DETERMINANTES OF WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN MANAGERIAL
POSITIONS :( THE CASE OF PUBLIC OFFICE IN KACHA BIRA WOREDA, KAMBATA TAMBARO ZONE, SNNPR)
MBA THESIS
BY
DEGEFE HABITE HANKORE
AUGUST, 2018 ARBAMINCH, ETHIOPIA
DETERMINANTES OF WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN MANAGERIAL POSITIONS :( THE CASE OF PUBLIC OFFICE IN KACHA BIRA WOREDA, KAMBATA TAMBARO ZONE, SNNPR)
BY
DEGEFE HABITE HANKORE
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS, SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES, ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF IN BUSINESS ADMINSTRATION (MBA)
AUGUST, 2018
ARBAMINCH, ETHIOPIA
Declaration
I here by state that the study on ―DETERMINANTES OF WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN MANAGERIAL POSITIONS:(THE CASE OF PUBLIC OFFICE IN KACHA BIRA WOREDA, KAMABATA TEMBARO ZONE, SNNPR)” is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other University or educational institution, and all the sources of materials used for the study have been duly acknowledged.
Name: Degefe Habite Signature______Date______
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CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that Mr. Degefe Habite has completed his thesis allowed “DETERMINANTES OF WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN MANAGERIAL POSITIONS :( THE CASE OF PUBLIC OFFICE IN KACHA BIRA WOREDA KAMABATA TEMABARO ZONE, SNNPR)”. In my opinion, all the materials used for the paper has been duly acknowledged and this paper is appropriate to be submitted as a partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Degree in Masters of in Business Administration.
Dr. Afework Getachew
Assistant Professor of Management ______Advisor Signature and Date
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Arba Minch University
College of Business and economics
Department of management
MBA thesis
Approved by: We the examiners‘ board approve that this thesis has passed through the defense and review process.
Chairperson Signature Date
External Examiner Signature Date
Internal Examiner Signature Date
Afework Getachew (PhD) 30/12/2010
Advisor Signature Date
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT I would like to thank the almighty God who helped me through out of my life. My great gratitude goes to Arbaminch University, College of Business and Economics, School of post graduate, department of management for giving me the chance to be a studied in the department.
My sincere gratitude and appreciation goes to my advisor AFEWORK GETACHEW (PhD), for his professional assistance, endurance and understanding enabled for the completion of this study paper. Thank you so much for your helpful reviews, comments and suggestions. Indeed, without your unreserved dedication, the successful completion of this study would have been difficult.
A sincere appreciation and special thank go to the respondents for their kind assistance and support throughout the data collection process of this research.
I would like to thank also all kacha bira woreda employments for allowing me to conduct this research and for providing assistance in contacting the public office. Special thanks go to public service and human resource and women and children affirance office heads for their willingness for interview.
Great appreciation is also extended to my Wife Beza Tsedeke, my families and friends who always gave a great support during this research.
IV
LIST OF ACRONYMS
BDPA…………………….Beijing Declaration and platform of Action
CEDAW………………….Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against women
CPRW…………………….Convention on the Political Rights of Women
CSA……………………… Central Statistical Authority
EOC………………….. ….Equal Opportunity Commission
FCSC……………………..Federal Civil Service Commission
FDRE…………………….Federal Demographic Republic of Ethiopia
GEM……………………..Gender Empowerment Measure
HPR………………………House of People Representative
IPU……………………….International Parliament Commission
KTZ……………………..Kambat temebaro zone
MDG…………………….Millennium development goals
NCTPE……………….. National Committee for Traditional Practices Eradication.
NGO……………………Non-Governmental Institutions.
QDA……………...... Qualitative Data Analysis SADC ………………….Southern African Development Community
UNDP…………………. United Nation Development Program
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TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ...... IV
LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... V
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... I
LIST OF TABLE ...... V
LIST OF FIGURES ...... VI
LIST OF APPENDIX ...... VI
1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1
1.1 Background of the Study ...... 1
1.2 Statement of the Problems ...... 2
1.3 Research questions ...... 5
1.4 Objectives of Study ...... 5
1.4.1 General Objective ...... 5
1.4.2.Specific Objectives ...... 5
1.5 Significance of the Study ...... 6
1.6 Scope of the Study……………………………………………………………… ……..6
1.7 Limitation of the Study ...... 6
1.8 Organization of the paper ...... 7
2 REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE ...... 9
2.1 Concept of Management ...... 9
2.2 Role of Management ...... 10
2.3 Male and Female Management Styles ...... 11
2.4 The Nature of Males and Females ...... 12
2.5 Leadership and Power ...... 12
2.6 Leadership and Management ...... 13
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2.7 Gender Difference: Do Male and Female Leaders Adopt Different Style ...... 14
2.7.1 The ‗Yes to Differences‘ Position ...... 14
2.7.2 The ‗No Differences‘ Position ...... 14
2.8 General Situation of Women in Ethiopia ...... 15
2.9 Women and Management in Ethiopia ...... 16
2.10 Factors which Affect Women‘s Leadership Position ...... 18
2.10.1 Lack of Education ...... 18
2.10.2 Social -Cultural Factors ...... 19
2.10.3 Organizational Culture ...... 20
2.10.4 Gender Stereotype Factors ...... 20
2.10.5 Work Place Policies ...... 22
2.11 The strategies increasing women participation in managerial position ...... 22
2.11.1 Equal opportunities policies ...... 22
2.11.2 Positive action strategies ...... 23
2.12 The ―Maternal wall‖ ...... 23
2.13 Discrimination in Appointments ...... 24
2.14 The Subtle Barriers: The Role of Male Clubs ...... 24
2.15 The Influence of Networking on Women Managerial Position ...... 25
2.16 Empirical study in the world ...... 26
2.6 Conceptual Framework of Study ...... 28
3 RESEARCH METHOLOGY ...... 30
3.1 Introduction ...... 30
3.2 Description of the study area ...... 30
3.3 Research Approach ...... 30
3.4 Research Design ...... 31
3.5 Data and Sources ...... 32
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3.5.1 Population and sampling Study ...... 32
3.5.2 Sampling study ...... 32
3.5.4 Sampling Technique ...... 33
3.6 Data collection Methods and Instruments ...... 36
3.6.1 Primary data ...... 36
3.6.2 Secondary Data ...... 37
3.6.3 Key informant selection ...... 37
3.7.2 Independent variables ...... 38
3.8 Method of Analysis and model specification ...... 39
3.8.1 Descriptive Statistics ...... 39
3.9 Validity of research instruments ...... 40
3.11 Ethical Consideration ...... 41
4. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ...... 42
4.1 Descriptive Analysis ...... 42
4.2.2 Age of Respondents ...... 43
4.2.3 Educational Qualification ...... 44
4.2.3 Marital Status of the respondent ...... 44
4.2.4 Working experience of respondents ...... 45
4.2.5 Current Position of Respondents in their respected organizations ...... 45
4.3 Women participation at managerial position in kacha bira woreda public office...... 48
4.4 Socio Cultural Factors Hindering Women‘s From Participation of Managerial Position...... 50
4.6 Work Place Policies (Lack of Policies or Policy Gap) ...... 56
4.8 Gender Stereotype ...... 59
4.9 Women Participation At Managerial Position (Strategise to Ehance Women to Managerial Position) ...... 61
4.9.1 Political support ...... 61
III
4.9.2 Educational Qualification ...... 62
4.9.3 Family Background ...... 63
4.8.4 Women Networking ...... 63
4.9.5 Affirmative action ...... 64
4.4 Association Between Determinates Factors And Women Managerial Position ...... 65
4.5 Effect of Deterimenties Factors on Women Managerial Position ...... 67
4.5.1 Diagnostic tests of multiple linear regression ...... 68
4.5.1 Effects of Relationship determinate factors on women managerial position ...... 71
4.7 Qualitative Analysis of Interview Questioners ...... 76
5 SUMMARY,CONCLUSION,RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTION FOR FUTURE STURDY ...... 78
Bibiliography………………………………………………………………………………88
APPENDIXES ...... 91
IV
LIST OF TABLE TABLES: PAGES able 1 Proportionate Sampling Determination ...... 33
Table 2 Dependent Variable ...... 38
Table 3 Reliability Research Instruments ...... 40
Table 4 Gender of Respondent ...... 43
Table 5 Age of Respondents ...... 43
Table 6 Educational Qualification ...... 44
Table 7 Working Experience Of Respondents ...... 45
Table 8 Current Position Of Sample Respondents ...... 45
Table 9 Managerial Position At Kach Bira Worda ...... 46
Table 10 Scaled Likert Criterion ...... 49
Table 11 Socio- Cultural Factors ...... 50
Table 12 Organizational Culture ...... 54
Table 13 Work Place Policies ...... 56
Table 14 Gender Strotypes ...... 59
Table 15 Women Participation In Managerial Position ...... 61
Table 16 Rule of thumb for interpreting the size of a correlation coefficient ...... 65
Table 17 Relationship socio- cultural factors and women managerial position ...... 66
Table 18 Relationship Between Organization Culture And Women Manag ...... 67
Table 19 Relationship Work Place Policy And Women Managerial Position ...... 67
Table 20 Relationship Between Gender Strotypes And Women Managerial Position ...... 67
Table 21 Coefficientsa ...... 68
Table 22 Results of Multicollinearity Test...... 69
Table 23 Result Showing Regression Analysis ...... 71
Table 24 Results Showing Coefficient of Regression Analysis ...... 73
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LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF FIGURES PAGE
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework ………………………………………………………...28
LIST OF APPENDIX
APPENDIX PAGE
Appendix 1questionnair……………………………………….……...….…………………87
Appendix 2 Measure of internal Consistency-Cronbach‘s alpha…...... 93
Appendix3Results of Correlations…………………………………………………………94
Appendix 4 Result of Coefficients …………………………….…………….…………….95
Appendix 5 Result Model Summary………………………………………….……………95
Appendix 6 Histogram Regression standardize Residual …………………….……………95
Appendix 7 Normal P-P Plot Regression standardize Residual……………….…………...96
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Abstract
In the world women participation at any managerial position were underrepresented for decision making even for cases related with them. Women’s management participation in Ethiopia has been a deep rooted problem. The aim of this paper is identifying Determinates of Women Participation in Managerial Positions: The Case of Public office of Kacha Bira Woreda. Both qualitative and quantitative research approaches was used. The data were collected using structured and unstructured questionnaire.Both primary and secondary data were collected. The primary data was collected from 313 respondents from the public office of the kacha bira woreda. The data was analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The finding of this study was socio-cultural factors, organizational cultural, work place police and gender Strotypes affect women managerial position participation in the study area. Also finding of this study show that Policies and legal frameworks constitute some inherent problems while at the same time their implementation is not as it was expected. Some of the explanations for this are low level of knowledge and lack of awareness, absence of institutions and institutional capacities in implementing gender based policy, politicization of women’s organization and deep rooted social-cultural mismanagements. Therefore, to improve such challenges to enhance gender equality, government, community, NGO and public heads should play considerable roles.
Key words: Determents factors of Women Managerial Position, Soico-Cultural Factors, Organizational culture, Work Place Policy and Gender Strotypes.
VII
CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
In the world women participation at any managerial position were underrepresented for decision making even for cases related with them. The parliamentary seats hold by women around the world accounts only 16% (Kuria et al, 2012). The exclusion of women from decision-making bodies limits the possibilities for entrenching the principles of democracy in a society, affecting economic development and discouraging the achievement of gender equality.
Women are less participated and low represented in decision making positions in developing countries. Women‘s low access to information and media, less employment opportunity, organizational barriers coupled by cultural factors reduce their decision making power in the society in general and in organizations in particular (UNDP, 2005).
In Africa particularly in Sub Saharan Africa 22 out of 25 women live in poverty. In Malawi, women faced significant negative cultural practices and religious beliefs. Many of these concerned women perceive their place as being in the home and their stereotyped roles as mothers and occupation women. Men are perceived as superior as and more fitted for public roles than female (Albright, 2011). Every country deserves to have the best possible leader and this means women have to be given a chance to compete. If they are never allowed to compete in the electoral process and decision making then the countries are really robbing themselves of a great deal of talent.
In Ethiopia the socialization process, which determine gender role is partly responsible for the subjugation of women in the country. The differences in the ways in which individuals are treated through the socialization process due mainly to their sex status leads to the development of real psychological and personality difference between males and females (Haregewoin & Emebet, 2003). Women constitute 71.3% in the clerical and fiscal type of jobs in federal government employment list. Women representations in administrative and professional jobs category is only 25% and 18% respectively, which clearly indicates middle and upper management positions overwhelmingly dominated by men (Federal Civil Service Commission, 2005).
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In Ethiopia the widest gender gap is most evident in managerial position of female public staffs and leaders have not been proportional to the size of population when we compare males with females. Despite the national governomental policy which pledged to attract 4% of the females into public staffs thereby raising the number of female staffs and employ from 3 to16 by 2015 (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Ministry of civil service (FDRE-MOCS, 2010).
Consequently, it has become very difficult for women to advance to a higher professional achievement and participate in leadership and management positions in higher public office institutions.
Currently, the government policy towards managerial position participation of women has been given more emphasis, but still the participation of women in managerial positions is insignificant which need to be addressed.
However, the government policy towards women‘s participation in managerial position has been given more emphasis; there is an indication that some challenges towards women‘s participation are not totally eliminating.
Therefore, this study investigating the effectiveness of the policy and attitude of the society towards women managerial position in public office in kacha bira woreda and study would identify the major barriers that were affecting the access of women in to management positions in the study area.
1.2 Statement of the Problems
Women are less participated and low represented in decision making positions in developing countries(Bryan, 2008).For instance, by 2004 the proportion of women in parliament was 15.4% in Angola,5.9% in Botswana,12% in Lesotho,14.4% in Malawi,17.4% in Mauritius, 25% in Namibia,22.3% in Tanzania and 16% in Zimbabwe. While South Africa and Mozambique had 32.8% and 37.2% respectively, in Ethiopian, the progress towards women‘s involvement in politics is also not different from other African countries (Bryan, 2008). The level of women‘s representation in the FDRE House of People‘s Representatives grew from 21.4 percent to 27.9 percent in 2005 and 2010 legislative election, respectively. This is a remarkable increase compared to the 1995 and 2000 elections in which women held only 2.83 percent, (13 of out of 547 seats) and 7.7 percent, (42 out of 547 seats), respectively. There is also a small increase in the number women‘s representation in the executive
2 branch. The recent appointment of a woman as a Deputy Prime Minister in 2014 is another milestone in women‘s advancement on the leadership ladder but not sustained currently (Preliminary Gender Profile of Ethiopia, 2014).
Women‘s low access to information and media, less employment opportunity, organizational barriers coupled by cultural factors reduce their decision making power in the society in general and in organizations in particular United Nation Development Program (UNDP, 2005).
In Ethiopia, as women are more than fifty percent of the population, it is very important to utilize this part of population so that the talent of whole population is optimally underutilized (Afoz, 2010).
More over even though the Ethiopia government‘s effort in concerning towards gender
Perspective in to economic empowerment programs show a relative improvement, it is still
Insignificant. Additionally, in Ethiopia women‘s participation in labor market increasing as
Compared to the last decades, but as compared to male counterpart their participation in decision making is low (Chalchissa, 2011).
As Ethiopia moves into a new stage of democracy, it encounters many challenges. One of these challenges is to ensure that all disadvantaged citizens are afforded equal right and opportunity. Women are recognized as part of this disadvantaged group.Inorder that Ethiopia has to eliminate poverty and eradicate backwardness; women have to be given a chance and encouraged to improve themselves in all fields. There is a vital necessity to understand women‘s problems, stereotypes and obstacles that women encounter in the corporate world as women have unique skills and capabilities that can benefit organizations in particular and nations in general Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW, 2017).
Despite efforts to ensure that female representation is achieved at all levels of governance, women are still underrepresented in many government and non-government organizations particularly in positions of power and leadership (Rey, 2005).
Findings indicate that measures put in place by the government to increase women‘s numbers and participation in leadership and governance are yielding results, however, there are still challenges. Women‘s numbers in the civil service, including the judiciary, national legislative assembly, or at senior/management levels have not reached the critical mass of
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30% necessary to engender processes and decision-making and bring about change for women (Preliminary Gender Profile of Ethiopia, 2014).
However, the government policy towards women‘s participation in managerial position has been given more emphasis; there is an indication that some challenges to wards women‘s participation are not totally eliminating.
Study conducted by Getachaw Nagash in Endamehoni Woreda Tigrai regional state of Ethiopia in 2014 show that the determinate affecting factors that hinder women‘s participation managerial positions were socio-cultural,educational,institutional and personal and family responsibility as well as other related issues were found to be the key. The main criteria used for woman‘s selection and placement into decision-making structures leadership position performance appraisal, work experience affecting women participation managerial position (Getachaw et al.2014).
A study done by Jebessa et.al at Jimma zone shows that low participation of women in managerial position is attributed to different personal, societal and institutional factors such as lack of education opportunity, Lack of social network, lack of motivation, low academic qualification and lack of experience, lack of role model and poor confidence of women on their performance and ambiguous organizational structure and promotional procedures are also factors that affect the participation of women in managerial positions at Jimma zone oromia region (Jebessa et al.2015).
A study done at Amhara region found that Women are under-represented in positions of academic leadership and management as well as in teaching professions of higher learning institutions despite gender sensitive policy frameworks. The scarcity of women in higher education management and leadership position is indicative for the presence of patriarchal culture in academia and unfriendly working environment for women (Gojjam & Singh, 2015).
A study conducted on women managerial position participation at higher education in Ethiopia revealed that the major factors for the low representation of women in academia manager is generally their low representation as students and as academic staff.
Personal factors like family, parenting, inadequate support at home, lack of opportunity. Similarly, the institutional environment in Ethiopian universities is not supportive of women management positions. There is also indirect discrimination against women in the
4 appointment, recruitment and promotion of university management (Anteneh, 2017).Hence it results to women lack confidence and motivation to express their idea freely.
However there were even if the research was done in this topic the researcher study in different time interval, different study area and by including additional variables such as work place policy about women managerial positions it must be researched. Therefore, this study investigating the effectiveness of the policy and attitude of the society towards women managerial position in public office in kacha bira woreda and study would been identified the major barriers that were affecting the access of women in to managerial positions in the study area and possible strategies to enhance women at managerial position.
Therefore, the researcher has raised the following basic research questions to be answered.
1.3 Research questions What are the socio cultural factors which affect women participation at managerial position in kacha bira woreda public office? How organization factors affect women participation at managerial position in kacha bira woreda public office? How work place policies affect women participation at managerial position in kacha bira woreda public office? Is there gender stereotype practice for managerial position participation in kacha bira woreda public office?
1.4 Objectives of Study
1.4.1 General Objective The main purpose of this study is to determine the factors that affect women participation on management position in kacha bira woreda public office.
1.4.2 Specific Objectives To identifies the socio cultural factors which affect women participation at managerial position in kacha bira woreda public office. To assess the effect of organization factors on women participation at managerial position in kacha bira woreda public office. To examine the work place policy effect on women participation at managerial position in kacha bira woreda public office.
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To check the existence and effect of gender stereotype on managerial position participation in kacha bira woreda public office.
1.5 Significance of the Study
The output of the present study should be primarily benefit the woreda to aware of women representation in different management positions with in the public office and hence take corrective actions to encourage and empower administrative position of women staffs to come to position. It also eliminates the gender discrimination between the male and the female.
Furthermore, women staffs in the public office could be also be motivated to be equally competing with men staffs or different management positions in the woreda. 1.6 Scope of the Study
The study was limited to only one woreda namely kacha bira in kambata temebaro zone in SNNPRS determine the factors that affect women participation on management position in kacha bira woreda public office. In spite of the fact that women‘s were exposed to several factors that hamper their empowerment, the present study could be focused on uncovering major obstacles that limit women staffs to look at different levels of managerial positions in the public office of kacha bira woreda.
Though the researcher could be believes to conduct the research in only public office of the woreda, the study was delimited to only public office in the study area but include the private organization in the woreda or zone. The researcher could be only one woreda from zone this public office because of luck of time and budget.
1.7 Limitation of the Study
The study could be done only kacha bira woreda public office, it is better if the study covers all woredas in the kambata Tambaro zone, this was the main limitation of the study. Another problem that could be researcher was challenged, no current and latest data were available especially no published data at woreda level on website. To solve the problem, the, researcher could be closely approached the woreda administrative body of each public office to get current data for the research and this took extra time to get the required information.
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1.8 Organization of the paper
This study could be organizing in five parts. Chapter one could be about introduction of the study which could be contains background of the study, statement of the problem, objective of the study, significance of the study, scope and limitation of the study; chapter two was about review of related literature; chapter three is about description of study are, research design of the study comprising all methods and tools which are used to achieve the stated objectives.
There are information consists about results obtained from questioners, interviews, and secondary data and there could be also descriptive and inferential statistics analysis of the findings at chapter four.
The last chapter five could be about summary, conclusion and recommendation of the study and suggestions for further studies on the determinate factors influencing women managerial position in public office in kacha bira woreda.
1.9 Definition of Key Term
Management-The term in this study used to refer the person who has the responsibility of planning, coordinating and directing people, a department or an organization, in the case of woreda.
Participation: The term is used in this study to refer to the provision of equal opportunity to women to take part in the leadership and decision-making and management in kacha bira woreda public office. It implies quantitative and qualitative participation of women in woreda management.
Strategies: The term is used to refer to ways and means that can be used to improve both women and meal. Strategy is important because the resources available to achieve these goals are usually limited. Strategy generally involves setting goals, determining actions to achieve the goals, and mobilizing resources to execute the actions. A strategy describes how the ends (goals) could be achieved by the means (resources). Strategy can be intended or can emerge as a pattern of activity as the organization adapts to its environment or competes. It involves activities such as strategic planning and strategic thinking.
Socio-cultural Factors: Socio-cultural factor is the norm and value that was accepted and kept by the society through generation as a binding common asset that the society acts
7 within it accordingly. Social factor can be categorized in harmful and useful features that the society handles as per the tradition and of level societal consciousness.
Masculine:-Having features that are traditionally thought to be typical of or suitable for men or boys.
Feminine:-Having qualities which are traditionally considered to be suitable for women. Stereotypes: is the process of simplifying and reducing classes of people to a few characteristics by which they are generally said to be identifies (The Conference board of Canada Report, 2011)
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CHAPTER TWO
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Concept of Manager
Although many definition of manager exist, (Hughes et al. 1999) defines manager as the process of influencing others towards achieving group goals. They describe management is both a science and an art. Because management is an immature science, researchers are still struggling to find out what the important questions in management are; we are far from finding conclusive answers to them. Even those individuals with extensive knowledge of management research may be poor manager; knowing what to do is not the same as knowing what to do is not the same as knowing when, where and how to do. The art of leadership concerns the skill of understanding management situations and influencing others to accomplish group goals.
Hersey, (2001) as the management writers define that manager is the process of influencing the activities of an individual or group in efforts toward goal achievements in given situation. From this definition of the leadership, it follows that the leadership process is function of the leader, the follower and other situational variables.
Johnson (2003) defines manager as the process through which leaders exert such influences on other group members. Through your life you will lead others land be led by others, providing leadership and following someone else‘s leadership pervade all aspects of life, including work, school, play and citizenship. Whatever the actions taken, leadership involves social influence.
Additionally Peter North out (2010) defines manager as a process whereby and individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. These definitions suggest that several components are crucial for leadership. So:
(a) Management is a process,
(b) Management involves influencing others,
(c) Management happens with in the context of a group,
(d) Management involves goal attainment,
9 ese goals are shared by leaders their followers me of them are as follows: the first one which defines leadership as process suggests that leadership is that leadership is not a characteristic or trait with which only a few certain people are endowed at birth.
Defining manger as a process means that leadership is a transactional event that happens between leaders and their followers. Viewing leadership as a process means that leaders are affected by their followers either positively or negatively. It focuses on leaderships a two- way interaction between leaders and followers. Defining leadership as a process makes it available to everyone not just a select few who are born with it. More important, it means that leadership is not restricted to just the one person in a group who has formal position power (North, 2010).
More over management as the process of encouraging and supporting other to work enthusiastically toward objectives. It is the human factor that helps a group identify where it is going then motivates it towards its goals. Without leadership, an organization would be only a gathering of people machines, just as an orchestra without a conductor would be only musician‘s instrument. The orchestra all other organizations require leadership to develop their precious assets to their fullest capacity (Newstorm, 1989).
As result, the definition of leadership as a process of encouraging helping others to work actively toward objective is considered since the meaning of leadership is taking in to consideration as facilitator (transformational leadership style) not as a power (transactional leadership style).It is described by management writers leadership is the process of influencing an individual or a group for the achievement of goal in a given situation. From this definition of the leadership, it follows that the leadership process is function of the leader, the follower and other situational variables (Rowe, 2001).
Instructional manager definition: According to (Hoy &Miskel, 2008) ―instructional leadership is a particular form of leadership that emphasizes the improvement of teaching and learning in school‘s technical core‖. ―an instructional leader has a sense of purpose and a broad knowledge of the educational process and learning theories she‘s a risk taker, and has people skills and unlimited energy‖ (McEwan, 2003).
2.2 Role of Manager
Principle centered management is the personal empowerment that creates empowerment in the organization. It‘s focusing in our circle of influence. It‘s blaming or accusing; it‘s acting with integrity to create the environment in which we and others can develop character and
10 competence and synergy (Covey, 1994). Effective leaders need to develop appreciation for multiculturalism to build inclusiveness, collaboration, and common purpose (Kornives, 1998). Line managers take full responsibility for recruitment and selections although personal specialists, if they exist, may provide such services as advertising, filtering applications, testing and taking up reference, are responsible for training and developing their own staff on a , self-managed learning basis, accountable for dealing fairly with their staff and meeting goal requirements in this areas as equal opportunity, sexual, racial and disability discrimination, and sexual harassment, are fully responsible for controlling absenteeism and time keeping (Armstrong, 2004).
Leaders are important because they serve as anchors, provide guideline in times of change, and are responsible for effectiveness of the organization (Hoy & miskel, 1991). According to Armstrong, leaders have two important roles. These are (1) achieve the task that is why their group exists. Leaders ensure the group‘s purpose is fulfilled. It is not, the result is frustration, disharmony, and criticism and eventually perhaps, disintegration of the group (2) maintains effective relationships-between themselves and the members of the group, and between the people within the group. These relationships are effective if they contribute to achieve the task (Armstrong, 2004).
As a line manager one of your key tasks is to ensure that you have the right people to do work. You have to replace those who leave, are promoted or are transferred with people who are just as good, if not better. You have to find people who meet your specification for new roles (Armstrong, 2004).In one sense, your roles as a line manager or team leader involves your continuously in the management of learning and development. New starters have to receive induction training to enable them to carry out their work. They will then need to learn new skills or increase and extend existing skills; as develop and are given new tasks, learning and development takes place at the following stages and in the various ways as set: induction training, learning on job, learning off job (Armstrong, 2004).
2.3 Male and Female Management Styles Brooks (2009) Defines Management is an increasingly important issue for organizations, recent leadership theories like diversity management, have brought additional attention to the benefits of having diverse workforce. The belief is that men and women differ in their approach to management, therefore offer different qualities.
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Arnie and William (1990) were indeed able to conclude that there is a difference in how women and men are thought to lead.
2.4 The Nature of Males and Females It described that a common interpretation of the behavior and relation between, men and women emphasized the importance of the biological maternal function of the female in determining the nature and content of her being. A women‘s early life is a preparation for becoming, her later life is devoted to being, a successful wife and mother. Their activities, though not necessarily confined to the home, at least center on it, for them primary mission is to be a helpmate to their husband to provide a warm safe haven for their family. If they do work for pay, they will do best in jobs compatible with their household responsibilities and their feminine personality. Men, on the other hand, are not constrained by their paternal function from fully entering the world outside the home. On the contrary, their natural role as provider protector spurs them on to greater efforts. Thus, nature by itself has an impact for women for not to be influential to outside work not make women more competitive in their assigned position (Blau & Ferber, 2013).
2.5 Manger and Power According to Yukl (2006), power is related to but different from management. It is related to management because it is an integral part of the ability to influence others. Power is defined as the potential or capacity of influences others to bring about desired outcomes. Leaders can influence others‘ beliefs, attitudes, behavior. Thus there are different kinds of power, in organizations, which are two kinds of power position power and personal power.
Position power is that power that comes from holding a particular office, position, or rank in an organization (Daft, 2005). A worda chief has more power than an office head, but they both have formal power. Personal power is the capacity to influence that comes from being viewed as knowledgeable likable by followers. It is power that derives from the interpersonal relationships that leaders develop with followers. There is an argument when leaders have both positional interpersonal power, they should use personal power a vast majority of the time. Over use of position power may erode the ability of a leader to influence people. Of course, it is important to know when it is most appropriate to use position power to be able willing to use it (Daft, 2005).
Power can be two-faced. One face is the use of power within an organization to achieve one‘s personal goals to the detriment of others in the organization.
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The other face is that power that works to achieve the collective goals of all members of the organization, sometimes even at the expense of the leader‘s personal goals (Daft,2005).
2.6 Leadership and Management There are different definition about leadership management Zalesznik (2008) defines Leadership is similar to, different from, management. They both involve influencing people. They both require working with people. Both are concerned with the achievement of common goals.
However, leadership management is different on more dimensions than they are similar. As described by writer managers leaders are very distinct, being one precludes being the other. It is explained that managers are reactive, while they are willing to work with people to solve problems; they do so with minimal emotional involvement. On the other hand, leaders are emotionally involved seek to shape ideas instead of reacting to others‘ ideas. Managers limit choice, while leaders work to expel the number of alternatives to problems that have plagued an organization for a long period of time. Leaders change people‘s attitudes, while managers only change their behavior (zalesznik, 2008).
Mintzberg (1998) contends that managers lead by using a cerebral face. This face stresses calculation, views an organization as components of a portfolio, and operates with words numbers of rationality. The writer suggests that leaders lead by using an insightful face. This face stresses commitment, views organizations with an integrative perspective, is rooted in the images feel of integrity. Additionally managers need to be two faced. They need to simultaneously be managers ‗and leaders.
Moreover Kotter (1998) suggests that organizations are over managed under led. However, strong leadership with weak management is no better may be worse. The writer also suggests that organizations need strong leadership strong management. Managers are needed to help complexity by instituting planning budgeting, organizing staffing, controlling problem solving. Leaders are needed to support change through setting a direction, aligning people, motivating inspiring people. It also suggested that Organization requires people who can do both managers and leaders activity in collaborate (kotter, 1998).
Additionally Rowe (2001) contends that leaders managers are different suggests that one aspect of the difference maybe philosophical. Managers believe that the decisions they make are determined for them by the organizations they work for that the organizations they
13 work for conduct themselves in a manner that is determined by the industry or environment in which they live.
2.7 Gender Difference: Do Male and Female Leaders Adopt Different Style
2.7.1 The „Yes to Differences‟ Position It is suggested that societal norms promote a general stereotype of gender roles which have been cultured through a process of social learning. These socialization practices encourage the development of skill, traits behaviors that are different between men women, which in the eyes of many men women are perceived as contrary to those required in the higher levels of management (Collins & Singh, 2006).
Further more women have a different management style which can bring benefits to the organization. Hence, women are more inclined to take a fresh perspective, identify, what is not working develop new solution. Compared with their male peers, women leaders are more willing to share power, make decisions and solve problems based on shared ideas and information encourages participation and expression. Women prefer organizational structures that enable consensual working rather than the traditional hierarchical structures favored by men. So the author describes this as ‗the female advantage‘ (Collins & Singh, 2006).
More over the style adapting by women as an interactive leadership style consisting of behaviors that represent power sharing, energizing, encouraging participation, mutual trust respect, enhancing self-worth. It stated that women described themselves in ways that characterize transformational leadership-getting subordinates to transform their own self- interest into the interest of the group through concern for a broader goal. Conversely male managers were more likely to use their position as a source of power employ methods based on formal authority. In short, men are more likely to adopt transactional leadership method. Because women‘s traditional role in society is to offer a supportive cooperative environment that this influences their leadership style (Collins & Singh, 2006).
2.7.2 the ‘No Differences’ Position
Although evidence of behavioral and personality differences between male and female managers is a consistent finding across a number of studies as indicated above, other authors have reported that there is no significant gender differences.
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Examining gender and transformational leadership, ( Collins & Singh, 2006) reported male female manager‘s to be generally equally transformational, with both groups stating that a collaborative style built on consensual relationship was important to effective leadership.
Similarly Collins and Singh, (2006) states that although research examining explanations of women‘s failure to attain leadership positions has frequently focused on gender differences, she could find no evidence that men and women lead in different ways. When leaders rating provided by subordinates are examined, there is again no evidence of significant gender difference in the perceptions of whether male or female leaders utilize greater levels of transformational behavior.
2.8 General Situation of Women in Ethiopia
Women in Ethiopia as anywhere else occupy the law status in the society. Although they represent 49.8% of the estimated Ethiopian population of 79.1 million (CSA, 2017), contribute mainly to food production and other, they have not shared the fruits of development equally with their male counterpart. Rights such as, access to l, credit and other productive resources are difficult for women to attain. They also experience multiple forms of other deprivations such as longer working days, women specific ill health, low levels of education relative to men, lack of adequate representation in leadership decision making positions (Sosena & Tsehai, 2008).
In general, Women in Ethiopia occupy low status in the society. In spite of their contributions to the wellbeing of their family community affairs in general, women experience lower socio-economic status as a whole hence is marginalized from making decisions at all levels. Women are facing multiple forms of deprivation. Gender based discrimination, lack of protection of basic human rights, violence, lack of access to productive resources, education Training, basic health services, employment are widespread (National Committee for Traditional Pr3 WDD actives Eradication (NCTPE, 2003).
Women experience lower socioeconomic status in general and hence is marginalized from making decisions at all levels. Nonetheless, women are poor in terms of access to resources, service conducted by the Central Statistical Authority (CSA, 2017) showed that women account for less than half (43%) of the total employees in the country. Considering the percentage of female employees from the total number of employees by employment type, the highest was in domestic activities (78%) followed by unpaid activities (59.3%). In other
15 types of formal employment (e.g. government, NGOs, private organizations), the percentage of female workers is less than 35.9 (CSA, 2017).
On the other, the survey showed over representation of female workers in the informal sector. About 58% of working women work in the informal sector whereas the percentage of working men in the informal sector was 37.7 %. The breakdown of the federal government employees by occupational groups also indicated gender difference. From federal government employees found in the clerical fiscal type of jobs 71.3 % were female, while the percentage of females was slightly more than half (51%) in custodial manual type of jobs.
Women make up 25% 18% of the administrative professional and scientific job categories, respectively, indicating that upper middle level positions are overwhelmingly dominated by men (Federal Civil Service Commission, 2005). This concentration of women in the informal sector low level positions has implication on their earnings. In this regard, the survey showed four out of ten women civil servants earn Birr 300 a month compared to two out of ten for men (Federal Civil Service Commission, 2005).
Generally, regardless of women‘s immense contribution, they often lack productive assets particularly, are underserved with agricultural extension, credit, labor, oxen and farm implements. Women‘s representation in the permanent employment of both regional federal civil services is also lower than men; in comparison to the large number of unemployed women. The increase in the number of women employees over the years is insignificant.
Women‘s employment in the formal sector both in industries and in the Civil Service is lower than men (NCTPE, 2003).
2.9 Women and Management in Ethiopia
A woman is an adult female human being, as contrasted to men, an adult male, a girl, a female and child. The term woman (irregular plural: women) is used to indicate biological sex distinctions, cultural gender role distinctions, or both (Hirut, 2004). Ethiopia is a patriarchal society that keeps women in a subordinate position (Haregewoin Emebet, 2003).
There is a perception that women are docile, submissive, patient, and tolerant of monotonous work and violence, for which culture is used as a justification (Hirut, 2004). Like most African country many Ethiopian women face low social status which results to
16 lack of women power to make decision in developing countries in general and in Ethiopia in particular (Almaz,1991).
They have been denied equal access to education, training, gainful employment opportunities, and their involvement in policy formulation decision making processes has been minimal. It‘s true that women play a vital role in the community by taking care of all societal activities. However, they do not enjoy the fruits of their labor and suffer from political, economic, societal, cultural marginalization.
According to Meaza (2009), although there are many women who have played important political and leadership roles in the history of Ethiopia, only few are visible in the existent literatures.
Additionally Meaza (2009) indicated that women have played important political roles mostly by wielding proxy power through birth or marriage.
In addition to this, as Teshome (1979) stated, in Ethiopian history, women did great contributions in both out and in door activities especially in battles and other activities. They have been actively participating in rural and area in agriculture, commercial, undertaking reproduction social responsibilities. However, their misfortunes of living in the shadow of men have hidden from view such highly notable performances.
Also women have been forced to lose confidence so have been unable to act on their own action directly concerning themselves (Teshome, 1979).
It is described that even if women‘s formal participation on leadership position have been minimum, but it is documented that throughout the world, women played a vital roles in times of war and peace as community organizers and activists. Moreover, for instance, un Ethiopian Women history, contributions and brilliant leadership role which have Emperor Minilik‘s (1877-1913) first and formal wife, Bafena and second legal wife Empress Taitu had played is unforgettable history comes first when one talk about Ethiopian women contributions. For instance, Taitu was acted as the chief advisor of Emperor with particular influence in the area of foreign relations. She holds high profile in the history for patriotism uncompromisingly pursuing Ethiopia‘s independence (Meaza, 2009). These historical facts make it clear that despite their strengths, contributions demonstrated leadership abilities; it has never been easy for Ethiopian women to ascend to formal political power (Meaze, 2009).
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On present day FDRE government has adopted several enhancing instruments to raise women participation on nation‘s decision making positions because of that FDRE constitution which is most promising binding one which had played a significant role for women participation on all decision making level. However some efforts should be done because still the participation of women in leadership and decision making position is minimal as per to their counterparts. This can be seen on all levels of decision making position seem increasing from time to time, it is still minimal, according to the information gained from international Parliament Union (IPU), in 2005 National election women accounts 21.3%, where as in 2010 national election, their number has increased to 152 (27.8%) out of the total 547 seats of HPR members, with compared to Rwanda (56.3%), South Africa of which they accounts for 44.5% others (http://www.ipu.org//wmn- e/classif.htm).
2.10 Factors which Affect Women‟s Leadership Position
2.10.1 Lack of Education
Education is the main tool to bring the desired societal change in politics, Economy, health, equality, development and so on. Providing quality education without discrimination provides opportunity for women actively participate in the development process and enhances the mobility of women in the society. However, discrimination of women in education creates inequality between males and females and this process persists in their lives and will have an impact in their future achievement. In some countries, girls participate more in domestic activities than boys and as result, the participation of females in schooling as compared to males will be low and this contributes to the low participation of women in different professions (Mbugua, 2007).
The representation of women in all decision making position is minimal due to several reasons. First low representation of women on high management position may discourage the low level to raise their motivation to compete an upper level position, because they may thought it is unattainable. It may also results to highly qualified experienced women may thus not apply for upper level management positions.
Therefore organization can lose women with high qualification who can play significant role on the organizational goal achievement.
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Moreover it may results to when employees perceive a low representation of women in upper management, they may form ideas about the implicit values culture of the organization, such as it is an ‗‗old-boys club,‘‘ or discriminatory in its hiring retention practices. As result there are so many barrier which are hindered women moving from lower level to upper level managerial position, so from those factors some of them are described as follows (Mbugua, 2007).
2.10.2 Social-Cultural Factors
According to Willis (1991) culture is that which surrounds us plays a certain role in determining the way we behave at any given moment in time. By no means a static, concept defines culture is both defined by events that are taking place both locally as well as regionally internationally, it is shaped by individual events as well as collective ones, it is a feat are of the time or epoch we live in. Because it is so vast, culture is also often used as a tool to validate all manners of actions not, all of which may be acceptable to all concerned are often intimately, connected to issues of identity. Cultural frameworks are not always imposed, but are open to manipulation interpretation from many angles sources.
In any ethnic group in Africa a typical woman has low status particularly lack of power to make decisions on matters affecting her life those of her family. This culturally determined expectation attitude towards the girl child influences less allocation of resources towards the girl as compared to the boys. A boy will always be considered first before a girl. This gender biased cultural assumption the subsequent differential treatment of boy‘s girls in a homestead not only diminish girls‘ access performance in the education but also tend to push girls to doing the so called ‗feminine careers‘ (Mbugua, 2007).
One of the earliest biological justifications for male superiority comes from Aristotle 5 century B.C (Amrot, 1998,). It is stated that the world is a hierarchy composed of ruling elements women are ―naturally‖ fit to the second. In his own words the author described it as ―The male is naturally fitter to common than the female own benefit most by being subject to male royal authority‖. It is mainly because during that time the inequality of men women was a legally socially accepted fact. Therefore, this simply shows his ideological difference from contemporary thinkers. While society believes in the superiority of men, we are in the decade of woman in which the involvement of women in many aspects is a hot issue. It is stated that the1990‘s have been named the decade of Women changes in values technology, labor availability the work force, life styles, public attitudes, family roles,
19 globalization, legal requirements, company recognition, emphasis on team work employee involvement are all factors that will enhance women‘s opportunity to compete survive in tough economic time (Amrot, 1998).
A significant social feature resides in the double if not triple responsibilities of women: In most countries, women are perceived to have primary responsibilities as wives mothers. But in many cases, either as a result of a preference for personal development, or out of sheer economic necessity, women also go out to work in the employment market. Managing these different occupations their consequent responsibilities is no easy task for anyone man or woman (Willis, 1991).
2.10.3 Organizational Culture
Organizational culture is defined as the realities, values, symbols rituals held in common by members of an organization which contribute to the creation of norms expectations of behavior. It defines conduct within an organization, determines what is not valued, how authority is asserted (Mbugua, 2007).
The values, which support the great majority of organizations, thus define success; often include money, power status. The corresponding behaviors include working long hours putting in face time (as proxies for productivity), competitiveness a willingness to put work above all else. These values behaviors, which some authors define as being masculine, have come to dominate organizations for historical socio-economic reasons but are increasingly being challenged by women, many men, who want to 'work to live' rather than 'live to work ( Mbugua, 2007).
Leadership and management continue to be the domain of men that is ‗thinks manager, think male‘. This has implications for women and men, rightly or wrongly, are perceived in a particular way in society, which permeates organizations. They are assigned gender roles, which are shared beliefs that apply to individuals on the basis of their socially identified sex (Miller, 2006).
2.10.4 Gender Stereotype Factors
There are different definition about gender stereotypes from them the following definition describes gender stereotypes are generalized beliefs about the characteristics qualities attributed to men and women in a society. In general, men are characterized as aggressive, risk-taking, decisive, autonomous (argentic attributes), whereas women are characterized as
20 kind, caring, relational, and humble (communal attributes) (Collins and Singh, 2006; Sikdar and Mitra, 2008).
It also described as the characteristics, attitudes, values behaviors that society specifies as appropriate for the particular gender. The differences may have arisen not just from biological differences but also from sex role socialization during childhood and the way in which men and women develop psychologically. Gender stereotypes have consistently demonstrated that men are generally seen as more agent and more competent than women, while women are seen as more expressive and communal than men (Duher et al.2007).
Moreover gender stereotype also describes the different representation of women compared to their counterpart in particular type of jobs. Hence women dominate in care occupation such as nursing, teaching, social care and especially childcare. Whereas, men concentrated on job like management construction areas associated with risk taking and decision making position. Such practices observed on many organization in which male are dominated on all decision making position while women representation have been minimal as compared to male (Hoobler ,2011) .
According to Hoobler (2011) states the ‗‗glass ceiling‘‘ explanations focus on discrimination due to many, varied causes, such as sex role stereotyping (where individuals tend to associate male characteristics and consequently men with leadership positions also called the ‗‗think leader, think male‘‘ phenomenon).
Scholars have collected substantial empirical evidence that illustrate that we associate successful leaders with stereotypically male attributes such as independence, assertiveness, and decisiveness. So because stereotypes of what women ‗‗are like‘‘ in the work place do not match with the male leadership model, women are not considered for or are judged to be ill suited for the top jobs (Hoobler, 2011).
As result stereotyping can have an influence on the way in which men and women are perceived in the workplace. The use of stereotypes as the basis for assessment of individuals can result in advantage or disadvantage, not because of individual ability or lack of it but because of group membership. Gender stereotypes are still pervasive and widely shared (Mbugua, 2007).
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2.10.5 Work Place Policies
Women are not the same as men; they have particular biological functions that make them different, which in turn make their work experiences different. To this end, treating men and women the same has effectively created a systemic form of indirect discrimination for women.
Mbugua (2007) asserts that pregnancy is a workplace issue that starts well before conception and ends long after birth. It is impossible to separate pregnancy and family responsibilities. Subjective evidence suggests assumptions that women will resign when they have children are still widespread and continue to form the basis for not hiring women among some employers. Large number of women report significant difficulties when they return to work due to the lack of supportive policies and practices in workplace. Issues like childcare, breastfeeding, flexible working hours and part-time work are still very current issues for most working women (Mbugua, 2007).
2.11 The strategies increasing women participation in managerial position
There are many strategies which use women participation in managerial position. From these strategies the researcher focused only on two of them.
2.11.1 Equal opportunities policies
Most of the equal opportunity policies stress three major areas for the advancement of gender equality for women and men: full achievement of human rights; equal access to resources and services; and equal participation in political and economic decision-making.
According to UN, (2007) equal opportunity policies should contain:
Employment and economic activities, because most women work in the informal sectors, with low productivity and incomes,
poor working conditions and little or no social protection,
Governance, as in many countries women are marginalized as decision- makers.
In order to protect the fundamental human rights of women, legislation ensuring equal rights for men and women must also be accompanied by implementation,
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Access to education, where gender equality is related in particular to the responsibility of women for everyday tasks in the household;
Health, as women have limited access to basic health services, especially in the sphere of sexual and reproductive health;
Gender-based violence.
In addition, International conventions on women‘s right should be ratified (Beijing platform action 1995, government commitments).
2.11.2 Positive action strategies
The successful implementation of positive action strategies in political decision-making had challenged the gender distribution of political power over policy institutions and technical, human and financial resources (Maria, 2005).
This is mainly due to the successful application of gender mainstreaming strategies, which is one of the appropriate tools to achieve gender equality (Bruno et al, 2006).
2.12 The “Maternal wall”
There has been a thought which describes women managers and professionals under representation in the labor market due to their status as potential or actual mothers, sticking to the old saying that reads, ―The hands that rock the cradle cannot rock the board room Despite anti-discrimination legislation, a negative link continues to be made, by employers, between a women‘s reproductive status and her employment orientation (Gatrell, 2006).
Additionally The Equal Opportunity Commission (EOC) stated that this is partly because employers fear that expense and inconvenience may be involved in managing both maternity leave and mothers ‗subsequent return to work, when women might request flexibility due to their maternal responsibilities. The EOC also described that such discrimination occurs due to a belief on the part of organizations that mothers likely to lose their career focus from the moment they become pregnant. It has been suggested that discrimination in relation to women‘s maternity occurs because the ‗normative‘ image of woman hood is gendered. While men are seen as employment oriented economic providers and bread makers, it is assumed that mothers‘ chief responsibility and interest is (or ought to be!) embedded within the home. As result mothers are constructed as having a lower employment-orientation (and a higher home-orientation) than fathers (Gatrell, 2006).
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2.13 Discrimination in Appointments
There is discrimination if employee faces unfavorable or unfair treatment due to sex, religion, disabled or veteran status, or other legally protected characteristics. In our country federal law prohibits discrimination in a number of work-related areas, including recruiting, hiring, job evaluations, promotion policies, training, compensation and disciplinary action. Discrimination can be portrayed in different ways. It can occur in accessing employment, in promotion or in the treatment of an employee (UNDP, 1999).
According to UNDP report of 1999, despite the fact that many governments have adopted and adapted affirmative action measures and the rhetoric of gender balance, the figures still indicate that globally, despite the fact that women are half of the population, they are nowhere near half of the decision-making structures. The threshold of 30% advocated by the UNDP report, as a prelude to the 50% is still a dream for most women. As a matter of fact, intelligence, ability and motivation are the attributes of a good leader. These attributes are inherent in both men and women, and gender has no role to play in determining these attributes. However in pursuit to investigating the factors influencing women progression to leadership, social/cultural factors, organization culture, workplace policies and discrimination of women in appointments have come out clearly as the factors inhibiting women from moving up the ladder of upper managerial positions (UNDP, 1999).
2.14 The Subtle Barriers: The Role of Male Clubs
There are factors influencing women‘s careers that may at first appear to be only tangentially related to the labor market. For instance, being denied admittance to prestigious all-male private clubs can impede the progress of career women. These ―social‖ clubs are, in fact, places where influential people meet, relationships are developed, and deals are made; they are not simply places where weary businessmen go to relax and socialize. Studies have shown that most People find their jobs through personal contacts or by word of mouth-club affiliations give those in executive positions information and contacts that allow them to reap benefits not accessible to those who are excluded. However women‘s underrepresentation in high-level jobs, and their flatter experience earnings profiles, may in part be traced to their exclusion from networks that insiders enjoy (Belau & Ferber, 1992).
Additionally, male executives also being to other associations and participate in other activities in which women are substantially under-represented. For instance, as students, women generally missed out on the closeness provided by participation in team sports, and
24 female executives are considerably less likely to serve on Corporate Board of Managers. However exclusion from important all male clubs is an especially serious barrier, because important business and professional meetings often take place there. It is, to say the least, very awkward for a young professional when a prospective employer schedules a luncheon interview at a club where women are only permitted to enter the lobby, or far a female executive to arrive at a club to meet a group of peers, only to be denied entry ( Blau & Ferber, 1992).
2.15 The Influence of Networking on Women Managerial Position
Starvish, M (2002) argues that negotiation and networking are key to making a change in an organization and women must master negotiation technique. The writer continues to say that another way woman can gain access to leadership opportunities is through more effective networking.
Angela (2013) says that networking may be an avenue for a person to gain exposure for his/her name and services for the business or the organization. She advises people to realize that every function, whether formal or informal, has the potential for networking. A point to observe here is that these exposures will enable a person to be identified by leaders such as sponsors of schools, education officers and political leaders who matters when appointing secondary school principals and board of governors.
According to George (2013), women are born networkers but they are afraid to exercise those skills for fear of being labeled fakes or ―schmoozer‘s‖ .This therefore prevent them from realizing the opportunities that come with networking. How a person connects with others determines his/her success in every area of life.
This theory focus on how leaders behave .For instance do leaders dictates what need to be done and expect cooperation. On the other hand, do they involve teams in decision making to encourage acceptance and support .In the 1930‘s, Kurt Lewis developed a framework based on a leader‘s behavior? He argued that there are three types of leaders, namely: Autocratic, Democratic and Laissez-faire leaders. The best leaders are those who can use many different behavioral styles and choose the right style for each situation.
Based on this theory, it is clear that anybody can become a leader irrespective of one‘s gender because leaders are made.
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2.16 Empirical study in the world
Although globally a lot has been done to make sure that women feature at all levels of governance, they are still underrepresented in many government organizations, mostly in positions of authority and leadership (Rey, 2005).
For example in Africa, statistics obtained by Sadie (2005) on the Southern African Development Community (SADC) parliamentary structures show that the targeted 30% representation of women in political and resolution making structures in member states was not met except in South Africa and Mozambique.
By 2004 the percentage of women in parliament was 15.4%, in Angola 15.9%, in Botswana 12%, in Lesotho 14.4%, in Malawi 17.14%, in Mauritius 25%, in Namibia 22.3%, in Tanzania 16%, and in Zimbabwe, while South Africa and Mozambique had 32.8% and 37.2% respectively. In some cases, the percentage in cabinet was higher, as in the case of Botswana 28.7%, Lesotho 41.6% and Malawi 20.7%, whereas in other countries this number went down. At present there is a large variety in meeting set targets, but at least something has been and is being done to correct the situation. According to Trademark Southern Africa (2011) the status of women representation in parliament level shows that only four SADC members states have reach more than 30% representation of women in parliament, with South Africa being highest with 45% followed by Mozambique at 39.2%, Angola with 38.6% and the United Republic of Tanzania having 36%. Ministers urged member states to develop innovative measures to fast track equal representation of women in political decision-making positions. Another difference in the SADC region is evident in party arrangement. While women represent the majority of voters, Sadie (2005) experienced that they are underrepresented in party organizations and on party lists to the extent that although gender equality is enshrined in the party constitution and manifestos, it is not included in party structures. In various occasions where women serve as party executives it is because they move in as ex officio members by virtue of their role as chairpersons of the women‘s leagues. In managements and academic spheres the under representation is more disturbing especially if one looks at higher education. One would expect that things would change faster in these kinds of environment; citadel of learning and transformation.
Dei (2006), observed that universities are traditionally viewed as centers of free thought amend and human advancement. But literature on leadership status of women in higher
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Managements show that women are less likely than men to be part of upper levels of administration. Leadership in higher positions is still a man‘s world and universities are male-dominated institutions in terms of leadership.
Numbers on women in leadership in the higher education sector in South Africa by Gumbi (2006), demonstrated that in 2003 the average number of women in senior management was roughly 24% across 17 institutions of higher learning. At that time there were only three women Vice-Chancellors while 82% of professors were men and only 18% were women. A 2005 study carried out in eight higher education institutions as part of a USAID funded United Negro College Fund Tertiary Education Linkages Project (TELP) found that gender representation of staff was almost equitable 46% women versus 54% men, but that the majority of the women (69%) were employed in lower level administration, technical or service positions against 57% of the men falling into this category (UNCFSP – TELP, 2006).
Representation of women at Council level across the eight institutions was 20% women and 80% men, and overall, only 15% of senior management was women. Representation of women at middle management was slightly better at 27% (UNCFSP TELP, 2006).
Men also dominated positions at professorial and senior lecturer positions. The gender imbalance is similar in other countries. According to Gumbi (2006) out of 4 000 professors in higher education in the UK in 2003, 13% were women and 87% men.
Besides this statistics, agenda equity in higher education has never been reached. Gumbi (2006) reported that women held 18.7% of full professorships and only 19.3% of presidencies (Vice-Chancellorships of colleges and universities). It is obvious that men dominate the governance and management levels of higher education institutions. More poignant is the likelihood that women interests in the institutions may not be sufficiently taken care of, and that women have few or no role models and mentors, something that may have far reaching penalties in terms of developing future women leaders. In this light, it is surely vital to accept Cole‘s argument (2006) that women professors in higher education do not just appear out of nowhere. They have to be nurtured and developed right through the society.
2.17 Empirical study in Ethiopia
Ethiopian women‘ leadership positions have been increasing as well, as a result of their involvement in formal education. Okumo and Asfaw (2014), state, ―Introduction and
27 adoption of gender quotas in the political and public service offices do increase female leadership in both political and executive/public offices.‖ For example, women‘s representation in the House of People‘s Representatives in Ethiopia grew from 2.83 percent in 1995 to 7.7 percent in 2000 to 21.4 percent in 2005 to 27.9 percent in 2010 (UN Women,2014) and to 39 percent in 2016 (World Bank Group, 2016) and the increase in the number of women and their participation in leadership and governance was found out to yield significant results (UN Women, 2014).Although their numbers may not be comparable with men, there are prominent women in Ethiopia who successfully lead business organizations and other sectors of the economy (Mengistu & Lituchy,2017). Although actualizing their full potential is an opportunity, it is quite tough to be a leader for women in developing countries such as Ethiopia where the culture forces women to spend more time and effort on the household chores, family, community participation, and other social responsibilities. As a result, getting to leadership positions is something that cannot be easily attained by many. Cherinet and Mulugeta (2013), argue that the patriarchal culture of Ethiopia has impeded women‘s autonomy in all areas of life and resulted in keeping women‘s status low. The authors stated that patriarchal society keeps women subordinate to men and uses culture and religion as an excuse. These results in inequalities between men and women in divisions of labor benefit shares, and the household responsibilities industrialization; the fast developing economy and knowledge, the opportunities of employment for women have also increased. In addition, Ogota (2013) ,argues that although a number of policies that support and encourage women‘s participation in development have been emerging, women‘s access to and control of productive resources, information, training, education, employment, and decision-making are limited.
In order to find out the challenges of women managerial position in balancing their power and family responsibilities, this study addresses the determinates factors to become women in higher managerial position leading organizations in kacha bira woreda public office.
2.6 Conceptual Framework of Study
A conceptual framework is a set of broad ideas and principles taken from relevant fields of inquiry and used to structure a subsequent presentation (Reichel and Ramney, 1987)
Figure 1
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Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Soico - cultural factors Women representation at managerial
Organizational factors position
Gender Stereotype enderstrotypes Work place policy
Source: Adapted from Fegenson (2003)
Independent variables: - are variables that are changed in a given model or equation it is the manipulated variable in the study whose presence or degree determines the change in the dependent variable while the dependent variable:-is the variable that is being measured or tested in the study.
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CHAPTER THREE
3 RESEARCH METHOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This part describes the methodology that would been used in this study: The Research approach, Research Design, Data and Sources, Population and sampling Study, Sample size determination, Data collection Methods and Instruments, Variable, Method of Analysis and model specification, Validity and Reliability and Ethical Consideration are studying along with an appropriate justification associated with each approach in this chapter.
3.2 Description of the study area
Kacha Bira is one of the woredas in the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region of Ethiopia. Part of the Kembata Tembaro Zone, Kacha Bira is bordered on the south by an exclave of the Hadiya Zone, on the southwest by the Wolayita Zone, on the west by Hadero Tunto, on the northwest by the Hadiya Zone, on the north by Doyogena and Angacha, and on the east by Kedida Gamela. Town in Kacha Bira is Hobichaka (from KTZ cultural and truism, 2018).
Based on the 2007 Census conducted by the CSA, this woreda has a total population of 113,687, of whom 55,827 are men and 57,860 women; 15,848 or 13.94% of its population are urban residents. The majority of the inhabitants were Protestants, with 85.57% of the population reporting that belief, 8.13% were Catholic and 5.98% practiced Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity (from KTZ cultural and truism, 2018). The main economic activity of the woreda is agriculture. It is predominantly mixed farming which is mixed crop with livestock. The dominant crops grown in the surrounding communities are barley, wheat, bean, pean, maize and, enset (from KTZ cultural and truism, 2018).
3.3 Research Approach
The study involved mixed methods of research approach that exploring the women participation at managerial level policies, strategies, program and their practical implementation under the Public office in kach bira woreda. Considering the scholars‘ (Alsop and Heinsohn, 2005, Narayan, 2006) suggestion of used mixed methods when conducting research on participation managerial level related issues.
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The researcher applied both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods to gather information from both primary and secondary sources.
The quantitative research design data would be used to conduct of the kacha bira woreda Women based on the share of positions held by each gender while the qualitative data gathered helped discovering the experiences, behavior and attitudes of respondents to wards inequality.
Both qualitative and quantitative approaches were followed to describe factors that affect women participation on different management position in the kach bira woreda.
The major purpose of a qualitative research design was considered the most appropriate for this study because it provides interplanetary for woreda, public office and office leaders and women and men public members to articulate their experiences on their own terms; It gives room for respondents interpretations and explanations in the focus rather than removing their individualism through quantitative numerical collections and more information could be and can be share regarding constraints for under representation of women participation in managerial position and perceptions of women and men members through a qualitative research methodology.
A quantitative design often builds in overlooked assumptions regarding gender and culture. These types of assumptions would be potentially overlook and ignore aspects of the research connecting to the study. Hence, results may be twist to fit certain expectations, particularly along gender and culture lines. Moreover it would seem more suitable because the participants would be able to articulate their concerns in their own words. This would be helps preserve respondent‘s speech‘ in order to ensure an equitable environment for discussion. The qualitative approach aims at developing a stronger collaborative rather than a hierarchical relationship.
3.4 Research Design
The study would use explanatory research if it tries to establish relationship that exists between variables. It aims at identifying how one variable affects the other; it seeks to provide an empirical explanation to the causes and effects relationship between one or more variables Mark et al. (2009). This research paper is explanatory in nature since its purpose is to determinant factors that affects women participation at managerial position public office in kacha bira woreda. The study also estimates the factors affects women participation at managerial position.
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Moreover, the study would utilize cross-sectional research approach in the sense that all relevant data would collected at a single point in time. The reason for preferring a cross- sectional study is due to the vast nature of the study and the limitation of time.
According to Ruane (2006:94), obtaining information from a cross-section of a population at a single point in time is a reasonable strategy for following many descriptive researches. Quantitative approach of doing research would use because, quantitative research answers questions through a controlled reasonable process, allowing for the collection of numerical data, the prediction, the measurement of variables, and the use of statistical procedures to analyze and develop inferences from that data (Dawson, 2009).
3.5 Data and Sources
In order to conduct the research, primary and secondary data sources would be employed. Both primary and secondary data would be collected. The kach bira woreda public office gender expert, officials from woreda offices, woreda administrative bodies and woreda women office heads ,employees of public office, and department coordinator would be used as primary sources of data. The primary data would be collected from the sample respondents through questionnaire, interview and key informants.
Whereas annual reports, documents, and journals, published articles, woreda quarterly reports would be used as secondary sources of data.
3.5.1 Population and sampling Study
Population were a mixture of elements from different public office that would be selected by list all the in the sector that were and all public office would be in the sample were selected for this study. Accordingly, the study population of this research project would be all permanent employees which currently from a total of 23 public offices researcher would took all 23 public offices because of researcher completed conclusion. The total population for 23 public offices would be 1450.
3.5.2. Sampling study
The study populations would be organizational employees selected from public office of kacha bira woreda. Completed list of all employees in the public office would be acquired from public service and from each sectors human resource department.
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Both probability and non-probability sampling techniques would be used. The probability sampling technique used to selected sample respondents form the total population following systematic random sampling technique. The non-probability method would be used to include higher woreda officials and women in position in the woreda.
As From 23 public office the researcher would took all representative public offices employees in the woreda, 313 which was (95%) confidence interval would be taken as sample size.
3.5.3 Sample size determination
The study were intended to use Yamane Taro‘s (1967) formula of sample size determination
Where, N= total target population, 1450
e= acceptable sampling error =0.05
n= sample size
e = acceptable sampling error, *95% confidence level, P= 5% assumed
Therefore, n= 1450/1+1450(.05) 2
n = 313
According Yamane Taro‘s (1967 the researcher used from sample frame of 1450 total public office employees of woreda the sample size would be 313.
Where; n =the sample size of the study N=total population of the woreda e =acceptable error 5 % (0.05); 1=designates the probability of the event occurred used this formula we can calculate the sample size: N=1450 e =0.05 n=313
3.5.4 Sampling Technique
Stratified random sampling helps to get information from different public office of the woreda. This technique is preferable because it was used to assist in minimizing bias when dealing with the population. With this technique, the sampling frame can be organized into relatively homogenous in groups (strata) before selecting elements for the sample. According to Janet (2006), this step increases the probability that the final sample would be
33 representative in terms of the stratified out of groups. The strata are kacha bira woreda including: Woreda Administration office, Woreda women and children affairs office Woreda house of speech office, Woreda Youth and children office, Woreda public and civil service office, Woreda revenue authority office, Woreda finance and development office, Woreda higher court, Trade office, Water and energy office, Road and transport office, Security office, Police office, Justice office,Urban development office,Agricultural office ,Educational office , Union office,Shinishicho primary hospital ,Shinishicho health center ,Environmental protection and forestry office and Military office.
Proportional sample size from each stratum is calculated by the following formula:
Where: Ni is the sample drawn from each public office; Ni is the total number of population in each public office; n and N is the sample size and the total population size of the study respectively.
The researcher takes sample from each public office by lottery system:
For example from woreda administration office researcher take by flowing formula
313/1450*70=15 samples respondents of woreda administration office.
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Table 1 Proportionate Sampling Determination
S.no Name of public office Male Female Total employees Sample from each offices 1 Woreda Administration office 57 13 70 15 2 Woreda women and children 14 8 22 5 affairs office 3 Woreda house of speech office 13 4 17 4 4 Woreda Youth and children 40 13 53 11 office 5 Woreda public and civil service 19 9 28 6 office 6 Worda revenue authority office 20 4 14 3 7 Woreda finance and 34 12 46 10 development office 8 Woreda higher court 23 7 30 6 9 Woreda trade office 39 9 48 10 10 Woreda water and energy office 26 16 42 9 11 Woreda road and transport 18 7 25 5 office 12 Woreda Cultural and truism 7 8 15 3 office 13 Woreda Security office 7 5 13 3 14 Woreda Police office 36 20 56 12 15 Woreda Justice office 15 5 20 3 16 Woreda Urban development 32 8 40 9 office 17 Woreda Agricultural office 125 45 170 37 18 Woreda Educational office 25 11 36 8 19 Woreda Union office 30 15 36 8 20 Kacha bira woreda primary 177 130 307 72 hospital 21 Woreda health center 134 142 276 62 22 Woreda Environmental 25 13 38 8 protection and forestry office 23 Woreda military office 17 0 17 4 Total population 946 504 1450 313 Source: own survey from kacha bira woreda public and civil service office, 2018
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3.6 Data collection Methods and Instruments
3.6.1 Primary data
3.6.1.1 Interview
Interview would be prepared for some permanent employees that included in women affairs and civil service and human resource department public offices in kacha bira woreda public office which preparing through reference of different documents. It is important to collect the data which were about the existing practice on assigning women‘s for managerial position in kacha bira woreda. Unstructured interview would be used when respondents to provide a response in their own words. The interview method could be employed that the respondents had been necessarily information on the area of study.
3.6.1.2 Questionnaire
The study had been used questionnaires (for female and male employees of the woreda) to collect the required data. The questionnaire was self-administered questions. It would be because questionnaire were willing to statistical data analysis with minimal manipulation of raw data, help to access a large sample, place minimal demands on personnel, can avoid biases of responses due to personal experiences unlike interview and observation and can totally unspecified in (Alebachew,2007).
The questioners consists of the question which related to the current participation of women in managerial position, factors for low participation of women in managerial position such as organizational culture, work place policy, gender stereotype, socio cultural attitude, male dominancy and the issue which can be alternative strategy in order to improve the problem and increase their participation in different managerial position of the kacha bira woreda public office.
Questionnaire had been prepared for employees of kacha bira woreda for both public employees and managerial staff. From managerial staff officers, team leaders and manager of different office where as from the public office all employees are filling the questioners.
The questionnaire contains three sections; the first section was regarding the respondent‘s profile the, second section is about general information of the study and the third main section includes specific questions which are relevant for the study.More over the questioner preparing base on respondent characteristics because it composes question for both male and women on different work position.
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It involves both close ended questioners to collect relevant data from respondents. Totally 313 questioner would be distributing for above respondents.
3.6.2. Secondary Data
The study would be used various documents which were relevant for the study. It also collects both qualitative and quantitative data from secondary data sources. Secondary data which describes about policy and procedure relate to promotion, delegation and other necessary information for study.
Addition of the secondary data source were review articles, published reports, website related to women and analysis paper are used for the study. A review of varies publication are also conducted to find the facts about the factors that affect women‘s participation in management position in the public office in kacha bira woreda.
3.6.3 Key informant selection
Key informant interview was conducted for this study. The selection of participants in the interview schedule was done from the women and child office, public and human resource office, administrative office and justice office. A total of 8 participants were selected purposively based on skill and knowledge of the topic of this study. Out of the total participants, 8 key informants was selected from sample woreda office of women and child office, public and human resource office, administrative office and justice office Such composition of key informants were used to ensure the reliability of information that were obtained from the public office and to get insight about determinate factors of women managerial position in the study area.
3.7 Variables in the Study
Normally, the purpose of the study is to determinate factors affecting women participation in managerial position in the study area. Accordingly, the specific objectives carefully designing. Indicating in the above objectives is affected by the following independent variables: Social-Cultural factors, Organizational Culture, Gender Stereotype, Work Place
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Policies and strategy to enhance women in position on dependent variable women participation in managerial position. These variables would be measuring by using five point likert scale method 5 strongly agree to 1 strongly disagree.
3.7.1 Dependent variable
Women participation at managerial position
3.7.2. Independent variables
Social-Cultural factors
Organizational factors
Gender Stereotype
Work Place Policies
Y (Women participation at managerial position) = β0 + β1 Social-Cultural factors +
β2Organizational Culture + β3 Gender Stereotype + β4 Work Place Policies + e
Table 3.6.3: Variable with coefficients and predictors
S.No Variables Coefficients Predictors Expected sign
Dependent Variable
1 Women participation at managerial Y position
Independent Variables
2 Social-Cultural factors, β1 X1 -ve
3 Organizational factors β 2 X2 +ve
4 Work Place Policies β 3 X3 -ve
5 Gender Stereotype β 4 X4 +ve
6 Constant β0 -ve
Source: own survey, 2018
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3.8 Method of Analysis and model specification
The collected data would be processed with the help of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The necessary steps such as questionnaire checking, editing, coding, recording, and data cleaning statistically adjustment of data would be done before analyzed the data. Specifically, descriptive statistics (Mean, Standard deviation, max and min) and inferential statistics (correlation and regression) are used as tools.
3.8.1 Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics allow presented the data acquired in a structured, accurate and summarized manner by tabulation and measures of central tendency (mean and standard deviation). The descriptive statistics would be used in the current research to analyzed the demographic data includes frequencies, percentages, means and standard deviations of the research.
3.8.2 Inferential Statistics
According to (Sekaran ,2000, p. 94) ―inferential statistics allowed researchers to conclude from the data through analysis the relationship between two variables; differences in a variable among different subgroups; and how several independent variables might explain the variance in a dependent variable.‖ The following inferential statistical methods would be the researcher used.
Cohen (2000) posit that the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient or was a widely used statistic for obtaining an index of the relationships between two variables when the relationships between the variables was linear and when the two variables correlated were continuous. According to (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997, p. 88), ―the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient takes into account not only the person‘s position in the group but also the amount of her or his deviation above or below the group mean.‖ To ascertain whether a statistically significant relationship exists between women participation at managerial position dimensions such as social cultural factors, organizational factors, gender Strotypes, workplace policy with women participation at managerial position, the Pearson Correlation Coefficient was used.
Multiple regression analysis takes into account the inter correlations among all variables involved. This method also took into account the correlations among the predictor scores (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007).
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The method would use to identify the dominant factor among the four determinants of COGWP that have stronger relationship with WPAMP. The dimension of the highest beta value is considered as the dominant factor.
3.9 Validity of research instruments
Pre-test would be conducted prior to the final administration of the question would been helpful to protect the validity of the tools with the objective of checking whether or not the item included in the tool can enable the researcher to gather the relevant information. Besides, the purpose of pilot testing was to make necessary revision so as to correct confusing and ambiguous questions and researcher closely done with data. In addition to this literatures show that similar researches use the same questions in the questioners to conduct similar researches (Getachaw et al.
2014).
3.10 Reliability of research instruments
Reliability of research instrument was the extent to which the instruments produce or yields consistent results when repeatedly administered (Mugenda, 2003).
From Table 2 result show that Cronbach‘s alpha was one of the most commonly accepted measures of reliability. It measures the internal consistency of the items in a scale. It indicates that the extent to which the items in a questionnaire were related to each other. The normal range of Cronbach‘s coefficient alpha value ranges between 0-1 and the higher values reflects a higher degree of internal consistency. Different authors accept different values of this test in order to achieve internal reliability, but the most commonly accepted value is 0.70 as it should be equal to or higher than to reach internal reliability (Eskandarpour Behrouz ,2016).
Table 2 Reliability of research instrument
S.no Variables Items Cronbach‘s Alpha result 1 Socio-cultural factors 7 0.848 2 organizational factors 7 0.764 3 Work place policy 9 0.790 4 Gender stereotypes 5 0.773 5 Women participation at managerial position 5 0.758
Source own survey from SPSS output pretest result, 2018
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3.11 Ethical Consideration
The research would do everything to make this work professional and ethical. To this end ,the researcher would be trying to clearly inform to the respondents about the intention of the study i.e. is purely for hypothetical purpose ,while introducing the purpose of the research in the introduction part of the questionnaire the researcher confirmed that subjects ,confidentiality would be protecting . Moreover, the study would be basing on their permission .The researcher also did not personalize any of the response of the respondents during data presentations, analysis and interpretation. Furthermore all the materials used for this research would be appropriately acknowledging
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CHAPTER FOUR
4. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
The collected data analyzed in line with the overall objective of the research undertaking, statistical procedures were carried using SPSS 20.00. In this part to identify the major issues and to provide workable recommendations for the problems concerning women participation at managerial position, the data has collected through self-administered questionnaire and unstructured interview. In this chapter, the findings of the study were presented. During the time, 313 questionnaires were distributed kach bira woreda public office of all employees‘ and all questionnaires were returned. So the analysis was made based on 313 responded questionnaires.
The questionnaire were developed in five liker scales ranging from five to one; where 5 represents strongly agree, 4 agree, 3 natural , 2 disagree, and 1 strongly disagree. The public offices fill all questions of the questionnaires. Employees from each office were selected based on systematic random sample and efforts have been made to have representative sample and the results are considered as representative of the population. Descriptive statistics were used for demographic factors and likert scale types of questions, correlation and linear regression analysis were conducted for independent and dependent variables. In order to know the current information of the women representation in managerial position with interview was conducted with the public service and human resource office and women affirance office.
4.1 Descriptive Analysis
The descriptive analysis was used to look at the data collected and to describe that information. It is used to describe the demographic factors for more clarification. It is mainly important to make some general observations about the data gathered for general or demographics questions. The demographics factors used in this research were, age, education qualification, and how long they have respondents work in public office. For the scale typed questionnaires for all variables, mean or average response of respondents were used.
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4.2 Demographic Characteristics of Respondent
4.2.1 Gender of respondent
Table 4.1
S.no Gender of the respondent Frequency Percent Male 202 64.5 Female 111 35.5 Total 313 100 Source: own survey from SPSS output, 2018
With concern to sex composition of sample respondents as to the finding of the study indicated in the above table 4.1 above, while 202 (64.5%) of them are male the rest 111 (35.5%) of them are females. In addition to this the data gained from kacha bira woreda civil service and human resource development office also indicated that of total 1450 employees (civil servants) of the woreda , 946 (64.25%), and 504(34.75%) of them are men and women respectively. From this data, it can clearly be understood that the majority of public servants are male and the staffing of their counterpart is lower in public organization.
4.2.2 Age of Respondents
The respondent‘s age was shown in the following table 4.2 the table shows that 146 (46.6%) are the age of 31-40 years old, followed by respondent at the age between 41- 50 years old with 71(22.7%), 63(20.1%) were at the age 20-30 Years, 33(10.1%) are age between 51-60 years.As findings of analysis indicated that the majority of sample respondents were aged between a category of 31-40 years. This shows that majority of the public servants are under productive age group and this shows that most of respondents are under holding responsibility level.
Table 4.2: Age of Respondents
S.no Age Frequency Percent 1 20-30 year 63 20.1 2 31-40 year 146 46.6 3 41-50 year 71 22.7 4 51-60 year 33 10.5 Total 313 100 Source: own survey from SPSS output, 2018
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4.2.3 Educational Qualification
The educational qualifications of respondents were shown in table 4.2 as it is indicated in the table, 172 (55%) hold a first degree, 83(26.5%) were diploma holder, 34(10.8%) have certificate and 24 (7.7%) hold of postgraduate degree. Hence from this data, one can simply observe that the majority (about 89.2%) of total respondents have an educational status of a diploma and first degree 83(26.5%) and 172 (55%) respectively. Additional, it can also be said that sample of respondents were more qualified to express about factors that hinder women from representing at managerial positions and related issues.
Table 4.3 Educational Qualification S.no Education level Frequency Percent 1 Certificate 34 10.8 2 Diploma 83 26.5 3 Degree 172 55 4 Master 24 7.7 Total 313 100
Source: own survey from SPSS output, 2018
4.2.3 Marital Status of the respondent
The marital status of respondents was measured. Table 4.4 shows that majority of the respondents had found to be married 202(64.5%). Further, single, divorced and widowed respondents were also participated with 92(29.4%), 15(4.8%) and 4(1.3%) respectively. From this data it can be clearly understood that the majority of respondents were holders double responsibility that of family and their organizational activities.
Table 4.4 Marital status of the respondents
S.no Marital status Frequency Percent
1 Married 202 64.5 2 Single 92 29.4 3 Divorced 15 4.8 4 Winded 4 1.3 Total 313 100 Source: own survey from SPSS output, 2018
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4.2.4 Working experience of respondents
Respondents with varied working experience have been participated in the study. As a result, majority 121(38.7%) of the respondents working experience had fallen between 16- 25 years, 84(26.8%) are dropped between 11-15years, 44(14.1%) were fallen between 1-5 years, 42(13.4%) are between 26-40 years and 22(7%) are between 6-10 years respectively.
This data clearly shows that the majority (about 71.84%) of total respondents had sufficient work experiences and was assumed that they were able to provide adequate and sufficient information about the determinates factors that affect women participation in managerial position in the public leadership and decision making positions with respect to public institutions.
Table 4.5 working experience of respondents
S.no Length of working time in woreda Frequency Percent 1 1-5 year 44 14.1 2 6-10 year 22 7.0 3 11-15 84 26.8 4 16-25 121 38.7 5 26-40 42 13.4
Total 313 100
Source: own survey from SPSS output, 2018
4.2.5 Current Position of Respondents in their respected organizations
Table 4.5.1: Current position of sample respondents
S.no Position of respondent Frequency Percent 1 Officer 212 67.7 2 Coordinator 79 25.2 3 Office head 10 3.2 4 Deputy office head 11 3.5 5 Chief administrators 1 0.3
Total 313 100
Source: own survey from SPSS output, 2018
As it has been indicated on table 4.5.1 above, total 313 respondents who had responded to the questionnaires, while 212 (67.7%) of them were officers, 79 (25.2%) of them were
45 department coordinator, 10(3.2%) of them were office heads, 11(3.5%) of them were vice office heads and 1(0.3%) chief of woreda addimeseterrs respectively.
Total respondents of them were holders of relatively higher decision making positions such as organizational head, deputy, and department head , the of them were holders of non- decision making position such as line workers, experts, secretary, official and manual workers. From this data, one can understand that though the existing various legal documents (rules, regulations, and laws etc.) states the importance of encouraging and empowerment as well as participation of women in public managerial position and decision making positions, the reality has shown the opposite.
4.5.2 Managerial position at kach bira woreda
The table 4.5.2 below showed numbers of managerial position in kacha bira woreda and the level of women‘s occupied within these positions.
S.no Managerial Total No No of position No of position % of position held position at kacha of held by men held by by women bira woreda position women 1 Chief of woreda 1 1 0 00.00 addiministore 2 Office head 23 19 4 17.4 3 Deputy vice head 23 15 9 39.13
4 Coordinators 115 78 37 37.20
Total 162 112 50 30.86
Source: own survey from Human Resource and public service office kacha bira worda, 2018
There have been studies about women participation in management position which indicates that the number of women in all managerial position as compared to male counterpart was very small. Thus interviewer in this study described that women‘s number from lower level management position to higher level position also minimum. There for, there were, 1 chief of administrator, 23 office head, 23 deputy office head, 115 coordinators position in managerial wings in managerial position in the woreda. However the representation of women in every position both in managerial and administrative wing were as follows: from chief of administrator position 0.00 women 4 office head only 9 women‘s, deputy office
46 head coordinators 37 women were in administrative wing and were in the managerial position. It indicates that their participation in all level management position was insignificant, because women were represented minimally in all levels which require special attention to be taken by woreda addiminisitrive bodies. This data also confirms the fact that has been discovered by numerous early researchers.
In the interview with public service and human resource office and head of women affair office, both had stated that though the participation of women in public decision making and managerial position has been increased as it was expected due to various reasons, currently (after few years) due attention was being given through government programs and had been somewhat increased and can be sought encouraging.
This data clearly show that even though the higher officials has perceived as relatively increased, as the majority of respondents pointed out, more emphasis has been given for responsibility of women in organizations with in kacha bira woreda public office has given in the areas of routine manual work and clerical work and planning and controlling areas. Surprisingly, women in leadership decision making-areas are kept far away.
Taking in to account data gained from kacha bira woreda adimesitertive office , out of total public organizations leadership and decision making positions (4 managers and 46 deputy manager positions from total managerial position 162 women accounts only 50 position ), women were only accounted for 50 (30.86%) and the rest 112 (69.14%) were occupied by the male parts.
This finding was supported by schools of Chliwniak (1997) view that because of the male dominated nature of kacha bira woreda managerial position, women were more often than not placed at the lower levels of woreda leadership, for example, as either heads of departments and/or as directors of gender studies. Women were poorly represented in management positions in the kacha bira woreda public office.
Therefore even though various policies, strategies have been developed and approved to bring equal distribution of power between men and women in public decision making affairs, at least in black and white before a decade, still the practice observed was far from intended aspect (Endale A, 2014).
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4.3 Women participation at managerial position in kacha bira woreda public office.
Descriptive analysis represented the converting of raw data into a form that allow researcher to understand and interpret easier in terms of re-organizing, ordering and manipulating data in order to provide descriptive information. Calculating averages, frequency, percentages and standard deviations were commonly used to summarize the data. The mean and standard deviation were calculated for the interval scale of independent variables (Social - Cultural factors, Organizational Culture, Gender Stereotype, Work Place Policy and) and dependent variable (women participation at managerial position) as described former, the questions related with both the dependent and independent variables were prepared using a likert scale. That means, from each perspective questions were prepared in the form of ordinal scale.
According to James Dean Brown (2011), research on likert items and scales of measurement, to properly analyze likert data, one must understand the measurement scale represented by each. Numbers assigned to Likert-type items express a "greater than" relationship; however, how much greater was not implied. Because of these conditions, Likert type items fall into the ordinal measurement scale. Descriptive statistics recommended for ordinal measurement scale items include a mode or median for central tendency and frequencies for variability.
Hence, from this study point of view, the raw data collected from each construct of the variables; Social Cultural factors, Organizational Culture, Gender Stereotype, Work Place Policy women participation at managerial position are the form of ordinal scale. But for the sake of simplicity of analysis the variables converted into interval scale leading the researcher to obtain a single variable for the five constructs (and women managerial position).
In order to explore relationship Managerial position every variable according to the response of the study, means and standard deviations for the independent variables (Social /Cultural factors, Organizational Culture, Gender Stereotype, and Work Place Policy) were calculated. But, in order to making interpretation of the results of mean and standard deviation the scales were reassigned as follows to make the interpretation easy and clear Al-Sayaad et al. (2013).
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Strongly Disagree: This response was given for the statement if its weighted mean was from 1.00 to less than 1.80.
Disagree: This response was given for the statement if its weighted mean was from 1.80 to less than 2.60.
Neutral: This response was given for the statement if its weighted mean was from 2.60 to less than 3.40.
Agree: This response was given for the statement if its weighted mean was from 3.40 to less than 4.20.
Strongly Agree: This response was given for the statement if its weighted mean was from 4.21 to less than 5.00.
Table 4.3 Scaled Likert Criterion
S.no Mean range Response Option 1 1 to 1.80 Strongly disagree 2 1.8 to 2.6 Disagree 3 2.6 to 3.4 Neutral 4 3.4 to 4.20 Agree 5 4.2 to 5.00 Strongly Agree
Source: Al-Sayaad et al. (2006).
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Table: 4.9 Socio- Cultural Factors
1 .Socio- Cultural Factors Items
N N Min. Max. Mean Std. Devia tion 1.1 There is the Social Burden that hinders women 313 1 5 3.74 1.198 from managerial position. 1.2 Lack of power affects women from managerial 313 1 5 3.51 1.198 position 1.3 Low social status determines women managerial 313 1 5 3.86 1.103 position 1.4 I n your office there is equal or Less allocation 313 1 3.50 1.342 of resource based on gender 1.5 Burden of family responsibility at home prevents 313 1 5 3.08 1.166 women expert to participate in managerial positions. 1.6 High work load at home prevents women experts 313 1 5 3.42 1.150 to participate in public office managerial positions
1.7 Husband influence prevents women experts to 313 1 5 3.76 1.267 participate in public office managerial positions. Average mean 313 4.00
Source: own survey from SPSS output, 2018
4.4 Soico-Cultural Factors Hindering Women‟s From Participation of Managerial Position.
Ethiopia, as one of the developing countries where gender-disparities exist in family, society and in the workplace was the reflection of existing realities in the society (Alemu, E 2014). In line with this, socio-cultural factors were mentioned as one of the hindrances of women for participations on managerial positions. Thus, the main socio-cultural barriers mentioned were family influence and work load at home, appreciation of society to women managerial and acceptance of male dominancy in the society. The social factors were the main hindering factors for women‘s participation in managerial positions. The culture of society, in kacha bira woreda public office which design and assign gender role, put women at subordinate level in comparison with their male counterpart. Women were mainly assigned in domestic role and reproductive role, in kacha bira woreda while men were expected and assigned to managerial positions in the society.
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As can be seen from the Table 4.4.1 in the case of item 1, there were the Social Burden that hinder women from leadership, respondents valued as max agree with accumulative mean score of 3.74. Moreover, in relation to item the same table, item 2 respondents were asked to rate their lack of power affects women from managerial position in gender issues and equity and their response is agree with score mean 3.51 and SD 1.198 .
This implies that most of the respondents were agreed on items 1 and items 2 that would be in the range of 3.4 to 4.20.
Regarding item 3 of the same table 4.4.1, respondents about the socio cultural factors of affecting women to empower through low social status determine women‘s from managerial level revealed as agree with score mean of 3.50. In relation to item 4 on table 4.9, respondent‘s response about equal resource allocation in office without Basie based women/or mean their respective offices, were revealed as agreed with score mean of 3. 41 and S.D of 1.03. This indicated in above items that most of respondents are agreed because the range of means is between 3.4 to 4.42.
According item 5, 6, and 7 Family influences and work load at home, Majority of interviews opinion forwarded that women are responsible for societal relationship which needs time to be invested. They are expected to give time for their family and of course for their professional roles, which have direct and indirect connections with the under- representation of women in leadership positions. Item 5 and 6 shows that most responses of the respondents are above average which have very high and high contribution to bring about low participation of women in leadership positions, with its mean score value of 3.42 and SD of 1.15 , mean score 3.76 and SD 1.267 and mean score 3.86 and 1.103 respectively are interpreted as strongly agree.
The socio-cultural factors which undermined the role and status of women within the community and responsible for the ongoing gender stratification includes; culturally held attitudes, norms, values and practices (son preference, socialization of children, it is for men to take part in domestic activities, lack of women right to access to and control over property, lack of women‘s right to inherit their family and husbands property, marriage practice, lack of recognition to women‘s role and contribution), masculine ideology (male dominancy both at home and local associate all domains of life), and religious beliefs (women‘s inferiority as God given and natural) are the major ones.
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The major factors that absent in kacha bira woreda public office women‘s role and status are mainly related to the society culture. As it is indicated at the literature of this thesis, every culture consists of a set of patterns of behaviors that are contained in its social institution and within the personalities of individual. Culture is a social construction that provides guidelines for appropriate behaviors, social norms including those related to gender. It also determines women‘s and men access to and control over economic resources, and their ability to make decision at the family and community levels. Furthermore, it plays a significance role in the construction of gender inequality in which men have dominant power over different sphere of activity than women. Though gender relations vary among societies, the general pattern is that women are subordinate to men.
This data shows that, Women are still facing a lot of challenges related to social-cultural factors. The supposed traditional roles of men and women have not changed in relation to day-to-day practice. The working environment for women is still unfavorable at both working and societal levels due to socio-cultural factors and male-controlled structures. Women leaders and professionals are still faced with traditional roles and also have to meet work/professional expectations. Neither their husbands nor their male families have given way to the changes conduct in by the period of gender equality promotion. For women to be able to perform on an equal equilibrium with men, they have to walk extra much. As a result, women are heavily over burdened with domestic responsibilities, and much of their time is consumed doing home based responsibilities than public oriented responsibilities. This also implies that men psychological orientation to hold and solve domestic responsibilities and activities is sought to be very significantly low.
As showed in the study of Almaz, (1991), the socialization process and cultural activities of the society is another factor that hinders women from participating in managerial positions. Culture includes the societal norms, beliefs and values.
In Ethiopian, especially in kacha bira woreda culture, women are not encouraged to participate in managerial positions. The culture of society identifies the gender role of women. According to this, women are expected to perform domestic work and separated from managerial position. They are obliged to accept the decision of their husband in the family even on matters about their life.
Moreover, it can be discussed that among many real-world barriers facing those women who wish to take a more active role in the political and public decision making, economic
52 and civil society sectors is lack of time. Too, it is also observed that there is a strong male bias in the work culture of organizations, many of which favor leaders who have a traditional 'male' role in family life over those who carry out unpaid caring work. This places women at a distinct disadvantage, expected them to undertake the majority of domestic and child care work; as these caring responsibilities extend to collect fuel and water, growing food to feed their families.
The overall ratings shown in table 4.4.1 suggest that the women executives considered for the study had Scio-cultural factors the main factors that hinder women from managerial position. This finding is similar to the study conducted by Nath (2000) in the context of India. Women in kacha bira woreda public office of their contribution in all aspects of life to their family and their community in general, they are deprived of due recognition and the right position within their society. They have been marginalized and suppressed both by their family and husbands as the finding tell. Sources of their marginalization are rooted from the cultural norms, beliefs, societal expectation and attitude towards females. This finding is similar to the finding of which makes cultural norms and beliefs responsible for revolution of women (Crispi, 2003).
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Table 4.5.1 Organizational culture
2.Organizational culture items
N Min . Max . Mea n. Std. Dev iatio n 2.1The value of the organization affects women 313 1 5 3.76 1.267 managerial position 2.2 The Realities of your office affects women 313 1 5 3.86 1.275 participation in managerial position 2.3 There are Symbols that affects women 313 1 5 3.49 1.435 participation in leadership position 2.4 Rituals that affects women participation in 313 1 5 3.3 1.1.361 managerial position 2.5 The organization expects me to demonstrate 313 1 5 3.8 1.136 knowledge of organizational vision, mission, objectives and strategic plans and facilitates access to information that has helped me to understand the overall goal of the organization 2.6 officials of woreda are strongly committed to 313 1 5 3.27 1.565 implement gender equity in leadership. 2.7 Women‘s networking is established in order to 313 1 5 3.27 1.328 share their experience & to empower women leaders through experience sharing in your office. Average mean 313 3.54 Source: own survey from SPSS output, 2018 4.5 Organizational culture
According to Table 4.5.1 above, results shows the average mean values and the values of the standard deviation of the independent variable have been shown. Mean value provides the idea about central tendency of the values of a variable. The above table summarizes the level of agreements of the respondents towards about organizational culture to the women managerial position and the values of standard deviations in the above table indicate the variation of the response of employees regarding organizational culture to the managerial positions.
In table 4.5.1 item 1, the respondents were asked the value of the organization affects women managerial position. The result of the study shows mean score 4.02 with standard
54 deviation of 1.267; it is within the range of 3.76 to 1.267. This implies that most of the respondents were agreed organizational culture is factors that hamper women from managerial position.
According table 4.5.1 item 2 the respondents were asked the realities in your major office affects women participation in managerial position. The result of the study shows mean score 3.86 with the standard deviation 1.275; it is within the range of 3.4 to 4.20. This implies that most of the respondents are agreed on the realities which are affects women participation in managerial in kacha bira woreda public office.
In table 4.5.1 item 3 the respondents were asked there are Symbols that affects women participation in managerial position in your office. The result of the respondents shows mean score 3.49 with standard deviation 1.435; it is within the range of 3.4 to 4.20. This shows that most of the respondents were agreed on the one of organization culture which symbols factors is affects women participation in managerial position.
According table 4.5.1 item 4 respondents were asked the officials of woreda are strongly committed to implement gender equity in leadership. The result of the response shows mean score 2.4 with standard deviation 2.72; it is within the range of 1.8 to 2.60. This indicated that most of the respondents were disagreed on officials did not committed to gender equity in the office.
It is important factor for the participation of women in decision making position. Thus organizational culture which gives positive value for the employee of the institution can use the potential of its employee to achieve the goal of the organization. Hence organization has values, symbols, rituals realities which encourage women to increase their participation as well as to use their capacity in decision making. As case of Kacha bira woreda public offices have created such organizational cultural rather than only following public provision rule which is Affirmative action.
However, the findings of different researchers indicated that organizational culture should generate values, which support the great majority of organizations, thus define success, and often include money, power and status. Corresponding behaviors include working long hours putting in face time (as proxies for productivity), competitiveness a willingness to put work above all else. These values behaviors, which some authors define as being masculine, have come to dominate organizations for historical socio-economic
55 reasons but are increasingly being challenged by women, many men, who want to 'work to live' rather than 'live to work (cited in Mbugua 2007).
Table 4.6.1 work place Policies
3.Work Place Policies (Polices Or Policy Gap)
Items
N Mean. Std. Deviat ion
Min. Max. 3.1Have the Childcare police in your 313 4 5 3.59 0.899 organization. 3.2Breastfeeding is factors that hinder women 313 4 5 3.99 0.79 from managerial position 3.3 Flexible working hours conducive for 313 4 5 4.021 0.78 women to participate in managerial position 3.4 There is Part-time work for women in your 313 4 5 3.9 1.09 office. 3.5There is Discrimination during 313 4 5 2.59 1.88 hiring/recruiting time in your office.
3.6 Job evaluation is influence women‘s in your 313 4 5 2.3 1.79 office.
3.7women have special Promotion Policies in 313 4 5 1.99 1.78 your office.
3.8 Training police can promote women to 313 4 5 2.43 1.86 participate in managerial position
3.9 Compensation can affect or hinder women 313 4 5 2.24 1.99 from managerial position.
Average mean 313 2.57
Source: own survey from SPSS output, 2018
4.6 Work Place Policies (Lack of Policies or Policy Gap)
According table 4.11, workplace policies often underline and clarify standard operating procedure in a workplace. They are demonstrated by childcare, breastfeeding; flexible
56 working hours and part-time work majority of the respondents in the current study have agreed that there was organizational policy gap which could hinder women‘s participation at managerial positions.
According table 4.6.1 item 1 respondents were asked theirs is childcare police in your office that promote women in to managerial position. The result of the response shows mean score 3.59 with standard deviation 0.99; it is within the range of 3.4 to 4.20. This implies that most of the respondents were agreed on childcare police is one factors to affect women to participate managerial position.
According table 4.6.1 item 2 Respondents were asked the breastfeeding is factors that hinder women from managerial position. The result of the response shows mean score 3.99 with standard deviation 0.89; it is within the range of 3.4 to 4.20. This implies that most of the respondents were agreed on breastfeeding is factors that hinder women from managerial position.
In the same table 4.6.1 item 3 respondents were asked flexible working hours encouraging for women to participate in managerial position. The result of the response shows mean score 4.021 with standard deviation 0.78; it is within the range of 3.4 to 4.20. This implies that most of the respondents were agreed on the flexible work for women to join at managerial position.
According to table 4.6.1 above summarizes the level of agreements of the respondents towards about work place police. The values of standard deviations in the above table indicate the variation of the response of public office employees about work place police.
Moreover it is known that women have the ability to perform dual activity both formal work and family responsibility as well. Hence the public office should have work place policy which allows women to meet both family and formal work responsibility through creating flexible working environment, part time work and meeting the need of women for breastfeeding and child care.
According authors of Mbugua (2007) describes that pregnancy is a workplace issue that starts well before conception and ends long after birth. It is impossible to separate pregnancy and family responsibilities. Subjective evidence suggests assumptions that women will leave when they have children are still widespread and continue to form the basis for not hiring women among some employers. Large number of women report significant difficulties when they return to work due to the lack of supportive policies and
57 practices in workplace. Issues like childcare, breastfeeding, flexible working hours and part-time work are still very current issues for most working women.
4.7 Discrimination in Appointments (Unfavorable or unfair treatment due to gender on female)
According the table 4.7.1 item 6, item7,item 8 and item 9 respondents were asked the discrimination during hiring/recruiting, Job evaluation is influence women‘s in your office, Training police can promote women to participate in managerial position and Compensation can affect or hinder women from managerial position. The result of the study shows mean score 2.59, 2.3, 1.99, 2.43 and 2.24 with standard deviation of 1.88, 1.79, 1.78, 1.86 and 1.99 it is within the range of 1.8 to 2.6 respectively. This implies that most of the respondents were disagreed on during hiring/recruiting time there is no discrimination between men and women even if there is affirmative action for women during hiring, job evaluation and compensation. There is a practice which discriminates women participation from decision making position.
Therefore women do experience a strong gender bias when being evaluated for promotions on both their level of performance as well as their potential impact.
Research within professional group describes/shows that women have to significantly work harder to be perceived as equally competent as men (Lyness & Heilman, 2006).
However, from the data collected in kacha bira woreda public office is responded that there is no discrimination in promotion but some decision making position are given through recommendation by managers/office heads.
Moreover, there are assumptions about women‘s determinations and abilities. It described that women do not outshine sufficiently in their career due to assumptions on women‘s ambitions such as women having less ambition and a lesser for institution commitment due to family responsibility (research by Development Dimensions International,2016).
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Table 4.8.1 Gender Strotypes
4. Gender Strotypes items
N Min. Max. Mean . Std. Devia tion 4.1 gender Stereotypes are More expressive in 313 1 5 4.0 1.564 your office. 4.2 Women‘s are Less confident if they are 313 1 5 3.44 1.32 mangers in your office. 4.3 Lack of self-confidence of women hinders 313 1 5 4.09 1.36 them to participate in leadership and decision making positions in your office. 4.4 Female leaders are not as good as male 313 1 5 4.08 1.234 leaders. 4.5 Females are inferior to males. E.g. from 313 1 5 3.34 1.43 male principals/vice principals.
Average mean 313 4.458 Source: own survey from SPSS output, 2018
4.8 Gender Stereotype
Gender stereotypes are over-generalizations about the characteristics of an entire group based on gender. In this study it was defined as general believes about the characteristics and qualities that demonstrated men were generally perceived as more competent than women. Thus with respect to being more sensitive, communal and less confident majority of the respondents have agreed on these factors as barriers to women to involve in managerial positions in the kacha woreda public office (Table 4.12).
According table 4.8.1 items 1 respondent were asked gender Stereotypes are more sensitive in your office. The result of the study shows mean score 4.0 with standard deviation of 0.75; it is within the range of 3.4 to 4.20. This implies that most of the respondents were agreed on gender sensitivity are more influence women from representation to managerial position in kacha bira woreda public office.
According table 4.8.1 item 2 respondents were asked women‘s are less confident if they are mangers in your office. The result of the study shows mean score 3.44 with standard deviation of 0.98; it is within the range of 3.4 to 4.20. This implies that most of the
59 respondents were agreed on the on the idea that women are lacks confidence when they are become managers.
According table 4.8.1 item 3 respondents were asked the lack of self-confidence of women hampers them to participate in leadership and decision making positions. The result of the study shows mean score 4.09 with standard deviation of 0.891; it is within the range of 3.4 to 4.20. This implies that most of the respondents were agreed on lack of self-confidence is the most influencing factors that hinder women from managerial positions.
Gender stereotypes can be described as the characteristics, attitudes, values and behaviors
That society specifies as appropriate for the particular gender (as cited in Ginige, 2007).
Gender stereotypes has consistently demonstrated that men are generally seen as more agent and more competent than women, while women are seen as more expressive and communal than men. Gender-based discrimination at many levels prevents women from getting senior management positions traditionally held by men. Economical women may not have the level of education.
Necessary for entry to level of leadership positions in the public sector, gender role stereotyping and violence continue to be issues that prevent women from leadership positions.
So, that makes women less confident on their work and achievement, as well as unable to express the selves freely as men (Collins et al.2008).
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Table 4.9.9 women participation in managerial position (strategies to promote women in
managerial position) items.
5. Women representation at
managerial level items or
strategies to promote women for
managerial position items.
N Stronglyagree Agree Moderately agree Disagree Strongly disagree Mean St. deviation 5.1 There are political support in 313 122 126 5 26 34 4.05 1.214 your office to increase participation of women at managerial level 5.2 You are believe that 313 149 86 3 37 39 4.4 1.492 education/qualification is important for represent women for managerial level 5.3 I think that women 313 156 89 7 32 29 4.29 1.505 networking are good for women to become manager. 5.4 Family background necessary 313 88 166 9 19 31 4.16 1.210 for women to promote women for managerial position 5.5 officials of woreda are 313 109 96 12 38 58 3.86 1.248 strongly committed to implement affirmative action to promote women to managerial position. Average mean 313 4.152 Source: own survey from SPSS output, 2018
4.9 Women Participation at Managerial Position
4.9.1 Political support
According to Table 4.9.1 item 1, mean of 4.05 &SD 1.214the level of most of respondent agreed on the political support in public office to increase participation of women at managerial level. The values of mean 4.04 and standard deviations 1.214 in the above table indicate the variation of the responsendned regarding political support of women
61 managerial position in kacha bira woreda. This implies that most of the respondents were agreed on considering the political support is one of opportunity that is the most important for women to become managers in the study area.
According to table 4.9.1 of the respondents being agreed that the political support is one of significant strategies to promote women at managerial position. Political commitment of the government to support women could also brought significant change in women‘s involvement in managerial positions. Similarly studies show that, 76% of the respondents have agreed on political support.
There is also another issue to be addressed in order to increase women participation in all decision making position, government also arrange political support in addition with affirmative action through allowing public sectors to follow their own strategy in order to increase competent women for managerial position in the kacha bira woreda.
4.9.2 Educational Qualification
Respondents were asked considering the managerial position of women a kacha bira woreda; and the respondents that agreed on access of education in order to become managers in kacha bira public office. The result of the study shows mean score 4.2 with standard deviation of 0.64; it is within the range of 3.4 to 4.20. This implies that most of the respondents were agreed on considering the education opportunity is the most important for women to become managers in the study area.
Educational opportunity for women plays a significant role for women enhancement to compete in all position. Hence, women should have upgrade themselves through education to fit on the required qualification because women participation in decision making play a significant role for the advancement of women achievement, increase the qualification of women and to raise their number. Thus, there should be strategy to encourage as well as to raise women participation in decision making position.
Because using potential resource for the achievement of official goal is important. Thus women have ability to meet dual responsibility and they are considered as transformational leaders. Hence they are moderate on sharing and accepting the idea of their coworker (cited merchant, 2012).
Furthermore it is described that women have a different management style which can bring benefits to the organization. In her view, women are more positive to take a fresh
62 perspective, identify, what is not working and develop new solution (as cited in Collins & Singh, 2006).
More over an interview with public service and human resource office described ―that during on the competition of vacant decision making position there is requirement to promote into managerial position most women who apply for those positions are not qualifying due to educational gap in managerial position. Women also can see that there are only one (0.32%) master‘s degree holder women in the woreda public office workers. Hence this and other negative factor hindering women from competing in management position.
Additionally an interview with gender office leader: ―most of time the issue related with female is their major concern but their role in changing women attitude through training play important role to raise women in decision making position. However, last the office set training to develop women attitude in that they can be able to compete in any management position as well as in creating awareness about leaders. Thus it requires high intention to raise women awareness and the office take in order to support women who can compete and fit leadership position in the woreda level.
4.9.3 Family Background
Family could play a major agreed with mean 4.16 and SD of 1.210 role in shaping women to make them self-confident as well as good leaders. However, in the present study of the respondents have agreed on this matter (table 4.9.1).
Family also play important role for the achievement of any women through inspiring, supporting and facilitating required resource for future empowerment of women.
4.8.4 Women Networking
Mean of 3.86&1.248 of the respondents agreed on the women networking were also important input to achieve managerial positions in the public sectors in kacha bira woreda (table 4.9.1). Women networking play important role through developing link between women to exchange and promotion of information and ideas, accelerating ones acquisition of skills and knowledge experience.
Similar researcher interpreted about factors that promote women‘s participation in public office management, support from the family and colleagues at work place is very
63 important to motivate them, to share experience on how to handle management tasks, and to develop self-confidence ( cited by Shakeshaft, 1989).
Through their network, women can share experience, develop managerial skills, and can develop self-confidence to lead official and as a result, the participation of women managers will increase in public office .
However, as indicated by different other authors Chin (2007), the concept of networking should not entirely focus on women‘s only, and special consideration should be taken to have men in the networks. This is because, then the position of management dominated by males, there are no enough women in managerial positions to help everyone, and therefore, having men in the networks, will enable women to share experience and develop their managerial skills.
4.9.5 Affirmative action
Majority the respondents have agreed that affirmative actions should have existed in order to promote women to managerial positions in the public office in the woreda (table 4.9.1 ) more over in encouraging women participation in management through training and making awareness to societies.
Creation affirmative action also plays a significant role in raising number of women. Hence in the public office it is clearly stated that to give affirmative action at promotion time for women.
Employee, however it is not applicable in all level of managerial position due to that some of the administrative positions were given through recommendation. Hence, it has negative impact on women to have equal opportunity as their means. If it is applicable in all position woman has equal educational background and experience, the women will get 4(four) additional points; and if they get equal point women get priority.
However, cognizant of the fact that women are far beyond equality in all walks of life, though it is better than nothing, they claim that affirmative action is too small to address the gap.
While mean of 3.62and SD 0.987 the respondents have replied that the absence of affirmative actions, Appointment requirement and irrelevant questions asked during interview respectively as factor affecting women‘s participation in managerial positions at official level. The constitution of the Federal democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE,
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1995), incorporates the article which states the affirmative action‘s entitled for women. Article 35 of the FDRE constitution states the rights guaranteed for women.
There are also policies and procedures developed at national level which are focusing on women. But as it can be evident from the collected data, these policies and instruments are not fully implemented in public organizations/office found in kacha bira woreda. The interviewed informants were also declared the absence of affirmative action‘s for women in their organizations.
As the study indicated, women affair office in the woreda administration is being challenged to execute its mandates due to lack of adequate skilled manpower, lack of adequate budget allocation by the woreda administration, lack of clear enforcement mechanisms to implement affirmative action‘s uniformly across the public organizations, insufficient support by the concerned bodies, attitudinal problems on the parts of male colleagues and officials, lack of gender mainstreaming in various offices and the like.
4.4 Association Between Determinates Factors and Women Managerial Position
Correlations are the measure of the linear relationship between two variables. According to suero, Sayago, and Gonza´lez (2006) correlation coefficient has a value ranging from -1 to +1. Values closer to the absolute value of 1 indicate that there is a strong relationship between the variables being correlated whereas values closer to 0 indicates that there is little or no linear relationship. It is extremely useful for getting idea of the relationships between independent variables and the dependent variable, and for a preliminary look for multi- collinearity. According to Hinkle, Wiersma and Jurs (2003) the rule of thumb for interpreting the size of a correlation coefficient is as indicated below in the table.
Table 4.4.1: Rule of Thumb for Interpreting the Size of a Correlation Coefficient
Size of Correlation Interpretation
0.90 to 1.00 (-.90 to -1.00) Very high positive (negative) correlation
.70 to .90 (-.70 to -.90) High positive (negative) correlation .50 to .70 (-.50 to -.70) Moderate positive(negative) correlation .30 to .50 (-.30 to -.50) Low positive (negative) correlation
.00 to .30 (-.00 to -.30) Little if any correlation
Source: Hinkle et al, (2003)
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Therefore, using the above table 4.4.1 and SPSS output of the survey, the below results of the dependent and independent variables is going to be discussed in detail basis.
Table 4.4.2: Rule of Thumb for Interpreting the Size of a Correlation Coefficient
Size of Correlation Interpretation
0.90 to 1.00 (-.90 to -1.00) Very high positive (negative) correlation
0.70 to 0.90 (-.70 to -.90) High positive (negative) correlation
0.50 to 0.70 (-.50 to -.70) Moderate positive(negative) correlation
0.30 to 0.50 (-.30 to -.50) Low positive (negative) correlation
0.00 to 0.30 (-.00 to -.30) Little if any correlation
Source: Hinkle et al.(2003)
Therefore, using the above table 4.4.2 and SPSS output of the survey, the below results of the dependent and independent variables was going to be discussed in detail basis.
Table 4.4.3
Socio -cultural factors Organizational Gender Work Women culture story place managerial type policy position
Pearson -0.355** .150* .227** -0.139* 1 Correlation
Sig. (2- 0.000 0.008 0.000 0.014 tailed)
N 313 313 313 313 313
Source: own survey from SPSS output, 2018
4.4.1 Relationship between socio- cultural factors and women managerial position
Pearson correlation was also conducted for these variables and the results are shown in
66 above table 4.4.3 as it is indicated in the table, there is significant negative correlation between socio-cultural factors and with women managerial position. In other words, socio-cultural factors and women managerial position are correlated negative relationship (r=-0.355, p< 0.000).
4.4.2 Relationship between organization culture and women managerial position
According to the table 4.4.3, there was a significant relationship between organization culture and women managerial position (r=0.150, p< 0.008). The positive correlation means organization culture results in increasingly positively and significant at 1% level of significant on women managerial position. Thus, it can be said that organization culture has positive significant relationship with women managerial position at 1% level of significant
4.4.3 Relationship between gender stereotype and women managerial position
According to the table 4.4.3, there was a significant relationship between gender stereotype and women managerial position (r=0.277, p< 0.0.00). The positive correlation means gender stereotype results in increasingly positively and significant at 1% level of significant on women managerial position. Thus, it can be said that gender stereotype has positive significant relationship with women managerial position at 1% level of significant.
4.4. 4 Relationship between work place policy and women managerial position
For these variables Pearson correlation test was also conducted and the results are shown in table 4.4.3. As it is clearly indicated in the table, there is significant negative correlation work place policy and women managerial position. In other words, work place policy and women managerial position have negative relationship or correlation (r=-0.139, p< 0.014).
Based on the above four-correlation analysis the basic research question was called what was the relationship between determinate factors and women managerial position? Is answered. Therefore, two factors relationship women a managerial position: organizational factors and gender stereotype are having a significant positive correlation with women managerial position. Socio culture factors and workplace policy had a negative and statistically significant correlation with women managerial position.
4.5 Effect of Deterimenties Factors on Women Managerial Position
Before conducting the analysis of multiple regression models, it is necessary to test whether the collected data violate the basic assumptions of the standard linear regression models because an assumption violation can result in distorted and biased parameter estimates.
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The basic assumptions are sample size, normality, multi-collinearity, homoscedasticity, Assumption 1 – Sample Size linearity, and independence of residuals.
4.5.1 Diagnostic tests of multiple linear regression
According to (Green, 1991) (research on Sample size planning for multiple correlation, Douglas Bonett & Thomas Wright, 2013) to test the overall model the recommended minimum sample size of N=50+8k, where k is the number of independent variables. Taking into account the four (4) number of independent variables in the present study; 50+8(4) =82 which is less than observed respondents/sample size/. i.e. 50+ 8(4) = 82 < 313. Based on the criteria, the sample exceeds the minimum to run the standard multiple linear regressions.
Assumption 2 – Normality Test
In order to check whether the residuals have a normal distribution, the normal probability plot or normal P-P of regression standard residual and histogram were used. From Appendix 6 the scattered plots of residuals against each independent variable and predicted dependent variable were analyzed. From Appendix 6 results the study can say that the residual is normally distributed.
Assumption 3. Multicollinearity of the variables
Multicollinearity can be controlled by two ways: tolerance values and values of variance of inflation factor (VIF). Any variable with tolerance below (0.10) or tolerance with a value above (10.0) would have a correlation more than 0.90 with other variables, indicative of the multicollinearity problem. The tolerance is calculated with an initial linear regression analysis. Tolerance is defined as t= 1-R2 for the first step regression analysis. With t< 0.1 there might be multicollinearity problem in the data. And the variance inflation factor of the linear regression is defined as VIF=1/T. Similarly, with VIF>10, there is signal that multicollinearity problem exists. According to table 4.5.1, the present study reveals that the value of tolerance is more than 0.1 and the value of VIF is less than 10, this indicates the fitness of the model in explaining the factors affecting women managerial position.
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Table 4.5.1 Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. Collinearity Coefficients Coefficients Statistics
B Std. Beta Tolerance VIF Error
(Constant) 3.740 .367 10.194 0.000
Socio-cultural Factors -.199 .031 -.334 -6.486 0.000 .982 1.019
Organizational culture .129 .050 .133 2.599 0.010 .989 1.011
Gender Strotypes .246 .060 .209 4.089 0.000 .994 1.006
Workplace Policy -.075 .038 -.103 -2.000 0.046 .978 1.022 a. Dependent Variable: Women Managerial Position
Source: own survey from SPSS output, 2018
The independence of the residuals mostly checked by Durbin-Watson statistics. The Durbin-Watson statistic value ranges from 0 to 4. As a general rule according to Eskandarpour Behrouz (2016) acceptable range of Durbin-Watson 1.5 to 2.5.
For this study table 4.5.1 the output value of Durbin-Watson is 1.810; approximate to 2, indicating that there is no correlation among the residuals.
Table 4.5.15: Results of multicollinearity test.
Independent variables(From) Dependent variable(To) multi-Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance VIF Socio cultural factors Women managerial position .982 1.019
Organizational factors Women managerial position .989 1.011
Work place policy Women managerial position .994 1.006
Gender Strotypes Women managerial position .978 1.022 Source: own survey from SPSS output, 2018
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According to the table 4.5.1, the tolerance for all independent variables is more than (0.10) and VIF for independent variables is less than the limited value (10.0), and so that there is no multi-collinearity between the independent variables of the model.
Assumption 4 - Homoscedasticity (Equal Variance)
At each level of the independent variables, the variance of the residual terms should be constant. This just means that the residuals at each level of the independent variables should most likely have the same variance (homoscedasticity). The scatter plots of residuals against each of the independent variables and predicted dependent variables were used to check homoscedasticity of residuals. The scatter plots of the residuals against the predicted or dependent variable values looks like a random array of dots evenly distributed around zero. (See appendix 7).
Assumption 5 - Linearity Relationship
Model Summary
Table 4.5.2: Durbin-Watson Statistics for Independence of Residuals R2
Model R R2 Adjusted SE of Cha nge Statistics Durbin- R2 the Watson 2 Estimate R F df1 df2 Sig. F Change Change
1 .447a .200 .190 .29308 .200 19.245 4 308 .000 1.810 a. Predictors: (Constant), Gender Strotypes, Workplace Policy , Socio cultural Factors ,Organizational culture b. Dependent Variable: Women Managerial Position. Source: own survey from SPSS output, 2018
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The fifth assumption for computing multiple regressions is testing of the linear relationships between dependent and the independent variables. As depicted in appendix 7, the visual inspections of the scatter plot show there exists a linear relationship between the predictors (relationship determinate factors) and the predicted variable (women managerial position). This means that, increase one or all predictors causes respective increase women managerial position.
Assumption 6- Independence of Residuals
As it is clearly stated in the above, the six step-by-step pre model fitting assumption tests were found to successfully pass so it is possible to conduct multiple regressions.
4.5.1 Effects of Relationship determinate factors on women managerial position
Due to the existence of significant correlations between organizational cultures, socio cultural factors, gender serotype and work place policy with women managerial position, it was necessary to establish the strength of the predictive relationships between the variables. In line with the existence of significant associations amongst the constructs, regression analysis was conducted in order to examine the correlation more closely and to examine the effects of the independent variables on the dependent variable. To test the predictive relationships organizational culture, socio-cultural factors, gender serotype and work place policy were used as independent variables and women managerial position was used as dependent variable.
Table 4.5.3: Result showing regression analysis
Model R R2 Adjusted SE of Change Statistics Durbin- R2 the Watson 2 F Sig Estimate R
.447a .200 .190 .29308 .200 19.245 4 309 .000 1.810 a. Predictors: (Constant), Gender Strotypes, Work place Policy , Organizational factors and Socio-cultural Factors b. Dependent Variable: Women Managerial Position
Source: own survey from SPSS output, 2018
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From the model summary in table 4.5.3 the value (R=.447a) was the multiple correlation coefficient between independent variables social-cultural factors, organizational factors, work place policy, and gender serotype and a dependent variable namely women managerial position. A study on the Deterimenties women managerial position on organization performance of manufacturing firms in Kenya produce the adjusted value of R2 of 0.212 indicating that the model only explained 21.2% of the variations in the dependent variable (Rotech et al.2017) and considered good enough due to many other factors outside the model that affected the relationship.
The Value of R square is a measure of how much variability in the outcome is accounted for by the independent variables. The result shows that a value of R square was 0.200 which implies that 20% percent variation was caused by the considered independent variables. 0.200 R square value means that the total variation in the dependent variable is explained or caused by 20 percent of the change in all independent variables: socio cultural factors, organizational culture, work place policy and gender Strotypes. In other words, 19 percent of the variation in women managerial position can be explained by these four independent variables. Positivity and Negative significance of all values show that the model summary is also significant and therefore gives logical support to the study model.
The value of adjusted R square i.e. 0.190 gives some idea of how well the model generalizes and ideally one would like its value to be the same, or very close to, the value of R square. Considered good enough due to many other factors outside the model that affected the relationship.
In the present study, the difference between the values of R square and the adjusted R square is 0.200 and 0.190 = .01 (about 1 percent). This shrinkage means that if the model were derived from the population rather than from the sample, it would account for approximately 1 percent less variance.
The model was statistically significant or the p-value for the model was less than (0.05). This means the fitness of the model in explaining women managerial position was influenced by the independent variables considered.
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Table 4.5.4: Results showing coefficient of regression analysis
Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. Collinearity Coefficients Coefficients Statistics
B Std. Beta Tolerance VIF Error
(Constant) 3.740 .367 10.194 .000
Socio-cultural Factors -.199 .031 -.334 -6.486 .000 .982 1.019
Organizational culture .129 .050 .133 2.599 .010 .989 1.011
Gender Strotypes .246 .060 .209 4.089 .000 .994 1.006
Workplace Policy -.075 .038 -.103 -2.000 .046 .978 1.022 a. Dependent Variable: Women Managerial Position
Source :own survey from SPSS output,2018
According to table 4.5.4, coefficient of regression shown between independent variables socio-cultural factors, organization culture, gender Strotypes and work place policy a dependent variable women managerial position.
The beta values tell what degree each independent variable affects the outcome if the possessions of all other predictors are held constant.
The standard error for each beta value indicating to what extent these values would vary across different samples, and these standard errors were used to determine whether or not beta value fluctuate significantly from zero. The t-test statistics result associated with p- value is significant (if the value in the column labelled Sig. is less .05) then the predictor was making significant contribution to the model.
The smaller the value of the sign. (The larger the value of t), the greater the contribution of that predictor. For this model, socio cultural factors (t (313) = -6.486, p<.05), organizational culture (t (313) = 2.599, p<.05), gender Strotypes (t (313) = 4.089, p<.05) and work place policy (t (313) = -2.00, p<.05).
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The following assumptions were tested using multiple regression analysis to know if there was an effect of independent variables on the dependent variable. According to the decision rule: accept the null assumption (if the significance level of the variable is greater than the (0.05) significance level, if the significance level of the variable is equal or less than (0.05) (Sekaran, 2004). According to the previous decision rule, the researcher has tested the proposed assumptions and found the following results:
Results showed that there was a statistically significant effect for four independent variables (Socio-cultural Factors, Organizational culture, Gender Strotypes and Workplace Policy) on the dependent variable (women managerial position).
The standardized beta values were calculated to examine the individual contributions of the independent variables (socio-cultural factors, organizational culture, gender Strotypes and work place policy) to wards dependent variable (women managerial position). Beta value was calculated by relating independent variable to wards dependent variable. Beta value was calculated by relating variable jointly with independent variable, and also t-value was calculated to know the significance of the level of the independent variables to be described individually. t -values in this model was calculated by taking each independent variable separately with dependent variable.
As the model clearly shows, t-values in all cases support the assumption of the study according to statistical rule which says, if t-value is greater than or equal (2), then assumption can be accepted (Bryman & Bell, 2003).
In order to make comparison between different variables, it was important to use the standardized coefficients. ―Standardized‖ means that these values for each of the different variables had been converted to the same scale so that you can compare them.
The standardized coefficients were the coefficients which describe the relative importance weight (RIW) of descriptive variables. These coefficients were obtained from regression after the descriptive variables are all standardized. The idea was that the coefficients of descriptive variables can be more easily compared with each other as they were then on the same scale.
A 1 standard deviation increase in standardized socio-cultural factors was predicted to result in 0.031 standard deviation decrease in standardized women managerial position holding constant the remaining variables.
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A 1 standard deviation increase in standardized organizational factors was predicted to result in 0.051 standard deviation increase in standardized women managerial position holding constant the remaining variables and vice versa.
A 1 standard deviation increase in standardized gender stereotype was predicted to result in 0.060 standard deviation increase in standardized women managerial position holding constant the remaining variables.
A 1 standard deviation increase in standardized work place policy was predicted to result in 0.038 standard deviation decrease in standardized women managerial position holding constant the remaining variables and vice versa.
The regression analysis showed that the four research assumption results were statistically significant and, therefore, accepted. The following statements consider this study‘s results:
The current study found that socio cultural factors (β=-0.334, t=-6.486, p<0.000) is a major Predecessor that contributed negatively significantly to women managerial position, and ranked first in terms of its effect in the context of managerial position of women. The current study found that organizational culture (β=0.133, t=2.599, p<0.010) was a major antecedent that contributed significantly to women managerial position, and ranked third in terms of its effect in the context of managerial position of women. The current study found that gender stereotype (β=0.209, t=4.089, p<0.000) is a major antecedent that contributed significantly to women managerial position, and ranked second in terms of its effect in the context of managerial position of women. The current study found that workplace policy (β=0.-.103, t=-2.00, p<0.046) was a major antecedent that contributed negatively significantly to women managerial position, and ranked fourth in terms of its effect in the context of managerial position of women.
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4.7 Qualitative Analysis of Interview and key informants Questioners
Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) is the range of processes and procedures whereby we move from the qualitative data that have been collected, into some form of clarification, understanding or interpretation of the people and situations we are investigating. QDA is usually based on an interpretative viewpoint.
As interviewed with women and childe office it was perceived that the majority of civil servants in kacha bira woreda public office are accounted to be male. This implies that, the involvement of women in public organization is seen low. Out of total 69.14% of them are posted in the lower non decision making position, and the rest 30.86% of them are relatively in decision making positions (of which 8.06% are office managers and deputy mangers, and 22.84% are department heads). Furthermore, it is saw that none of male is assigned in the positions such as secretary, and assistant.
Women are not fairly represented indicated lack of self-confident required to hold decision making and leadership positions, burden of home responsibilities, attitude of women themselves to hold public decision making and management position, respectively as major factor that has hindered women to hold public management and decision making.
Finally, societies are one of factors that marked negative attitude of men towards women and other factors respondents mentioned; such as absence which has the significant number of respondents mentioned; such as absence of Women role models in the local areas for girls and women at large, are the major factor that has hindered women from public managerial positions.
Officials of woreda that means both women and child office and public service and human resource development office interviewed have also confirmed stating the main factors (barriers) affecting from managerial positions as low level of commitment and confidence by women themselves to competition strength against them, occurrence of traditionally harmful backward attitude (outlook) in the society towards women, lack of role model women in the woreda and others are some can be stated.
This data clearly shows that as the major factor that has hindered women from leadership and public decision making are: lack of adequate education, absence of supporting environment by concerned bodies, patriarchic ally rooted (male dominated) socio-cultural attitudes(outlooks), lack of sufficient work experiences required to hold the position, absence of confidence (negative attitude) of women to hold public leadership by themselves
76 and negative attitude of men towards women to hold public managerial position. Though factors that hinder women from leadership and decision making positions are multi-factor and vary from culture to culture, it is underlined by almost all respondents is that absence of willingness of women themselves and their educational background take the main share of the factors.
With concern to creating awareness towards the public about national women policy, the women affair office replied as some efforts have been carried out, like preparing and distributing flyers ,duplicating (photocopying ) the policy paper and distributing to public organizations, preparing discussion meetings with civil servants about the policy, and so on. In general even most sound of government efforts and are being carried out to enhance and principal women participation in all spheres of socio-political and economical dimensions it is surprising that most of sample replied as they had never read national women policy.
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CHAPTER FIVE
5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTION FOR FUTURE STURDY
This chapter summarizes the purpose of the study, the major findings and conclusions, the study implication for theory and practice, and makes recommendation.
5.1 Summary of Findings The summary of this study is from the findings which obtained from both primary and secondary source in order to assess the determinate factor which affect women participation in management position in kacha bira woreda public office .Its conducted from reference of data towards current as well as past condition of women participation in decision making in relation to national as well as international women policy with the public organization practices. Based on the major findings, there is summery below which drawn from the above findings. Kacha bira woreda public office has1450 employees from the total of 946 male and 504. However women participation from lower to top managerial position is only (504) 34.75% which indicates lower number of participation of women in all level of managerial position. There should be strategy to encourage as well as to raise women participation in decision making position. Because using potential resource for the attainment of institutional goal is important. Thus women have ability to meet dual responsibility and they are considered as transformational leaders. Hence they are democrat on sharing and accepting the idea of their colleague. As findings of analysis indicated, the majority of sample woredas employees were are aged between categories of 31-40 years. This shows that majority of the public servants are under productive age group. The educational qualifications of woredas employees holds first degree, as finding indicated as 172 (55%) hold a first degree, 83(26.5%) were diploma holder, 34(6.6%) have certificate and 24 (7.7%) hold of postgraduate degree. Hence from this data, one can simply observe that the majority (about 89.2%) of total respondents have an educational status of a degree and diploma 83(26.5%) and 172(55%) respectively. Further, it can also be said that sample workers are more qualified to express about factors that hinder women from representing at managerial positions and related issues. Educational gap between male and women in woreda is wide but encouraging women can play significant role in improvement of women to compete in managerial position.
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The result shows that a value of R square is .200 which implies that 20) percent variation was caused by the considered independent variables. .200 R square value means that the total variation in the dependent variable is explained or caused by 2 percent of the change in all independent variables: socio cultural factors, organizational culture, work place policy and gender Strotypes. In other words, 19 percent of the variation in women managerial position can be explained by these four independent variables. Positivity and negatively significance of all values show that the model summary is also significant and therefore gives logical support to the study model.
Results showed that there was a statistically significant effect for four independent variables (Socio-cultural Factors, Organizational culture, Workplace Policy and Gender Strotypes) on the dependent variable (women managerial position). Finally from the finding that women participation in managerial position plays significant role for the achievement of woredas‘ goal, for the advancement of women competency and equality in their managerial skill. So the woreda should use this resource for the achievement of woredas‘ goal.
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5.2 Conclusions The study have reached the following conclusion
A Socio cultural factor at Kacha bira woreda has a negative contribution for women participation at managerial position. These socio cultural factors are explained in the form of high Social Burden, low social status, high burden of family responsibility. The belief that women are not good manager is the predominated factor in the woreda and it is an obstacle for women‘s participation in managerial positions. Organizational culture plays vital role in increasing women participation at managerial position at kacha bira woreda. Such organizational factors include values of the organization, information, strategies, higher officials‘ commitment, women empowerment and networking has crucial role in improving the women participation at managerial position at kacha bira woreda public offices. Work place policy has a negative contribution for improving the level of women participation at managerial position at Kacha bira woreda. These Work place policy are reflected in the form of no Childcare police, absence of Flexible working hours for breast feeding, Discrimination during hiring/recruiting, similar job evaluation criteria with male and have no special Promotion Policies for women. There is no practice gender stereotype at Kacha bira woreda so the low gender stereotype practice contributes positively for improving women managerial participation at the woreda. But the problem is personal lack of self-confidence of women hampers them to participate in leadership and decision making positions and most women not have the level of education necessary for entry level of managerial positions in the public sector. The major reason for underrepresentation of women in leadership and decision making position is relatively they have less freedom because of their household responsibility. Mainly, gender-based discrimination at many levels prevents women from getting senior positions usually held by men. The major barriers that contributed for low participation of women at managerial position at Kacha bira woreda were lack of women education, shortages of model women at managerial level, absences of women networking, male dominancy at managerial level improper use of affirmative action and high work load at home.
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5.3 Recommendation Woreda administration should work hard to change the views and attitudes of both male and female and to create common agreement on gender equality. Socially persevered and long lasted old attitude have to be changed through training and different ritual. Public based discussion on gender equality should also be prepared at lower level. In addition providing training to public employees about women‘s empowerment and this enable the coordination of local practice with national and international laws in resolving local gender based problems. Organizations should maintain and enhance the participation of women in managerial positions through different strategies and mechanisms. Training and continuous capacity building for women can ensure their participation in managerial position. Providing facilities and initiatives is also another mechanism to ensure the participation of women in managerial positions. Properly Information of communication about the organization is the other critical strategy to enhance women‘s participation in managerial position. The government should realize the participation of women in managerial positions through its laws, policies and regulations. Education is a backbone for all kinds of civilization and modernization. Hence, women‘s participation both in quantity and quality education has remarkable roles in national development. Special attention is needed for girls in primary, secondary and tertiary education. In addition to that women should be confident enough to claim the top position if they are competent and should participate in women networking to develop their confidence. kacha bira woreda women managers and responsible bodies should increase social networks through social medias and by creating inter personal relationship with both men and women in and out of their organization and expose themselves to organizational and other current information. They kacha bira woreda women managers and responsible bodies should increase social networks through social medias and by creating inter personal relationship with both men and women in and out of their organization and expose themselves to organizational and other current information. The kacha bira woreda should generate positive attitude in its civil servants and the society at all. Thus women can play significant role in the achievement of desired goal like their male counterpart.
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The kacha bira woreda adimenesetirative bodies should allocate resource in women to enhance existing women in managerial position and to encourage other women who are not in managerial position. Gender office should play its vital role as its establishment objective that gender should not be a barrier to be in higher positions and exert its effort to enhance women participation at managerial position. Public organizations should review their organizational structure and promotional procedures and adjust them as suitable for women.
5.4 Further Research
It also better if the research is done on how to promote women in to top position in zonal level. It also better if the research conducted on training needs of women‘s employees to improve the managerial level participation. Finally, future research could be conducted on this topic may include other variables which is not include in this thesis. Regarding this research area, future researchers shall conduct research on the issue Of such controlling of determinate factors affects women underrepresentation on managerial position and would be better if they can show their effect on the participation of women on managerial position.
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APPENDIXES Research Questionnaire Arba Minch University School Of Graduate College of Business and Economics Department Of Management
Questionnaire: Determinate factors affecting women participation on managerial position: in the case of public office in Kach birr worda. Dear Respondent, My name is Degefe Habite; I am following my graduate study in the field of Masters of Business Administration (MBA) in the department of management, Arba Minch University. Currently, I am conducting my thesis work on „Determinate Factors Affecting Women Participation on Managerial Position: In The Case of Public Office in Kach Bira Woreda. Thus, I request you to take your time and answer all the questions included in this questionnaire. Your honest and genuine responses will have huge contribution towards the success of my study. Since the research findings would help your woreda ,organization and the community, your cooperation in filling the questionnaire is very important.
Thank you in advance for your positive cooperation! Note Writing your name is not recommended. Your response is confidential.
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Direction I. Please make tick ( ) mark in the boxes. Please give only one answer for each item. I. Respondent Background 1. Gender:
Male Female
2. Age 20 – 30 31-40 41- 50 51- 60
3. Marital Status
Married Single Divorced winded Separated
1. Years of Experience
1-5 6-15 16-25 26-35 36-40
2. Rank/Position
officer department Coordinator office head office deputy head chief Administrator
6. Educational status
12 grade complete Certificate Diploma Degree Masters and above Fifth-Scaled Liker‘s Measures Response Weight Strongly Disagree 1 Disagree 2 Neutral 3 Agree 4 Strongly Agree 5
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1 .Scio- cultural factors items
=3
5
=2
Agree. Agree. =4
Strongly = A Natural Dis age Strongly disagree= 1 1.1 There are the Social Burden that hinder women from leadership
1.2 Lack of power affects women from managerial position
1.3 Low social status determines women managerial position
1.4 I n your office there is equal or Less allocation of resource based on gender
1.5 Burden of family responsibility at home prevents women expert to participate in leadership positions.
1.6 High work load at home prevents women experts to participate in public office managerial positions
1.7 Husband influence prevents women experts to participate in public office managerial positions.
1.8 Participation of women in leadership is low because culturally women leadership is unacceptable by the society.
1.9 participation of women in leadership is low because they understand that leadership doesn‘t belong to them.
1.10 Women refrain from participation in leadership positions because they lack necessary skill for leadership 1.11 Participation of women in leadership is low because the community believes that women personality and behaviors are inappropriate for leadership.
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2.Organizational factories items
2.1The value of the organization affects women managerial position 2.2 The Realities of your office affects women participation in managerial position 2.3 There are Symbols that affects women participation in leadership position 2.4 Rituals that affects women participation in managerial position 2.5 The organization expects me to demonstrate knowledge of organizational vision, mission, objectives and strategic plans and facilitates access to information that has helped me to understand the overall goal of the organization 2.6 officials of woreda are strongly committed to implement gender equity in leadership. 2.7 Women‘s networking is established in order to share their experience & to empower women leaders through experience sharing. 2.8 Management bodies of office are highly aware of gender issues and takes high responsibility to increase participation of women leadership 2.9 Gender related issues are monitoring and evaluating regularly by top officials so as increase women leader
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3.Work Place Policies (Polices Or Policy Gap)
Items
3.1Have the Childcare police in your organization. 3.2Breastfeeding is factors that hinder women from managerial position 3.3 Flexible working hours conducive for women to participate in managerial position 3.4There is Part-time work for women in your office. 3.5There is Discrimination during hiring/recruiting time in your office. 3.6 Job evaluation is influence women‘s in your office. 3.7women have special Promotion Policies in your office. 3.8 Training police can promote women to participate in managerial position 3.9 Compensation can affect or hinder women from managerial position. 4 Gender Strotypes items (these are generalized believes about the characteristics, qualities, and demonstrated that men are generally seen as more agent and more competent than women while women
are
4.1 Employment, selection and promotion procedures are free from gender bias. 4.2 The implementation of affirmative action has contributed to expand choices, increase the number and quality of women civil s at each career ladder 4.3 gender Stereotypes are More expressive in you worda 4.4 Women‘s are Less confident if they are mangers 4.5 Lack of self-confidence of women hinders them to participate in leadership and decision making
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5 .Women representation at managerial level
items
5.1 Management bodies of office are highly aware of gender issues and takes high responsibility to increase participation of women at managerial level 5.2 Gender related issues are monitoring and evaluating regularly by top officials so as increase women managerial level 5.3 Gender preference and quota system are currently given special attention during selection so as increase women at managerial position. 5.4 Proactive strategies sifting to empower women leaders through training 5.5 officials of woreda are strongly committed to implement gender equity in leadership.
1. Interview Checklist For Gender office 1) Do you think that women are equal in number with men in managerial position in the Woreda if it is not equal, which one is getting more position and why? 2) What is the impact of gender gap in leadership due to an imbalance of leadership in the woreda? 3) What are the major barriers that hinder women from moving up to the decision making position? 4) Does the woreda have any contribution to enhance the contribution of women to top Management level?
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2. Interview Checklist for public service and human resource office 1) Does the woreda have any criteria that used for promotion purpose in the managerial Position? 2) Does the woreda maintain any rules or procedure to ensure women‘s participation in Leadership position? 3) What are the major barriers that hinder women from moving up to the decision making position? 4) What are the most important things or strategy that the woreda considers for ensuring Women‘s participation in managerial position
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Cronbach's Alpha of Reliability Statistics
Organizational Culture
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items 0.764 7
Gender Strotypes
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items 0.773 5
Socio Cultural Factors
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items 0.846 7 Work Place Police
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items 0.790 9
Women Participation in Managerial Position
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items .792 5
Model Summaryb
Model R R Adjusted Std. Change Statistics Durbin- Square R Error of R F df1 df2 Sig. F Watson Square the Square Change Change Estimate Change 1 .447a .200 .190 .29308 .200 19.245 4 308 .000 1.810 A. Predictors: (Constant), Gender Strotypes, Workplace Policy , Organizational , Sociocultural Factors
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B. Dependent Variable: Women Managerial Position
Correlations Sociocultural Factors Organizational Workplace Gender Women Managerial Policy Strotypes Position
Pearson 1 -.021 -.022 .131* -.355** Correlation Sociocultural Sig. (2- Factors .709 .692 .020 .000 tailed) N 313 313 313 313 313 Pearson -.021 1 .076 .064 .150** Correlation Organizational Sig. (2- culture .709 .179 .260 .008 tailed) N 313 313 313 313 313 Pearson .022 .076 1 001 .227** Correlation Workplace Policy Sig. (2- .692 .179 -.981 .000 tailed) N 313 313 313 313 313 Pearson .131* .064 .001 1 .139* Correlation Gender Strotypes Sig. (2- .020 .260 .981 .014 tailed) N 313 313 313 313 313 Pearson -.355** .150** -.227** .139* 1 Women Correlation Managerial Sig. (2- .000 .008 .000 .014 Position tailed) N 313 313 313 313 313 *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. Collinearity Coefficients Coefficients Statistics B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF 1 (Constant) 3.740 .367 10.194 .000 Socio-cultural -.199 .031 .334 -6.486 .000 .982 1.019 Factors Organizational .129 .050 .133 2.599 .010 .989 1.011 Culture Work place Policy .246 .060 .209 4.089 .000 .994 1.006 Gender Strotypes -.075 .038 .103 -2.000 .046 .978 1.022
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A. Dependent Variable: Women Managerial Position
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