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A Primer on Congenital Anomalies of the Kidneys and Urinary Tracts (CAKUT)

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A Primer on Congenital Anomalies of the Kidneys and Urinary Tracts (CAKUT) CJASN ePress. Published on March 18, 2020 as doi: 10.2215/CJN.12581019 A Primer on Congenital Anomalies of the Kidneys and Urinary Tracts (CAKUT) Vasikar Murugapoopathy1 and Indra R. Gupta1,2 Abstract Congenital anomalies of the kidneys and urinary tracts (CAKUT) are disorders caused by defects in the development of the kidneys and their outflow tracts. The formation of the kidneys begins at week 3 and nephrogenesis 1Department of continues until week 36, therefore, the kidneys and outflow tracts are susceptible to environmental risk factors Human Genetics, that perturb development throughout gestation. Many genes have been implicated in kidney and outflow tract McGill University, development, and mutations have been identified in patients with CAKUT. In severe cases of CAKUT, when the Montreal, Quebec, Canada; and kidneys do not form, the fetus will not survive. However, in less severe cases, the baby can survive with combined 2Research Institute of kidney andoutflowtractdefectsortheymay onlybe identifiedinadulthood.Inthisreview,wewill cover the clinical the McGill University presentation of CAKUT, its epidemiology, and its long-term outcomes. We will then discuss risk factors for CAKUT, Health Centre, including genetic and environmental contributions. Although severe CAKUT is rare, low nephron number is a much Montreal, Quebec, more common disorder with its effect on kidney function increasingly apparent as a person ages. Low nephron Canada number appears toarise by the same mechanisms as CAKUT, but it differsinterms of the magnitude of the insult andthe Correspondence: timing of when it occurs during gestation. By understanding the causes of CAKUT and low nephron number, we can Dr. Indra R. Gupta, begin to identify preventive treatments and establish clinical guidelines for how these patients should be followed. Pediatrics, Montreal CJASN 15: ccc–ccc, 2020. doi: https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.12581019 Children’s Hospital, McGill University, 1001 Boulevard Decarie, Montreal, Introduction and Epidemiology of Congenital who examined necropsies from fetuses and babies QC, Canada H4A 3J1. Anomalies of the Kidneys and Urinary Tracts to understand normal and abnormal development Email: indra.gupta@ Congenital anomalies of the kidneys and urinary tracts (Figure 1) (2). Congenital kidney malformations are muhc.mcgill.ca (CAKUT) are embryonic disorders that arise during defined macroscopically by changes in kidney size, development and result in a spectrum of defects in the shape, position, or number, or microscopically by a kidneys and outflow tracts which include the ureters, reduced number of nephrons and/or abnormal his- the bladder, and the urethra. The prevalence is estimated tology (Table 1). The spatial and temporal events that at 4–60 per 10,000 births, depending on the registry, give rise to CAKUT are critical for the phenotypes that with variation due to differences in sample size, arise. An absent or malformed kidney is a severe defect method of diagnosis, and ethnic differences between occurring early in gestation (Figure 1), whereas defects studies (1). In 2018, there were approximately 4 million that occur later are generally less severe. Later defects live births in the United States, suggesting that 400– include obstruction, vesicoureteric reflux (VUR), or 6000 infants were born with some form of CAKUT. posterior urethral valves, in which kidneys form but These children are surviving due to improvements in the outflow tract is abnormal. the management of CKD, corrective urologic surgery, Most cases of CAKUT are diagnosed from antenatal dialysis, and transplantation. For children with severe ultrasound imaging, which examines the kidneys, the CAKUT that require dialysis and transplantation as outflow tracts, and—most importantly—the amniotic infants, there are significant comorbidities that have an fluid volume. After the 18th week of gestation, amniotic effect on the ability of these children to lead indepen- fluid is primarily composed of urine produced by the dent lives as adults. Individuals with mild forms of fetal kidneys (3). Antenatal ultrasounds correctly di- CAKUT, such as reduced nephron endowment at agnose CAKUT in 60%–85% of infants, especially if birth, are likely much more common than appreciated imaging is performed in the third trimester (4–6). The and may only be identified in adulthood. However, remaining cases of CAKUT are mostly diagnosed after thus far, there has been no way to identify them in a an infant or child presents with a urinary tract infection systematic way due to the absence of noninvasive prompting ultrasound and/or other imaging studies methods to assess nephron number. to examine the kidneys and outflow tracts. Individuals born with one or two kidneys, but low nephron number, may not exhibit any signs or symptoms until adoles- Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis of Congenital cence or adulthood when early onset hypertension Anomalies of the Kidneys and Urinary Tracts and/or CKD may be diagnosed. Developmental abnormalities of the kidneys and Malformed kidneys that are small by length mea- urinary tracts were originally described by Dr. E. Potter surements on ultrasound are classified as hypoplastic www.cjasn.org Vol 15 May, 2020 Copyright © 2020 by the American Society of Nephrology 1 2 CJASN Figure 1. | CAKUT defects can occur throughout fetal development, with more severe defects emerging earlier in development. Major developmental events in the formation of the kidneys and urinary tract including ureteric bud formation, ureter extension and kidney formation, bladder formation, kidney tubule branching and nephrogenesis (shown as an inset at 8 weeks), and ureterovesical junction formation. CAKUT defects are shown within the time window in which they are most likely to occur. Our timeline is based on findings from Potter (58) and Vize et al. (59). kidneys; whereas those that are small, hyperechoic, and than childhood. This was demonstrated in a study of with/without cysts are described as dysplastic kidneys. 212,930 patients followed over a 20-year period, in which Although renal hypoplasia/dysplasia refers to the his- approximately 2% of the entire cohort had CAKUT (7). The tologic appearance of the kidney, this type of CAKUT is authors demonstrated that, up until the age of 45 years, rarely diagnosed by kidney biopsy partly because the most individuals who needed RRT had a diagnosis of small kidney size and/or the coexistence of a dilated ureter CAKUT. This was also revealed by the median age for may increase complications from the biopsy. In summary, commencement of RRT, which was 31 years in the CAKUT ultrasound and other imaging studies including voiding cohort versus 61 years in the non-CAKUT cohort. Another cystourethrograms and nuclear medicine scans are the study suggested that 25% of children born with bilateral predominant investigations used to identify the location CAKUT will develop ESKD during the first two decades of and morphology of the kidneys and to determine if there life (8). Syndromic forms of CAKUT due to mutations that are dilated or obstructed outflow tracts (Figure 2). Once affect other organs along with the kidneys and outflow CAKUT is identified by imaging, this prompts an assess- tracts may result in comorbidities. For example, mutations ment of kidney function with a serum creatinine test to in the transcription factor HNF1b may cause both CAKUT reveal the magnitude of the nephron deficit, which can be and diabetes, resulting in two conditions that cause a due to abnormal development combined with kidney in- decrease in nephron number: one from an impairment in fection, and/or increased intrarenal pressure from outflow nephrogenesis and the other from diabetic injury resulting tract obstruction. in nephron loss. Although there is some information on the long-term outcome of severe CAKUT, little is known about milder Long-Term Outcomes forms that manifest as a deficit in nephron number at birth. The long-term outcome of CAKUT suggests that affected Because low birth weight and prematurity are both asso- children are more likely to need RRT during adulthood ciated with low nephron number, they have been used as CJASN 15: ccc–ccc, May, 2020 CAKUT: A Disorder Affecting All Age Groups, Murugapoopathy and Gupta 3 Table 1. Categories of CAKUT disorders Type of Anomaly CAKUT Disorder Definition Kidney number Renal agenesis Unilateral or bilateral, kidney and outflow system fail to form Kidney size and Renal hypoplasia Unilateral or bilateral, kidney shape is normal, but smaller in size and morphology reduced number of nephrons Renal dysplasia Unilateral or bilateral, kidney shape and tissue differentiation is abnormal, reduced number of nephrons Multicystic dysplastic Multiple cysts within a dysplastic kidney giving it an abnormal shape kidney Kidney position Horseshoe kidney Kidneys are fused posteriorly forming a horseshoe shape Ectopic/pelvic kidney Kidney in an abnormal location, typically pelvic Outflow abnormalities Ureteropelvic junction Unilateral or bilateral, junction between kidney and ureter is obstructed, obstruction preventing drainage of urine from pelvis of the kidney Vesicoureteric reflux Unilateral or bilateral, junction between ureter and bladder is defective, resulting in urine backflow from bladder Duplex collecting system Unilateral or bilateral, duplication of ureter and kidney pelvis, can be accompanied with duplicated kidneys; outflow system may reflux or exhibit obstruction Megaureter Unilateral or bilateral, distension of ureter resulting in defects in impaired
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