waters studied ; although it should be noted that the well HUSACA demonstrates consistently stronger mineralisation, possibly due to the local soap-making industry. Figure 3 indicates that the electrical conductivity for most wells decreased slightly from the first to the fourth field trip. This decrease could be due to an external circumstance that altered the chemical composition of these well waters, for example a period of strong rain. However, the change observed was only slight.
Bicarbonate content of the water
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Figure 4. Bicarbonate ion content
20 - The presence of bicarbonate ions (HCO3 ) in groundwater depends on the nature of the terrain crossed : generally speaking, waters flowing through karstic terrains are rich in - - HCO3 and have increased conductivity. In the current study, we observed that the HCO3 content varied from one well to another. This variation can be partly explained by the geological nature of the terrain through which the water flows, and partly by the depth of the well. Like neighbouring Bangui, the study zone has a high composition of limestone, - which is found at great depth. In any case, there is no regulatory limit for HCO3 in terms of human consumption.
Evolution of chloride ions in the waters
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Figure 5. Chloride ion content
21 Groundwater contained in sedimentary rocks is often rich in chloride (Cl-). Our geological survey of the study area did not indicate any sedimentary rock associated with Cl- liberation, leading us to conclude that the chloride ions present in these waters must result from human activity—for example, the soap factory at HUSACA. Nevertheless, the content observed is within the acceptable range for potability (<200 mg/l), and there is little variation.
Concentration of Ferrous ions in the waters
Figure 6. Variation in iron content
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22 Iron is a chemical element that has no direct impact on human health, but influences the smell and taste of water once its concentration surpasses 0.2 mg/l [4]. Thus, in our samples, the wells at Padrépio and HUSACA exhibit elevated iron content. The well Yembi2 initially exhibited extremely high iron content, which decreased on each subsequent field trip. The elevated iron content observed at these wells could be caused by water seepage—our geological survey of the study site revealed that the layers of rock are separated by layers of laterites of varying thickness.
23 Iron content of water from all wells other than Padrépio, HUSACA and Yembi2 was below the acceptable threshold.
Evolution of nitrite and nitrate content
Figure 7. Nitrite and nitrate content
24 - Nitrites (NO2 ) and nitrates (NO3-) are formed as part of the nitrogen cycle. In aerobic + conditions, nitrites are produced from oxydation of ammonium (NH4 ), while nitrates are produced from oxydation of nitrites. In anaerobic conditions, the cycle operates in reverse. It should be noted that the nitrogen cycle relies on the presence of particular microbes.
25 Nitrates are not particularly toxic to humans—the acceptable threshold is 50 mg/l. However, nitrites are highly toxic, particularly to babies and pregnant women—the acceptable threshold is 0.1 mg/l [4].
26 The nitrite content for the majority of well waters studied was below the threshold ; however the wells at Samborla, Mbembé1, Mbembé2, PK13 and Begoua Hospital had nitrite content above the threshold. In general, nitrate content was within the acceptable range for potability, and it was always greater than the nitrite content. This would be linked to the action of the nitrogen cycle in the substrate.
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Correlation between bicarbonate ions and conductivity
Figure 8. Correlation between bicarbonate ions and conductivity
27 In groundwater, conductivity increases as a function of the minerals present in the substrate. As shown in Figures 3 and 4 and the shape of the curves in Figure 8, we observed an overall correlation between bicarbonate ions and electrical conductivity in the samples analysed. This suggests that bicarbonate ions could be responsible for the increases in conductivity observed in our samples.
2+ 2+ - - Evolution of cations (Mg and Ca ) and anions (HCO3 and Cl ) in the waters
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Figure 9. Correlation between anions and cations
28 Groundwater generally contains mineral salts in varying concentrations, which arise from seepage that carries various minerals with it along the way.
29 In this work, we looked for a correlation between the two types of ion : anions and cations. We observed that the mineral content varied at each well, and that on average, the ionic balance between cations and anions was roughly the same. This would be linked to the varied nature of the terrain at each of our sample sites.
Bacteriological parameters
Evolution of fecal streptococci in well waters
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Figure 10. Evolution of fecal streptococci
30 Fecal streptococci are bacterial indicators of fecal contamination [4]. The permitted threshold for drinkable water is 0 CFU/100 ml. We observed the presence of fecal streptococci in all field trips, most notably during the second field trip at the Padrépio well, Yembi1, Yembi2, Sô and Begoua Hospital, even in cases where wells were chlorinated. From this analysis, it seems that the source could be contamination by users or seepage, because many of the wells are not protected.
Evolution of coliforms (E. coli) in the well waters
Figure 11. Evolution of coliforms (E. coli)
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31 Coliforms are indicators of recent fecal pollution. Their presence in water increases the risk of pollution from other bacteria and/or viruses [7]. The acceptable threshold is 0 CFU/100 ml. Our observations were similar to those for fecal streptococci. The variability in contamination between the wells can be explained by human error, but also by the characteristics of each well, for example the proximity of human activity and latrines, seepage, and depth of the well.
Modelling
Schoeller Berkallof Diagram
Figure 12. Schoeller Berkallof Diagram
32 The Schoeller diagram allows us to identify the most predominant minerals in each sample. In this study we observe that three quarters of the well waters are characterised predominantly by magnesium, calcium and bicarbonates, and the other quarter contain a moderate chloride content. All wells have low nitrate content. Variation between wells could arise from the nature of the terrain or from seepage.
Stiff Diagram
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Figure 13. Stiff Diagram
33 Figure 13 (above) reveals a class of water characterised by a high composition of calcium 2+ - 2- (Ca ), bicarbonate (HCO3 ) and carbonate ions (CO3 ). This water corresponds to the wells Mbembé1, Mbembé2, Padrépio, PK13, Toungounfara, So, HUSACA, Yembi1 and Begoua Hospital.
34 The wells Guitangola and Yembi2 have water whose primary composition is calcium and chloride (Cl-) ions, while the water at Samborla and Zacko is predominantly composed of magnesium (Mg2+) and chloride ions.
35 The variation in composition would be a result of either the depth of the wells or the terrains crossed by the water.
Piper Diagram
36 A Piper Diagram representation identifies the hydrochemical facies of the water samples, and allows a large number of analyses to be shown on a single diagram, which can be informative regarding the nature of the pollution.
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Figure 14. Piper Diagram
37 The well water samples analysed in this study demonstrate the following characteristics. The hydrochemical facies of water from the Guitangola well was high in hyperchlorite, sulfate and calcium, while that of the Mbembe2, Yembi2 and Sambola wells was high in chloride, sulfate, calcium and magnesium. These facies result from surface water seepage. Another facies, high in calcium and magnesium bicarbonate, was observed in the waters from the Zacko, PK13, So, HUSACA, Padrepio, Cattin, Mbembe1, Toungounfara, Yembi1 and Begoua Hospital wells. This facies is caused by the geology of the terrain.
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Figure 15. Sanitary map of well waters
Conclusion and Suggestions
38 The sanitary mapping of wells carried out in the commune of Bimbo (figure 15) allowed us to study both the physicochemical and bacteriological quality of these waters. Our results showed the source of contamination of some wells, which in some cases were caused by human activity, and for others had natural causes relating to the nature of the terrain (e.g. the waters high in calcium and carbonate).
39 Our analyses revealed that for the most part, the physicochemical contents of the waters were within acceptable limits, whereas the bacteriological quality of some wells demands further examination over a longer period. The presence of coliforms, including E. coli, and streptococci lead us to believe that runoff has contaminated some of the wells, suggesting a need to establish a protection zone around these wells.
40 The results for waters collected from the vicinity of hospital centres in the commune of Bimbo demonstrate that elementary hygience practices are lacking. The contamination of these waters could arise from construction of shallow wells that are vulnerable to seepage, or from poor construction, or from water passing between layers. We suggest regular monitoring and examination of these wells, educating users about good hygiene practices, and establishing a protection zone around the wells.
41 PK13 well (lacking hygiene)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Association Française de Normalisation [French Standards Association] “Eaux méthodes d’essai » [“Methods for testing water”] Paris, Volume 1, 1990, p 73.
[2] Atlas de la RCA [Atlas of the Central African Republic], Edition 2008.
[3] Banton, O. & Bangoy, LM, 1997. Hydrogéologie : multiscience environnementale des eaux souterraines [Hydrogeology : environmental multiscience of groundwater], University of Quebec Press, Canada.
[4] Battarel, J-M, 2010-2011. “Les ressources en eau souterraine” [“Groundwater resources”], course in applied hydrogeology, pp 14-15.
[5] Boulvert, Y, 1996. Etude géomorphologique de la République Centrafricaine, Carte à 1/1000000 en deux feuilles ouest et est. [Geomorphological study of the Central African Republic, 1/1000000 map in two sheets west and east.] ORSTOM Editions, Explanatory note 110, Paris, 258p.
[6] Boulvert, Y, Salomon, JN, 1988. Sur l’existence de paleo-crypto-karsts dans le basin de l’Oubangui (République Centrafricaine). [On the existence of paleo-crypto-karsts in the Oubangui basin (Central African Republic).] Karstologia 12, 37-48.
[7] Boulvert, Y, 1976. Notice explicative no 64 : Carte pédologique de la République Centrafricaine, Feuille Bangoui à 1/200000. [Explanatory note no. 64 : Soil map of the Central African Republic, Bangoui Sheet at 1/200000.] Orstom, Paris.
[8] Boulvert, Y & Juberthie, C, 1998. République Centrafricaine. [Central African Republic.] In : Juberthie, C & Decu, V (eds.) Encyclopaedia biospeologica. Biospeology Society, France-Bucarest, pp 1659-1668.
[9] Callede, J & Arquisou, G, 1972. Données climatologiques recueillies à la station bioclimatologique de Bangui pendant la période 1963-1971. [Climatological data collected at the bioclimatological station of Banui during the period 1963-1971.] Cahier ORSTOM, series Hydrologie, IX(4).
[10] Celle-Jeanton, H, Huneau, F, Travi, Y & Edmunds, WM, 2009. Twenty years of groundwater evolution in the Triassic Sandstone aquifer of Lorraine : impacts on baseline water quality. Applied Geochemistry 24, 1198-1213.
[11] Cornacchia, M, Detay, M & Giorgi, L, 1990. New data on Central African hydrogeology. Hydrogéologie 3, 165-181.
[12] Cornacchia, M & Giorgi, L, 1986. Les séries précambriennes d’origine sédimentaire et volcano-sédimentaire de la République Centrafricains. [Precambrian series of sedimentary and vocano-sedimentary origin of the Central African Republic.] Musée royal de l’Afrique centrale, Belgium.
[13] Djebebe-Ndjiguim, CL, 2007. Application des modèles hydrogéochimiques sur le bassin versant de Bangui. [Application of hydro-geochemical models to the Bangui catchment.] Master Thesis, Univ. Bangui, 77p.
[14] Doyemet, A, 2006. Le système aquifère de la région de Bangui (République Centrafricaine), conséquences des caractéristiques géologiques du socle sur la dynamique, les modalités de
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recharge et la qualité des eaux souterraines. [The aquifer system of the Bangui region (Central African Republic), consequences of the geological characteristics of the bedrock for the dynamics, recharge and quality of groundwater.] PhD thesis, USTL,University of Lille, 212p.
[15] International Cooperation Agency (JICA), 1999. Study of development of groundwater in the city of Bangui in the Central African Republic. Unpublished report.
[16] Mestraud, JL, 1982. Géologie et ressources minérales de la République Centrafricaine. Etat des connaissances à fin 1963. [Geology and mineral resources of the Central African Republic. State of knowledge at the end of 1963.] BRGM Publications, Orleans, 186p.
[17] Nguimalet, CR, 2004. Le cycle et la gestion de l’eau à Bangui (République Centrafricaine), approche hydromorphologique du site d’une capital africaine. [Cycle and management of water at Bangui (Central African Republic), hydromorphological approach of an African capital.] PhD thesis, University of Lumière Lyon-2, 371p.
[18] Plesinger, J, 1990. Les eaux souterraines de la République Centrafricaine et leur exploitation. Projet d’appui technique au programme d’hydraulique villageoise. [Groundwaters of the Central African Republic and their exploitation. Technical support plan for the village water programme.] PNUD-Bangui.Technical Report, 70p.
[19] Poidevin, JL, 1976. Les formations du Précambrien supérieur de la Région de Bangui (République Centrafricaine). [Upper Precambrian formations of the Bangui region (Central African Republic).] Bull. Soc. Geol. France XVIII, 999-1003.
[20] Poidevin, JL, 1996. Un segment proximal de rampe carbonate d’âge protérozoique supérieur au Nord du craton d’Afrique centrale (sud-est de la République Centrafricaine). [A proximal segment of the carbonate vein from the upper proterozoic age to the north of the central African craton (south-east of the Central African Republic).] Journal of African Earth Sciences 23, 257-262.
[21]Rodier, J, 1984. “L’analyse de l’eau : eaux naturelles, eaux résiduaires, eaux de mer.”[“Water analysis : natural water, wastewater, sea water.”] Dunod Editions, p 113, 193, 198, 240, 793, 808, 823, 820.
[22] Rolin, P, 1992. Nouvelles données tectoniques sur le socle précambrien de Centrafrique : implications géodynamiques. [New techtonic data on the precambrian bedrock of central Africa : Geodynamic implications.] C. R. Acad. Sci., Paris, 315, sér. II a, 467-470.
[23] Runge, J & Nguimalet, CR, 2005. Physiogeographic features of the Oubangui catchment and environmental trends reflected in discharge and floods at Bangui 1911-1999, Central African Republic. Geomorphology 70, 311-324
[24] Van Der Wal, A, 2009. “Connaissances des méthodes de captage des eaux souterraines appliquées aux forages manuels”. [“Methods for harnessing groundwater applied to manual drilling.”] Fondation Practica, The Netherlands.
[25] Wacrenier, P, 1960. Rapport de mission 1960 dans la coupure de Bangui Ouest. [Report on the 1960 mission in the blackout of West Bangui.] Unpublished, 32p.
APPENDIXES
Photos of some of the sampled wells
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HUSACA well
Mbembe2 well
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Yembi1 well (unprotected).
ABSTRACTS
This study concerns the strategies for controlling and monitoring the quality of well waters consumed by the population of Bimbo, in the Central African Republic. The majority of the population has no access to clean, safe drinking water, and the distribution network of drinking water only reaches around 20 % of the urban population in the town centre. A population explosion in the Central African Republic has led to a very strong rural exodus, which has resulted in increasing consumption of poor quality drinking water. Futhermore, the virtual absence of a system for collecting wastewater only serves to increase the vulnerability of these shallow reservoirs. Such constraints are common in large African cities, where around 80 % of the population live in areas that have become urbanised in an ad hoc fashion. In such contexts, it is extremely difficult to reconcile groundwater extraction with public health.
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INDEX
Keywords: mapping, urban pollution, hydrochemicals, Central African Republic, hygiene
AUTHORS
E. FOTO UNESCO Chair, Lavoisier Hydroscience Laboratory, faculty of sciences, University of Bangui, BP 908 BANGUI (Central African Republic), Email : [email protected]
F.C.S OUOKODELOMBAUT UNESCO Chair, Lavoisier Hydroscience Laboratory, faculty of sciences, University of Bangui, BP 908 BANGUI (Central African Republic), Email : [email protected]
C.L. DJEBEBENDJIGUIM UNESCO Chair, Lavoisier Hydroscience Laboratory, faculty of sciences, University of Bangui, BP 908 BANGUI (Central African Republic)
J. SONGUELEBOMAGAYEN UNESCO Chair, Lavoisier Hydroscience Laboratory, faculty of sciences, University of Bangui, BP 908 BANGUI (Central African Republic)
N. POUMAYE UNESCO Chair, Lavoisier Hydroscience Laboratory, faculty of sciences, University of Bangui, BP 908 BANGUI (Central African Republic)
J. MABINGUI UNESCO Chair, Lavoisier Hydroscience Laboratory, faculty of sciences, University of Bangui, BP 908 BANGUI (Central African Republic)
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Innovation platforms as a tool for improving agricultural production: the case of Yatenga province, northern Burkina Faso
Gabriel Teno and Jean-Joseph Cadilhon
Introduction
Innovation platforms and agricultural development
1 African agriculture, as in other developing countries, is confronted with a real problem of productivity. According to CORAF/WECARD (2011), levels of agricultural productivity in Africa, related to both soil and labour, are still well below those of other developing regions. African farmers therefore need to intensify their production systems and adapt to ongoing change in their production environment, which presupposes continuous innovation (World Bank, 2012).
2 Understanding the emergence of innovation systems is at the heart of research analysing technological change (Hekkert and Negro, 2009). Innovation platforms (IP) have been widely used as a tool to encourage agricultural innovation (Nederlof and Pyburn, 2012). IPs are equitable and dynamic spaces designed to bring together heterogeneous stakeholders to share their knowledge and find solutions to a common problem (ILRI, 2012). These heterogeneous stakeholders are more easily able to identify the innovations adapted to a given context than homogeneous groups like agricultural cooperatives which only include a single type of stakeholder.
3 The various promoters of agriculture in developing countries are continually seeking mechanisms to increase agricultural productivity through improved stakeholder organisation. The introduction of agricultural research in Sub-Saharan Africa was long dominated by a top-down approach in which all the research operations were first
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performed in experimental stations (Wey et al., 2010), and then transferred to the peasant context for adaptation, validation and dissemination (Lefort, 1988). This approach precluded an optimum exchange between the researchers and the end users of the tools: extension officers, producers, etc. (Dabiré et al., 2012). Today, development partners are more aware of the importance of participative approaches, such as mechanisms contributing to boosting agricultural productivity. IPs are one of these approaches (Cadilhon, 2013).
4 Prior research on support for African agriculture through IPs demonstrated the positive role of this system in improving the production and income of small rural producers (Mapila et al., 2011; Nyikahadzoi et al., 2012). This study aims to validate the hypothesis according to which the Volta2 project IPs have had a positive effect on improving crop and livestock production in the four beneficiary villages in Yatenga province, northern Burkina Faso.
Study context
5 This study is linked to the three-year Volta2 project launched in December 2010 and focused on the integrated management of rain water for crop and livestock agro- ecosystems in Burkina Faso and Ghana. The climate of the agro-ecosystem in the region of northern Burkina Faso is Sudano-Sahelian, alternating between a long dry season and a short wet season. The dry season runs from October to May, while the wet season extends from June to September. The rainfall is low and irregular totalling around 600 to 700 mm a year. The main crops are black-eyed beans, corn, millet and sorghum, while livestock mainly include sheep, goats and poultry, although some rural households also own a few cattle.
6 In short, the geophysical characteristics of Yatenga province are similar to the entire northern region of Burkina Faso. It is a naturally disadvantaged region with erosion that leads to a continuous loss of soil fertility, scarce and low level of rainfall, and disappearing fauna (Ripama and Sawadogo, 2009).
7 Launched as part of the VBDC (Volta Basin Development Challenge) programme, the overall aim of the Volta2 project was to improve rainwater management and small dams in Burkina Faso and northern Ghana in order to reduce poverty and improve the beneficiaries’ means of subsistence and their resilience, while also taking into account the upstream and downstream stakeholders in the value chains. Four value chains were particularly relevant for the project beneficiaries at the site in northern Burkina Faso: black-eyed beans, corn, sheep and poultry. The upstream stakeholders are the various input and agricultural service suppliers, while the downstream stakeholders are mainly the traders in the products from the various value chains. The mode of governance of these value chains did not reveal any particularly evolved structure. By adopting the typology proposed by Gereffi et al. (2005), the marketing streams observed were more akin to direct sales between farmers and rural households purchasing foodstuffs, or a modular mode of distribution with small local entrepreneurs handling the distribution of the inputs, agricultural product collection and transformation, thereby providing the marketing link with urban wholesalers or other rural households.
8 The Volta2 project used the IPs, launched in June 2011, as the main development tool to achieve its targets. These targets set for 2013, two years after the project’s launch, were the improved management of natural resources (water and soil) for agricultural
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production as well as improved product marketing within the four value chains of black- eyed beans, corn, sheep and poultry. Through this project, the IP members wanted in particular to achieve improved access to inputs, credit, markets and information. Their aim was also to lift the level of production, facilitate water and soil management, improve skills and coordination of activities throughout each of the four value chains (Somé, 2013).
9 The potential IP members were identified at the start of the project in the target villages through a rapid assessment of the study region and stakeholder mapping (CPWF, 2010). The volunteer farmers interested in trying new water, crop and livestock management techniques came to the platform where they learnt to share their experience through innovative approaches. The village IPs were members of a main IP at the provincial level, which in turn was linked through the project to the IPs in the other Burkinabe sites (Centre region) and the Ghanaian IPs. Interaction within the IPs took the form of meetings at two levels. The first was at the provincial level bringing together the IP organisers and moderators, and representatives of the IPs in the province’s various villages. The second level of meetings was in the project target villages at which the representative(s) having taken part in the provincial meetings were able to pass on the decisions and developments decided at that level. The members of the village IPs were all farmers, some of whom were also traders or processors. Alongside the IP members, other stakeholders representing the State, regional authorities, NGOs, scientists and microcredit agents were also involved in the IPs’ operation.
10 The project meetings at the national level and those attended by the representatives of the Burkinabe and Ghanaian IPs were held with the representatives of the project institutional partners rather than with the representatives of the beneficiary farmers. The IP meetings at the village, provincial and country levels were facilitated by an employee of the NGO selected to be the main project partner in each country. In Yatenga province, the local development partners involved in the project were the local office of the Dutch NGO SNV and the national NGO FNGN (Fédération Nationale de Groupement Naam). SNV was tasked with coordinating the interaction between researchers and the rural communities while FNGN was responsible for training the farmers and moderating the village meetings. The Burkinabe research partners were for the most part researchers from the national research centre INERA (Institut de l'Environnement et de Recherches Agricoles). The project meetings attended by the representatives of Burkina Faso and Ghana were led by an employee trained in facilitation from one of the international agricultural research institutes that had instigated the Volta2 project. The structural organisation of the IPs at the various geographic levels of the project and the mode of interaction between the various stakeholders involved are shown diagrammatically in Figure 1 below.
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Figure 1. Mode of interaction between the stakeholders in the Volta2 project innovation platforms
11 This study focusses on the activities of the Volta2 project in Yatenga province, northern Burkina Faso. Another study demonstrated that the project IPs already established in northern Ghana had also had a positive impact on the beneficiaries in improving agricultural product marketing (Zewdie et al., 2015).
12 This study was conducted in three communes and involved four villages: Koura Bagre and Ziga in Oula commune, Bogoya in Ouahigouya commune and Pogoro Silmimosse in Koumbri commune (Figure 2). The study lasted six months from April to September 2013, including two months of field surveys from mid-May to mid-July.
Figure 2. Administrative map of Burkina Faso and Yatenga province.
Data collection
13 To validate the research hypothesis for this study concerning the positive effect of the Volta2 project IPs on the beneficiaries’ agricultural production, field data was collected by a variety of means. Discussion groups were organised with the IP members in each of
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the four villages involved to clarify the local context and the platform structure. Then, three individual survey questionnaires were completed with the following stakeholders: 57 IP members (that is, all the members) of whom seven were women, 12 key stakeholders selected from among the 57 IP members, including one woman, and nine moderators or facilitators (all men) charged with organizing the various IP support activities across the entire Yatenga province.
14 Three different survey instruments were used depending on the respondent’s level of knowledge about how the IP worked. The questionnaire for the IP members was above all based on Likert scales (Likert, 1932) to collect quantitative data about the members’ perception of the way in which their IP worked, their interaction with the other IP members, and the results of this joint action. This quantitative data was then used for the statistical analysis described in this article. To survey the IP key members and moderators who were more aware of the IP’s operation, the two questionnaires used contained a greater number of open questions in order to collect qualitative information about the way in which the project IPs operated in the four target villages. All the survey instruments and the quantitative data collected are available online (Cadilhon et al., 2013). Table 1 below shows the types of questions asked and the way in which the responses to these questions were quantified using a Likert scale from 1 to 5 in which 1 was the perception “Strongly disagree” and 5 the perception “Strongly agree”.
Table 1 Statements used to quantify the perceptions and attitudes of the 57 IP members and nine moderators using the Likert scale
Likert scale: 1 = Totally disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Undecided; 4 = Agree; 5 = Strongly agree
15 The questionnaire used for IP members had three main sections linked to the structure, management and performance of the IPs, based on an analytical framework developed to assess the IPs’ performance (Cadilhon, 2013). The individual survey was followed by
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further group discussions in each village to understand how the IP members perceive the IPs and their impact on their activities. The majority of the interviews and group discussions were conducted in French through an interpreter.
16 Some questions about the platform structure aimed at identifying the individual characteristics of the members, including age, gender, IP membership seniority, level of education, frequency of attendance at IP meetings and wealth indicators. The following indicators were used to differentiate between households’ level of wealth: means of locomotion used, number of head of livestock, and the surface area of cultivated land. Other questions, addressed to all interviewees, sought to identify the IP structure through its mode of operation including the decision-making process, the existence of smaller committees, the source of funding, the legal and regulatory framework, etc. The data about behaviour, or the way in which the IP members participate in the platform activities, was collected using individual surveys of the platform members and observations during meetings. The questions about behaviour within the platform sought to get the members’ opinion about the way in which the IP facilitated member interaction. To assess the behaviour indicators, the individual questionnaire was mainly based on a ranking using a Likert scale from 1 to 5 for statements representing various types of stakeholder behaviour in a group situation. These types of behaviour had already been identified in the literature about IPs (Cadilhon, 2013) making it possible to identify any variability in the stakeholders’ opinions (see Table 1 for several examples and Cadilhon et al. [2013] for all the statements used). In order not to draw out unnecessarily the statistical section of this article, the results described here focus on joint planning between stakeholders.
17 The indicators measuring the IP’s performance were collected using three types of questionnaires. The Volta2 project IPs had set targets for the end of 2013. During the individual surveys, the IP’s performance in achieving its targets was assessed by asking the respondents to rank on a Likert scale of 1 to 5 the extent to which they agreed with the statements describing various aspects of the pre-established targets (Table 1). This study was focused on improving crop and livestock production for the project beneficiaries. This target was not measured directly through a quantitative approach in the field, but rather by asking the farmers how they perceived this improvement. The option to use subjective perception of the agricultural production performance rather than an objective measurement could be a source of bias in the research method. However, this method was selected because of a lack of resources to implement a sampling and analysis protocol for the crop and livestock production results when conducting the assessment study. The comparison of the quantitative results from the surveys of the 57 members based on Likert scales with the qualitative results of the surveys of the key IP members and moderators nonetheless indicates convergence in the perceptions of all the stakeholders involved with regard to the IP’s performance in improving agricultural production.
Data analysis
18 The data was analysed using the SPSS software. First, we conducted a factor analysis to reduce the number of variables describing joint planning and increase in agricultural production to a few main components (Téno et al., 2013). This led to the creation of two
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new variables to cover all the variability from the various statements describing the “joint planning” and “agricultural production improvement” indicators.
19 The aim of this regression was to link the structural and behavioural elements of the IP members with the new FAC1_3 dependent variable called “agricultural production improvement”. The discussion groups enabled us to choose the following variables to reflect the IP’s structural components: gender (Gender), age (Age), seniority in the IP ( Senio_IP), level of education (High_ed), participation in IP meetings (Ptici_ip), main source of income (Prin_sr) and average income (R_year). The results of the discussion groups with the IP members having shown that it was difficult to get a reliable estimate of household income, the income dimension was incorporated into the model using the principal source of income in the form of a two-category variable: 1) agricultural activity and 2) non-agricultural activity. Seniority in the IPs was also a two-category variable 1) joined the IP at its start in 2011 and 2) joined the IP in 2012. Two aspects of member behaviour were used as explanatory variables in the regression: the variable from the factor analysis of the joint planning of activities between members in the sector (FAC1_1) and the ranking accorded to the statement “The agricultural extension officers generally provide information that is relevant to my needs and production calendar” (25c). Thus, the theoretic model of our regression is written:
20 FAC1_3 = a + bGender + bAge + bSenio_IP + bHigh_ed + bPtici_IP + bPrin_sr + bR_year + bFAC1_1 + b25c + u
21 All the compliance tests (Table 2) revealed that the data used for the above multiple regression model matched the linear regression hypotheses.
Results
Quantitative results of the regression analyses
22 Table 2 below shows the results from the regression analyses.
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23 In the discussion section, these quantitative results of the regression analyses are discussed by triangulation, or in other words, by comparison and the search for synergies with the qualitative data collected in the field, mainly during discussion groups meeting in the four target villages. The validity of these results about the operation of the agricultural innovation platforms and their impact on improving agricultural production is subject to other empirical validation exercises using the approach proposed by Cadilhon (2013).
Obstacles and solutions
24 This study encountered several difficulties and limitations that need to be clearly identified to improve the validation of the results obtained. The Likert scales used to collect data were difficult to use for some respondents who struggled to align their perception on these scales. The problem was solved and a response obtained by reformulating the question.
25 The survey protocol did not include project non-beneficiaries as the initial purpose was to validate the quantitative approach described here across a homogeneous population of beneficiaries. We attempted to compensate for the lack of counterfactual elements by making greater use in our analysis of the qualitative data collected from the various discussion groups and surveys with the IP moderators. Future IP studies should include project non-beneficiaries in order to identify better the IP results going beyond the direct project beneficiaries.
26 A bias may have crept into the survey through the interpreter translating the questions into the local language. We sought to reduce this bias by discussing the various points in the questionnaire with the interpreter before and during the interviews whenever doubt arose.
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27 The assessment team was introduced by the Volta2 project partners, which may perhaps have influenced the project beneficiaries’ responses.
28 The small number (57) of Volta2 IP members may have been a drawback in the analysis of the quantitative data. However, we were able to survey all the participating members and partners supporting the project, thereby establishing a complete census of the project stakeholders in Yatenga province. Further, all the statistical tests pointed to the robustness of the results obtained.
29 Another limitation derives from the short lifespan of the Volta2 IPs. They were only set up in June 2011 in Yatenga province, only two years before our assessment. This short operational timeframe of the IPs may have made it difficult for the respondents to make a correct assessment of the impacts of the IP on their activity. With so little hindsight, we are therefore unable to claim to having assessed the concrete results achieved by the IP. Nevertheless, the relations identified by the statistical analysis of the results obtained, and their validation by the results of the discussion groups and other qualitative surveys pave the way to other future research on the way in which IPs can support sustainable agricultural development.
30 Finally, from a theoretical point of view, our analysis concentrated on joint planning as a component in the behaviour of the IP members. Similarly, the performance of the Volta2 IPs was limited to agricultural production improvement indicators. However, these platforms had also set their sights on other targets listed earlier and not covered in this study.
Discussion
31 The results of the regression model (Table 2) show that three variables are statistically significant with a high level of probability of 5% or less in explaining the improvements in livestock (sheep or poultry) or crop (black-eyed beans or corn) production among project beneficiaries. These quantitative results are interpreted jointly with the qualitative data collected in the field.
Joint planning of activities contributes to improving agricultural production
32 According to the regression results, joint planning of activities by value chain stakeholders contributed significantly (level of 1%) to improving agricultural production. The platform members interviewed confirmed the IP’s role in planning their activities. The IPs created closer working relations among members in the same village through an exchange of information, planning and solving shared problems together. The fact that the IP members work together to find solutions to their problems is one of the main goals presented in the definition of IPs (ILRI, 2012). The platform members who also participate in other groups or associations state that the IP makes them work together in an integrated manner in a network of mutual aid. This way of working is very different from the way the farmers used to work through their participation in other types of village groups, such as Burkina Vert, an association focused on combatting desertification and climate change; OCADES (Organisation Catholique pour le Développement et la Solidarité or Caritas Burkina Faso); or the KOOm association for the self-promotion of women in
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Burkina Faso. The 12 key members interviewed referred to the way in which the IPs have helped them manage their activity better in a more concerted manner through the training courses provided to them, such as techniques for accessing markets, grouped selling, inventory credit system (or WRS - warehouse receipt system), etc. In the same way, through their various meetings, IPs have also introduced their members to new partners, such as micro-credit institutions, livestock and agricultural services, veterinary services and the IP members in other villages. In this way, the IPs have demonstrated to their members the importance of maintaining links with all these partners and with each other, as all these stakeholders can be mutually useful to each other.
33 Some members mentioned that the IP taught them that working together was an effective way of mutually improving their activity and income. All the members are important to each other and none can develop independently. Thus, they must ensure information and experience is shared better in their activities to be mutually useful to each other and so to grow their activities together. The IP members stated that joint activity planning had enabled them to understand that they could immediately call the veterinary service when their animals were sick, which they used not to do because of the lack of connection with the veterinary services. When contact is made earlier, sick animals can be treated in time thereby reducing livestock mortality rates. Through IP meetings of farmers and traders, the farmer members learnt that they had to prepare for the sale of their products, even before producing them, by contacting the traders in advance to find out what their needs are. This has reduced the uncertainty around product market values at harvest time, and so has contributed to improving production, as farmers can now produce with less fear as to the potential market outlet. This improvement in market access corresponds to an important function of the IPs referred to by Hekkert and Negro (2009).
34 IP members also learnt that they had to plan their activities with institutions, such as the agricultural and plant protection services of the Ministry of Agriculture in order to access inputs and other useful services. For example, the IP converted producers to using improved seed, and encouraged them to combine improved and traditional seed for their crops. Some producers claimed that improved seed was beneficial when the rain was good and also meant the crop stover could be used for livestock feed. But under drought conditions, improved seed was less beneficial than traditional seed. So producers tried to combine both types of seed to improve their chances of success given the uncertain meteorological context. Producer adaptability encouraged by the IPs confirms the hypothesis put forward by Nederlof and Pyburn (2012) that farmers must intensify their production systems to adapt to the constant changes in their production environment.
Positive impact of participation in IP meetings on boosting agricultural production
35 Our regression shows that the members’ participation in the IP has a positive effect (statistical level of 1%) on the perceived increase in their agricultural production as measured on the Likert scale. According to the platform members, this link is attributable to improved skills that differentiate the way in which the IPs work compared with the other types of groups. The Volta2 IP placed considerable emphasis on its members’ skills. The IP meetings provided a forum for the exchange of information and knowledge between the various platform participants, which is a crucial function of any network (Hekkert and Negro, 2009). The IP meetings provided the members with a variety of
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training sessions about agricultural production, new livestock feeding and husbandry techniques, market access, composting, construction of pens, etc. The IP meetings also helped bring the members of the same village closer together and to facilitate the villagers’ access to the various agricultural development services. This improvement in the platform members’ human and social capital therefore contributed to increasing agricultural production.
Conclusions
36 This article presents the results of field surveys of the stakeholders involved in the Volta2 innovation platform project, which aimed to improve the beneficiaries’ crop and livestock production. The quantitative results obtained by regression combined with the qualitative data collected in the field allow us to conclude that there has been an improvement in the project beneficiaries’ human and social capital through new growth prospects of their partner network, technical training in the areas of production and marketing, and access to agricultural development services. This has therefore empowered the producers to seek solutions to their problems with the assistance of the various partners and in so doing contribute to improving their agricultural production.
37 These results corroborate those of other studies identifying IPs as an efficient tool for supporting a complex, multi-stakeholder system for developing agriculture and the value chains in developing countries. Similar studies will need to be carried out, in particular taking into account the project non-beneficiaries in order to gain a better understanding of the impact of an IP project on the beneficiaries and their activities. There is nonetheless a problem surrounding the future benefits of the Volta2 project IPs, given the short project lifespan. The project moderators encouraged these IPs to join existing institutions or those already having some legal entity (Somé, 2013). This aspect needs to be increasingly taken into account when launching similar projects in order to provide sufficient time for the beneficiaries to take better ownership of the complex operation of IPs so that they are in a position to continue the activity beyond the project’s conclusion.
Acknowledgements
38 This study was conducted under the CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM), led by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). This study benefited from the financial support of the CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets and the CGIAR Programme on Water and Food (CPWF) in the Volta Basin with funding from the European Commission (EC) and technical support from the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). The opinions expressed here are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the positions of PIM, IFPRI, CGIAR, EC or IFAD.
39 We would like to thank for their contribution to this study: Jane POOLE, Alessandra GALIE, Francis WANYOIKE and Augustine AYANTUNDE (ILRI), Michel GARRABE (Université Montpellier I), Hubert SOME (SNV Burkina Faso) and Olufunke COFIE (CPWF), as well as all the members and moderators of the innovation platforms in northern Burkina Faso.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cadilhon, J.J. (2013), “A Conceptual Framework to Evaluate the Impact of Innovation Platforms on Agrifood Value Chains Development”, A paper prepared for the 138th EAAE Seminar on Pro-poor Innovations in Food Supply Chains, Ghent, Belgium, September 11-3, 2013.
Cadilhon, J.J., Téno, G., Mariami, Z.A. (2013), Questionnaires et Données pour la Validation Empirique d'une Approche Conceptuelle pour Evaluer l'Impact des Plateformes d'Innovation sur le Développement de Chaînes de Valeur Agro-alimentaires au Ghana et au Burkina Faso, ILRI, Nairobi. http:// cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/33829.
CORAF (2011), Analyse des Mécanismes de Diffusion des Technologies Agricoles Améliorées et Innovations dans l'Espace CEDEAO. Rapport de Mission, CORAF, Dakar.
CPWF (2010), Project Proposal, Volta Basin Development Challenges of the CPWF, CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.
Dabiré, D., Andrieu, N., Triomphe, B. (2012), “Bilan des Dispositifs de Recherche en Partenariat au Burkina Faso. Partenariat, Modélisation, Expérimentations : quelles Leçons pour la Conception de l'Innovation et l'Intensification Ecologique ?” Article published after the ASAP seminar in November 2011 in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso.
Gereffi, G., Humphrey, J., Sturgeon, T. (2005), “The governance of global value chains”, Review of International Political Economy, Vol. 12, pp. 78-104. doi: 10.1080/09692290500049805.
Hekkert, M.P., Negro, S.O. (2009), “Functions of Innovation Systems as a Framework to Understand Sustainable Change: Empirical Evidence for Earlier Claims”, Technological Forecasting and Social Change Vol. 76, pp. 584-594. doi: 10.1016/j.techfore.2008.04.013.
ILRI (2012), “What are Innovation Platforms?” Proceedings from the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) Internal Meeting on Innovation Platforms, Nairobi, 6-7 December 2012, ILRI, Nairobi. Kenya.
Lefort, J. (1988), “Innovation Technique et Expérimentation en Milieu Paysans”, Les Cahiers de la Recherche Développement Vol. 17, pp. 1-10.
Likert, R. (1932), “A technique for the measurement of attitudes”, Archives of Psychology Vol. 22, pp. 5-55.
Mapila, M.A.T.J., Kirsten, J.F., Meyer, F.H. (2011), “The Impact of Agricultural Innovation System Interventions on Rural Livelihoods in Malawi”, Development Southern Africa Vol. 29, pp. 303-15.
Nederlof, S., Pyburn, R. (eds.) (2012), One Finger Cannot Lift a Rock: Facilitating Innovation Platforms to Trigger Institutional Change in West Africa, KIT Publishers, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Nyikahadzoi, K., Pali, P., Fatunbi, A.O., Olarinde, L.O. et al. (2012), “Stakeholder Participation in Innovation Platform and Implications for Integrated Agricultural Research for Development (IAR4D)”, International Journal of Agriculture and Forestry Vol. 2, pp. 92-100. doi : 10.5923/ j.ijaf.20120203.03.
Ripama, T., Sawadogo, S.P. (2009), Recensement Général de la Population et de l’Habitation (RGPH) de 2006; Monographie de la Région du Nord, Ministry for the Economy and Finance, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.
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Somé, H. (2013), “Developing rainfed crop-livestock value chains through Innovation Platforms: experiences with rural communities in the Volta Basin”, CPWF Volta Brief, CPWF, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.
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Zewdie, A.M., Cadilhon, J.-J., Werthmann, C. (2015), “Impact of innovation platforms on marketing relationships: the case of Volta Basin integrated crop-livestock value chains in Ghana”, African Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics Vol. 10, pp. 328-342.
ABSTRACTS
Innovation platforms are a development tool used increasingly to support the stakeholders in complex systems for agricultural development in developing countries. This article presents the results of a study measuring the impact of innovation platforms on improving agricultural production for the beneficiaries of a project in Yatenga province, northern Burkina Faso. This innovation platform was installed in 2011 as part of the activities of the Volta2 project, operating jointly in Burkina Faso and Ghana. The results of surveys using Likert scales to quantify the project beneficiaries’ perceptions and qualitative surveys of the various partners revealed that there was an improvement in agricultural production. This improvement has been attributed to the Volta2 project’s innovation platforms, which enabled an increase in the beneficiaries’ social and human capital, empowering them to seek and find local solutions adapted to their problems.
INDEX
Keywords: innovation systems, agriculture, productivity, Burkina Faso
AUTHORS
GABRIEL TENO DVM and MSc; Research Assistant at Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Truro, Nova Scotia
JEAN-JOSEPH CADILHON PhD; Senior Agricultural Policy Analyst, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2 rue Niepce, 75014 Paris, France. Email:[email protected]
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Evaluation of the productivity of seven varieties of wheat (Triticum aestivum) through integrated soil fertility management in Kaziba, South Kivu, DR Congo
Serge Shakanye Ndjadi, Bite Mubalama Mirindi, Paul Musafiri, Géant Chuma Basimine, Eloïs Cinyabuguma Lwahamire and Espoir Bisimwa Basengere
Introduction
1 Every year, more than 600 million tons of wheat are harvested around the world, making wheat the second most widely cultivated cereal in the world after maize [1; 2; 3]. Wheat is the foremost cereal in terms of international trade, with 127 million tons of wheat being bought and sold in 2010 [4; 6; 7]. Wheat is a temperate climate crop, sensitive to high temperatures: for every 2°C rise in the daily temperature above 18°C, the potential yield of wheat diminishes by about 10%.
2 From 1996 to 1998, yields – recorded using varieties imported from France and Italy – oscillated between 200 and 400 kg/ha, depending on the agro-ecological zone (1600 to 2500 m altitude) [12; 13; 8]. In recent years the Institut National d’Etudes et de Recherches Agronomiques (INERA) has carried out a series of studies on wheat, conducting adaptation trials on varieties of wheat sown at their facility in order to assess the possibility of introducing varieties well adapted to the medium- and high-altitude conditions of South Kivu. Unfortunately the soils in this area are renowned for their rapid degradation and low fertility: a major constraint on agricultural production in general – and wheat- growing in particular [18; 19; 20; 21; 22].
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3 The proposed remedy of mineral fertilization remains, in itself, fragile on soils with a high mobility of Al and Fe, which precipitate with the added nutrient elements. Also, low rural income levels in the region, coupled with the demands of applying mineral fertilizers, often represent a barrier to their acquisition. In this context, combined fertilization should offer an appropriate solution for restoring soil fertility [17; 15; 11]. Combined amendments applied to acidic tropical soils help to increase crop yields by supplying the nutrients necessary for plant growth; the improvement in the physical and biological properties of the soil enables the potential of each variety to be expressed [14; 10; 11; 16].
4 This paper explores the hypothesis that the seven varieties will behave differently in response to NPK, to manure and to NPK + manure. The overall aim is to evaluate the productivity of these seven varieties in response to the various treatments applied.
Environment, materials and method
Environment
Description of the environment
5 The experiment was conducted in a rural location at Kaziba in the territory of Walungu (1835 m, 2°48'31.6'' S, 28°49'13.2" E), 55 km southwest of the city of Bukavu in South Kivu province, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
6 The community of Kaziba is stretched out across the high mountains of the Central African Graben to the east of the Congo River [23], at an altitude of between 1500 and 3200 m; its surface area of 192 km2 is home to an average of 45,000 dwellings [24].
7 Its humid tropical climate, influenced by the altitude, is characterized by two seasons: the dry season, June to August, and the rainy season, September to May; mean annual temperature is about 19°C in the north and 10°C in the south, and mean annual precipitation is 1200-1700 mm. Above the 2200-m line there are mountain forests and bamboos [25].
Materials and method
Description of the trial
8 The trial was conducted, with three replications, using the split-plot method, the main factors being the variety, with seven modalities (Farari, Kayira, Kima, Lokale, Mbega, Nyumbu and Popo) and the treatment, with four modalities (Control, NPK, Manure, and NPK + Manure).
9 The grains of the varieties used (obtained from INERA in Mulungu) were sown in rows 25 cm apart, with 4 grains to each pocket, every 20 cm. They were sown on the same day that the amendments were applied. Well-composted cow manure, with known characteristics, was applied to the plots, buried in the soil just before sowing at the recommended rate of 10 tons per hectare. NPK 17-17-17 was added at 150 kg per hectare. The plots marked for the NPK/manure combination received one half of each type of amendment. Upkeep consisted of regular weeding and ridging. The observations related primarily to the growth and yield parameters, centering mainly on the germination rate,
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the days to flowering, days to physiological maturity, number of fertile tillers per plant, number of grains per ear, weight per 1000 grains, and yield. Variance analysis (Anova) was performed to measure differences between varieties and between treatments, as well as their interactions, and Tukey’s mean separation test (at 5%) was performed using Statistix 8.0.
Results
10 The germination rate was not influenced by the varieties (P =0.2531); nor was it affected by applications of fertilizer (P=0.9980) or by the interaction between variety and fertilizer (P=0.3118). The average germination rate was 65.04%.
Fig. 1. Effects of varieties and treatments on germination rate of wheat.
11 The varieties (P = 0.0000) induced highly significant effects on the number of days to flowering. The earliest-flowering variety was Popo, after just 47 days, followed by the Farari, Kayira, Kima and Lokale varieties, which flowered after 60 days; the latest- flowering was Mbega, after Nyumbu, which flowered at 77 days and 65 days respectively.
Fig. 2. Effects of varieties and treatments on days to flowering of wheat.
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.
12 The number of days to physiological maturity was correlated only to variety (P˂0.001). The overall average for all of the varieties was 106 days; the most precocious variety was Popo (90 days) and the latest to mature was Mbega (120 days).
Fig. 3. Effects of varieties and treatments on days to physiological maturity of wheat.
13 The number of tillers per plant was influenced only by the variety (P=0.0008). Kayira had the largest average number of tillers (4.46), while Farari had relatively fewer tillers (2.15).
Fig. 4. Effects of varieties and treatments on number of fertile tillers of wheat.
14 Variant analysis reveals that the number of grains per ear was affected both by the variety (P=0.0000) and by the fertilizer applied (P=0.0069), but not by the crossed effects
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of varietals and treatments (P=0.1247). The variety with the most grains per ear was Lokale (43.817), while Mbega bore the least grains per ear (26.350).
Fig. 5. Effects of varieties and treatments on number of grains per ear of wheat.
15 The weight per 1000 grains was correlated to variety (P=0.0000). The fertilization rate (P=0.3525) and the interactions between these two factors (P =0.5629) did not show an effect on the weight per 1000 grains. The overall average was 29.294 g, with Mbega and Farari at either end of the scale (at 35.56 and 22.39 grams respectively).
Fig. 6. Effects of varieties and treatments on weight per 1000 grains of wheat.
Yield
16 The fertilizers show significant effects on yield (P=0.0194); the varieties, and the interaction between the two factors, also affect this parameter (P=0.0013 and 0.0022 respectively). The conclusion that emerges is that the plots treated with the NPK + Manure combination (1317.2 kg), produced higher yields than the unfertilized plots (605.1 B) and those treated with NPK (755.4 AB), while those treated only with manure produced values intermediate between the two (1239.6 AB). In terms of varieties, Kayira (1584.2 A) was the most productive and Mbega the least productive. As regards interactions between treatments and varieties, Manure X Kayira (2874.9 kg) and NPK + Manure X Farari (2415.0 kg) produced the best results.
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Fig. 7: Effects of varieties and treatments on yield of wheat
Discussion
17 The results of the variant analysis indicate that the factors analyzed, and some of their interactions, affected the parameters studied to different degrees. This demonstrates that the different varieties have different potentials, and that these potentials can be expressed more easily if the soil is amended in the appropriate way. This supports the ideas of several authors who affirm that varieties and cultivars within plant species differ in their growth and development, and that these differences are attributable to the plants’ morphological, physiological and biochemical processes and their interaction with the climate, the soil, and any other practice integrated into the crop system [26; 27; 28].
18 According to reference [29] the average yield per hectare is 3.77 tons, too much at variance with our own results, whereas for [30], the yield is 1.92 tons per hectare, partly aligned with some of our results. The plots treated with the NPK + manure combination (1317.2 kg), produced higher yields than the unfertilized plots (605.1B), while those treated only with manure (1239.6 AB) or NPK (755.4 AB) produced yields intermediate between the two. In terms of varieties, Kayira (1584.2A) outperformed Lokale, Popo, Nyumbu and Kima, with the two remaining varieties – Farari and Mbega – ranked in an intermediate position. The crossed effects of fertilizer and variety show that the interaction Manure X Kayira (2874.9 A) produced the best results. This logical sequence in the production capacity of the varieties remains similar to that found at their center of origin [31].
19 These results are confirmed by [32] which states that, in general, the application of organic amendments in combination with chemical fertilizers tends to increase crop yield in comparison to plots where the same fertilizers are used in isolation; [33; 34] show that organic fertilizers have a synergetic effect with chemical fertilizers in tropical soils. The addition of mineral fertilizer – notably nitrogen and phosphorus – could increase the biological activity of the soil and, in so doing, facilitate the effective release of nutrients for the crop.
20 The recorded increase in yield is attributed to the improvement in the soil properties [35] and the release of nutrient elements [36]. Likewise, the increase in yield due to the input of organic amendments is attributable to the favorable change in soil conditions, leading to good root development and good assimilation of the nutrient elements released by the organic matter itself, or through retention of the nutrients released by the fertilizers [37; 38; 39].
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21 According to [40], wheat – despite being an under-utilized crop in most tropical ecosystems, unlike other cereals such as maize and sorghum, due to its sensitivity to a range of fungal diseases, its incompatibility with the environmental conditions, and its low yield in these ecosystems compared to the latter crops – could nonetheless have a future thanks to high-performance varieties, appropriate crop systems, and well- managed soil fertility. The results obtained provide sufficient evidence to support that author’s position: through use of the right variety, suitable agricultural techniques, and effective management of soil fertility, the yield of wheat was improved to a significant degree.
Conclusion
22 To help promote wheat-growing in rural areas of South Kivu, DR Congo, seven varieties of wheat were evaluated using different fertilizer options: organic, based on cow manure; mineral, with NPK 17-17-17; and organo-mineral, by combining both types. The trials were conducted at Kaziba, a mountainous but densely populated region where the soil is in an advanced state of degradation. The results obtained indicate that wheat-growing is possible in this region, thanks to climate conditions that match the crop’s requirements in terms of temperature. Although the soil is severely degraded, this can be remedied using organic amendments (with cow manure) and organo-mineral amendments, making the necessary nutrients available to the plant for its growth and development. Mineral fertilizers alone did not show significant effects on the crop; however, with the use of manure, and its combination with mineral fertilizers, favorable effects were observed. Of the seven varieties proposed by INERA, Kayira and Farari are the preferred options due to their high level of performance. The main recommendation is to use the variety Kayira under cow manure, providing the latter is very well composted and comes from well-fed cattle, and also to facilitate the task of improving soil fertility; combining the manure with NPK offers most additional benefits.
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ABSTRACTS
Due to high demand for food resources as a result of increasing population, the promotion of large-scale crops such as wheat has become essential. Unfortunately, soil infertility and a lack of improved seed are major constraints on the expansion of this crop in Kaziba, a mountainous rural area in South Kivu. The productivity of seven wheat varieties (Farari, Kayira, Kima, Lokale, Mbega, Nyumbu and Popo) was evaluated under organic and mineral fertilizer during the 2013-2014 crop season on poor soil in South Kivu (DR Congo). NPK 17-17-17, farmyard manure and their combination were applied as fertilizers in a split-plot trial design with three replications. The observations focused on the growth and yield parameters, and the results revealed differences between varieties, treatments and interactions. The NPK + farmyard manure treatment gave the highest mean yield (1317.2 kg), Kayira was the most productive variety (1584.2 kg), and the interaction Kayira X farmyard manure was the most effective (2874.9 kg). The variety Kayira would seem to be indicated, with farmyard manure as the recommended fertilizer, being locally accessible and easily usable for promoting wheat in the region.
INDEX
Keywords: wheat, productivity, varieties, poor soil, fertilizers
AUTHORS
SERGE SHAKANYE NDJADI Masters in sustainable soil management. Université Evangelique en Afrique, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Crop production Department
BITE MUBALAMA MIRINDI Engineer in plant production, Université Evangelique en Afrique, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Crop production Department
PAUL MUSAFIRI Masters in soil science, Jomo Kenyatta University, Soil Science Department
GÉANT CHUMA BASIMINE Engineer in plant production, Université Evangelique en Afrique, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Crop production Department
ELOÏS CINYABUGUMA LWAHAMIRE Masters in tropical and subtropical plants protection), Institut National d’Etudes et de Recherches Agronomiques, National Cereals Program
ESPOIR BISIMWA BASENGERE PhD in agricultural science, Catholic University of Bukavu, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Crop production Department
Field Actions Science Reports, Vol. 9 | 2016