sign in sign up
<<
Home , Arthur Haselrig, Bill Spivey, Brother Theodore, Charles Sumner (bishop), Edmund Dunch (Roundhead), Edmund Dunch (Whig)

Appendix Zeta2: The Pembroke Intellectual Line Connecting brothers of Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity at Cornell University, tracing their fraternal Big Brother/Little Brother line to tri-Founder Rea (1869)

John Andrew Rea, tri-founder of Phi Kappa Psi at Cornell . . .

. . . befriended at Ohio Wesleyan University, and bid him into Phi Kappa Psi . . . 

. . . . Ted was mentored by Henry Ward . . . John Clapp studied under , who also seduced Leverett who studied under his wife . . .  Urian Oakes. . . 

. . . followed in . . . Oakes, in turn was protected by the tradition of . . . Colonel . . .

. . . Lyman Beecher studied under Timothy . . . Norton was a friend of Oliver Dwight IV . . .  Cromwell . . .

. . . Dwight studied under Naphtali . . . The was brought over to Daggett . . . Puritanism by Butterfield . . . 

. . . who studied under . . . and Butterfield was patronized by the Thomas Clapp . . .  Earl of Pembroke’s spouse .

Below we present short biographies of the Pembroke intellectual line of the Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity at Cornell University.

“Who defends the House.”

We begin with John “Jack” Andrew Rea, Cornell Class of 1869 and one of the three founders of the New Alpha Chapter of the Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity at Cornell University, who bid brother Theodore Tilton:

 Theodore Tilton (Oct. 2, 1835 – May 25, 1907) was a American newspaper editor, poet and abolitionist. He was born in City to Silas Tilton and Eusebia Tilton (same surname). In October of 1855 he married Elizabeth Richards. From 1860 to 1871, he was the assistant of Henry Ward Beecher; however, in 1874, he filed criminal charges against Beecher for "criminal intimacy" with his (Tilton's) wife. Brother Tilton was educated in the public schools of and graduated from New York College. He became a member of Plymouth Church, at , New (CCNY) York.

Ted took down the first verbatim stenographic reports of Henry Ward Beecher's sermons ever published. Under the inspiration of his employer’s sister, Harriet (Beecher) Stowe, he allied himself with the Abolitionists at an early date in espousing the cause of freedom for enslaved African-Americans.

He was an intimate among the Pantheon of American defenders of liberty, at time when the Republic was endangered by the rule of Oligarchs. His mentors and friends included Garrison, Phillips, fellow fraternity brother Charles Sumner, Greeley. Ben Wade, , Lucretia Mott, Whittier and others.

Brother Tilton escorted John Brown's martyred body, which was secretly carried from to New York. John Brown's wife was at Ted’s house when the message from Citizen Brown told her to tend to her safety, and to not come to his prison cell at Harper’s Ferry. Ted was also with Henry Ward Beecher at in 1865 when the American flag was unfurled over the U.S. Army facility attacked by the insurrectionists in 1861, killing American soliders.

He was editor of the New York from 1856 to 1871, succeeding Henry Ward Beecher as Editor-in-Chief about the year 1861. During this time, he journeyed to Washington to watch the Congress in deliberation, sitting next to future fraternity brother Carl Schurz, editor of the St. Louis Republican. Their headquarters for these sorties into Washington politics was “newspaper Row” on 14th Street between and F Street. Ted

2 later founded the Golden Age in 1871, which he edited for nearly four years. Next to Henry Ward Beecher he was one of the most popular men upon the American lecture platform.

The young New York Alpha’s choice of brother Tilton and Schurz as exemplars of the new Cornell Chapter of Phi Kappa Psi came as Tilton and Schurz were peaking in their national prominence. They were both tapped into New York Alpha’s Class of 1870. By 1872, Ted and Carl were at the of ’s bid for the American Presidency, a race in which Andrew Dickson White was considered, briefly, for the Vice Presidential ticket. Greeley’s untimely demise was lampooned by cartoonist, Thomas Nast, and both Carl and Ted were featured in the nationally syndicated feature:

The day after Whitelaw Reid’s Tribune editorial prompted Nast to add “We Are on the Home Stretch!” to his “Tidal Wave” cartoon title, a letter appeared in (October 10, 1872), which provided Nast with the germ of another cartoon: “The New- York Tribune of this morning says, ‘We are on the home stretch, and confident of success.’ True! H. G. is going home to Chappaqua [New York], and has every prospect of reaching there.”

The notion developed into perhaps the most controversial image of the 1872 election, “We Are on the Home Stretch.” When published (October 23, dated November 2) two weeks before the landslide results of the presidential election were reported, it must have seemed like a deliciously forthright act of political prophecy. Morbid images of political defeat had been drawn before and would be in the future. Building on Reid’s brazen editorial in the face of dismal portents for the Greeley campaign, “The Home Stretch” would have seemed like an appropriate response.

Nast could not have foreseen that Greeley’s wife would die of consumption on October 30, a week after the cartoon hit the newsstands, or that the losing candidate himself would die on November 29, less than a month after the election. Earlier in October, upon hearing of Mary Greeley’s illness, Nast withheld a cartoon showing her candidate-husband by the open grave of Democracy. The artist reasoned “that its idea and purpose were likely to be misconstrued.” On the day of the woman’s death, the New York Daily Herald, obviously unaware of her demise offered its enthusiastic endorsement of Nast’s “Home Stretch” cartoon, calling it “one of the best hits of the campaign… Go and get the paper, if you haven’t seen it, and laugh your fill for once.”

In it, candidate Greeley is depicted arriving at his Chappaqua residence, carried on a stretcher by stiff and stately Whitelaw Reid

3 (in front), managing editor of the New York Tribune, and Senator Reuben Fenton of New York (in the back back), an early supporter of Greeley. A boy on the left is trying to return the Gratz Brown tag, which has fallen off Greeley’s coat. Beyond the front gate, the mourning party includes the Reverend Theodore Tilton, weeping, and Senator Carl Schurz, who tips his hat in respect. To the center-rear, the U.S. flag atop “The Greeley Ho[use]” (or “Ho[tel]”) flies upside down to signal distress. The overall design purports to represent the Tribune front page on the day after the election, including a burlesque of the newspaper’s masthead.

Brother Theodore Tilton was described as "young, handsome, religious, intense," by historian William Harlan Hale The talented Tilton edited a New York daily, called The Independent, dedicated to emancipation of African-Americans held in slavery.

Andrew A. Freeman wrote in Mr. Lincoln Goes to New York that Mr. Lincoln met the Independent's owner and publisher, Henry Bowen, when then candidate Lincoln came to New York to deliver his address at Cooper Union in February 1860. While Mrs. Lincoln was the subscriber, her husband was the reader. Beecher was a regular contributor to the Independent, as was his sister, Harrier Beecher Stowe, author of Uncle Tom's Cabin. and many other notable Americans contributed to the paper. Its editorial policy was one of strong opposition to slavery which it thought best represented by Seward, not Lincoln.

Brother Tilton's commitment to abolition ran deep. What was at first, perhaps, only the sympathy of a sensitive soul, abhorring oppression, injustice, and wrong, soon came to be one of the deepest convictions of brother Tilton’s nature; and it is not surprising that though his friends were desirous that he should qualify himself to enter the ministry in the , Ted preferred the career of a journalist.

When businessmen Bowen bought the Independent in 1860, he named his pastor, Henry Ward Beecher, as editor and his fellow parishioner, Theodore Tilton, as editorial assistant. Prior to that purchase, Beecher had already been the author of a "Star Papers" column in the weekly newspaper. Tilton had worked on The Churchman and the New York Observer. Pastor Beecher first knew Theodore Tilton as a clever and attractive young man who reported his sermons. Even before the latter became his editorial assistant Beecher had become fond of him and interested in his future.

The two men became devoted colleagues and friends. There were also practical reasons why Henry Ward [Beecher] found young Tilton so valuable a friend. Tilton was well known in newspaper offices, and no one better than Henry Ward Beecher knew the importance of publicity. What with his auctions of slaves,

4 his 'Beecher's Bibles,' his acrimonious controversies with a score of public men (including the New York City Council for serving champagne at a dinner), and his relationship to the author of 'Uncle Tom's Cabin,' Henry Ward Beecher had not done so badly in keeping in the public eye. But he had reached the where he really needed a first-class publicity man who could put his heart into the job. Phi Kappa Psi’s Theodore Tilton was precisely that man.

The devotion ran deep. Bowen, Beecher and Tilton were known as "the Trinity of Plymouth Church. The church itself was a significant national force between 1849 and the outbreak of the Civil War. Henry Ward Beecher, noted abolitionist and minister of Plymouth Church, made the church a center of antislavery sentiment. , Wendell Phillips, brother Charles Sumner of Phi Kappa Psi, and were among other abolitionists who preached from its pulpit. The church, established as Brooklyn's Second Congregational Church, was designed to accomodate the crowds that came to hear Beecher and his cohorts. Its simple design reflected the Puritain ethic of plain living and high thinking, and the walls soon rang to the sound of abolition oratory, which was reported by newspapers across the Republic.

Beecher preached his first sermon at Plymouth Church in October of 1847, Brooklyn's Second Congregational Church. That church building was destroyed by fire in 1849 and a second church was built and designed specifically to accommodate the crowds that came to hear Beecher and his colleagues. The weekly congregation averaged about 2,500 people, and Beecher's sermons were printed in pamphlet form and widely circulated. Beecher advocated resistance to the extension of slavery, counseled disobedience to the Fugitive Slave Law, declaring that the requirements of humanity were above those of the Constitution, and encouraged his own congregation to become active in the Underground Railroad. He also auctioned several slaves from the pulpit of Plymouth Church, both to secure their freedom and illustrate the grimmest aspect of slavery.

Brother Tilton eagerly absorbed the elder man's views on religion, politics, art, and life in all its phases. Beecher found the young man's mind brilliant — his character unformed and unstable. He came to treat his almost as a son. Pleased with Tilton's worked, Bowen and Beecher agreed that he should be acting editor while Beecher was abroad in 1863. On his return from a vacation in Beecher was loath, because of the pressure of his heavy public obligations, to resume any editorial duties other than writing so he proposed that Tilton should continue to edit the paper which should retain Beecher's name as nominal editor for a year — and after that Tilton should succeed him. This program was carried out with disastrous results to the younger man's already excessive vanity. He speedily came to believe himself a greater man than his chief and to treat him with patronizing condescension. This was about the time brother Tilton met John Andrew Rea, who also aspired to be a journalist.

5 For a time under Tilton's editorship, the Independent became a virtual house organ for Beecher and his church. It was illegal to read the paper south of the Mason Dixon line, where the landed elite had succeeded in surpressing free speech. It was also a profitable relationship which helped rescue Beecher from debt and from occasional embarrassment. Beecher's son had been commissioned an officer in the army early in the war but was dismissed from his commission later in 1861 under murky and somewhat scandalous circumstances.

To Henry Ward Beecher it was a staggering blow. He felt humiliated and disgraced beyond any power to save him. In his grief and shame, he went to his friend, brother Tilton. And Theodore Tilton did not lose an instant. He went straight to Washington, and to the house of Secretary of War Cameron. Cameron had guests to lunch; but Tilton would not be put off. So the Secretary asked Tilton to top to luncheon, also.

Theodore Tilton was a man of unquestionable charm. He turned a dull political function into a red-letter day for Cameron's guests. His wit, his personal magnetism, his physical beauty and rare culture captivated the company. When the guests departed, Tilton begged a commission in the regular army for young Beecher, got it with the Secretary's signature, and took it himself to the President. He secured Lincoln's name to the document, and fetched it back to Henry Ward Beecher.

Unfortunately, brother Tilton shared one of his mentor's less admirable traits — an inclination to conflict and controversy. Frequently, Tilton was critical of President Lincoln. Presidential aide John Hay wrote in his diary on October 30, 1863: "Theodore Tilton sends an abusive editorial in the Independent & a letter stating he meant it in no unkindliness." Tilton had written: "It was with no pleasure but great regret that I felt impelled by a sense of duty to write the article which appears in this week's Independent concerning your letter to Mr. [Charles D.] Drake. I write this private line to assure you it was prompted by no personal unkindliness.

In February 1863, Tilton wrote President Lincoln: "At a meeting in Brooklyn this evening it was unannously [sic] resolved that three thousand men & women in Brooklyn assembled in public meeting say to President of the United States, “Sir Where ever you see a black man give him a Gun & tell him to aid in saving the Republic.'"

In February 1864, an anti-Lincoln pamphlet was written by circulated by supporters of Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase. According to Chase biographer John Niven, "The pamphlet was not as well received as its authors had hoped. Yet it did attract editorial support for Chase from Theodore Tilton's New York Independent, the popular religious daily . . .”

6 Tilton was also one of the rebellious New York editors seeking to replace President Lincoln as the Republican nominee in August 1864. But after the Democratic nomination of George B. McClellan, Tilton told Anne E. Dickinson: "I was opposed to Mr. Lincoln's nomination but now it becomes the duty of all Unionists to present a united front." Tilton's conversion was reflected in his letter of congratulations to President Lincoln on November 12, 1864:

I have thanked God every waking hour since the Eighth of November. That day was the greatest in the history of the present generation. On that day Providence so signally interposed to rescue the Republic from its enemies that all Christian patriots are filled with a solemnity of rejoicing. And for yourself, Sir, prayers go up now as never before. The people are with you now as never before. May God keep you in health and strength, and give you the victory!

Elicited a popular verdict in favor of annexation, induced the same Congress to vote for what it had voted against. It would add to the glory of the 38th Congress if, in its last session, it should reverse its unhappy decision of the first.

Permit me to remind you that no man on the Earth has such an opportunity as yourself for promoting Human Liberty.

I cannot doubt that your oft expressed sympathies for the oppressed will inspire you to take official advantage of the verdict of the recent election in favor of Liberty, and to solicit from Congress a final passage of a measure which will be the greatest in American History, after the Declaration of Independence.

Tilton sent the letter to President Lincoln as an enclosure in another letter to presidential assistant John G. Nicolay:

I would have written to you before this a word of congratulation for the immortal victory of the 8th of November3 for which God be thanked unceasingly! Except that the campaign Exhausted me half killed me speaking as I did, so often and laboriously that on the Saturday night before election I fainted on the platform. Looking back upon that occasion, however, I now feel that I would have been willing to die if by so doing I could have been assured in advance of so great a boon to the Republic as the 8th of November proved to be.

It wasn't just with President Lincoln that Tilton's relationships were difficult. Tilton had proved to be more brilliant as a newspaper writer than sagacious as a newspaper leader. His utterances on religious questions were increasingly

7 distasteful to the orthodox churches; and the orthodox churches were the constituency to which in the past 'The Independent' had appealed. Tilton had become the official editor of The Independent in February 1864. He later edited the Brooklyn Union and founded the weekly Golden Age.

Despite these successes, Tilton's professional and personal lives headed for a crisis. Tilton liked to go off on long, strenuous lecture tours, leaving Liz and the children behind. These tours include the one in which he was tapped into Phi Kappa Psi. Liz, a former Sunday-school teacher, worshiped ardently at Dr. Beecher's church, and during Theodore's long absences Beecher also “ministered” privately to her. Lyman Beecher Stowe presented a different version of what happened between the Tilton and Beecher families: Tilton himself not only advocated free love but practised it with promiscuous vigor, particularly when away on lecture tours. He finally wrote an editorial which, in effect, committed the paper to free-love views, a novel stand for a religious publication. Tilton subsequently charged Beecher with seducing his wife. The resulting scandal was aired in a courtroom and in church pews. It involved a complex myriad of charges, countercharges, retractions and reassertions. It was an unholy mess.

As for Ted’s Alma Mater, it is now CCNY. The City College of The City University of New York (known more commonly as the City College of New York or simply City College, CCNY, or colloquially as City) is a senior college of the City University of New York, in New York City. It is also the oldest of the City University's twenty-three institutions of higher learning. City College's thirty-five acre campus along Convent Avenue from 130th Street to 141st Street is on a hill overlooking Harlem; its neo-Gothic campus was mostly designed by George Browne Post, and many of its buildings are landmarks.

CCNY was the first free public institution of higher education in the United States and also for many years has been considered the flagship campus of the CUNY public university system.

The City College of New York was originally founded as the Free Academy of the City of New York in 1847 by wealthy businessman and president of the Board of Education Townsend Harris. A combination prep school and college, it would provide children of immigrants and the poor access to free higher education based on academic merit alone.

The Free Academy was the first of what would become a system of municipally-supported colleges. Hunter College, the second, was founded as a women's institution in 1870. Brooklyn College, the third, was established as a coeducational institution in 1930.

In 1847, New York State Governor John Young had given permission to the Board of Education to found The Free Academy, which was ratified in a

8 statewide referendum. Founder Townsend Harris proclaimed, "Open the doors to all… Let the children of the rich and the poor take their seats together and know of no distinction save that of industry, good conduct and intellect."

Dr. Horace Webster, a West Point graduate, was the first president of The Free Academy. On the occasion of The Free Academy's formal opening, January 21, 1849, Webster said:

The experiment is to be tried, whether the children of the people, the children of the whole people, can be educated; and whether an institution of the highest grade, can be successfully controlled by the popular will, not by the privileged few.

In 1851, a curriculum was adopted which had nine main fields: mathematics, history, language, literature, drawing, natural philosophy, experimental philosophy, law, and political economy. The Academy's first graduation took place in 1853 in Niblo's Garden Theatre, a large theater and opera house on Broadway, near Houston Street at the corner of Broadway and Prince Street.

Even in its early years, the Free Academy showed tolerance for diversity, especially in comparison to its urban neighbor, Columbia College, which then wasn't much more than a finishing school for wealthy young gentlemen. The Free Academy had a framework of tolerance that extended beyond the admission of students from every social stratum. In 1854, Columbia's trustees denied Oliver Wolcott Gibbs, a distinguished chemist and scientist, a faculty position because of Gibbs's religious beliefs. He was a Unitarian. Gibbs was a professor and held an appointment at the Free Academy since 1848. In 1863, Gibbs went on to an appointment at , the Rumsford Professorship in Chemistry, where he had a distinguished career. In 1873, he was awarded an honorary degree from Columbia with a unanimous vote by its Trustees with the strong urging of President Barnard. Gibbs was also the mentor to New York Alpha Phi Kappa Psi’s Frank Wigglesworth Clarke (1869). L[ater in the history of CCNY, in the early 1900s, President John H. Finley gave the College a more secular orientation by abolishing mandatory chapel attendance. This change occurred at a time when more Jewish students were enrolling in the College.

In 1866, the Free Academy, a men's institution, was renamed the College of the City of New York. In 1929, the College of the City of New York became the City College of New York. Finally, the institution became known as the City College of the City University of New York when CUNY was formally established as the umbrella institution for New York City's municipal-college system in 1961. The names City College of New York and City College, however, remain in general use.

With the name change in 1866, lavender was chosen as the College's color. In 1867, the academic senate, the first student government in the nation, was formed. Having struggled over the issue for ten years, in 1895 the New York

9 State legislature voted to let the College build a new campus. A four-square site was chosen, located in Manhattanville, within the area which was enclosed by the North Campus Arches; the College, however, quickly expanded north of the Arches.

Like President Webster, the second president of City College was a West Point graduate. The second president, General Alexander S. Webb, assumed office in 1869. One of the Union's heroes at Gettysburg, General Webb was the commander of the Philadelphia Brigade. When the Union Army repulsed the Confederates at Cemetery Hill, General Webb played a central role in the battle. Coddington wrote about Webb's conduct during Pickett's Charge: "Refusing to give up, [Webb] set an example of bravery and undaunted leadership for his men to follow...." In 1891, while still president of City College, he was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor for heroism at Gettysburg.

The College's curriculum under Webster and Webb combined classical training in Latin and Greek with more practical subjects like chemistry, physics, and engineering. One of the outstanding Nineteenth Century graduates of City College was the Brooklyn-born Goethals, who put himself through the College in three years before going on to West Point. He later became the chief engineer on the Panama Canal. General Webb was succeeded by John Huston Finley in 1903. Finley relaxed some of the West Point-like discipline that characterized the College, including compulsory chapel attendance.

Education courses were first offered in 1897 in response to a city law that prohibited the hiring of teachers who lacked a proper academic background. The School of Education was established in 1921. The college newspaper, The Campus, published its first issue in 1907, and the first degree-granting evening session in the United States was started. Separate Schools of Business and Civic Administration and of Technology (Engineering) were established in 1919. Students were also required to sign a loyalty oath. In 1947, the College celebrated its centennial year, awarding honorary degrees to Bernard Baruch (class of 1889) and Robert F. Wagner (class of 1898). A 100-year time capsule was buried in North Campus.

Up until 1929, City College had been an all-male institution; it was in 1930 that CCNY first admitted women, but only to graduate programs. In 1951, the entire institution became coeducational.

In the years when top-flight private schools were restricted to the children of the Protestant Establishment, thousands of brilliant individuals (especially Jewish students) attended City College because they had no other option. CCNY's academic excellence and status as a working-class school earned it the titles "Harvard of the Proletariat", the "poor man's Harvard", and "Harvard-on-the- Hudson".

10 Even today, after three decades of controversy over its academic standards, no other public college has produced as many Nobel laureates who have studied and graduated with a degree from a particular public college. CCNY's official quote on this is "Nine Nobel laureates claim CCNY as their Alma Mater, the most from any public college in the United States." This should not be confused with Nobel laureates who teach at a public university; UC Berkeley boasts 19.

In its heyday of the 1930s through the 1950s, CCNY became known for its political radicalism. It was said that the old CCNY cafeteria in the basement of Shepard Hall, particularly in alcove 1, was the only place in the world where a fair debate between Trotskyists and Stalinists could take place. Being part of a political debate that began in the morning in alcove 1, Irving Howe reported that after some time had passed he would leave his place among the arguing students in order to attend class. When he returned to the cafeteria late in the day, he would find that the same debate had continued but with an entirely different cast of students. Alumni who were at City College in the mid-20th century said that City College in those days made UC Berkeley in the 1960s look like a school of conformity.

The municipality of New York was considerably more conformist than CCNY students and faculty. The Philosophy Department, at the end of the 1939- 1940 academic year, invited the British mathematician and philosopher Bertrand Russell to become a professor at CCNY. Members of the Catholic Church protested Russell’s appointment. A woman named Jean Kay filed suit against the Board of Higher Education to block Russell’s appointment on the grounds that his views on marriage and sex would adversely affect her daughter’s virtue, although her daughter was not a CCNY student. Russell wrote “a typical American witch- hunt was instituted against me.” Kay won the suit, but the Board declined to appeal after considering the political pressure exerted.

Russell took revenge in the preface of the first edition of his book An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth, which was published by the Unwin Brothers in the UK (the preface was not included in the U.S. editions). In a long précis that detailed Russell’s accomplishments including medals awarded by and the Royal Society and faculty appointments at , Cambridge, UCLA, Harvard, the Sorbonne, Peking (the name used in that era), the LSE, Chicago, and so forth, Russell added, “Judicially pronounced unworthy to be Professor of Philosophy at the College of the City of New York.”

Many City College alumni served in the U.S. Armed Forces during the Second World War. A total of 310 CCNY alumni were killed in the War. Prior to World War II, a relatively large of City College alumni--relative to alumni of other U.S. colleges--volunteered to serve on the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War. Thirteen CCNY alumni were killed in Spain.

11 [In 1945, Professor William E. Knickerbocker, Chairman of the Romance Languages Department, was accused of anti-semitism by four faculty members. They claimed that “for at least seven years they have been subjected to continual harassment and what looks very much like discrimination ....” by Knickerbocker. Four years later Knickerbocker was again accused of anti-semitism, this time for denying honors to high-achieving Jewish students. About the same time, Professor William C. Davis of the Economics Department was accused by students of maintaining a racially segregated dormitory at Army Hall. Professor Davis was the dormitory’s administrator. CCNY students, many of whom were World War II veterans, launched a massive strike in protest against Knickerbocker and Davis. The New York Times called the event "the first general strike at a municipal institution of higher learning."

CCNY is the only team in men's history to win both the NIT and the NCAA Tournament in the same year, 1950. However, this accomplishment was overshadowed by a point shaving scandal in which seven CCNY basketball players were arrested, in 1951, for taking money from gamblers to affect the outcome of games. The scandal led to the decline of CCNY from a national powerhouse in Division I basketball to a member of Division III and damaged the national profile of college basketball in general.

In 1955, a City College student named Alan A. Brown founded the economics honor society, Omicron Chi Epsilon. The purpose of the society was to confer honors on outstanding economics students, organize academic meetings, and publish a journal. In 1963, Omicron Chi Epsilon merged with Omicron Delta Gamma, the other economics honor society, to form Omicron Delta Epsilon, the current academic honor society in economics.

During a 1969 takeover of South campus, under threat of a riot, African American and Puerto Rican activists and their white allies demanded, among other policy changes, that City College implement an aggressive affirmative action program. At some point, campus protesters began referring to CCNY as "Harlem University." The administration of the City University at first balked at the demands, but instead, came up with an open admissions or open-access program under which any graduate of a New York City high school would be able to matriculate either at City College or another college in the CUNY system. Beginning in 1970, the program opened doors to college to many who would not otherwise have been able to attend college. The program, however, came at the cost of City College's and the University's academic standing as well as New York City's fiscal health.

City College began charging tuition in 1976. By the 1990s CCNY stopped admitting, and offering remedial classes to, students who did not meet its formal entrance requirements. CUNY by then began enrolling these less well prepared students in its community colleges, and not senior colleges such as CCNY.

12 CCNY's new Frederick Douglass Debate Society defeated Harvard and Yale at the "Super Bowl" of the American Parliamentary Debate Association in 1996. In 2003, the College's Model UN Team was awarded as an Outstanding Delegation at the National Model United Nations (NMUN) Conference, an honor that it would repeat for four years in a row.

The City University of New York began recruiting students for the University Scholars program in the fall 2000, and admitted the first cohort of undergraduate scholars in the fall 2001. The program was initiated at five CUNY campuses, one of which was CCNY. The newly admitted scholars became undergraduates in the College's newly formed Honors Program. Students attending the CCNY Honors College are awarded free tuition, a cultural passport that admits them to New York City cultural institutions for free or at sharply reduced prices, a notebook computer, and an academic expense account that they can apply to such academic-related activities as study abroad. These undergraduates are also required to attend a number of specially developed honors courses. In 2007 CUNY initiated the Macauley Honors College. Both the CCNY Honors Program and the CCNY chapter of the Macauley Honors College are run out of the CCNY Honors Center.

In October 2005, Dr. Andrew Grove, a 1960 graduate of the Engineering School in Chemical Engineering, and co-founder of Intel Corporation, donated $26,000,000 to the Engineering School, which has since been renamed the Grove School of Engineering. It is the largest donation ever given to the City College of New York.

City College was originally situated in downtown Manhattan, in the Free Academy Building, which was CCNY's home from 1849 to 1907. The building was designed by James Renwick, Jr. and was located at Lexington Avenue and 23rd Street. According to some sources, it was the first Gothic Revival college building on the East Coast. CCNY then moved to its current location in the upper Manhattan village of Manhattanville in 1906, when the classical neo-Gothic campus was erected. This new campus was designed by George Browne Post.

According to CCNY's published history, "The Landmark neo-Gothic buildings of the North Campus Quadrangle were designed by the noted architect George Browne Post. They are superb examples of English Perpendicular Gothic style and are among the first buildings, as an entire campus, to be built in the U.S. in this style. Groundbreaking for the Gothic Quadrangle buildings took place in 1903".

Shepard Hall was the largest building and the centerpiece of the campus, and modeled after a Gothic cathedral plan, and whose main entrance was designed to be on St. Nicholas Terrace. It also contained a large cathedral or chapel assembly hall called "The Great Hall". Harris Hall, named in the original architectural plans as "the Sub-Freshman Building", housed City College's

13 preparatory high school, Townsend Harris High School, from 1906 until it moved in 1930 downtown to the School of Business. Wingate Hall was named for George Wood Wingate (Class of 1858), an attorney and promoter of physical fitness. It served as the College's main gymnasium between 1907 and 1972. Baskerville Hall for many years housed the Chemistry Department, was also known as the Chemical Building, and had one of the largest original lecture halls on the campus, Doremus lecture hall. Compton Hall was originally designed as and called the Mechanical Arts Building in the original plans.

Five of these new Gothic campus buildings opened in 1906. The sixth, Goethals Hall was completed in 1930. The new building was named for George Washington Goethals, the CCNY civil engineering alumnus who, as mentioned above in the section on the history of the College, went on to become the chief engineer of the Panama Canal. Goethals Hall housed the School of Technology (engineering) and adjoins the Mechanical Arts Building, Compton Hall.

Six hundred grotesques on the original Gothic buildings represent the practical and the fine arts. In the early 1900s, after most of the Gothic campus had been built, CCNY President John H. Finley wanted the College to have a stadium because the existing facilities for the College’s athletic teams were inadequate. New York City did not provide the money needed to build a stadium; however, the municipal government donated to the College two city blocks south of the campus. The two blocks had been open park land. Finley’s wish for a stadium moved forward when businessman and philanthropist Adolph Lewisohn expressed an interest in financing the construction of the stadium. Lewisohn was cousin to New York Alpha Phi Kappa Psi’s Sam Lewisohn (1892). Finley and Lewisohn spoke about the project for the first time in 1912. Lewisohn agreed to donate $75,000 for the stadium’s construction. Finley commissioned the architect Arnold W. Brunner to design Lewisohn Stadium, which was influenced by Finley's memories of a small rock-hewn theatre in the Trastevere section of Rome.

The stadium was built as a 6,000-seat stadium, with thousands more seats available on the infield during concerts, and was dedicated on May 29, 1915, two years after Dr. Finley had left his post at the College and Dr. had become CCNY's fourth president. The stadium's dedication was enhanced by a performance of "The Trojan Women", produced by Granville Barker and Lillian McCarthy. College graduation services were held in Lewisohn for many years.

A separate library building was not in the original plan for the 1906 campus, so in 1937, a free-standing library was built north of the 140th Street Arches. The Bowker/Alumni Library stood at the present site of the Steinman Engineering building until 1957.

The Hebrew Orphan Asylum was erected in 1884 on Amsterdam Avenue between 136th and 138th Street, and was designed by William H. Hume. It was

14 a philanthropy supported by the Lewisohn family, as well. It was already there when City College moved to upper Manhattan. When it closed in the 1940s, the building was used by City College to house members of the U.S. Armed Forces assigned to the Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP). From 1946 to 1955, it was used as a dormitory, library, and classroom space for the College. It was called "Army Hall" until it was demolished in 1955 and 1956.

In 1946, on the North Campus, CCNY purchased a former Episcopal orphanage on 135th Street and Covent Avenue, and renamed it Klapper Hall, after Paul Klapper (Class of 1904) Professor and the Dean of School of Education and who was later the first president of Queens College/CUNY (1937- 1952). Klapper Hall was red brick in Georgian style and it served until 1983 as home of the School of Education.

Steinman Hall, which houses the School of Engineering, was erected in 1962 on the north end of the campus, on the site of the Bowker Library and the Drill Hall to replace the facilities in Compton Hall and Goethals Hall, and was named for David Barnard Steinman (CCNY Class of 1906), a well known civil engineer and bridge designer.

Also, in 1963, the Administration Building was erected and put in use on the North Campus across from Wingate Hall. It houses the College's administration offices, including the President's and Provost's, and the Registrar's Office. It was originally intended as a warehouse also, housing the huge number of records and transcripts of students since 1847 when the College opened. In early 2007, the Administration Building was formally named The Howard E. Wille Administration Building, in honor of Howard E. Wille, class of 1955, a distinguished alumnus and philanthropist.

In 1971, the Marshak Science Building was built and opened, the former place of the open space known as Jasper Oval and previously an open football field. The building was named after a past president of CCNY in the 1970s (1970-1979), , who was a renowned physicist. The Marshak building houses all science and labs, and also houses and adjoins the Mahoney Gymnasium and athletic facilities including a swimming pool and tennis courts.

In the 1970s, construction of the massive North Academic Center (NAC) was initiated. It was completed in 1984, and replaced Lewisohn Stadium and Klapper Hall. The NAC building houses hundreds of classrooms, two cafeterias, the Cohen Library, student lounges and centers, administrative offices, and a number of computer installations. Designed by architect John Carl Warnecke, the building has received criticism for its lack of design and outsize scale in comparison to the surrounding neighborhood.

Within the NAC, a student lounge space was created outside the campus bookstore, and murals celebrating the history of the campus were painted on the

15 doors of the undergraduate Student Government. Founded in 1869, it claims to be the oldest continuously operating student government organization in the country.

The first floor of the Administration Building was given a postmodern renovation in 2004. The first floor houses the admissions office and the registrar's office. The upper floors house the offices of the president and provost.

The New York Landmarks Preservation Commission made the North Campus Quadrangle buildings and the College Gates official landmarks, both in 1981. The buildings in the Quadrangle were put on the State and National Register of Historic Places in 1984. In the summer of 2006, the historic gates on Convent Avenue were restored.

In 1953, CCNY also bought the campus of the Manhattanville College of the Sacred Heart (which, on a 1913 map, was shown as The Convent of the Sacred Heart), which added a south section to the campus. This expanded the campus to include many of the buildings in the area between 140th Street to 130th Street, from St. Nicholas Terrace in the east to Amsterdam Avenue in the west.

Former buildings of the Manhattanville College campus to be used by CCNY were re-named for City College's purposes: Stieglitz Hall, Downer Hall, Wagner Hall, the prominent Finley Student Center which contained the very active Buttenweiser Lounge, Eisner Hall, Park Gym, Mott Hall, and others.

Generally, the South Campus of CCNY, as a result of this expansion, contained the liberal arts classes and departments of the College. The North Campus, also as a result of this expansion, generally housed classes and departments for the sciences and engineering, as well as Klapper Hall (School of Education), and the Administration Building.

In 1957, a new library building was erected in the middle of the campus, near 135th Street on the South Campus, and named Cohen Library, after Morris Raphael Cohen, an alumnus (Class of 1900) and celebrated professor of the College from 1912 to 1938. The library was moved some decades later to the North Academic Center on the North Campus.

In the 1970s, many of the old buildings of the South Campus were demolished, some which had been used by the Academy of The Sacred Heart. The buildings remaining on the South Campus at this time were the Cohen Library (later moved into the North Academic Center), Park Gym (now the Structural Biology Research Center), Eisner Hall (built in 1941 by Manhattanville College of the Sacred Heart as a library, later remodeled and housed CCNY's Art Department and named for the Chairman of the Board of Higher Education in the 1930s), the Schiff House (former President's residence, now a child care center),

16 Mott Hall (formerly the English Department, now a New York City Department of Education primary school).

Some of the buildings which were demolished at that time were Finley Hall (housed The Finley Student Center, student activities center, originally built in 1888-1890 as Manhattanville Academy's main building, and purchased in 1953 by City College), Wagner Hall (housed various social science and liberal arts departments and classes, originally built as a dormitory for Manhattanville Academy, and was named in honor of Robert F. Wagner Sr., member of the Class of 1898, who represented New York State for 23 years in the United States Senate), Stieglitz Hall, and Downer Hall, amongst others.

New buildings were erected on the South Campus, including Aaron Davis Hall in 1981, and the Herman Goldman sports field in 1993. In August 2006, for the first time ever in its history, the College completed the construction of a 600- bed dormitory, called "The Towers", and opened it for use. There are plans to rename The Towers after a distinguished alumnus or donor, who has not yet been named.

The building that formerly housed Cohen Library will become the new home for the School of Architecture, with the renovation headed by architect Rafael Viñoly--the Cohen Library moved to the NAC building. Near the 133rd Street gate, a new science building is under construction in order to relieve pressure from Marshak Hall, which had a beam collapse in 2005. Part of this project is the elimination of the Herman Goldman sports field, a controversial move which will dramatically alter the South Campus.

The design of the three-faced college seal took its roots in the 19th century when Professor Charles Anthon was inspired by views of Janus, the Roman god of beginnings, whose two faces connect the past and the future. He broadened this image of Janus in three faces to show the student, and consequently, knowledge, developing from childhood through youth into maturity. It was redesigned again in 1947 by Professor Albert D'Andrea for the college's Centennial Medal.

In 2003, the college decided to create a logo distinct from its seal, with the stylized text "the City College of New York." [43]

City College was recently ranked in a study by Shanghai Jiao Tong University as 88-118 nationally and 201-300 internationally. It should be noted however that the study focuses heavily on institutions with strong hard science backgrounds, as the rating is based on a number of factors including articles published in scientific journals and Nobel laureates.

The CCNY Point Shaving Scandal was one of the first major college basketball point shaving gambling scandals.

17 The scandal involved the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and National Invitation Tournament (NIT) champion City College of New York (CCNY). CCNY had won the 1950 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament and the 1950 National Invitation Tournament the previous spring over Bradley University. The scandal involved the Beavers and at least six other schools, including four in the New York City area; CCNY, along with Manhattan College, New York University and Long Island University. It spread out of New York City to Bradley University in Peoria, Illinois, the and the University of Toledo. The scandal would spread to 33 players and involve the world of organized crime. CCNY was eventually banned from playing at Madison Square Garden, although the coach, Nat Holman, would be cleared of any wrongdoing.

The scandal first came to light when New York City District Attorney Frank Hogan arrested seven men in January 1951, including All-America forward Ed Warner, center Ed Roman, and guard Al Roth, the three stars of the CCNY 1950 National Championship team, after setting up an undercover, or "sting", operation.

Jack Molinas would not be caught in 1951, but after he was suspended for gambling by the NBA, he would be linked back to the 1951 scandal by betting on his then college team Columbia University.

The scandal had long-lasting effects for some of the individuals involved, as well as college basketball itself. apparently never got over it, others like Gene Melchiorre let it be a turning point to learn from and make their lives better. Coaches, long after the scandal was over, would warn their players what could happen to their lives if they chose to make some "fast money" now. Meanwhile, the NCAA Tournament (which soon supplanted the NIT as college basketball's premiere postseason tournament) kept its championship game away from the greater New York metropolitan area for almost 50 years, purely out of fear of a similar incident occurring. It only returned to the New York area when the 1996 Final Four was held at the Continental Airlines Arena in East Rutherford, New Jersey.

In 1998, George Roy and Steven Hilliard Stern, Black Canyon Productions, and HBO Sports made a documentary film about the CCNY Point Shaving Scandal, City Dump: The Story of the 1951 CCNY Basketball Scandal, that appeared on HBO.

Ted went into Parisian exile from 1883 through to his death in 1907. He was a poet, and his complete poetical works were published by the Clarendon Press at Oxford in 1897. Most of the verse was written in Paris, where Ted lived in exile. He was the most picturesque man in fin de siecle Paris, rising at four in the morning to write or stroll the Avenue du Bois-de-Bologne. One day, while visiting Barbizon, a pretty village to the northwest of the forest Fontainebleu and

18 celebrated home to the artistic school of writers that worked their, Ted express a desire to be buried with Millet, Daubigny, Rousseau, Jacque Barye, Corot, and Diaz.

As for brother Tilton’s final years, unable to work in America he sailed for economic exile in Paris. His lawsuit against preacher Henry Ward Beecher was his demise. The newspaper owner and politician Henry Chandler Bowen emerges as the chief villain, manipulating Theodore Tilton, his employee, who is shown as ambitious but foolish, suspicious of his wife but not of Bowen when it mattered. Bowen needed Beecher's column in his newspaper, both for the income it provided and for the power an alliance with the pastor provided in the Republican Party. Ted’s confidante came across as the star of a seamy rags-to-riches story: a daughter of a small-time confidence man who married a drunk at 15, later conducted seances, and merged into New York's demi-monde, from which she rose thanks to Cornelius Vanderbilt, who befriended her and, especially, her sister Tennie. Woodhull espoused suffrage for women while touting free love.

Beecher had severed his connection with the Independent and started a competing magazine, so maybe that did trigger the conflict between Beecher and Bowen, into which brother Tilton was dragged. There could have been other motives for Bowen’s attack through Ted. Did Bowen's wife really have an affair with Beecher? Ms. Applegate accepts Bowen's denial. Would a wily, possibly corrupt politician like Bowen really be offended if his minister was unfaithful? Did Beecher's support for really antagonize Bowen so much? Or, as one of the principal founders of Plymouth Church, did he resent Beecher's eventual control of the church?

New York Alpha’s Tilton, who succeeded Beecher as editor of Bowen's paper, became increasingly radical both politically and socially. Ted was getting the message as the 1870s unfolded, that the Radical Republican peak of 1868 was just that, a peak. The policies of the Radical Republicans – policies seminal in the development of Phi Kappa Psi at Cornell’s founders – were on the fade. America was abandoning the cause for which many veterans had fought between 1861 and 1865. By now a liability, Ted was fired by the Independent’s owner, Bowen, on December 31, 1870, less than a week after Bowen had manipulated him into writing Beecher a letter of accusation. During the ensuing cover-up, brother Tilton regally stepped in it when he had an affair with Woodhull, during which he supplied her with part of the ammunition she used the settle a vendetta against Beecher. Ted later published a biography of Woodhull that was described by a contemporary as "too ridiculous almost, even to ridicule." His pants were at his ankle; he was compromised.

Tilton’s accusations against Beecher were sensational; he was an American pope. When no newspaper would print Woodhull's accusations, she put out a special edition of Woodhull & Claflin's Weekly. It sold like hotcakes.

19 Bowen, who preferred to work behind the scenes, had copies mailed out of state so that the sisters would be arrested for mailing obscene material. Newspapers that wouldn't print Woodhull's story did report the details of the arrests, including the accusations.

As for Ted’s spouse Elizabeth, she is hard to characterized. Elizabeth’s mother was crazy, Ted was probably abusive, and Elizabeth’s chief concern was that her children not suffer. But Elizabeth Tilton also confessed, recanted, confessed, recanted, and was so responsive to pressure that neither side called her to the witness stand. Her final statement came several years after the trial: Yes, we had sex. She admitted more than President Bill Clinton, and yet a jury could not find liability against Beecher years before. But the confession came too late to sway Elizabeth's contemporaries. Beecher by then had largely redeemed his reputation.

Ultimately, it is Ted’s fraternity brothers who must decide: Was his wife’s final confession true? Did his pastor seduce his wife? Or was she bitter toward Beecher or Plymouth, bidding for attention from her estranged husband, trying to ingratiate herself with old friends from the suffrage movement, or setting the record straight? What was her mental state? In our more psychologically aware era, the empathetic brother could have reasonably expected critique how Tilton's affair with Woodhull might have affected his obsession regarding his wife's relationship with Beecher. What is the impact of “friendship with privileges”? Can you have more than one sexual partner and maintain a stable relationship with anyone one of the lays? Or does chaotic instability spread like veneral diseases? We now know more about the damage done to wives by abusive husbands, but what do we know of “free love”?

Ultimately it was the Tiltons who suffered. The two charismatic figures, Beecher and Woodhull, landed on their feet, Beecher as a wealthy minister, with his reputation put back together, and Woodhull as the very wealthy widow of an English banker, trying to play Lady Bountiful to an English village. Bowen, the manipulator, spent the next two decades making money. But Elizabeth Tilton lived with her daughter in Brooklyn, lonely and going blind. Brother Tilton was fired in 1870, and launched the lawsuit thereafter. He worked the lecture circuit until audiences dwindled, and by 1877 he an established artist in , having spent the previous winter in Texas. He lectured locally and taught portraiture to small groups in his studio. By 1883 he realized he was a dead man walking through America, and sailed fro Paris. He ended his days living in an attic room in Paris on the Ile St.-Louis, writing bad poetry and playing chess with Judah P. Benjamin, the former secretary of state of the Confederacy.

Another tragedy was that women's suffrage was delayed for a generation, damaged by association with immorality. Woodhull undermined the same women's movement that had brought her fame and a degree of respectability.

20 Brother Theodore Tilton was mentored by Henry Ward Beecher, who also seduced Ted’s wife, while Ted was engaged in ‘free love’ with Vicky Woodhull Claflin:

 Henry Ward Beecher (June 24, 1813 – March 8, 1887) was a prominent, theologically liberal American Congre- gationalist clergyman, social reformer, abolitionist, and speaker in the mid to late 19th Century. An 1875 adultery trial in which he was accused of having an affair with a married woman was one of the most famous American trials of the Nineteenth century. Born in Litchfield, , he was the son of Lyman Beecher, an abolitionist Congregationalist preacher from , and Roxana Foote. Roxana died when Henry was three.

Henry was the brother of the author of Uncle Tom's Cabin and a noted educator. He had two other prominent and activist siblings, a brother, Charles Beecher, and a sister, .

The Beecher household was exemplary of the orthodox ministry that Lyman Beecher preached. His family not only prayed at the beginning and end of each day but also sang hymns and prepared for other rigorous church obligations. The family members were expected to participate in prayer meetings, attend lectures and other church functions. "Undue frivolity was discouraged, so they did not celebrate Christmas or birthdays. Dancing, theater, and all but the most high-toned fiction were forbidden."

Henry was especially close to his sister Harriet, two years his senior, according to the web site of the Plymouth Church in , New York City. "This friendship with Harriet continued throughout their lives, and she was still listed on the membership rolls of Plymouth Church when she died in 1896."

"Henry, bashful and mumbling as a child, began his oratorical training at Mt. Pleasant Institution, a boarding school in Amherst, ."

Beecher also attended Boston Latin School, graduated from Amherst College in 1834 and in 1837 received a degree from Lane Theological Seminary outside Cincinnati, Ohio, which his father then headed. First becoming a minister

21 in Lawrenceburg (1837-39) he was then pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church in , Indiana (1839-47).

In 1847, he was appointed the first minister of the new Plymouth Congregational Church in Brooklyn, New York. That fall, Beecher and his wife, the former Eunice Bullard, and their three surviving children moved to Brooklyn.

Beecher's fame on the lecture circuit led to his becoming editor of several religious magazines, and he received large advances for a novel and for a biography of Jesus.

"His career took place during what one scholar has called the Protestant Century," according to Kazin, "when an eloquent preacher could be a sexy celebrity, the leader of one or more reform movements and a popular philosopher — all at the same time."

Muscular and long-haired, the preacher was close to a series of attractive young women, but his wife, Eunice, the mother of his 10 children, was "unloved."

In the highly publicized scandal known as the Beecher-Tilton Affair he was tried on charges that he had committed adultery with a friend's wife, Elizabeth Tilton. In 1870, Elizabeth had confessed to her husband, Theodore Tilton, that she had had a relationship with Henry Ward Beecher. Tilton was then fired from his job at the Independent because of his editor's fears of adverse publicity. Theodore and Henry both pressured Elizabeth to recant her story, which she did, in writing. She subsequently retracted her recantation.

The charges became public when Theodore Tilton told that his wife, Elizabeth, had confessed to a sexual relationship with Henry Ward Beecher. Stanton repeated the story to Victoria Woodhull and Isabella Beecher Hooker.

Victoria became angry, as Henry Ward Beecher had publicly denounced her advocacy of free love. She published a story in her paper (Woodhull and Claflin's Weekly) on November 2, 1872, claiming that America's most renowned clergyman was secretly practicing the free-love doctrines which he denounced from the pulpit. The story created a national sensation. As a result, Victoria was arrested in New York City and imprisoned for sending obscene material through the mail. The Plymouth Church held a board of inquiry and exonerated Beecher, but excommunicated Mr. Tilton in 1873.

Tilton then sued Beecher: the trial began in January 1875, and ended in July when the jurors deliberated for six days but were unable to reach a verdict. His wife loyally supported him throughout the ordeal.

22 A second board of enquiry was held at Plymouth Church and this body also exonerated Beecher. Two years later, Elizabeth Tilton once again confessed to the affair and the church excommunicated her. Despite this Beecher continued to be a popular national figure. However, the debacle split his family. While most of his siblings supported him, one of his sisters, the nationally known women's rights leader Isabella Beecher Hooker, openly supported one of his accusers.

Henry Ward Beecher died of a cerebral hemorrhage in March 1887. The city of Brooklyn where he lived declared a day of mourning upon, and the New York State Legislature went into recess to honor him. He was buried on March 11, 1887 in Brooklyn's Green-Wood Cemetery.

"Brooklyn, still an independent city, declared a day of mourning. The state legislature recessed, and telegrams of condolence were sent by national figures, including President Cleveland. His funeral procession to Plymouth Church - led by a Black commander of the William Lloyd Garrison Post in Massachusetts and a Virginia Confederate general and former slaveholder, marching arm in arm - paid tribute to what Beecher helped accomplish. Henry Ward Beecher was laid to rest in Brooklyn's Green-Wood Cemetery on March 11, 1887, survived by his wife Eunice, and four of the nine children born to them: Harriet, Henry, William and Herbert

An advocate of women's suffrage, temperance and Darwin's theory of evolution, and a foe of slavery, Beecher held that Christianity should adapt itself to the changing culture of the times. He was also passionately anti-Catholic and was contemptuous towards Irish-Americans in an age that was anti-Irish Catholic due to the waves of Irish immigrants coming to America because of the potato famine.

He raised funds to buy weapons for those willing to oppose slavery in Kansas and Nebraska, and the rifles bought with this money became known as "Beecher's Bibles". Politically active, he supported first the Free Soil Party and later the Republican Party.

During the , his church raised and equipped a volunteer infantry regiment. Early in the war, Beecher pressed Lincoln to emancipate the slaves through a proclamation. The preacher later went on a speaking tour in England to undermine support for the South by explaining the North's war aims. Near the end of the war, when the Stars and Stripes were again raised at Fort Sumter in , Beecher was the main speaker.

Thousands of worshipers flocked to Beecher's enormous Plymouth Church in Brooklyn. Abraham Lincoln (who said of Beecher that no one in history had "so productive a mind") was in the audience at one point, and visited him. went to see Beecher in the pulpit and described the pastor "sawing his arms in the air, howling sarcasms this way and that,

23 discharging rockets of poetry and exploding mines of eloquence, halting now and then to stamp his foot three times in succession to emphasize a point."

Beecher himself had this to say of his preaching style: "From the beginning, I educated myself to speak along the line and in the current of my moral convictions; and though, in later days, it has carried me through places where there were some batterings and bruisings, yet I have been supremely grateful that I was led to adopt this course. I would rather speak the truth to ten men than blandishments and lying to a million. Try it, ye who think there is nothing in it! try what it is to speak with God behind you,--to speak so as to be only the arrow in the bow which the Almighty draws." (Beecher, pp. 138-139)

"He obtained the chains with which John Brown had been bound, trampling them in the pulpit, and he also held mock 'auctions' at which the congregation purchased the freedom of real slaves," according to the Web site of the still-existing Plymouth Church. The most famous of these former slaves was a young girl named Pinky, auctioned during a regular Sunday worship service at Plymouth on February 5, 1860. A collection taken up that day raised $900 to buy Pinky from her owner. A gold ring was also placed in the collection plate, and Beecher presented it to the girl to commemorate her day of liberation. Pinky returned to Plymouth in 1927 at the time of the Church's 80th Anniversary to give the ring back to the Church with her thanks. Today, Pinky's ring and bill of sale can still be viewed at Plymouth."

Henry's father preached a form of Calvinist that "combined the old belief that 'human fate was preordained by God's plan' with a faith in the capacity of rational men and women to purge society of its sinful ways," according to historian Michael Kazin.

"For (Henry) Beecher, sinfulness was a temporary malady, which the love of God could burn away as a fierce noonday sun dries up a noxious mold," according to Kazin.

24 Henry Ward Beecher was the son of Lyman Beecher:

 Lyman Beecher (October 12, 1775 – January 10, 1863) was a Presbyterian clergyman, temperance movement leader, and the father of several noted leaders, including Harriet Beecher Stowe, Henry Ward Beecher, Charles Beecher, , Isabella Beecher Hooker, and Catharine Beecher, and a leader of the of the United States. Beecher was born in New Haven, Connecticut to David Beecher, a blacksmith, and Esther Hawley Lyman. He attended Yale, graduating in 1797.

He spent 1798 in Yale Divinity School under the tutelage of his mentor Timothy Dwight, and was ordained a year later, in 1799. He began his religious career in Long Island. He gained popular recognition in 1806, after giving a sermon concerning the duel between and Aaron Burr. He moved to Litchfield, Connecticut, in 1810 and started to preach . A few years later after moving to Boston's Hanover Church, he began preaching against Unitarianism, which he thought to be evil.

In 1799 he married Roxana Foote, the daughter of Eli and Roxana (Ward) Foote. They had nine children: Catharine E., William, Edward, Mary, Harriet, Tommy, George, Harriet Elizabeth, Henry Ward, and Charles. Roxana Beecher died on September 13, 1816. In 1817, he married Harriet Porter and they had four children: Frederick C., Isabella Holmes, Thomas Kinnicut, and James Chaplin. After Harriet Beecher died on July 7, 1835, he married Lydia Beals Johnson (1789-1869) in 1836.

In 1832, Beecher became pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church of Cincinnati (today, this congregation is Covenant First Presbyterian Church), and the first president of Lane Theological Seminary where his mission was to train ministers to “win the West for Protestantism”. Beecher's term at the school came at a time when a number of burning issues, particularly slavery, threatened to divide the Presbyterian Church, the state of Ohio, and the nation. In 1834, students at the school debated the slavery issue for 18 consecutive nights and many of them chose to adopt the cause of . When Beecher opposed their "radical" position and refused to offer classes to African-Americans, a group of about 50 students (who became known as the "Lane Rebels") left the

25 Seminary for Oberlin College. The events sparked a growing national discussion of abolition that contributed to the beginning of the Civil War.

Beecher was also notorious for his anti-Catholicism and authored the Nativist "A Plea for the West." His sermon on this subject at Boston in 1834 was followed shortly by the burning of the Catholic Ursuline sisters convent there.

Beecher stoked controversy by advocating "new measures" of evangelism that ran counter to traditional Calvinism understanding. These new measures were an outworking of the practice of evangelist Charles Finney, and for the time brought turmoil to churches all across America. Fellow pastor, Joshua Lacy Wilson, pastor of First Presbyterian (now, also a part of Covenant-First Presbyterian in Cincinnati) charged Beecher with heresy. Even though Beecher was exonerated by Hey, its Tommy the Presbyterian church, he eventually resigned his post in Cincinnati and went back East to live with his son Henry in Brooklyn, New York in 1850. After spending the last years of his life with his children, he died in Brooklyn and was buried at , in New Haven, Connecticut.

The Harriet Beecher Stowe House in Cincinnati, Ohio is the former home of her father Lyman Beecher on the former campus of the Lane Seminary. Harriet lived here until her marriage. It is open to the public and operated as an historical and cultural site, focusing on Harriet Beecher Stowe, the Lane Seminary and the Underground Railroad. The site also presents African- American history.

26 Lyman Beecher studied under Timothy Dwight IV:

 Timothy Dwight (May 14, 1752–January 11, 1817) was an American Congregationalist minister, theologian, educator, and author. He was the eighth president of Yale College, from 1795 to 1817. He matriculated at Yale College at age 13, and received honorary degrees from in 1787 and Harvard University in 1810. He served as President of Yale College from 1795 to 1817. Dwight was the eldest son of Northampton, Massachusetts merchant and farmer Timothy Dwight III (a graduate of Yale (1744). Yale College

His father was also a major in the Continental Army and served under George Washington. His mother was the third daughter of theologian Jonathan Edwards. He was remarkably precocious, and is said to have learned the alphabet at a single lesson, and to have been able to read the Bible before he was four years old.

Dwight graduated from Yale in 1769. For two years, he was rector of the Hopkins Grammar School in New Haven, Connecticut. He was a tutor at Yale College from 1771 to 1777. Licensed to preach in 1777, he was appointed by Congress chaplain in General Samuel Holden Parsons's Connecticut Continental Brigade. He served with distinction, inspiring the troops with his sermons and the stirring war songs he composed, the most famous of which is "Columbia".

On news of his father's death in the fall of 1778, he resigned his commission and returned to take charge of his family in Northampton. Besides managing the family's farms, he preached and taught, establishing a school for both sexes. During this period, he served two terms in the Massachusetts legislature.

Declining calls from churches in Beverly and Charlestown, he chose instead to settle from 1783 until 1795 as minister in "Greenfield Hill," a Fairfield, Connecticut parish which would become Southport. There he established an academy, which at once acquired a high reputation, and attracted pupils from all parts of the Union. Dwight was an innovative and inspiring teacher, preferring moral suasion over the corporal punishment favored by most schoolmasters of the day.

27 In 1777, Dwight married Mary, the daughter of New York merchant and banker Benjamin Woolsey]. This marriage connected him to some of New York's wealthiest and most influential families. Woolsey had been Dwight's father's Yale classmate, roommate, and intimate friend.

Dwight was the leader of the evangelical "New Divinity" faction of Congregationalism -- a group closely identified with Connecticut's emerging commercial elite. Although fiercely opposed by religious moderates -- most notably Yale president -- he was elected to the presidency of Yale on Stiles's death in 1795. His ability as a teacher, and his talents as a religious and political leader, soon made the college the largest institution of higher education in North America. Dwight had a genius for recognizing able proteges -- among them Lyman Beecher, Nathaniel W. Taylor, and , all of whom would become major religious leaders and theological innovators in the ante bellum decades.

During troubled times at , then-president Timothy Dwight saw his students drawn to the radical republicanism and “infidel philosophy” of the French Revolution, including the philosophies of Hume, Hobbes, Tindal, and Lords Shaftesbury and Bolingbroke. Between 1797 and 1800, Dwight frequently warned audiences against the threats of this “infidel philosophy” in America. An address to the candidates for the baccalaureate in Yale College called "The Nature and Danger of Infidel Philosophy, Exhibited in Two Discourses, Addressed to the Candidates for the Baccalaureate, In Yale College" was delivered on September 9, 1797. It was published by George Bunce in 1798. This book is credited as one of the embers of the Second Great Awakening.

Dwight was as notable for his political leadership as for his religious and educational eminence. Known by his enemies as "Pope" Dwight, he wielded both the temporal sword (as head of Connecticut's ), and spiritual sword (as nominal head of the state's Congregational Church). He led the effort to prevent the disestablishment of the church in Connecticut -- and, when its disestablishment appeared inevitable, encouraged efforts by proteges like Beecher and Bacon to organize voluntary associations to maintain the influence of religion in public life. Fearing that the failure of states to establish schools and the rise of "infidelity" would bring about the destruction of republican institutions, he helped to create a national evangelical movement -- the second "Great Awakening" -- intended to "re-church" America.

Dwight was a founder of the Connecticut Academy of Arts & Sciences, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and Andover Theological Seminary.

Dwight was well known as an author, preacher, and theologian. He and his brother, Theodore, were members of a group of writers centered around Yale known as the "Hartford Wits." In verse, Dwight wrote an ambitious epic in eleven

28 books, The Conquest of Canaan, finished in 1774 but not published until 1785, a somewhat ponderous and solemn satire, The Triumph of Infidelity (1788), directed against , and others; Greenfield Hill (1794), the suggestion for which seems to have been derived from 's Coopers Hill; and a number of minor poems and hymns, the best known of which is that beginning "I love thy kingdom, Lord".

Many of his sermons were published posthumously under the titles Theology Explained and Defended (5 vols., 1818-1819), to which a memoir of the author by his two sons, W. T. and Sereno E. Dwight, is prefixed, and Sermons by Timothy Dwight (2 vols., 1828), which had a large circulation both in the United States and in England. Probably his most important work, however, is his Travels in New England and New York (4 vols., 1821-1822), which contains much material of value concerning social and economic New England and New York during the period 1796-1817. (The term "Cape Cod House" makes its first appearance in this work.)

Dwight died of prostate cancer, and was buried in New Haven's Grove Street Cemetery. Dwight left eight sons: Timothy (1778-1884), a New Haven merchant and philanthropist; James (17__-18__); Benjamin Woolsey Dwight (1780-1850), a New York physician; educator and theologian Sereno Edwards Dwight (1786-1850); and clergyman William (1795-1865). Dwight's grandson and namesake, "Timothy Dwight the Younger" (1828-1916), served as Yale's president, 1886-1899. His nephew, (1801-1889), served as Yale's president between 1846 and 1871. Another nephew was Theodore Dwight (1796-1866), an author and journalist.

Although long dismissed by historians as a reactionary who contributed little to American life, recent scholarship, as it engages the central importance of religion in our culture, is coming to acknowledge his significance as a religious leader and educational innovator. His influence on the thousands of young men who passed through Yale during his presidency is incalculable.

29 Timothy Dwight IV studied under Naphtali Daggett:

 Rev. Naphtali Daggett (September 8, 1727 - November 25, 1780) graduated from Yale University in 1748 and became pastor of the Presbyterian Church in Smithtown, Long Island in 1751. In 1756 he became professor of divinity at Yale. He became the second president of Yale pro tempore on the resignation of its first president, , in 1776, and served in that position until 1777. When the British attacked New Haven, Connecticut in 1779, Rev. Daggett took up arms in defense but was taken prisoner, and was forced to serve as a guide. He was bayonetted by his captors and died of his wounds. Yale College

Just after midnight on July 5, 1779, 48 British ships, crammed with 2,000 sailors and marines and 3,000 troops, appeared along the New Haven shoreline. At dawn, from a vantage point atop Yale's chapel, Yale president Ezra Stiles watched the invading fleet through his telescope. As the soldiers began to come ashore, Stiles took precautions to protect Yale's papers: "Immediately, I sent off the College records."

The attack was not as bad as Stiles may have feared, even though the British troops far outnumbered the several hundred citizens who came to the town's defense. The British raiding party included Colonel Edmund Fanning, a Loyalist and a Yale graduate, Class of 1757. Fanning was instrumental in persuading the British not to burn down New Haven. (Fairfield and Norwalk would not be as lucky.) The invaders sailed away the next day, leaving 23 American patriots dead and 15 wounded.

Among the casualties was Professor Naphtali Daggett, and former president of Yale. Almost as soon as the invasion was over, stories began circulating about Daggett's heroic brush with the British. After his death, the legend of the ex-president's armed resistance persisted -- and was embellished. Yale historian Rollin Osterweis gave a fairly typical account almost 200 years later in his 1953 book, Three Centuries of New Haven.

In Osterweis's record of the fight for New Haven, former President Daggett had "ridden out to battle on an old black mare" and taken up a position in the

30 woods, where he began "shooting his long fowling piece at the advancing line of redcoats." Then:

A British officer led a squad of men to remove the menace of the sniper and discovered to his amazement a 72-year-old college professor with an antiquated weapon.

'What are you doing there, you damned old rebel, firing on His Majesty's troops?' demanded the officer.

'Exercising the rights of war,' snapped Daggett.

'If we should let you go,' said the Englishman, 'would you continue this sort of thing?'

Again Daggett snapped back: 'Nothing more likely.'

That was too much for the irritated invaders. They gave the old gentleman a beating, took off his shoes, and marched him along with them, barefooted and bleeding.

Osterweis’ legend of Dagget has some embellishments. In 1779 Daggett was 51, the same age as Ezra Stiles; he had been born in 1727 and graduated in 1748. According to his sworn statement, he fought with Yale students in a volunteer company of about 100 who marched to West Haven to delay the enemy so the women and children could flee to the north. Assigned to a station on Milford Hill, the defenders soon had to retreat due to the "speedy invasion" of the enemy. Fired on directly, Daggett was able to run to a "little covert" and fire his musket -- a modern weapon, not the rusty fowling piece ascribed to him in legend -- once before he surrendered. Asked why he shot at the invaders, Daggett answered: "Because it is the exercise of war."

Daggett testified that a soldier lunged at him with his bayonet, but Daggett vigorously "tossed it up from its direction and sprang in so near to him that he could not hurt me." The British then surrounded him and gashed him repeatedly. "But what is a thousand times worse . . . is the blows and bruises they gave me with heavy barrels of their guns in the bowels by which I was knocked down once or more and almost deprived of life."

Although Daggett identified himself and "begged for protection," the soldiers forced him to march five miles, barefoot, in the oppressive heat. Daggett was still confined to his bed when he signed the statement on July 26. By the fall term, he had recovered enough that he was able to resume his Yale duties.

Daggett, a brilliant student at Yale College, had received the Berkeley Scholarship for graduate study. After his ordination he served in Smithtown, Long

31 Island, until 1755. In that year, he became the first person to hold the first professorship at Yale -- the Livingston Chair of Divinity. When President Thomas Clap founded the college church in 1757, Daggett became its first pastor.

The ultra-conservative Clap was forced to resign in 1766. After a fellow of the Yale Corporation turned down the presidency, Daggett was selected to preside pro tempore. He became the first Yale graduate (in fact, the first non- Harvard graduate) to head the institution. He served for 11 years -- always as president pro tempore. It is said that, when asked why he had never requested that the "pro tempore" be dropped from his title, he replied: "What would you have them call me, 'President pro aeternitate?'"

As president, Daggett struck something of a blow for democracy by changing the convention for listing students' names: Yale had always listed its students in order of their fathers' social standing, but Daggett had them listed alphabetically. In addition, he created two new professorships and liberalized the curriculum. But after ten years Daggett's popularity waned. He had kept the positions of divinity professor and pastor, and in 1777 he resigned as president to devote himself to teaching and preaching.

The injuries Daggett received at the hands of the British cut short his career; he died on November 25, 1780, of internal hemorrhage. Stiles described the funeral in his diary. The students brought Daggett's coffin to the college chapel, but it was too small for the crowd, so they moved to the New Haven Meeting House. After Daggett's on the Green, the procession "returned to the House of Mourning, having paid the last Tribute of Respect to the Remains of a Gentleman, who had been long distinguished in the Instruction & Government of the College. . . . The Procession was the longest & the Funeral the largest, I think, that I ever saw."

32 Naphtali Daggett studied under Thomas Clap:

 Rev. Thomas Clap (also spelled Thomas Clapp) (June 26, 1703 - January 7, 1767) was the fifth rector and first president of Yale University. He was born in Scituate, Massachusetts and studied with Rev. James McSparran, missionary to Narragansett from the "Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts", and with Rev. Nathiel Eells, of Scituate. He entered Harvard University at age 15, graduating in 1722. He preached at Windham, Connecticut in 1725 and was ordained to succeed the Rev. Samuel Whiting as minister at there in 1726. marrying Rev. Whiting's daughter Mary in

1727.

Clap remained 14 years at Windham, Connecticut, with a ministry marked by a rather severe orthodoxy (he once traveled to Springfield to oppose the ordination of a minister accused of Arminian tendencies). He was elected Rector of Yale College following 's resignation, largely because the Trustees believed he would oppose Arminianism at Yale, and was inducted in 1740. His administration was to become known for its pugnaciousness, authoritarianism, and embroilment in controversy. In 1743, his nephew Nathan Whiting whom he and his wife Mary had raised after the death of his parents gradulated from Yale.

He was learned both in theology and in science, and constructed the first orrery in America. After the death of his first wife he married, on February 5, 1740/1, Mary Haynes. His religious views led to conflict within the school: he objected to the teachings of English minister George Whitefield, an itinerant minister of the Great Awakening, and a preacher of hellfire and damnation, and other itinerant teachers such as Gilbert Tennent.

Rev. Joseph Noyes, pastor in New Haven invited James Davenport to his congregation to preach: Davenport used the opportunity to brand Clap an "unconverted man" and a "hypocrite": the congregations was eventually physically split, resulting in the two Congregational Churches that still stand on the New Haven Green.

33 In 1741, two masters candidates at Yale were denied their degrees for their "disorderly and reckless endeavors to propagate" the Great Awakening, and the College made it an offence for a student to imply that the Rector, Trustees, or Tutors were "carnal or unconverted men" or "hypocrites".

It was not long before a student, David Brainerd did so, saying that Tutor Whittelsey "had no more grace than a chair" and was expelled. Jonathan Edwards, Rev. Aaron Burr (father of the Vice-President), and Jonathan Dickinson appealed for Brainerd's reinstatement, unsuccessfully. Clap campaigned for laws to inhibit itinerant preachers and lay exhorters, and to stop the disintegration of churches by separation. Religious disputation continued to fragment to student body, who refused to submit to discipline, avoided religious instruction from the "Old Lights" (preachers established before the Great Awakening), and attended separatist meetings. In 1742, Clap closed the college, sending the students home. He was supported by the General Assembly, and many of the more ardent students transferred to other institutions when Yale reopened in 1743.

Clap instituted Yale's library catalog in 1743, and drafted a new charter of the school, granted by the General Assembly in 1745, incorporating the institution as "The President and Fellows of Yale College in New Haven". Clap was sworn in as Yale's first President on June 1, 1745: His formulation of a new code of laws for Yale in Latin became, in 1745, the first book printed in New Haven.

Whitefield returned to New England to preach, and Yale issued "The Declaration of the Rector and Tutors of Yale College against the Rev. Mr. George Whitefield, his Principles and Designs, in a Letter to him". In 1746, Clap expelled Samuel Cooke from the Yale Corporation for his role in setting up the separatist congregation in New Haven.

In May 1747, the General Assembly granted Yale the right to hold a lottery to raise funds: this income, together with the proceeds from the sale of a French boat captured by the colony's frigate, were used to build Connecticut Hall, the second major structure at Yale. It was completed in 1753.

Clap, meanwhile, was concerned by the preaching of Joseph Noyes, who seemed to be assuming a position of Arminianism, and by the initiation of Anglican services in New Haven. To avoid loss of students to the College of New Jersey (now Princeton), founded by those who had defended Brainerd's expulsion, and to defend orthodoxy, he convinced the trustees to appoint him as professor of divinity, and to authorize separate worship for the students each Sunday. Both the Old Lights and the Episcopalians objected to this. Samuel Johnson told Clap that were he to continue with separate worship, the Episcopalians would complain, and that the charter of 1745 would be found to be invalid, as only the King could make a corporation, and that Yale would cease to exist. Clap agreed to let the Anglican students attend their own church.

34 Meanwhile there were conflicts within the Corporation. Benjamin Gale, son-in-law of Jared Eliot, a Corporation member, had published a pamphlet arguing for discontinuation of the colonial grant to the college, and no grant was given in 1755. Clap set out to raise an endowment for a professorship of divinity, and Naphtali Dagget was appointed the Livingstonian Professor of Divinity on March 4 1756. Noyes offered to share his pulpit with the new professor, agreeing to subscribe to the Assembly's Catechism and the Savoy Confession of Faith, and the students returned to his First Church for worship.

Clap, however, quickly became disenchanted with Noyes' conversion to orthodoxy and obtained a decision that not only could Yale students worship separately, they could form their own congregation and administer Communion. The announcement of the Corporation's decision on June 30, 1757, was bitterly controversial, and, in the aftermath, discipline at the College collapsed. The General Assembly intervened, ultimately siding with Clap.

The student body was caught up in the rebellious spirit of the 1760s, resolving to drink no "foreign spiritous Liquors any more" and declaming in chapel against the British Parliament, and petitioning the Corporation with their grievances, insisting on the removal of the disciplinarian Clap. The students stopped going to classes and prayers and generally abused the tutors, who resigned.

The Corporation ordered an early spring vacation, and few undergraduates returned. President Clap resigned at the Corporation meeting in July, continuing in service until commencement in September 1766. Professor Naphtali Daggett followed him as president pro tempore. Clap died in New Haven, Connecticut.

35 Thomas Clap studied under John Leverett:

 John Leverett (1662-1724) was the first lawyer and jurist to become Harvard College President. He served as President from January 14, 1707/08 to May 3, 1724.* He is recognized for his efforts in transforming Harvard College from a divinity school into a secular institution. He was born on August 25, 1662 in Boston, Massachusetts to Hudson Leverett, an attorney, and Sarah (Payton) Leverett. His grandfather was John Leverett (1616- 1679), a Massachusetts Bay Colony governor from 1672-1679. Leverett attended Boston Latin School and studied under Ezekiel Cheever. He received his

Bachelor of Arts (1680) and his Master of Arts (1683) from Harvard College. Harvard College

The honorary degree of S.T.B. was conferred on him by Harvard College in 1692. Upon graduation, Leverett preached irregularly for several years and became a member of the Brattle Street Church of Boston.

During Queen Anne's War (1701-1713), Leverett acted as an Indian commissioner from Massachusetts and attended a conference (1704) in order to try to persuade the Iroquois to enter the war on the side of the British. He was unsuccessful in his efforts. In 1707, as a lieutenant in the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company, Leverett raised and commanded a company of volunteers for an aborted expedition against the French at Port Royal in Nova Scotia. Finally, in 1709, Leverett served as Governor Joseph Dudley's emissary to negotiate with Governor John Lovelace of New York for the establishment of military cooperation between Massachusetts and New York on the frontier and for an invasion of Canada.

Before becoming Harvard College president, Leverett pursued a career as an attorney, jurist, and politician. Leverett served as a member of the House of Representatives (1696-1702), Speaker of the House (1700-1702), a justice of the peace (1699), a judge in the Court of Admiralty (1705), a justice of the Superior Court (1702-1708), judge of Probate Court for Middlesex County (1702-1708), and a member of the Provincial Council (1706-1708).

36 Leverett was appointed a resident fellow along with William Brattle in 1685, holding this position for the next twelve years. When President left for England in 1688, Leverett and Brattle assumed responsibility for the management of College affairs. During Mather's absence (1688-1692), Leverett and Brattle revived the practice of disputations and added the reading of Anglican authors to the curriculum. Leverett was appointed President of the College on January 14, 1707/08 after the death of President .

Leverett's major accomplishment as Harvard College president was to help transform Harvard from a divinity school to a more secular institution. As a leader in the Congregational Church, Leverett opposed Increase and Cotton Mather's attempts to impose a new charter containing a loyalty oath which would require faculty members to acknowledge the primacy of scripture. Leverett also associated himself with the Anglican Church's missionary arm, the Society for the Preservation of the Gospel, and helped the Church recruit members from Harvard graduates. Moreover, Leverett allied himself with the Anglican "Cambridge Platonists" whose goal was to combine reason and God and to demonstrate faith by devotion and purity in living.

Leverett's secular direction prompted the philanthropy of Thomas Hollis, a merchant and devout Baptist. Hollis provided books for the library, funds for a scholarship for poor students, and a large gift to endow a chair for a professor of divinity. The candidates for the Hollis chair were not to be discriminated against because of their religious beliefs, particularly a belief in adult baptism. The Hollis Professorship of Divinity became the first endowed professional chair at Harvard College (1721).

Compared with other Harvard Presidents, Leverett's administration made only small changes in the curriculum. However, Leverett introduced the study of French and Hebrew and revived the former exercise of having students translate scripture from one ancient language to another. Under Leverett's stewardship, school enrollment expanded, bequests were collected, Massachusetts Hall was erected (1720), and a college periodical, the Telltale, began publishing (1721).

As President, Leverett lived in relative poverty. His only income was his college salary. He did inherit from his great-grandfather, Thomas Leverett, a share of the Muscongus Patent in Maine, and in 1719 Leverett helped to form the Lincolnshire Company for the development of these lands. Unfortunately, nothing was accomplished during his lifetime, and the grant was later taken over by Samuel Waldo, a Boston merchant.

Leverett married Margaret Rogers Berry, the daughter of former Harvard College president , on November 25, 1697. They had nine children, six of whom died in infancy. Margaret died on June 7, 1720. Shortly after, Leverett married again to Sarah Crisp Harris. Sarah died on April 4, 1744.

37 John Leverett died on May 3, 1724. He was noted for being a widely cultivated and broad-minded person. His experience as lawyer, jurist, and politician helped maintain Harvard College's standing during his critical years as president. Leverett brought vigor, integrity, and devotion to the Harvard presidency. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1713 and two centuries later, his contributions to Harvard College were recognized when Leverett House, one of the original houses in President Lowell's housing plan, was opened in 1931.

38 John Leverett studied under Urian Oakes:

 The Reverend Urian Oakes was born in England about the year 1631; and was brought to America in his childhood. From this early period, he was distinguished for the sweetness of his disposition, which characterized him through life. He was educated at Harvard College, where he graduated in 1649. While very young, and small, he published, at Cambridge, a set of Astronomical Calculations, with this apposite motto: “Parvum parva decent, sed inest sua gratia parvis.” Soon after his graduation, he went to England, where, after having been some time a chaplain to an eminent personage, he became settled in the ministry at Titchfield. Harvard College

Oakes was silenced by Parliament, however, in 1662, in common with the nonconformist ministers throughout the nation (by Act xiv. Car. 2); he resided a while in the family of Colonel “Idle Dick” Norton, a man of great merit and respectability, who, on this occasion, afforded him an asylum.

When the violence of the persecution abated, he returned to the exercise of his ministry in another congregation, as colleague with Mr. Simmons. Such was his celebrity for learning and piety, for ministerial abilities and fidelity, that the church and society of Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the decease of Mr. Mitchel, were induced to invite him to return to the English Colonies for their pastoral charge. They sent a messenger to England, to present him with the invitation; which, with the approbation of a council of ministers, he accepted. After repeated delays, occasioned by the sickness and death of his wife, and by a subsequent personal illness, he came to America, and commenced his ministry at Cambridge, November 8, 1671.

So distinguished was he for his learning and abilities, and for his patronage of the interests of literature, that, in 1675, he was invited to the presidency of Harvard College, as successor to President Hoar. He accepted the invitation; and officiated as President, still retaining the charge of his flock, for about six years, when his useful life was suddenly brought to a close. He had been subject to a quartan ague, which often interrupted his public services. A malignant fever now seized him, and in a day or two, proved mortal. His congregation, assembling on a Lord's-day, when the Lord's Supper was to have

39 been administered, were affectingly surprised to find their respected and beloved pastor in the pangs of death. He died July 25, 1681, in the fiftieth year of his age, and tenth of his ministry at Cambridge.

He was eminent for his knowledge and piety, and was a very engaging and useful preacher. "Considered as a scholar, he was," says Dr. C. Mather, "a notable critic in all the points of learning; and well versed in every point of the Great Circle. He did the service of a President, even as he did all other services, faithfully, learnedly, indefatigably."

Dr. Increase Mather, whose characters appear to be drawn with more exact discrimination than those of his son Cotton, says: "An age doth seldom produce one so many ways excelling, as this Author was. If we consider him as a Divine, as a Scholar, as a Christian, it is hard to say in which he did most excel. I have often in my thoughts compared him to Samuel among the prophets of old; inasmuch as he did truly fear God from his youth, and was betimes improved in holy ministrations, and was at last called to be Head of the sons of the prophets, in this New English Israel, as Samuel was President of the College at Naioth. In many other particulars, I might enlarge upon the parallel, but that it is inconvenient to extend such instances beyond their proportion.

Hei, tua nobis Morte simul tecum solatia rapta!

It may, without reflection upon any, be said, that he was one of the greatest lights, that ever shone in this part of the world, or that is ever like to arise in our horizon." The only publications of Mr. Oakes, of which I find any account, are: An Artillery Election Sermon, on Rom viii. 37, preached June 3, 1672; An Election Sermon, on Deut. xxxii. 29, preached May 7, 1673; An Elegy on the Rev. Thomas Shepard, Pastor of the church in Charlestown, [son of Mr. Shepard, minister of Cambridge] who died Dec. 22, 1667. [They were all printed at Cambridge, by Samuel Green; and are preserved in the Library of the Historical Society.] His epitaph, though not now distinctly legible on his tomb-stone, is preserved in Mather's Magnalia, and is as follows:

URIANI OAKES II, Cujus, quod reliquum est, clauditur hoc tumulo; Explorata integritate, summa morum gravitate, Omniumque meliorum Artium infigni Peritia, Spectatissimi, Clarissimique omnibus modis Viri,

40 Theologi, merito suo, celeberrimi, Concionatoris vere Melliflui, Cantabrigiensis Ecclesiae, Doctissimi et Orthodoxi Pastoris, In Collegio Harvadino Praesidis Vigilantissimi, Maximam Pietatis, Eruditionis, Facundiae Laudem Adepti; Qui repentina morte subito correptus, In JESU sinum esslavit animam, Julii xxv.A.D. M DC. LXXXI Memoriae. Etatis suae L. Plurima quid reseram, satis est si dixeris Unum,

Hoe Dictu Satis est, Hic jacit OAKESIUS

41 Urian Oakes enjoyed the protection of Colonel Richard “the ‘’” Norton of Southwick:

 Colonel Richard Norton, M.P., lived then at Southwick Park, near Hambledon, but his real home was at Old Alresford further to the north. He hunted in the Forest of Bear (now Bere) with the Hambledon Hounds of those days, and it was customery to hunt deer in summer and fox in winter with the same hounds. This custom was kept up until early in the nineteenth century. Colonel Richard Norton earned the nickname of "Idle Dick" in derision because he was an extremely active man and by no means idle. He had a

reputation of being able to be in three places at the same time and The Nortons of Southwick was much feared by the Royalists.

As went the Puritan drinking song: “Quick, quick, goes the Idle Dick; The Kings fat bastards our lance shall prick. Honor their ladies, but leave them quick, Prick, prick goes the Idle Dick.”

The Idle Dick’s ability to do “three in one” was due to the manner in which he was able to rely upon his squadron commanders. During his raids on Royalists, Idle Dick would plunder their homes, after the Royalist was declared a delinquent by a Parliamentary Committee sitting at . Sir Richard would bring the Royalist’s library and household goods to the Committee, where they were sold for a very small fraction of their value.

He lived to be an old man and died in 1691, but in his old age he became almost a Royalist himself, as, like so many of the Hambledon Boys who survived until the 1650's, he was disgusted with the wranglings of the Puritans.

Dick’s Dad was Sir Daniel Norton of Southwick, who died on April 7, 1636, just as the conflict between Parliament and King was coming to a head. Sir Daniel married Honora Whyte, Sir of Southwick, the Earl of Southhampton. The earliest mention of the Norton’s fief of Southwick seems to be in the year 1133, when Henry I founded a priory of Austin canons at Portchester, assigning to them by the foundation charter the manor of Candover, a hide of land in Applestead, and a hide of land in Southwick. The priory was

42 removed from Portchester to Southwick between 1145 and 1153, and this land with the addition of other lands acquired by grant of Richard de Boarhunt and Gilbert de Boarhunt during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries evidently became the manor of Southwick, which remained in the hands of the prior and convent until the time of the Dissolution. At which time Henry VIII gave it to the Whyte family.

After the Dissolution the site of the priory church of Southwick was granted to John White, servant to Sir Thomas Wriothesley, in 1538, and eight years later the manor and church of Southwick were granted to Sir Thomas Wriothesley that he might alienate them to John White. On the death of John White in 1567 the manor passed to his son and heir Edward. In 1580 Edward died, leaving a son and heir, John, who, in 1606, settled the manor on his daughter and co-heir Honor on her marriage with Sir Daniel Norton, and they came into possession of the manor on the death of John White in the following year.

Sir Daniel Norton died seised of the manor in 1636, leaving a son and heir, Richard – the “Idle Dick” -- who had married Anne daughter of Sir William Earle. Richard’s son, Richard, died 10 December, 1732, and his daughter and heir Sarah married Henry Whitehead ; they had two children Richard and Mary. Richard died young, 25 December, 1733, leaving all his estates to his nephew Francis Thistlethwayte, son of his sister Mary, who had married Alexander Thistlethwayte in 1717 and died before 1728. (fn. 19) Francis Thistlethwayte of Southwick took the name of Whitehead, and died 30 March, 1751, leaving his estates to his elder brother with remainder to his younger brother, Robert Thistlethwayte. From that time the manor has remained in the hands of the Thistlethwayte family ; Mr. Alexander Thistlethwayte of Southwick Park being lord of the manor at the present day.

Recent evidence has shown that ’s village of Denmead did not escape the traumas of the Civil War, a war that not only divided countrymen but also families.

Elizabeth Wayte inherited Denmead Manor, and then married Richard Norton of Rotherfield, near Alton. The Norton’s of Rotherfield split during the . One of his grandsons and two great grandsons were staunch Royalists and were imprisoned for their beliefs. By the 1630’s, they had leased Denmead Manor Farm to Thomas Land. However, Richard Norton’s other grandson, by his eldest son Daniel, was our “Idle Dick” Colonel Richard Norton of Southwick Park. The Idle Dick was a great friend of Cromwell and was leader of the renowned troop of Hambledon Boys which fought so many successful battles for Parliament.

Thomas Land must have felt very uneasy as a tenant of a strong Royalist family, in an area where many of the inhabitants were followers of Cromwell, and relatives of his landlord. By the late , Thomas Land was attempting to claim

43 compensation for the numerous times he had provided shelter for troops of both armies.

Idle Dick’s forebearor, Sir William Norton, took up the cross in the last Crusade of 1270. The next year, he was joined in the Holy Land by Edward “Longshanks, the First” Angevin, king of England. The senior “Rotherfield line” of Nortons produced Sir Richard “not the Idle Dick” Norton (1582-July 1645), heir of Rotherfield, Sheriff of Hampshire, First Baronet of Rotherfield (1622). “Not the Idle Dick” married Amy Bilson (d. 1655), the daughter of New York Alpha’s intellectual , Bishop of (q.v.) and great grandson of Wilhelm the Fifth, Duke of Bavaria.

These “Loyalist” Nortons fought against the branch of the Norton family which produced the Idle Dick. The royalists suffered heavily for their adherence to Charles. In July, 1644, Sir Richard was committed to chains 'for maintaining the proceedings against the Parliament and for doing many disservices.'

He was imprisoned in Lord Petre's house, but was by order of the Committee for Prisoners discharged in August, 1644, on giving sufficient security. His estates were valued at £15,000 a year, and on admission to compound he was fined at £1,000. This was reduced to £500 in March, 1645. He paid the fine, but died before August of that year, leaving his estate heavily charged, as his sons complained when they compounded for their own and their father's delinquency on his death.

The Idle Dick’s cousins stated that they had been in the king's army in Winchester garrison, and five days after its surrender had taken an oath administered by the County Committee. They were now heavily burdened with their father's debts and the necessity of paying their mother's jointure, while Sir Richard the elder son had no other estate, and John the younger only a lease of £15 a year, now sequestered. In April, 1647, all proceedings against them were stayed, since they had paid £100, the sum to which their fine had been reduced in consideration of their poverty and their father's fine.

Lord Protector Cromwell used to address the other Norton, his friend, as “idle Dick” or “Dearest Dick”. He was Parliament’s Governor of Southampton in 1644, and was styled Mecurius Aulicus, “the greatest incendiary of Hampshire” for his habit of burning out the supporters of the King. He was a relative of Sir Gregory Norton,1 a judge of the King, and a brother of Captain Lieutenant Norton in the King’s Service, captured at Romsey by a Major Mitford.

1 Idle Dick’s cousin, Sir Gregory Norton (16003-1652), was of his father’s generation. The eldest surviving son of Henry Norton of Wantage in , Gregory Norton probably grew up in where his father held an administrative post. He acquired an estate in Sussex upon his marriage to Martha Gunter around 1621, and was made a baronet in 1624. During the 1630s, Norton held a position as a minor official at the court of King Charles I. Like his friend and fellow courtier Humphrey Edwards, Norton supported Parliament on the outbreak of the First Civil War. He became active in local administration in Sussex and the Isle of Wight, and was elected as

44 While his cousins lost their lands, Idle Dick’s fortunes were on the rise. He began his ascendency after the capture, after an all too brief defence, of the strong fortress of Portsmouth. It was was no small gain to the Parliamentarian cause, whilst, on the other hand, the gallant stand made by the garrisons of Winchester Castle and Basing House was eagerly watched and warmly appreciated at loyal Oxford, seat of the King. As the King’s chroniclers wrote,

“The defeat of my Lords Forth and Hopton at Cheriton Fight broke all the measures, and altered the whole scheme of the King's counsels, nor did the fierce contests at Alton, Christchurch, and Andover fail to influence the general result of the Great Civil War as a whole.”

Colonel Richard “Idle Dick” Norton was in that fight at Cheriton, battle for Parliament’s cause against the King. Sir and Richard Whitehead, Esqrs., were both Parliamentarians, and represented the county at Westminster. Richard Whitehead lived at Norman Court, and was the son-in-law of Colonel Richard Norton of Southwick. Sir Henry Rainsford and Henry Vernon, Esqrs., were the original members for Andover, in the , but by a petition, which bears date May 3, 1642, Mr. Vernon was unseated, and Sir was declared duly elected, the return being amended on May 12, 1642. , Esq., a staunch friend to the Puritan cause, also represented Andover in the Long Parliament.

In the history written by Clarendon, Norton, Onslow, Jarvis, Whitehead, and Morley, were all colonels of Hampshire regiments defending Parliament. Colonel Norton, was a friend of General , and lived at the Manor House of Old Alresford and at Southwick Park. During the succeeding Commonwealth Colonel Richard Norton (‘Idle Dick’) lived at old Alresford House and entertained Oliver Cromwell there on several occasions. Old Alresford House lies at the southern end of the Candover Valley, in a beautiful and tranquil parkland setting, on the edge of the Georgian town of Alresford.

Idle Dick played a central role on the failed relief of Arundel Castle, giving to the Parliamentarian forces a critical stronghold in southern England. In the autumn of 1643, Arundel Castle which was held by Royalists was besieged (surrounded) by Parliament’s forces. A Crown relief column, led by General Hopton, went to the rescue. To get to Arundel Castle, the Royalists had to pass recruiter MP for Midhurst in Sussex in October 1645. Norton emerged as a radical Independent, with a particular interest in Irish affairs. He was active in the legal proceedings against King Charles in 1649, sitting as a member of the High Court of Justice and signing the King's death warrant. During the Commonwealth, Norton was associated with the republican Henry Marten, but he also came under suspicion of profiteering from the sale of confiscated Royalist estates and properties. He died in 1652.

45 through Petersfield and Havant, wherein waited the Idle Dick. Colonel Norton and his troops intercepted General at Havant cross roads. Warblington Castle near Havant was captured by the Royalists. When the Royalists left the castle it was partially destroyed by Parliaments forces as a revenge. This is one of the reasons why it fell into ruin. Because the Royalists had spent so much time in the area around Havant and Warblington, they were unable to reach Arundel Castle to save it and it fell to Parliament’s troops.

The Arundel siege has led to some interesting folklore. Colonel Richard Norton, M.P raised the fighting unit known as the Hambledon Boys in 1642 to fight for the Parliament side in the English Civil War. At first the unit was intended to be infantry but so many of the men enlisting were yeomen and brought their own horses, swords and equipment that it was not long before they had a mounted section. A few months later the unit had changed entirely from infantry to cavalry.

The personnel of the Hambledon Boys, with a few exceptions, came from East Hampshire and West Sussex, and were, in most cases, men of good family. A highly skilled blacksmith William Peachey of West Dean is understood to have undertook to forge each armiger a sword with that person's arms upon the hilt, worked very handsomely in brass and enamel, or silver and enamel. He also wrote upon each sword, the family motto, or some motto chosen by the user.

They were a hard swearing, hard drinking and hard praying unit but they treated women whether Puritan or Royalist with great respect. Their ferocity in battle was exceptional, and at Havant crossroads they charged more than six times their number of Royalist cavalry and put them to rout.

The Hambledon Boys, led by the renowned "Idle" Dick Norton, friend of Oliver Cromwell, soon gained an immense reputation both for their prowess in battle and for their elusiveness when chased by vastly superior forces. Wherever they went they always had someone with them to act as a guide who knew every inch of the countryside they were travelling through. The Hambledon Boys were very aloof from other troops and obeyed only their own chosen commanders, and Colonel Norton.

The Hambledon Boys always kept one troop at home for defence of Hambledon, in addition to those who were home on leave.

On December 6, 1642 the Royalists took Arundel Castle. It is believed that almost at once, a treasure of gold and silver plate was sent there from Oxford, Donnington Castle and Basing House for safe keeping, to bribe people in Sussex and Surrey to the King's troops to reach London by that route.

Sir William Waller, with the London regiments, and with "Idle Dick" Norton and the Hambledon Boys approached Arundel early in January 1643.

46

They took the castle on January 6. 1643. Hearing of their approach, the garrison commander, who held the castle for the King, decided to send the treasure away to Oxford, The King's headquarters. He is thought to have sent it through an underground passage running from Arundel Castle to Amberley Castle. From there it was taken on packhorses, accompanied by a small escort of cavalry, in a northerly direction over land.

The Hambledon Boys "chopp'd 'em in covert" somewhere near the ford by the smithy at Kirdford. All the Royalists were killed and their bodies carried away on their own horses and hidden in a wild place called "the roughs". The treasure was then hidden and is only to be recovered by the descendants of the Hambledon Boys for up holding the rights of Parliament.

In the course of time a number of Members of Parliament who had stayed away after Pride’s Purge sought permission to return to Westminster. Sir Thomas Wodehouse and Richard Norton were readmitted toward the end of 1651 and Sir John Dryden in April, 1652. Neither Wodehouse nor Dryden were particularly active in public affairs during the , but Norton became a member of the Council of State in 1652. Colonel Norton, as he was usually styled, had once been branded by a royalist newspaper as “the Great Incendiary” of Hampshire, where he had large estates. He was on close terms with Cromwell who referred to him affectionately as “idle Dick”. He appears, however, to have viewed the political infighting at Westminister with a certain degree of detachment: in March 1648, for instance, he wrote to a friend that ‘you can not be ignorant of the parties and divisions that are amongst them.” In May, 1651, he had been questioned by the Council of State following an allegation that he was ready to take up arms on behalf of the King, but nothing was proved against him.

Idle Dick’s humble Elizabethan manor – in which Urian Oakes was sheltered while under persecution – was later rebuilt into a princely Georgian country house. Close to the ports of Portsmouth, Gosport and Southampton, Alesford House is among a number built, or remodelled, in the 18th century by naval officers with prize money gained from captured Dutch, French or Spanish man o’war. The origins are exceptionally well documented and it is possible to say which captured ships and cargoes paid for the purchase of the land and erection of the new house by Admiral Lord Rodney.

The manor has three stories and a basement. The north front is of red brick with stone string course. It has a forecourt with central octagonal fountain and high wrought iron gates. Interestingly, there is a Roman Catholic chapel on left hand side of forecourt dedicated to Our Lady of Alresford.

George Rodney was a penniless captain at the beginning of the Anglo- Dutch Wars; at their close he had a fortune of over £10,000. In 1749, Rodney started to build Old Alresford House, and it took until 1751 to complete, then in

47 1764, Rodney took in hand the grounds and landscaped the gardens to the design of Richard Woods. Old Alresford House is ideally situated with the cathedral city of Winchester just under nine miles away and Alton about fourteen miles.

Old Alesford House is one of the most impressive in Hampshire and the reception rooms are magnificent. They include a ballroom, and the 18th century panelled dining room. The country house has red brick elevations with Bath stone dressings, rubbled brick lintels, a stone capped parapet, modillion cornice, and a pedimented projecting central bay beneath a slate roof. The house is flanked by two projecting wings, and at the front a flight of stone steps leads to an entrance portico on fluted columns and pilasters with an oak panelled front door, opening into the reception hall. The accommodation is arranged on three floors above substantial cellars. The south-facing reception rooms and modern kitchen all overlook the park and lead off the central reception hall. Many of the rooms have fine decorative fireplaces, moulded cornicing, panelling and elegant parquet floors. The principal staircase rises from the hall to the first floor that includes a further four bedrooms and two bathrooms. There is a second floor apartment, accessed from the east staircase. The west wing of the house, leading off the kitchen, is accessed by the west staircase, that raises to a separate nursery flat above the garages.

The cottage which adjoins the west wing of the house, is well appointed and includes accommodation comprising a sitting room, kitchen, two bedrooms and a bathroom. Outside, the landscaped park and gardens form a magnifcent setting for the house, lying principally to the south. A flight of stone steps, with a wrought iron handrail, lead from the broad terrace opening from the morning room to a gravel path. The spreading lawns beyond, studded with beautiful trees under-planted with spring bulbs. The formal lawn is edged by a brick and flint ha- ha, while to the west, and well screened from the house is a hard tennis court. The park lies to the south and west of the gardens, with a south facing slope and mature shelter belt, primarily of yew, forming the southern boundary. A gateway opens from the park to the churchyard of the Parish Church of St Mary’s.

` Said the owner who renovated Old Alesford House in the 1980s,

This is as it was, 250 years ago. The only house that is visible was built just 15 years after this one. We also have old drawings, which must be from about 1760, showing sheep on the land, just as we have now. As in Georgian times the grass runs up to the house and in the spring it is fantastic to watch the lamb derby across the ha- ha. There is a walled garden with flowers, but we don't need a Versailles here.

In its beautiful, quintessentially English setting of lawn and trees running southwards to parkland and the 12th-century Alresford Pond - a wildlife reserve -

48 the house enjoys a tranquillity that is almost impossible to replicate in a formal garden. Yet, set out from the rear of the house and it is only a 10-minute walk to the market town of Alresford, with its colour-washed Georgian houses.

The three magnificent reception rooms are among the finest in Hampshire and have been decorated in a style in keeping with the fine Italian panelling, ornate fireplaces and moulded cornices. The dining room has Rodney's original rococo plaster ceiling, which commemorates the Eagle, his first command. In the east wing, the 70ft ballroom has a particular place in the affections of the local community. On the first floor there are five principal bedrooms with en suite bathrooms. Elsewhere there is a cottage and three other apartments, all with separate access from the main house. The extensive cellars, with a fruit store and cellar, run under the length of the house and have remnants of the old tracks used for transporting coal from one place to another. Other clues lead back to 1600 and the first house to be built on the site, which has been linked to Oliver Cromwell and his friend, Colonel Richard “Idle Dick” Norton.

History is ever-present at Old Alesford, where an “Idle Dick” protected Urian Oakes. In the home, which was completed in 1751, the owners have found some odd things in the garden such as an 18th-century silver box with a snippet of blonde hair in it, and clay pipes. During some excavations the owners came across a ring with the motif of a galleon on it that Admiral Rodney cut off the finger of Spanish sea dog. In 1764 Admiral Lord Rodney had the park laid out by Richard Woods, a contemporary of Capability Brown, and an old illustration by Woods shows how a carriage driveway once looped in front of the house. A flight of steps leads down from the terrace that would once have overlooked its route. Rodney was only able to enjoy the fruits of his expenditure for a few years before financial ruin forced him to let the house and he fled to France to escape his creditors. His son took over the estate, however, and was able to repay the debt and keep his father's pride and joy in the family.

Outside Old Alesford House are two religious establishments, The Priory, founded by Henry I at Portchester in 1133, was re-established at Southwick during the period 1145-53, but the church of St. James, the Parish Church, probably in existence before the Priory, was built by the time of, and maybe before, the Norman Conquest. Saint James’ Church was restored in 1566 by John Whyte, formerly a retainer of Sir Thomas Wriothesley, the Lord Chancellor, and later, the first Earl of Southampton. John Whyte was granted possession of the Priory, with all its rights, profits and appurtenances, by Henry VIII on 15th March, 1539, after the suppression of the monasteries, and is commemorated by a tablet set above the East window on the exterior wall.

The Parish Church of Saint James-Without-the-Priory-Gate hosted King Charles the First for worshipin 1628 as guest of Sir Daniel Norton, just before Sir Daniel’s ultimate demise by God’s natural means. It was hear, while at prayer, that the King was informed of his elder lover’s assassination. The Duke of

49 Buckingham was perhaps bisexual; his father having the same relationship with the king’s father, James the First. One must be careful about assuming carnal knowledge in these relationships, however, as the love could often be platonic in nature. Sir Daniel's heir, Colonel Richard Norton, served with Cromwell in the Civil War (the "Idle Dick Norton" of history). His cousin, Sir George Norton of Sussex, was one of the signatories of the death warrant of Charles the First, himself.

During the winter of 1642, Parliament ordered the forces in Wiltshire and Hampshire to advance nearer to Portsmouth; and on January 12, 1642, Parliament’s Colonel Goring received orders to hold the town against any demands or force of the King. Colonel Richard “Idle Dick” Norton, of Southwick Park, warned the House of Commons that Goring was fortifying and raising batteries towards the land, meaning against Parliament, "and, in short, was not to be trusted," Goring hereupon came to London, and, by a most plausible speech, completely deceived the Parliament, so that " not without some apology for troubling him, they desired him again to repair to his government, and to finish those works which were necessary for the safety of the place.

Given funds, Colonel Goring was promoted to Lieutenant-General of Parliament’s Horse in their new Army and he departed again to Portsmouth. He was, in fact, double dealing with the King to surrender Portsmouth. Parliament began to mistrust him, and when they pressured him to return to London, he wrote "a jolly letter " to Lord Kimbolton (), stating that “he had received the command of that garrison from the King, and that he could not be absent from it without his leave," and concluded "with some good counsel to the Lord." Portsmouth had fallen without a shot; Idle Dick was right.

The Parliament was much grieved at the loss of the only fortress in England, which was also a seaport ; and the King headquartered at York was equally pleased, expecting that General Goring would have laid in all necessary stores, and would be able to hold out for three or four months at least.

The Parliament acted promptly. The Earl of Warwick was ordered to blockade the harbour with five goodly ships, and he duly arrived on Monday, August 8, 1642. Preparations were also made for an attack on the land side. The Commission of Array was not put in force; but the militia was duly embodied, and one or two companies of the County Trained Bands declared for the Parliament against the King.

Many Hampshire gentlemen ‘for the King’ who had promised to bring in reinforcements of horse and foot were stopped on their way to Portsmouth, as was also Sir Kenelm Digby, a great ally and confederate of Goring. Only two days had elapsed before the County Militia and Trained Band, together with the

50 regiment of Foot, of which Sir John Merrick, Sergeant-Major {i.e., Major) General of the Army, and afterwards General of the Ordnance, was Colonel, and one troop of Horse, began to blockade Portbridge, rendering the provisioning of the garrison a matter of great difficulty.

Colonel “Idle Dick” Norton at once raised a force of musketeers, who took post at his house at Southwick Park, at Havant. Sir William Waller and Colonel Urrey, afterwards hanged as a traitor to both parties, were each in command of a troop of horse; and "there are some 20 firelocks that look likke desperate souldiers." The Fairfax Correspondence speaks of "three troops of horse sent to Portsmouth."

On Saturday, August 6, the supplies of provisions from the Isle of Wight were cut off; and on the 8th, as we have already said, the Earl of Warwick arrived with his blockading squadron, which, however, did not fire a single shot during the siege. The Earl of Portland, the Cavalier Governor of the Isle of Wight, was imprisoned; and on August 19 the Earl of Pembroke was appointed to succeed him.

Goring now refused to obey a summons to surrender Portsmouth to the authority of the Parliament. On August 10, 1642 a gentleman sent by the King with great difficulty brought in a letter containing promises of help and reinforcements, which greatly cheered the garrison, which, on the next day, was 500 strong, "Papists and those ill-affected to Parliament." The Grand Jury at the County Assizes in August presented a most loyal petition to the King, asking for help against the Parliament. One hundred carbines, pistols, saddles, and much ammunition for the garrison were intercepted by the besiegers.

Bishop Curie, of Winchester, sent five completely armed horsemen to Portsmouth ; and Dr. Hinsham, a Prebendary of Chichester, sent in a load of wheat. Hackney coachmen were offered commissions on condition of using their horses for the King's service. A countryman who went to sell his butter at Portsmouth was forcibly impressed, as were also many others. Lord Wentworth, Goring's constant associate, was with him at Portsmouth as his Major-General, and afterwards saw service at Cropredy Bridge and at Newbury. His cavalry force was afterwards roughly handled at Ashburton, in Devonshire; and on January 15, 1646, he was in chief command of the cavalry belonging to the remnant of the King's army in the west. " Some say Lord Goring is at Portsmouth; however his soul is there, we may be assured." Colonel Goring sent an officer to Salisbury, with thirty or forty horse, in search of plunder and reinforcements : but on their arrival they were all captured and imprisoned.

Before Sir William Waller reached Portsmouth, the besiegers were commanded by Sir John Merrick. The loyal gentlemen of Hampshire at once raised a besieging force, asking for the authority of Parliament, and offering to

51 hazard their lives and fortunes in the maintenance of the Protestant religion and of the just privileges of Parliament.

Vicars says that the Parliament's forces "first shewed themselves against Goring about Pochdown (Portsdown) in London, way halfe a mile from the bridge, about the l0th of August." Goring hereupon withdrew the four guns which guarded the bridge, which was until then only protected by ten or twelve troopers, armed with pistols and carbines. About a mile from the bridge ("half a mile from the town ") the wheel of one of the gun-carriages broke, and the gun was left behind, the other three pieces of artillery reaching Portsmouth in safety.

Cruel, indeed, was the pillaging of Portsea Isle, which had then 2000 acres of standing corn upon it. One thousand cattle and more than 1000 sheep were carried off by the all-devouring garrison. Bread, cheese, bacon, and everything shared the same fate, the plunderers not even leaving half-loaves behind them for the starving population. The owners were obliged to drive their own cattle within the walls, and were then themselves retained against their will for military service.

Another account says that 350 cattle with many sheep and lambs were taken away to Portsmouth. The soldiers killed the best ; " and the rest they kept within the town upon some ground below the moats that round the town, but the most of them were kept on a marsh near the town," and were guarded by musketeers.

On Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, August 10-12, this plundering was at its worst. To aid the miserable rustics, the Earl of Warwick landed men from the blockading squadron at the east end of Portsea Isle, with two guns. Goring's horse were thus held in salutary check, while the seamen ferried numerous women and children over to Hayling Island. About 200 sheep and 100 cattle were also taken over to the same place of refuge, ropes being thrown over the horns of the cattle to make them swim after the boats. One hundred and thirty-five quarters of wheat were bound from Fareham to Portsmouth; but one Master Allen, of Gosport, succeeded in stopping the carts upon the road, and altering their destination, by the aid of a few watchmen. Great was the rage of Goring. He threatened to bombard and utterly destroy Gosport with the guns of Portsmouth ; and it was only after the humble prayers of the Mayor and others, upon their knees, that he consented to desist from his purpose for the sake of the women and children dwelling there.

As it was, he terrified the Gosport people exceedingly. His gunner, Meader by name, had already fled from the town ; but he summoned "a cannoneer," and ordered him to fire at Gosport. Upon his refusal the Colonel threatened to run him through, whereupon he shot, "but it was over the houses, and did no harm." In 1688, we are told, "the castle at Gosport is situated on low ground directly facing Portsmouth, which is commanded by twenty cannon."

52

Communication with the outer world became every day more difficult. Three gallant gentlewomen tried to hire a boat for Stokes Bay, but were brought back in a friendly manner to Sir Thomas Bowyer's house at Chichester, in his coach. Having no man with them, they were strongly suspected to be men in women's apparel. No one was confident enough, however, to reach for their crouches. Those were evidently not times for ladies to travel alone.

At Havant, Colonel Rich “Idle Dick” Norton’s men caught a traveler with letters from Portsmouth concealed in his boots. The letters were taken from him and given to Colonel Norton, who sent out "a few lusty men with muskets " to arrest the messenger. Another envoy coming from Chichester to Portsmouth through bye-lanes was met by apparently a most boorish rustic, who proved to be an officer in disguise, and who carriedNhim and his despatches to Colonel orton, at Southwick.

But deliverance was at hand for the unhappy plundered dwellers in Portsmouth and Portsea Island. About 6 p.m. on Friday, August 12, 1642, twenty soldiers made an attack upon Portbridge, not knowing what resistance they would meet with. They found but eight men on guard, one of whom was taken prisoner, the rest making their escape. One who saw the attack said that it would make a faint-hearted man a soldier to see their spirit and resolution. Colonel Urrey and Sir William Waller behaved themselves bravely on this occasion.

A horse was also taken, "the rider hardly escaping, having leapt from his horse, and ran away over hedge and ditch, with his hat cut, and his head a little rased with the sword, but not much hurt." The whole of Portsea Island was thus secured by the Parliament. Two mounts or forts were at once built to guard this important passage.

The liberation of Portsea Island would have taken place before if very wet weather had not confined the besiegers under Colonel “Idle Dick” Norton’s command to their quarters at Southwick and Havant. Of the 200 soldiers in garrison on August 15, it was believed that fully one-half would desert at once, if opportunity offered. Vicars says that the townsmen of Portsmouth greatly disrelished the doings of Goring ; and Baker's Chronicle asserts that "the garrison soldiers were so practised on, the Governor had no confidence in them."

Intelligence was sent in and out of the town in various ways. A woman arrested at Portbridge had a bundle, which looked like a baby, in the head of which was a black box filled with letters. About 5.0 p,m. on Saturday, August 13, a man and horse were detained at Havant by Colonel Norton’s men. The man was carrying a suit of clothes with ten letters sewn up in the linings, intended for Mr. Bellingham, a young gentleman who had ridden fully armed from Chichester to Portsmouth, and who was now trying to make his escape from the garrison, keeping a boat in readiness, for which he paid 5s. per diem.

53

The Rev. Mr. Bringsted, parson of Havant, "a most pestilent man," had sent a light horse to Portsmouth. For this Colonel “Idle Dick” Norton made him pay dearly. Ten light horses were quartered on him, "and lately one of the Scotsmen, being aggrieved with him, fell upon him, basted him well-favouredly, and fain he would be gone ; but they will not let him. So he is forced to stay, waits upon them daily, gives them good words, and tells them that he will gladly lie out of his own bed to make them room!" He was afterwards deprived of his living, and had his private property sequestered, for which he paid a composition of 40 pounds. He died broken-hearted. Letters from Lord Wentworth and others in Portsmouth, also fell into the hands of the relentless Colonel Norton.

On August 15, 1642, Captain Browne Bushell, Martin, and Swanley, decided that it was possible, but dangerous, to cut out the warship HMS Henrietta Maria from under the guns of Portsmouth; and the same night Captain Bushell, with several long boats, under cover of the darkness, made for the intended prize. She had a crew of fourteen men, two of whom were officers, according to Goring's account ; and Goodwin, the master, was suspected in the garrison of Parliamentary leanings.

On the other hand, the newspaper account says that she mounted eight brave pieces of ordnance and had forty soldiers on board, being fitted for service. Goring says that the pinnace surrendered without receiving a blow; but his opponents say that the crew were overpowered and driven below. At any rate the capture was complete. Sail was at once made, and HMS Henrietta Maria began to stand out of the harbour. When out of range of the batteries two ships laden with corn for the garrison were hailed, and at once struck their colours.

Four days previously the blockading squadron had captured a ship laden with several hundred barrels of powder "and 41 most stately horse." The steeds were forthwith sent up to London, The Henrietta Maria was taken to Southampton, where six of her guns were landed, and brought back to Portsea Island, where three of them were pointed towards Portsmouth, and the others towards "Porchdowne." On Saturday, August 16 (on August 13 according to Vicars), Goring sent Lord Wentworth with all the troopers in garrison, some sixty in number, together with two guns loaded with musket bullets, and two gunners, to bring in the previously abandoned gun.

A Parliamentary trooper rode between the guns and the town, having his carbine loaded with two bullets, and shot one of the gunners, he himself escaping uninjured. The gun was, however, brought safely back to Portsmouth. On the same day Colonel Norton's forces marched from Portbridge almost to the gates of Portsmouth, intending to burn (one account says burning) a water mill "that only goeth at the ebbing of the sea," used by the garrison for grinding their corn, "fast by the Town Mount, whereon their Ordnance was planted." This bold advance and Goring's foraging parties were the cause of many skirmishes, "but

54 no great hurt done, though some cannon bullets came very near, and under their horses bellies."

At the fight for the mill, one of Idle Dick’s Puritan troopers lost his hat, which fell off"; and another lost his sword, which the captor said was worth 50 pounds "a ribbon breaking at his wrist." At another time Goring's horse sallying forth were repulsed by Waller's troopers in haste and disorder. A brave Scotchman pursued them even within the gate; where he still fought, in spite of three wounds in the head, until the shutting of the gate made him a prisoner. Goring admired his bravery, procured him the best possible medical advice, gave him three pieces of gold, sent him blindfolded to a place called Newgate, where he was exchanged for a trooper captured at Portbridge, and went off "mounted behind the trumpeter”.

A contingent from Chichester treated the townsmen very harshly. On August 17 the town was said to have plenty of provision and ammunition, but to have in it only eighty or ninety horses, and no great strength of men, while the besiegers had 240 troopers and 500 infantry. Sir Philip Stapylton writes on August 15 that "two troops of horsemen are gone to Hantshire. One troop afterwards to Portsmouth : some Musqueteers thither."

Colonel Goring and Lord Wentworth, with their troopers in two parties, made a night sortie from Portsmouth as far as the besiegers' works, led by Master Winter, who was an alderman of Portsmouth and the Lieutenant of Southsea Castle. He guided them to the Court of Guard, a mile and a half from the town, close to the farmhouse which was the headquarters of Sir William Waller. The besiegers fought bravely, and Goring was repulsed, with the loss of three men. One of them, Glover, "the Colonel's own man," was killed ; and a servant to Mr. Nicholas Weston, brother to the Earl of Portland, was captured, as was also Winter, their guide, who was mounted upon a horse, worth 30 pounds, belonging to Lord Wentworth. Goring carried off five musketeer sentries and a trooper, who had been wounded by a thrust in the arm. The five musketeers were induced to work at carrying baskets of earth to the defences ;"but the other stood it out stoutly, and refused to comply."

Winter was kept at the Court of Guard (i.e., Main Guard), where his son was allowed to bring him clean linen and other things. The lad carried back to Portsmouth a report, which was carefully spread, that the King was at Broadlands and Romsey, if not nearer, and that a troop of Parliament horse had gone to bring his Majesty to Lady Norton's house at Southwick. Idle Dick was on the run, the word went out. Lord Wentworth's servant, disguised as a shepherd, reached Portsmouth, together with his guide, and stated that the King would arrive from Oxford within four days with 12,000 foot, 6500 horse, and 3000 , and "would liberally reward all their paines and good service. And t'was but need thus to take paines to perswade them, for the greatest part of the Garison-Souldiers were gone away from the towne by night, sometimes 4,

55 sometimes 6, at a time — sometimes more, and sometimes lesse, for a great many nights together ; and the most of his best Gunners were gone from him to the Parliament side, and such as were left of the Garison were even heartless, and did but little, and that on compulsion : the expectation of the King's comming, had so tryed and dul'd them, that they were even hopelesse thereof" (Vicars' Chronicle).

Many of the deserters offered to prove their sincerity by serving in forlorn hopes against the town. On August 18, 1642 the besiegers asked a parley for the exchange of prisoners. The garrison "knew not the sound of a parley from an alarum," and fired on the trumpeter, but missed him. There were now seven men- of-war of great force blockading Portsmouth, the HMS Paragon, the HMS Caesar, the HMS Black James, and four others. A letter, written on board HMS Paragon, says that the greatest harmony was the thundering of cannon, both by day and night. On the arrival of the anxiously expected land forces, a general attack was to be made both by sea and land. The garrison of 200 men could not man the 100 guns which were mounted on the works; and desertions were of nightly occurrence.

As the Royalists considered their relief options at Chichester, the sieged continued through August and into September. On Saturday, September 3, after long conference and discussion, Colonel “Idle Dick” Norton decided to attempt Southsea Castle, originally built by Henry VII, then considered to be the strongest fort in England for its size. It was surrounded by a wall three or four yards in thickness and about 30 feet in height. The moat was three or four yards deep and five yards broad. The Castle mounted fourteen guns, all of which, with the exception of two, were 12-pounders, besides other smaller pieces of artillery. "It hath dainty chambers, fit to entertain a Prince." Another account says that there were nine or ten guns actually in position, and as many more ready for mounting.

The Governor of the Castle was Challender, or Chaloner. On this Saturday night he remained in Portsmouth carousing with Colonel Goring until 11 p.m. Vicars says quaintly: "On Saturday, September the 3rd (this was September 4), in the night, the Parliament forces took Sousey Castle, which lies a mile from the Towne upon the sea, and the way thither is on the sea-sands. The Captain of the Castle, his name was Challmer, who on Saturday had been at Portsmouth, and in the evening went home to the Castle, and his souldiers took horse-loads of provision, bisket, meal, and other necessaries with them. They reported he had more drinke in his head than was befitting such a time and service, and the Townsmen gave out that he had been bribed with money to yield up the Castle, but 'twas false, though the first may be true, yet was not that neither any furtherance to the taking of it." The storming party consisted of two troops of horse, and 400 infantry, of whom at least 80 were musketeers. They had with them "a very good Engineer," and either 20, 35, or 38 scaling ladders (accounts

56 vary). Vicars expressly says that at this time the whole company in the Castle were "but twelve, who all were not able to deal with ours at such a disadvantage."

Marching from their quarters about one o'clock on the morning of Sunday, September 5, singing psalms as they went, Idle Dick’s stormers were exposed to a random fire from the town, which, however, was without effect, and at 2 a.m. they halted for an hour at a distance of two bow-shots from the castle, while a feigned attack upon Portsmouth from Gosport was in progress. Two men were killed in the town, and in addition were heard a very pitiful lamentation. At 3 a.m. (Vicars says about two o'clock in the morning) the storming party advanced, and got between the castle and the sea, all the guns being planted landward. They then jumped into the moat, some men falling and hurting themselves. Major Harbert, Captain Browne Bushell (a Yorkshireman, who joined the Prince of Wales in the Downs in 1648, which made the Parliament execute him on April 29, 1651), and a trumpeter reached the drawbridge, and the trumpeter sounded a parley, at which the assailants offered fair quarter to the garrison. Governor Challender being something in drink, and withal newly awakened out of his deep sleep, suggested that if they would kindly defer their visit until the morning he would take the matter into consideration. The infantry then scaled the walls, and the Castle was taken without the loss of a man.

Challender, with his lieutenant, ensign, and small garrison, were disarmed, and, nothing loth, began to drink the health of the King and Parliament with their new friends, who, at their request, fired either two or three guns as a signal to Goring that the Castle was taken.

Goring replied with at least thirty shot, one of which narrowly missed the leader of the storming party. Ten men retreated behind a piece of timber upon the drawbridge, which was immediately afterwards struck by shot. No one was, however, injured. Some eighty men were left to keep the Castle for the Parliament; and a mutiny at once broke out in besieged Royalist Portsmouth. The Idle Dick scored again.

The mayor, a lieutenant, an ensign, and many soldiers fled from the town, and nearly all the rest of the garrison threw down their arms. Only some sixty were still willing to fight, most of whom were gentlemen and their servants who were unskilled in the use of muskets and in the working of heavy guns. Goring had already seen through a telescope that a ten-gun battery at Gosport would soon open fire. He, therefore, summoned a council of war before daybreak, and at a very early hour a drummer was sent out to sound a parley. The negotiations began at ten o'clock on the same morning, their hostages on both sides being appointed. Out of the town, the Lord Wentworth, Mr. Lewkner, and Mr. Weston, the Earl of Portland's brother. From the Parliament side, Sir William Waller, Sir William Lewis, and Sir William Thomas Jervoise. Of Sir William Waller we shall hear more. He and Sir William Lewis are thus described

57 by Clarendon : — "Sir William Waller, Lewis, and other eminent persons, who had a trust and confidence in each other, and who were looked upon as the Heads and Governors of the moderate Presbyterian party, who most of them would have been contented, their own security being provided for, that the King should be restored to his full rights, and the Church to its possessions." "Lewis had been very popular and notorious from the beginning."

"The parley was ended about five of the clock in the afternoon, but articles not agreement not confirmed till seven, that a trumpet came, then, into the Town from the Committee of the Parliament, and then the conclusion was fully made known, and Articles thoroughly agreed on on both sides ; namely, in brief, that the Town and Castle were first to be delivered up to the Parliament, and the Colonel after some few days liberty to dispose of his estate there, to depart the Towne ; which both he, the Lord Wentworth, Mr. Lewkner, and Mr. Weston, and all the with them, their servants, and adherents did accordingly ; and Sir William Waller, and Sir Thomas Jervoise, accompanied with Sir John Meldrum and Colonel Hurrey, together with a troop of horse, and two companies of foot took possession of the town." Portsmouth fell, and Idle Dick’s scaling of Southsea Castle walls provided the means to bring the Royalists down.

Following Parliament’s victory over the Royalists, the local elite tied to the King were plundered. The suffering junior Canons were Robert Copping, Richard Ayleward, William Clun, and Edward Cotton. Most of the Winchester cathedral clergy were plundered and many of them imprisoned. The Rev. Edward Cotton of St. Thomas' was especially plundered. Of Dr. Peter Heylyn, Rector of Old Alresford and South Warnborough, mention has been already made. Colonel Richard “Idle Dick” Norton singled him out for special treatment. Winstanley says in his "Worthies of England” of the Idle Dick: “Several times was the Doctor alarmed by drums and trumpets sounding about him, so that finding no other way of safety, for safeguard of his life he was forced to fly to the King at Oxford, the Parliament resolving if they could have took him he should ave followed his good lord of Canterbury to another world than that described in his cosmography ; but since they could not light on his person they secured his estate, sending down an order for sequestration of all his goods and chattels, and that the sooner by the means of one Colonel Norton, who (it is said) kept the best of the Doctor's plate, beds, and other costly furniture to himself, as a recompence of his great care in plundering him of the rest, although indeed he might have spared the Doctor his plate and beds, and only have took the hangings for his due. His books were carried away to Portsmouth, many of them being sold by the way, good folios for a flagon of ale apiece.

Two foot companies 300 strong of local militia were on June 24, 1643 ordered to be raised for the defence of the Isle of Wight, and 1500 pounds was to be collected yearly in the island for their maintenance. On July 7 we hear that Sir William Waller had sent a letter to Dorchester, asking that two troops of horse and icx) dragoons should be sent to Colonel Norton, of Southwick Park, who was

58 already in command^ of an equal number of men, and who was speedily joined by this welcome reinforcement.

On Wednesday, July 19, 1643, "Mercurius Aulicus" tells us that the Parliament had ordered all possible aid to be sent to Sir William Waller from Portsmouth and other places of Hampshire. " Colonel Norton of Southwick, the great incendiary of that country, being made a Colonel amongst the rebels, St. Barbe and some others having the command of some troops of horse," marched to Winchester and plundered it for the third time of all arms and horses. From thence he proceeded to Salisbury, where he arrived on Thursday, July 13, where he also seized all the horses and arms to be found, and plundered the houses of the Cathedral clergy, even taking away their servants' clothes, and confiscating about ;^8o which belonged to an hospital of poor people, of which one of the prebends was governor. On his march from Salisbury to Devizes to join Sir William Waller, hearing of the defeat of the latter upon Roundway Down, he retreated to Wardour Castle, and from thence to Wilton. Preparing to attack Salisbury once more, he found the citizens, who had heard of the defeat of Waller, in arms to oppose him, " and, thinking discretion the better part of valour," returned to Hampshire by a safer way, because, to him, the furthest way about was the next way home."2

Towards the end of July the Marquis of Winchester, who since the surrender of Reading had seen his enemies increasing in numbers, and forming strong garrisons in his neighbourhood, found that Colonel Norton was threatening a visit to Basing House, "as being a place in which he hoped to find much spoil and little opposition, for, to say truth, he is a very valiant gentleman where he meets with no resistance." Clarendon, on the other hand, speaks of Norton as being a man of undoubted bravery. The Marquis made a journey to Court, and obtained permission to have" one hundred musketeers of Colonel Rawdon's regiment sent under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Peake with speed and secrecy to Basing." He then returned home, nor did he reach Loyalty House a moment too soon. Scarcely had he arrived before "Colonel Norton, with Capt. St. Barbe, of Broadlands, Romsey, with his troop of horse, and Capt. Cole, with a ragged rabble of Dragoons, begirt the house and pressed the siege exceeding hotly." Within the walls there were, besides servants, only" six gentlemen, armed with six muskets, the whole remainder of a well-furnished armoury."

They had already proved their prowess, for with them the Marquis "had done so well that twice the enemies' attempts proved vain." But now surely, on this July 31, 1643, the odds are overwhelming, for see, two regiments of dragoons, under Colonels Harvey and Norton, have made their way through the

2 Unfortunately, the family papers and documents relating to Colonel Norton were burnt in a fire which destroyed a mansion in Berkshire belonging to his descendants in the 18th century. .

59 park palings, and are bent upon an attack in force. Another half-hour, and the hopeless struggle will be at an end.

But hark to yonder musket shots, and listen intently. Surely that is "Rupert's call " from cavalry trumpets, and see how the rebels are flying in all directions. Yes, aid is at hand. Lieutenant-Colonel Peake has come from Oxford by forced marches, and is now beating the foe from Basing village, clearing house after house. For the King, hearing of Norton's threatened attack, has, although he is about to march towards Bristol, and sorely needs the help of every available man, sent Colonel Sir Henry Bard, who disobeyed orders at Cheriton ight, with some troops of horse to the relief of beleaguered Basing. The cavalry arrive just as the musketeers have cleared a way to "The Castle," as Basing House was often styled by the Cavaliers. Lieut.-Colonel Peake deserves full credit for his victory, for Harvey and Norton's two regiments of dragoons " ran quite away " from his musketeers. Basing being thus at liberty. Colonel Norton and his allies retreated that night to , and from thence to Portsmouth," plaguing and plundering all the country as they passed along, for fear it should be thought that he had made so long a journey, and lain out so long, to undo nobody."

A letter was at once written by the Parliamentarian Committee at Portsmouth to the Lord General Essex, and read in the House of Lords on September 7, asking for more troops for the protection of he town, as the Cavaliers had succeeded in surprising both Dorchester and Weymouth. Colonel Norton's repulse at Basing was doubtless another cause for alarm to the adherents of the Parliament in Portsmouth. Colonel Harvey, who aided Colonel Norton in this attack upon Basing, had formerly been a captain in one of the regiments of the London Trained Bands. He had been unfortunate in business, and is described as a "decayed silkman." When the war broke out he was appointed to the command of a troop of horse and of a regiment of dragoons. The women of London presented a petition for peace to the House of Commons, and, refusing to disperse. Colonel Harvey, with his troop of horse, was ordered to charge the unarmed crowd. The order was rigorously obeyed, at least two women were killed, and not a few wounded. Colonel Harvey's standard bore the device of a Bible ith the motto " Lex Suprema " (the supreme law !) and below a city, with the motto " Salus Patriae " (the safety of our fatherland). During the Commonwealth, Colonel Harvey was the temporary owner of Fulham Palace and of various revenues belonging of right to the See of London. One who knew him says "He came off bluely in the end."

After the repulse of Harvey and Norton, Basing House "is then begunne, according to the quantity of men now added, to be fortified." Cavaliers evidently knew how to use pickaxe and spade, as well as musket and pike. The whole area of the fortifications was fourteen and a-half acres, and many a now grass- covered rampart is still in existence.

60 At the end of September, 1643 Governor Murford was actively engaged in fortifying Southampton. He threatened to hang the tythingman of Stoneham for negligence in execution of the warrants sent out for the raising of men and levying of money in the neighbourhood, and his sub-committee voted that the King's proclamation forbidding the payment of rents to those in arms against him should be burnt by the common hangman." The good old Mayor," however, possessed sufficient influence to prevent this plan being carried out. The Earl of Southampton's house was also seized, and made to do duty as a gaol. On Saturday, November 4, the Association of Hants, Sussex, Kent, Surrey, and the town and county of Southampton was officially announced, and Thomas Mason, Mayor of Southampton, was one of the Parliamentarian Committee of Hampshire.

On November 22, 1643, Parliament was of opinion that Southampton stood in need of further protection, and that it would be well to raise an additional force for that purpose. The cost of so doing was to be defrayed from certain new excise duties, and by the sequestration of the estates of Papists, Cavaliers, and delinquents.

Once again, Parliament turned to the Idle Dick. The following Committee was therefore appointed : Richard Norton, Esq., Thomas Mason, Mayor of Southampton, Richard Major, Esq., and Aldermen Edward Hooper, George Gallop, Edward Exton, Robert Wroth, and Henry Bracebridge, Esqrs. All things considered, the year 1643 must have witnessed some stirring scenes in Southampton.

This evolved into the siege of Arundel Castle. As a part of that effort, Sir William Waller now determined to attack Lord Hopton's scattered forces in two places at once, "as beating up of quarters was his master piece." Colonel Norton, the "Idle Dick" of Cromwell, and now Governor of Southampton, received orders which he was not slow to execute. His old friend and comrade, Captain Francis St. Barbe, of Broadlands, had been slain in the first battle of Newbury, on the 20th of the preceding September, but he had as his subordinates Sergeant-Major (or Major) Murford, of whom frequent mention has already been made, and Captain Bowen.

Major Murford's company was 130 strong, whilst that of Captain Bowen mustered 96. Another account says Norton had less than 220 men. An attack was planned upon the town of Romsey, which was then garrisoned by Colonel Bennet's regiment of horse, variously estimated to be both 1 30 and 200 strong, and a regiment of foot commanded by Colonel Courtney, said to number 300, with a view of keeping in check the Parliamentarian garrison, which was ordered on Tuesday, November 29, 1642, to be established at Southampton. Sir Humphrey Bennet was, says Mr. Money, one of the Bennets of Pythouse, Wilts. Colonel Thomas Bennet was Prince Rupert's Secretary, and the family were staunch adherents to the Royal cause. Sir Humphrey Bennet himself was High

61 Sheriff of Southampton, and commanded a brigade of horse at the second battle of Newbury, which was fought on Saturday, October 26, 1644.

On this occasion his regiment consisted of nine troops, almost full, but having only two colours. Sir Thomas Jervoise speaks of him as being "very active and very cruel," writing, of course, with prejudice. We learn from a letter written at Southampton, on December 13, that Colonel Norton's force left that town at three o'clock on the morning of December 12. The forlorn hope was led by Lieutenant Terry, whose family lived at Dummer, the first division by Sergeant-Major Murford, the main body by Colonel Norton, whilst Captain Bowen, with his men divided into two parties, brought up the rear.

In this order they marched in silence to Romsey, which was reached about an hour after daybreak, whereupon the forlorn hope was sent to force its way over a bridge into the town near Broadlands. Major Murford, with some of his men, "fell upon their strong traverse, which was presently quitted by their sentinels." He at once followed up his success, fought his way into the town, capturing the main guard, whereupon the Cavaliers threw down their arms and fled. Murford then entered several houses, and secured various prisoners, one of whom was "Captain Lieutenant (i.e., Senior Lieutenant) Norton, brother to Colonel Norton, and a far honester man than himself". Seven Cavaliers were killed in the market-place, two of whom were captains." Murford hath one of their commissions." Colonel Norton then entered the town with the main body of his forces, and the Cavaliers fled, most of them probably taking the direction of Winchester.

The prisoners, either twenty-five or forty in number, included three captains, two lieutenants, one corporal, and several gentlemen. Nearly 200 horses, numerous arms, and the magazines were captured. Many muskets were broken by the victors, who also threw several barrels of powder into the river, and the triumphant returned unmolested to Southampton. On the same night a party of thirty men sent from Southampton to Romsey brought back some plunder without opposition, and on the following day there was a solemn thanksgiving at Southampton for Colonel Norton's success. Before his return to Winchester Lord Hopton heard of the capture of Romsey by Colonel Norton at the head of a force from the Puritan garrison of Southampton, and of the defeat and death of Colonel Belle at Alton. The fugitives from both Romsey and Alton reached Winchester on the morning of December 13, and on December 20 Sir William Waller commenced his seventeen days' successful siege of Arundel Castle.

The 'Hambledon Boys' took to the field againt, fighting for Parliament under Colonel Norton of Southwick, when they distinguished themselves at the Battle of Cheriton (June 29, 1644). The area around Hambledon became famous again after the battle of Worcester (September 3, 1651) and his escape by hiding in an oaktree, King Charles II who was disguised as a poor

62 yeoman, spent the night of October 13, 1651 at the cottage adjoining the house of Mr Thomas Symonds. The cottage still stands and is now called 'King's Rest'. This was to be his last night in England before escaping to France and eight years as an exile.

The Battle of Cheriton was an important Parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War. It took place on March 29, 1644 and resulted in the defeat of a Royalist army, which threw King Charles I onto the defensive for the remainder of the year. Early in 1644, a Royalist army under Lord Hopton faced a Parliamentarian army under Sir William Waller in the southern . After some reverses during the previous December, culminating in the Battle of Alton, Hopton had withdrawn to Winchester to regroup and recruit. He was joined here by a detachment from the King's main "Oxford Army" under the Earl of Forth, who unwillingly took command of the army. They resumed their advance eastward early in March.

Waller's Army of the Southern Association had also been reinforced by detachments from the main Parliamentarian army under the Earl of Essex and the London Trained Bands, and was advancing westward from his winter quarters near Arundel. Forth and Hopton determined to seize New Alresford, thus placing themselves between Waller and London. They forestalled Parliamentarian horse under Sir William Balfour, and occupied the town late on March 27.

On March 28, the Royalists advanced cautiously south from Alresford. An advanced guard under Sir George Lisle occupied an outpost position near Cheriton as night fell, and reported that the Parliamentarians were retreating. The Parliamentarians had been outmanoevred up to this point, and had indeed begun to retreat, but overnight Waller changed his mind and ordered an advance. As dawn broke, the City of London brigade occupied Cheriton Wood. Hopton had moved to Lisle's outpost, and realised that it would have to be hastily withdrawn. The Royalists fell back to a ridge north of the wood, as Waller advanced.

Hopton determined to recapture Cheriton Wood, and sent forward 1000 "commanded" musketeers under a Colonel Appleyard, supported by a battery of guns. There was some hot fighting, but the Parliamentarians abandoned the wood. Forth and Hopton intended to stand on the defensive at this point, but an impetuous cavalry commander, Sir Henry Bard, launched his regiment against the Parliamentarian left wing horse. These were the fully armoured cuirassiers under Sir Arthur Haselrig, sometimes known as the London lobsters. Bard's regiment was overwhelmed. The other Royalist cavalry on the right wing tried to support him, but were forced to make disjointed attacks along narrow lanes and were defeated in turn.

63 Hopton sent the Royalist horse from the left wing under Sir Edward Stawell to make a better prepared attack, but they were also defeated. Heselrig's regiment now attacked the Royalist foot moving up in support, and drove them back. The Parliamentarians also attacked the Royalist left, which had been denuded of its horse, and regained Cheriton Wood. The Royalists fell back to their ridge, but Hopton and Forth realised they could not withstand a deliberate Parliamentarian attack the next day. As evening fell, the Royalists retreated to Basing House.

The defeat of Forth's and Hopton's army meant that the Parliamentarian armies of Essex and Waller could concentrate against the King at Oxford. Although Charles was able to partly restore the situation later in the year by gaining victories at Cropredy Bridge and Lostwithiel, he could never again resume the offensive in the south of England.

64 Richard “the ‘Roundhead’” Norton of Southwick was friends with Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England:

 Oliver Cromwell (born April 25, 1599 Old Style, died September 3, 1658 Old Style) was an English military and political leader best known for his involvement in making England into a republican Commonwealth and for his later role as Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland. He was one of the commanders of the which defeated the royalists in the English Civil War. After the execution of King Charles I in 1649, Cromwell dominated the short-lived , conquered Ireland and Scotland, and ruled as Lord Protector from 1653 until his death in 1658. Cromwell was born into the ranks of the middle gentry, and remained relatively obscure for the first 40 years of Arms of Sidney Sussex College, his life, at times his lifestyle resembling that Cambridge University, of a yeoman farmer until his finances were where rests “the Head.” boosted thanks to an inheritance from his uncle. After undergoing a religious conversion during the same decade, he made an Independent style of Puritanism a core tenet of his life. Cromwell was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Cambridge in the Short (1640) and Long (1640- 49) Parliaments, and later entered the English Civil War on the side of the "Roundheads" or Parliamentarians.

An effective soldier (nicknamed "Old Ironsides") he rose from leading a single cavalry troop to command of the entire army. Cromwell was the third person to sign Charles I's death warrant in 1649 and was an MP in the (1649-1653), being chosen by the Rump to take command of the English campaign in Ireland during 1649-50. He then led a campaign against the Scottish army between 1650-51. On April 20, 1653 he dismissed the Rump Parliament by force, setting up a short-lived nominated assembly known as the Barebones Parliament before being made Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland on 16 December 1653 until his death. He was buried in , but when the Royalists returned to power in 1660, his corpse was dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded.

Cromwell has been a very controversial figure in the history of the British Isles – a regicidal dictator to some historians (such as David Hume and

65 Christopher Hill) and a hero of liberty to others (such as Thomas Carlyle and ). In Britain he was elected as one of the Top 10 Britons of all time in a 2002 BBC poll. His measures against Irish Catholics have been characterized by some historians as genocidal or near-genocidal, and in Ireland itself he is widely hated. Approximately 40,000 Irish men, women and especially children were sold into slavery – mostly in the Caribbean – during his rule.

Relatively few sources survive which tell us about the first forty years of Oliver Cromwell's life. He was born at Cromwell House in Huntingdon on 25 April 1599, to Robert (c.1560-1617) and . He was descended from Catherine Cromwell (born circa 1482), an older sister of Tudor statesman Thomas Cromwell. Catherine was married to Morgan ap Williams, son of William ap Yevan of Wales and Joan Tudor (reportedly a granddaughter of Owen Tudor, which would make Oliver Cromwell a distant cousin of his Stuart foes). The family line continued through (c. 1500–1544), Henry Cromwell (c. 1524–6 January 1603), then to Oliver's father Robert Cromwell (c. 1560– 1617), who married Elizabeth Steward or Stewart (1564–1654) on the day of Oliver Cromwell's birth. Thomas thus was Oliver's great-great-great-uncle.

The social status of Cromwell's family at his birth was relatively low within the gentry class. His father was a younger son, and one of 10 siblings who survived into adulthood. As a result, Robert's inheritance was limited to a house at Huntingdon and a small amount of land. This land would have generated an income of up to £300 a year, near the bottom of the range of gentry incomes. Cromwell himself, much later in 1654, said "I was by birth a gentleman, living neither in considerable height, nor yet in obscurity".

Records survive of Cromwell's baptism on 29 April 1599 at St. John's Church, and his attendance at Huntingdon Grammar School. He went on to study at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, which was then a recently founded college with a strong puritan ethos.

Sidney Sussex College (often informally shortened to just Sidney) was founded in 1596 and named after its foundress, Frances Sidney, Countess of Sussex. It is one of the 31 Colleges that make up the University of Cambridge. It was from its inception an avowedly Puritan foundation: some good and godlie moniment for the mainteynance of good learninge. Oliver Cromwell was among the first students (although his father became ill and he never graduated), and his head is now buried beneath the College's chapel.

While the College's geographic size has changed little since 1596, the exterior of the original E-shaped building was changed significantly in the 1830s under the leadership of Master Chafee. By the early 1800s the building's original red brick was aging poorly. This also coincided with a brief revival of gothic

66 architecture. It was decided then that the exterior brick would be covered with a layer of cement and given the appearance of a castle.

The college is nicknamed "Sidney Sainsbury's" by neighbouring Cambridge students, due to its proximity to the Sidney Street branch of Sainsbury's, frequented by Cambridge students from all colleges thanks to its central location.

Sidney student population is relatively small with roughly 350 undergraduate students and 190 graduates. Academically speaking, Sidney Sussex has, of late, tended towards a mid-table position in the unofficial Tompkins Table (placing 14th out of 29 in 2008). However, the college has traditionally excelled in certain subjects, notably Engineering, History and Law.

Sidney's sporting performance is equally unexceptional, although it does boast strong women's football and netball teams, and performs well at darts.]

The college claims to have the cheapest bar in Cambridge, which is one of the few student-run bars in Cambridge University, a source of much pride for Sidney students. Clare, Darwin, Downing and Emmanuel Colleges also have student-run bars.

Sidney Sussex has a proud history in the television show University Challenge, putting together a winning team in both 1971 and 1978–79. The 1978 team, comprising John Gilmore, , David Lidington, and Nick Graham, went on to win the "Champion of Champions" University Challenge Reunion competition in 2002.

The Confraternitas Historica, or Confraternitas Historica Dominae Franciscae Comitis Sussexiae, is the history society of Sidney Sussex College and is reputed to be the longest-running student history society in Cambridge University, with uninterrupted activity dating back to 1908.

The Society places a strong emphasis on student participation, and was conceived as a forum which would allow history Fellows and students of the College to socialise in an informal environment. This ethos can be observed in many of the founding articles of the society, where a strong emphasis is placed on regular dinners and historical talks and debates. Membership is open to all Sidney history students, both undergraduate and graduate. No joining-fee or subscription is required, and students are automatically enrolled on matriculation. Membership is entirely voluntary and life-long.

Cromwell left Sussex College in June 1617 without taking a degree, immediately after the death of his father. Early biographers claim he then attended Lincoln's Inn, but there is no record of him in the Inn's archives. He is more likely to have returned home to Huntingdon, for his mother was widowed

67 and his seven sisters were unmarried, and he, therefore, was needed to help his family.

On August 22, 1620 at St.Giles's church, Cripplegate, London, Cromwell married Elizabeth Bourchier (1598–1665). They had nine children:

 Robert (1621-1639), died while away at school.  Oliver (1622-1644), died of typhoid fever while serving as a Parliamentarian officer.  Bridget (1624-1681), married (1) , (2) Charles Fleetwood.  Richard (1626-1712), his father's successor as Lord Protector.  Henry (1628-1674), later Lord Deputy of Ireland.  Elizabeth (1629-1658), married John Claypole.  James (b. & d. 1632), died in infancy.  Mary (1637-1713), married Thomas Belasyse, 1st Earl Fauconberg.  Frances (1638-1720), married (1) Robert Rich, (2) Sir John Russell, 4th Baronet.

Elizabeth's father, Sir James Bourchier, was a London leather merchant who owned extensive land in Essex and had strong connections with puritan gentry families there. The marriage brought Cromwell into contact with and also with leading members of the London merchant community, and behind them the influence of the earls of Warwick and Holland. Membership of this godly network would prove crucial to Cromwell’s military and political career. At this stage, though, there is little evidence of Cromwell’s own religion. His letter in 1626 to Henry Downhall, an Arminian minister, suggests that Cromwell had yet to be influenced by radical puritanism. However, there is evidence that Cromwell went through a period of personal crisis during the late and early 1630s. He sought treatment for valde melancolicus (depression) from London doctor Theodore de Mayerne in 1628. He was also caught up in a fight among the gentry of Huntingdon over a new charter for the town, as a result of which he was called before the Privy Council in 1630.

In 1631 Cromwell sold most of his properties in Huntingdon — probably as a result of the dispute — and moved to a farmstead in St Ives. This was a major step down in society compared to his previous position, and seems to have had a major emotional and spiritual impact. A 1638 letter survives from Cromwell to the wife of Oliver St John, and gives an account of his spiritual awakening. The letter outlines how, having been the "the chief of sinners", Cromwell had been called to be among "the congregation of the firstborn". The language of this letter, which is saturated with biblical quotations and which represents Cromwell as having been saved from sin by God's mercy, places his faith firmly within the Independent beliefs that the Reformation had not gone far enough, that much of England was still living in sin, and that Catholic beliefs and practices needed to be fully removed from the church.

68 In 1636, Cromwell inherited control of various properties in Ely from his uncle on his mother's side, as well as that uncle's job as tithe collector for Ely Cathedral. As a result, his income is likely to have risen to around £300-400 per year; and, by the end of the 1630s, Cromwell had returned to the ranks of acknowledged gentry. He had become a committed puritan and had also established important family links to leading families in London and Essex.

Cromwell became the Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in the Parliament of 1628–1629, as a client of the Montagus. He made little impression: records for the Parliament show only one speech (against the Arminian Bishop ), which was poorly received. After dissolving this Parliament, Charles I ruled without a Parliament for the next eleven years. When Charles faced the Scottish rebellion known as the Bishops' Wars, shortage of funds forced him to call a Parliament again in 1640. Cromwell was returned to this Parliament as member for Cambridge, but it lasted for only three weeks and became known as the .

A second Parliament was called later the same year. This was to become known as the Long Parliament. Cromwell was again returned to this Parliament as member for Cambridge. As with the Parliament of 1628-9, it is likely that Cromwell owed his position to the patronage of others, which would explain the fact that in the first week of the Parliament he was in charge of presenting a petition for the release of , who had become a puritan martyr after being arrested for importing religious tracts from Holland. Otherwise it is unlikely that a relatively unknown member would have been given this task. For the first two years of the Long Parliament, Cromwell was linked to the godly group of aristocrats in the House of Lords and MPs in the Commons with which he had already established familial and religious links in the 1630s, such as the earls of Essex, Warwick and Bedford, Oliver St John, and Viscount Saye and Sele. At this stage, the group had an agenda of godly reformation: the executive checked by regular parliaments, and the moderate extension of liberty of conscience. Cromwell appears to have taken a role in some of this group's political manoeuvres. In May 1641, for example, it was Cromwell who put forward the second reading of the Annual Parliaments Bill, and who later took a role in drafting the Root and Branch Bill for the abolition of episcopacy.

Failure to resolve the issues before the Long Parliament led to armed conflict between Parliament and Charles I in the autumn of 1642. Before joining Parliament's forces, Cromwell's only military experience was in the trained bands, the local county militia. Now 43 years old, he recruited a cavalry troop in Cambridgeshire after blocking a shipment of silver from Cambridge colleges that was meant for the king. Cromwell and his troop then fought at the indecisive in October 1642. The troop was recruited to be a full regiment in the winter of 1642/43, making up part of the under the Earl of Manchester. Cromwell gained experience and victories in a number of successful actions in East Anglia in 1643, notably at the Battle of Gainsborough

69 on 28 July. After this he was made governor of Ely and made a colonel in the Eastern Association.

By the time of the Battle of Marston Moor in July 1644, Cromwell had risen to the rank of Lieutenant General of horse in Manchester's army. The success of his cavalry in breaking the ranks of the Royalist horse and then attacking their infantry from the rear at Marston Moor was a major factor in the Parliamentarian victory in the battle. Cromwell fought at the head of his troops in the battle and was wounded in the head. Cromwell's nephew, Valentine Walton, was killed at Marston Moor, and Cromwell wrote a famous letter to the soldier's father, Cromwell's brother-in-law, telling him of the soldier's death. Marston Moor secured the north of England for the Parliamentarians, but failed to end Royalist resistance.

The indecisive outcome of the second Battle of Newbury in October meant that by the end of 1644, the war still showed no signs of ending. Cromwell's experience at Newbury, where Manchester had let the King's army slip out of an encircling manoeuvre, led to a serious dispute with Manchester, whom he believed to be less than enthusiastic in his conduct of the war. Manchester later accused Cromwell of recruiting men of "low birth" as officers in the army, to which he replied: "If you choose godly honest men to be captains of horse, honest men will follow them... I would rather have a plain russet-coated captain who knows what he fights for and loves what he knows than that which you call a gentleman and is nothing else". At this time, Cromwell also fell into dispute with Major-General Lawrence Crawford, a Scottish Covenanter Presbyterian attached to Manchester's army, who objected to Cromwell's encouragement of unorthodox Independents and Anabaptists. Cromwell's differences with the Scots, at that time allies of the Parliament, would later develop into outright enmity in 1648 and in 1650-51.

Partly in response to the failure to capitalise on their victory at Marston Moor, Parliament passed the Self-Denying Ordinance in early 1645. This forced members of the House of Commons and the Lords, such as Manchester, to choose between civil office and military command. All of them — with the exception of Cromwell, whose commission was given continued extensions — chose to renounce their military positions. The Ordinance also decreed that the army be "remodeled" on a national basis, replacing the old county associations. In April 1645 the New Model Army finally took to the field, with Sir in command and Cromwell as Lieutenant-General of cavalry, and second- in-command. By this time, the Parliamentarian's field army outnumbered the King's by roughly two to one. At the in June 1645, the New Model smashed the King's major army.

Cromwell led his wing with great success at Naseby, again routing the Royalist cavalry. At the Battle of Langport on 10 July, Cromwell participated in the defeat of the last sizable Royalist field army. Naseby and Langport effectively

70 ended the King's hopes of victory and the subsequent Parliamentarian campaigns involved taking the remaining fortified Royalist positions in the west of England. In October 1645, Cromwell besieged and took Basing House, later to be accused of killing a hundred of its three-hundred-man Royalist garrison there after its surrender.[22] Cromwell also took part in sieges at Bridgwater, Sherborne, Bristol, Devizes, and Winchester, then spent the first half of 1646 mopping up resistance in Devon and Cornwall. Charles I surrendered to the Scots on 5 May 1646, effectively ending the First English Civil War. Cromwell and Fairfax took the formal surrender of the Royalists at Oxford in June.

Cromwell had no formal training in military tactics, and followed the common practice of ranging his cavalry in three ranks and pressing forward. This method relied on impact rather than firepower. His strengths were in an instinctive ability to lead and train his men, and in his moral authority. In a war fought mostly by amateurs, these strengths were significant and are likely to have contributed to the discipline of his cavalry.

In February 1647 Cromwell suffered from an illness that kept him out of political life for over a month. By the time of his recovery, the Parliamentarians were split over the issue of the king. A majority in both Houses pushed for a settlement that would pay off the Scottish army, disband much of the New Model Army, and restore Charles I in return for a Presbyterian settlement of the Church. Cromwell rejected the Scottish model of Presbyterianism, which threatened to replace one authoritarian hierarchy with another. The New Model Army, radicalised by the failure of the Parliament to pay the wages it was owed, petitioned against these changes, but the Commons declared the petition unlawful. During May 1647, Cromwell was sent to the army's headquarters in Saffron Walden to negotiate with them, but failed to reach agreement. In June 1647, a troop of cavalry under Cornet George Joyce seized the king from Parliament's imprisonment. Although Cromwell is known to have met with Joyce on 31 May, it is impossible to be sure what Cromwell's role in this event was.

Cromwell and Henry Ireton then drafted a manifesto — the "Heads of Proposals" — designed to check the powers of the executive, set up regularly elected parliaments, and restore a non-compulsory Episcopalian settlement. Many in the army, such as the Levellers led by John Lilburne, thought this was insufficient, demanding full political equality for all men, leading to tense debates in Putney during the autumn of 1647 between Fairfax, Cromwell and Ireton on the one hand, and radical Levellers like Colonel Rainsborough on the other. The Putney Debates ultimately broke up without reaching a resolution. The debates, and the escape of Charles I from Hampton Court on 12 November, are likely to have hardened Cromwell's resolve against the king.

The failure to conclude a political agreement with the king eventually led to the outbreak of the Second English Civil War in 1648, when the King tried to regain power by force of arms. Cromwell first put down a Royalist uprising in

71 south Wales led by Rowland Laugharne, winning back Chepstow Castle on May 25 and six days later forcing the surrender of Tenby. The castle at Carmarthen was destroyed by burning. The much stronger castle at Pembroke, however, fell only after a siege of eight weeks. Cromwell dealt leniently with the ex-royalist soldiers, less so with those who had previously been members of the parliamentary army, with John Poyer eventually being executed in London after the drawing of lots.

Cromwell then marched north to deal with a pro-Royalist Scottish army (the Engagers) who had invaded England. At Preston, Cromwell, in sole command for the first time with an army of 9,000, won a brilliant victory against an army twice that size.

During 1648, Cromwell's letters and speeches started to become heavily based on biblical imagery, many of them meditations on the meaning of particular passages. For example, after the battle of Preston, study of Psalms 17 and 105 led him to tell Parliament that "they that are implacable and will not leave troubling the land may be speedily destroyed out of the land". A letter to Oliver St John in September 1648 urged him to read Isaiah 8, in which the kingdom falls and only the godly survive. This letter suggests that it was Cromwell's faith, rather than a commitment to radical politics, coupled with Parliament's decision to engage in negotiations with the king at the Treaty of Newport, that convinced him that God had spoken against both the king and Parliament as lawful authorities. For Cromwell, the army was now God's chosen instrument. The episode shows Cromwell’s firm belief in "Providentialism"—that God was actively directing the affairs of the world, through the actions of "chosen people" (whom God had "provided" for such purposes). Cromwell believed, during the Civil Wars, that he was one of these people, and he interpreted victories as indications of God's approval of his actions, and defeats as signs that God was directing him in another direction.

In December 1648, those MPs who wished to continue negotiations with the king were prevented from sitting by a troop of soldiers headed by Colonel , an episode soon to be known as Pride's Purge. Thus gerrymandered, the remaining body of MPs, known as the Rump, agreed that Charles should be tried on a charge of treason. Cromwell was still in the north of England, dealing with Royalist resistance when these events took place. However, after he returned to London, on the day after Pride's Purge, he became a determined supporter of those pushing for the king's trial and execution. He believed that killing Charles was the only way to bring the civil wars to an end. The death warrant for Charles was eventually signed by 59 of the trying court's members, including Cromwell (who was the third to sign it); Fairfax conspicuously refused to sign. Charles was executed on 30 January 1649.

After the execution of the King, a republic was declared, known as the Commonwealth of England. The Rump Parliament exercised both executive and

72 legislative powers, with a smaller Council of State also having some executive functions. Cromwell remained a member of the Rump and was appointed a member of the Council. In the early months after the execution of Charles I, Cromwell tried but failed to unite the original group of 'Royal Independents' centred around St John and Saye and Sele, which had fractured during 1648. Cromwell had been connected to this group since before the outbreak of war in 1642 and had been closely associated with them during the 1640s. However only St John was persuaded to retain his seat in Parliament. The Royalists, meanwhile, had regrouped in Ireland, having signed a treaty with the Irish Confederate Catholics. In March, Cromwell was chosen by the Rump to command a campaign against them. Preparations for an invasion of Ireland occupied Cromwell in the subsequent months. After quelling Leveller mutinies within the English army at Andover and Burford in May, Cromwell departed for Ireland from Bristol at the end of July.

Cromwell led a Parliamentary invasion of Ireland from 1649–50. Parliament's key opposition was the military threat posed by the alliance of the Irish Confederate Catholics and English royalists (signed in 1649). The Confederate-Royalist alliance was judged to be the biggest single threat facing the Commonwealth. However, the political situation in Ireland in 1649 was extremely fractured: there were also separate forces of Irish Catholics who were opposed to the royalist alliance, and Protestant royalist forces that were gradually moving towards Parliament. Cromwell said in a speech to the army Council on 23 March that "I had rather be overthrown by a Cavalierish interest than a Scotch interest; I had rather be overthrown by a Scotch interest than an Irish interest and I think of all this is the most dangerous".

Cromwell's hostility to the Irish was religious as well as political. He was passionately opposed to the Roman Catholic Church, which he saw as denying the primacy of the Bible in favour of papal and clerical authority, and which he blamed for suspected tyranny and persecution of Protestants in Europe. Cromwell's association of Catholicism with persecution was deepened with the . This rebellion was marked by execution of English and Scottish Protestant settlers by native Irish Catholics in Ireland (these settlers had settled on land seized from former, native Catholic owners to make way for the non-native Protestants). These factors contributed to Cromwell's harshness in his military campaign in Ireland.

Parliament had planned to re-conquer Ireland since 1641 and had already sent an invasion force there in 1647. Cromwell's invasion of 1649 was much larger and, with the civil war in England over, could be regularly reinforced and re-supplied. His nine month military campaign was brief and effective, though it did not end the war in Ireland. Before his invasion, Parliamentarian forces held only outposts in Dublin and Derry. When he departed Ireland, they occupied most of the eastern and northern parts of the country. After his landing at Dublin on 15 August 1649 (itself only recently secured for the Parliament at the battle of

73 Rathmines), Cromwell took the fortified port towns of Drogheda and Wexford to secure logistical supply from England. At the siege of Drogheda in September 1649, Cromwell's troops massacred nearly 3,500 people after the town's capture—comprising around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and all the men in the town carrying arms, including some civilians, prisoners, and Roman Catholic priests. At the Siege of Wexford in October, another massacre took place under confused circumstances. While Cromwell himself was trying to negotiate surrender terms, some of his soldiers broke into the town, killed 2,000 Irish troops and up to 1,500 civilians, and burned much of the town.

After the fall of Drogheda, Cromwell sent a column north to Ulster to secure the north of the country and went on to besiege Waterford, Kilkenny and Clonmel in Ireland's south-east. Kilkenny surrendered on terms, as did many other towns like New Ross and Carlow, but Cromwell failed to take Waterford and at the siege of Clonmel in May 1650, he lost up to 2,000 men in abortive assaults before the town surrendered. One of his major victories in Ireland was diplomatic rather than military. With the help of Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery, Cromwell persuaded the Protestant Royalist troops in Cork to change sides and fight with the Parliament. At this point, word reached Cromwell that Charles II had landed in Scotland and been proclaimed king by the Covenanter regime. Cromwell therefore returned to England from Youghal on 26 May 1650 to counter this threat.

The Parliamentarian conquest of Ireland dragged on for almost three years after Cromwell's departure. The campaigns under Cromwell's successors Henry Ireton and mostly consisted of long sieges of fortified cities and guerrilla warfare in the countryside. The last Catholic held town, Galway, surrendered in April 1652 and the last Irish troops capitulated in April of the following year.

In the wake of the Commonwealth's conquest, the public practice of Catholicism was banned and Catholic priests were murdered when captured. In addition, roughly 12,000 Irish people were sold into slavery under the Commonwealth. All Catholic-owned land was confiscated in the Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652 and given to Scottish and English settlers, the Parliament's financial creditors and Parliamentary soldiers. The remaining Catholic landowners were allocated poorer land in the province of Connacht - this led to the Cromwellian attributed phrase "To hell or to Connacht". Under the Commonwealth, Catholic landownership dropped from 60% of the total to just 8%. This all made him reviled by the Irish to this day.

The extent of Cromwell's brutality in Ireland has been strongly debated. Cromwell never accepted that he was responsible for the killing of civilians in Ireland, claiming that he had acted harshly, but only against those "in arms". In September 1649, he justified his sack of Drogheda as revenge for the massacres of Protestant settlers in Ulster in 1641, calling the massacre "the righteous

74 judgement of God on these barbarous wretches, who have imbued their hands with so much innocent blood." However, Drogheda had never been held by the rebels in 1641—many of its garrison were in fact English royalists. On the other hand, the worst atrocities committed in Ireland, such as mass evictions, killings and deportation of over 50,000 men, women and children for indentured labour to Bermuda and Barbados, were carried out under the command of other generals after Cromwell had left for England. On entering Ireland, Cromwell demanded that no supplies were to be seized from the civilian inhabitants, and that everything should be fairly purchased; "I do hereby warn....all Officers, Soldiers and others under my command not to do any wrong or violence toward Country People or any persons whatsoever, unless they be actually in arms or office with the enemy.....as they shall answer to the contrary at their utmost peril." Several English soldiers were hanged for disobeying these orders.

While the massacres at Drogheda and Wexford were in some ways typical of the day, especially in the context of the recently ended Thirty Years War which reduced the male population of by up to half, there are few comparable incidents during Parliament's campaigns in England or Scotland. One possible comparison is Cromwell's siege of Basing House in 1645 - the seat of the prominent Catholic the Marquess of Winchester - which resulted in about 300 of the garrison of 1,200 being killed after being refused quarter. Contemporaries also reported civilian casualties. However, the scale of the deaths at Basing House was much smaller.

Cromwell himself said of the slaughter at Drogheda in his first letter back to the Council of State: "I believe we put to the sword the whole number of the defendants. I do not think thirty of the whole number escaped with their lives." Cromwell's orders — "in the heat of the action, I forbade them to spare any that were in arms in the town" — followed a request for surrender at the start of the siege, which was refused. The military protocol of the day was that a town or garrison that rejected the chance to surrender was not entitled to quarter. The refusal of the garrison at Drogheda to do this, even after the walls had been breached, was to Cromwell justification for the massacre. Where Cromwell negotiated the surrender of fortified towns, as at Carlow, New Ross, and Clonmel, he respected the terms of surrender and protected the lives and property of the townspeople. At Wexford, Cromwell again began negotiations for surrender. However, the captain of Wexford castle surrendered during the middle of the negotiations, and in the confusion some of his troops began indiscriminate killing and looting. Amateur Irish historian (and Drogheda native) Tom Reilly has taken this argument further, claiming that the accepted versions of the campaigns in Drogheda and Wexford in which wholesale killings of civilians on Cromwell's orders took place "were a 19th century fiction". However, Reilly's conclusions have been rejected by some other scholars.

Although Cromwell's time spent on campaign in Ireland was limited, and although he did not take on executive powers until 1653, he is often the central

75 focus of wider debates about whether, as historians such as Mark Levene and John Morrill suggest, the Commonwealth conducted a deliberate programme of ethnic cleansing in Ireland. By the end, of the Cromwellian campaign and settlement there had been extensive dispossession of landowners who were Catholic, and a huge, drop in population.

The sieges of Drogheda and Wexford have been prominently mentioned in histories and literature up to the present day. James Joyce, for example, mentioned Drogheda in his novel Ulysses: "What about sanctimonious Cromwell and his ironsides that put the women and children of Drogheda to the sword with the bible text God is love pasted round the mouth of his cannon?" Similarly, Winston Churchill described the impact of Cromwell on Anglo-Irish relations: "upon all of these Cromwell's record was a lasting bane. By an uncompleted process of terror, by an iniquitous land settlement, by the virtual proscription of the Catholic religion, by the bloody deeds already described, he cut new gulfs between the nations and the creeds. 'Hell or Connaught' were the terms he thrust upon the native inhabitants, and they for their part, across three hundred years, have used as their keenest expression of hatred 'The Curse of Cromwell on you.' ... Upon all of us there still lies 'the curse of Cromwell'." Cromwell is still a figure of hatred in Ireland, his name being associated with massacre, religious persecution, and mass dispossession of the Catholic community there. A traditional Irish curse was malacht Cromail ort or "the curse of Cromwell upon you".

The key surviving statement of Cromwell's own views on the conquest of Ireland is his Declaration of the lord lieutenant of Ireland for the undeceiving of deluded and seduced people of January 1650. In this he was scathing about Catholicism, saying that "I shall not, where I have the power... suffer the exercise of the Mass." However, he also declared that: "as for the people, what thoughts they have in the matter of religion in their own breasts I cannot reach; but I shall think it my duty, if they walk honestly and peaceably, not to cause them in the least to suffer for the same." Private soldiers who surrendered their arms "and shall live peaceably and honestly at their several homes, they shall be permitted so to do." As with many incidents in Cromwell's career, there is debate about the extent of his sincerity in making these public statements: the Rump Parliament's later Act of Settlement of 1652 set out a much harsher policy of execution and confiscation of property of anyone who had supported the uprisings.

Cromwell left Ireland in May 1650 and several months later, invaded Scotland after the Scots had proclaimed Charles I's son as Charles II. Cromwell was much less hostile to Scottish Presbyterians, some of whom had been his allies in the First English Civil War, than he was to Irish Catholics. He described the Scots as a people fearing His [God's] name, though deceived" He made a famous appeal to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, urging them to see the error of the royal alliance—"I beseech you, in the bowels of Christ, think it possible you may be mistaken." The Scots' reply was robust: "would you

76 have us to be sceptics in our religion?" This decision to negotiate with Charles II led Cromwell to believe that war was necessary.

His appeal rejected, Cromwell's veteran troops went on to invade Scotland. At first, the campaign went badly, as Cromwell's men were short of supplies and held up at fortifications manned by Scottish troops under David Leslie. Cromwell was on the brink of evacuating his army by sea from Dunbar. However, on September 3, 1650, in an unexpected battle, Cromwell smashed the main Covenanter army at the Battle of Dunbar, killing 4,000 Scottish soldiers, taking another 10,000 prisoner and then capturing the Scottish capital of Edinburgh. The victory was of such a magnitude that Cromwell called it, "A high act of the Lord's Providence to us [and] one of the most signal mercies God hath done for England and His people". The following year, Charles II and his Scottish allies made a desperate attempt to invade England and capture London while Cromwell was engaged in Scotland. Cromwell followed them south and caught them at Worcester on 3 September 1651. At the subsequent Battle of Worcester, Cromwell's forces destroyed the last major Scottish Royalist army. Many of the Scottish prisoners of war taken in the campaigns died of disease, and others were sent to penal colonies in Barbados. In the final stages of the Scottish campaign, Cromwell's men, under George Monck, sacked the town of Dundee, killing up to 2,000 of its population of 12,000 and destroying the 60 ships in the city's harbour. During the Commonwealth, Scotland was ruled from England, and was kept under military occupation, with a line of fortifications sealing off the Highlands, which had provided manpower for Royalist armies in Scotland, from the rest of the country. The north west Highlands was the scene of another pro- royalist uprising in 1653-55, which was only put down with deployment of 6,000 English troops there. Presbyterianism was allowed to be practised as before, but the Kirk (the Scottish church) did not have the backing of the civil courts to impose its rulings, as it had previously.

Cromwell's conquest, unwelcome as it was, left no significant lasting legacy of bitterness in Scotland. The rule of the Commonwealth and Protectorate was, the Highlands aside, largely peaceful. Moreover, there was no wholesale confiscations of land or property. Three out of every four Justices of the Peace in Commonwealth Scotland were Scots and the country was governed jointly by the English military authorities and a Scottish Council of State. Although not often favourably regarded, Cromwell's name rarely meets the hatred in Scotland that it does in Ireland.

From the middle of 1649 until 1651, Cromwell was away on campaign. In the meantime, with the king gone (and with him their common cause), the various factions in Parliament began to engage in infighting. On his return, Cromwell tried to galvanise the Rump into setting dates for new elections, uniting the three kingdoms under one polity, and to put in place a broad-brush, tolerant national church. However, the Rump vacillated in setting election dates, and although it put in place a basic liberty of conscience, it failed to produce an alternative for

77 tithes or dismantle other aspects of the existing religious settlement. In frustration, in April 1653 Cromwell demanded that the Rump establish a caretaker government of 40 members (drawn both from the Rump and the army) and then abdicate. However, the Rump returned to debating its own bill for a new government. Cromwell was so angered by this that on 20 April 20, 1653, supported by about forty musketeers, he cleared the chamber and dissolved the Parliament by force. Several accounts exist of this incident: in one, Cromwell is supposed to have said "you are no Parliament, I say you are no Parliament; I will put an end to your sitting". At least two accounts agree that Cromwell snatched up the mace, symbol of Parliament's power, and demanded that the "bauble" be taken away. Cromwell's troops were commanded by Charles Worsley, later one of his Major Generals and one of his most trusted advisors, to whom he entrusted the mace.

After the dissolution of the Rump, power passed temporarily to a council that debated what form the constitution should take. They took up the suggestion of Major-General Thomas Harrison for a "sanhedrin" of saints. Although Cromwell did not subscribe to Harrison's apocalyptic, Fifth Monarchist beliefs – which saw a sanhedrin as the starting point for Christ's rule on earth – he was attracted by the idea of an assembly made up of men chosen for their religious credentials. In his speech at the opening of the assembly on July 4, 1653, Cromwell thanked God’s providence that he believed had brought England to this point and set out their divine mission: “truly God hath called you to this work by, I think, as wonderful providences as ever passed upon the sons of men in so short a time”. Sometimes known as the Parliament of Saints or more commonly the Nominated Assembly, it was also called the Barebone's Parliament after one of its members, Praise-God Barbon. The assembly was tasked with finding a permanent constitutional and religious settlement (Cromwell was invited to be a member but declined). However, the revelation that a considerably larger segment of the membership than had been believed were the radical Fifth Monarchists led to its members voting to dissolve it on December 12, 1653, out of fear of what the radicals might do if they took control of the Assembly.

After the dissolution of the Barebones Parliament, put forward a new constitution known as the Instrument of Government, closely modelled on the Heads of Proposals. It made Cromwell Lord Protector for life to undertake “the chief magistracy and the administration of government”. Cromwell was sworn in as Lord Protector on 16 December 1653, with a ceremony in which he wore plain black clothing, rather than any monarchical regalia. However, from this point on Cromwell signed his name 'Oliver P', standing for Oliver Protector - in a similar style to that used by English monarchs - and it soon became the norm for others to address him as "Your highness". As Protector, he had the power to call and dissolve parliaments but was obliged under the Instrument to seek the majority vote of a Council of State. Nevertheless, Cromwell's power was buttressed by his continuing popularity among the army. As the Lord Protector he was paid £100,000 a year.

78 Cromwell had two key objectives as Lord Protector. The first was "healing and settling" the nation after the chaos of the civil wars and the regicide, which meant establishing a stable form for the new government to take Although Cromwell declared to the first Protectorate Parliament that, "Government by one man and a parliament is fundamental," in practice social priorities took precedence over forms of government. Such forms were, he said, "but... dross and dung in comparison of Christ". The social priorities did not, despite the revolutionary nature of the government, include any meaningful attempt to reform the social order. Cromwell declared, "A nobleman, a gentleman, a yeoman; the distinction of these: that is a good interest of the nation, and a great one!", Small- scale reform such as that carried out on the judicial system were outweighed by attempts to restore order to English politics. Direct taxation was reduced slightly and peace was made with the Dutch, ending the First Anglo-Dutch War.

England's American colonies in this period consisted of the New England Confederation, the Virginia Colony and the Maryland Colony. Cromwell soon secured the submission of these and largely left them to their own affairs, intervening only to curb his fellow Puritans who were usurping control over the Maryland Colony, by his confirming the former Catholic proprietorship and edict of tolerance there. Of all the English dominions, Virginia was the most resentful of Cromwell's rule, and Cavalier emigration there mushroomed during .

Cromwell famously stressed the quest to restore order in his speech to the first Protectorate parliament at its inaugural meeting on September 3, 1654. He declared that "healing and settling" were the "great end of your meeting". However, the Parliament was quickly dominated by those pushing for more radical, properly republican reforms. After some initial gestures approving appointments previously made by Cromwell, the Parliament began to work on a radical programme of constitutional reform. Rather than opposing Parliament’s bill, Cromwell dissolved them on January 22, 1655.

Cromwell's second objective was spiritual and moral reform. He aimed to restore liberty of conscience and promote both outward and inly godliness throughout England. During the early months of the Protectorate, a set of "triers" was established to assess the suitability of future parish ministers, and a related set of "ejectors" was set up dismiss ministers and schoolmasters who were deemed unsuitable for office. The triers and the ejectors were intended to be at the vanguard of Cromwell's reform of parish worship. This second objective is also the context in which to see the constitutional experiment of the Major Generals that followed the dissolution of the first Protectorate Parliament. After a royalist uprising in March 1655, led by Sir John Penruddock, Cromwell (influenced by Lambert) divided England into military districts ruled by Army Major Generals who answered only to him. The 15 major generals and deputy major generals — called "godly governors" — were central not only to national security, but Cromwell's crusade to reform the nation's morals.

79 The generals not only supervised militia forces and security commissions, but collected taxes and ensured support for the government in the English and Welsh provinces. Commissioners for securing the peace of the commonwealth were appointed to work with them in every county. While a few of these commissioners were career politicians, most were zealous puritans who welcomed the major-generals with open arms and embraced their work with enthusiasm. However, the major-generals lasted less than a year. Many feared they threatened their reform efforts and authority. Their position was further harmed by a tax proposal by Major General John Desborough to provide financial backing for their work, which the second Protectorate parliament— instated in September 1656—voted down for fear of a permanent military state. Ultimately, however, Cromwell's failure to support his men, sacrificing them to his opponents, caused their demise. Their activities between November 1655 and September 1656 had, however, reopened the wounds of the 1640s and deepened antipathies to the regime.

As Lord Protector, Cromwell was aware of the contribution the Jewish community made to the economic success of Holland, now England's leading commercial rival. It was this—allied to Cromwell’s toleration of the right to private worship of those who fell outside evangelical puritanism—that led to his encouraging to return to England in 1657, over 350 years after their banishment by Edward I, in the hope that they would help speed up the recovery of the country after the disruption of the Civil Wars.

In 1657, Cromwell was offered the crown by Parliament as part of a revised constitutional settlement, presenting him with a dilemma, since he had been "instrumental" in abolishing the monarchy. Cromwell agonised for six weeks over the offer. He was attracted by the prospect of stability it held out, but in a speech on 13 April 1657 he made clear that God's providence had spoken against the office of king: “I would not seek to set up that which Providence hath destroyed and laid in the dust, and I would not build Jericho again”. The reference to Jericho harks back to a previous occasion on which Cromwell had wrestled with his conscience when the news reached England of the defeat of an expedition against the Spanish-held island of Hispaniola in the West Indies in 1655 — comparing himself to Achan, who had brought the Israelites defeat after bringing plunder back to camp after the capture of Jericho. Instead, Cromwell was ceremonially re-installed as Lord Protector on June 26, 1657 (with greater powers than had previously been granted him under this title) at Westminster Hall, sitting upon King Edward's Chair which was specially moved from Westminster Abbey for the occasion.

The event in part echoed a coronation, utilising many of its symbols and regalia, such as a purple ermine-lined robe, a sword of justice and a sceptre (but not a crown or an orb). But, most notably, the office of Lord Protector was still not to become hereditary, though Cromwell was now able to nominate his own successor. Cromwell's new rights and powers were laid out in the Humble

80 Petition and Advice, a legislative instrument which replaced the Instrument of Government. Despite failing to restore the Crown, this new constitution did set up many of the vestiges of the ancient constitution including a pseudo-House of Lords known as the 'Other House' of Parliament. Furthermore, Oliver Cromwell increasingly took on more of the trappings of monarchy. In particular, he created two baronages after the acceptance of the Humble Petition and Advice- Charles Howard was made Viscount Morpeth and Baron Gisland in July 1657 and was created Baron Burnell of East Wittenham in April 1658. Cromwell himself, however, was at pains to minimise his role, describing himself as a constable or watchman.

Cromwell is thought to have suffered from malaria (probably first contracted while on campaign in Ireland) and from "stone", a common term for urinary/kidney infections. In 1658 he was struck by a sudden bout of malarial fever, followed directly by an attack of urinary/kidney symptoms. A Venetian physician tracked Cromwell's final illness, saying Cromwell's personal physicians were mismanaging his health, leading to a rapid decline and death. The decline may also have been hastened by the death of his favourite daughter, , in August at the age of 29. He died at Whitehall on Friday September 3, 1658, the anniversary of his great victories at Dunbar and Worcester. The most likely cause of Cromwell's death was septicaemia following his urinary infection. He was buried with great ceremony, with an elaborate funeral based on that of James I, at Westminster Abbey, his daughter Elizabeth also being buried there.

He was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard. Although Richard was not entirely without ability, he had no power base in either Parliament or the Army, and was forced to resign in May 1659, bringing the Protectorate to an end. In the period immediately following his abdication the head of the army, George Monck, took power for less than a year, at which point Parliament restored Charles II as king.

In 1661, Oliver Cromwell's body was exhumed from Westminster Abbey, and was subjected to the ritual of a posthumous execution, as were the remains of and Henry Ireton. (The body of Cromwell's daughter was allowed to remain buried in the Abbey.) Symbolically, this took place on 30 January; the same date that Charles I had been executed. His body was hanged in chains at . Finally, his disinterred body was thrown into a pit, while his severed head was displayed on a pole outside Westminster Hall until 1685. Afterwards the head changed hands several times, including the sale in 1814 to a man named Josiah Henry Wilkinson, before eventually being buried in the grounds of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, in 1960.

During his lifetime, some tracts painted him as a hypocrite motivated by power — for example, The Machiavilian Cromwell and The Juglers Discovered, both part of an attack on Cromwell by the Levellers after 1647, present him as a

81 Machiavellian figure.[91] More positive contemporary assessments — for instance, John Spittlehouse in A Warning Piece Discharged — typically compared him to Moses, rescuing the English by taking them safely through the Red Sea of the civil wars.[92] Several biographies were published soon after his death. An example is The Perfect Politician, which described how Cromwell "loved men more than books" and gave a nuanced assessment of him as an energetic campaigner for liberty of conscience brought down by pride and ambition.

An equally nuanced but less positive assessment was published in 1667 by Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, in his History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England. Clarendon famously declared that Cromwell "will be looked upon by posterity as a brave bad man". He argued that Cromwell's rise to power had been helped not only by his great spirit and energy, but also by his ruthlessness. Clarendon was not one of Cromwell's confidantes, and his account was written after the Restoration of the monarchy.

During the early eighteenth century, Cromwell’s image began to be adopted and reshaped by the Whigs, as part of a wider project to give their political objectives historical legitimacy. A version of Edmund Ludlow’s Memoirs, re-written by John Toland to excise the radical Puritanical elements and replace them with a Whiggish brand of republicanism, presented the Cromwellian Protectorate as a military tyranny. Through Ludlow, Toland portrayed Cromwell as a despot who crushed the beginnings of democratic rule in the 1640s.

During the early nineteenth century, Cromwell began to be adopted by Romantic artists and poets. Victor Hugo's 1827 play Cromwell is often considered to be symbolic of the French romantic movement, and represents Cromwell as a ruthless yet dynamic Romantic hero. A similar impression of a world-changing individual with a strong will and personality was provided in 1831 by a picture painted by the Frenchman Hippolyte Delaroche, who depicted the legend of Cromwell visiting the body of Charles I after his execution. Thomas Carlyle continued this reassessment of Cromwell in the 1840s by presenting him as a hero in the battle between good and evil and a model for restoring morality to an age that Carlyle believed to have been dominated by timidity, meaningless rhetoric, and moral compromise. Cromwell's actions, including his campaigns in Ireland and his dissolution of the Long Parliament, according to Carlyle, had to be appreciated and praised as a whole.

In Westminster Abbey the site of Cromwell's burial was marked by a floor stone, laid in what is now the Air Force Chapel, reading "THE BURIAL PLACE OF OLIVER CROMWELL 1658 - 1661"

By the late nineteenth century, Carlyle’s portrayal of Cromwell, stressing the centrality of puritan morality and earnestness, had become assimilated into Whig and Liberal historiography. The Oxford civil war historian Samuel Rawson Gardiner concluded that "the man — it is ever so with the noblest — was greater

82 than his work". Gardiner stressed Cromwell’s dynamic and mercurial character, and his role in dismantling absolute monarchy, while underestimating Cromwell’s religious conviction. Cromwell’s foreign policy also provided an attractive forerunner of Victorian imperial expansion, with Gardiner stressing his “constancy of effort to make England great by land and sea”.

In 1875, a statue of Cromwell by Matthew Noble was erected in Manchester outside the cathedral, a gift to the city by Mrs Abel Heywood in memory of her first husband It was the first such large-scale statue to be erected in the open anywhere in England and was a realistic likeness, based the painting by Peter Lely and showing Cromwell in battledress with drawn sword and leather body armour. The statue was unpopular with the local Conservatives and with the large Irish immigrant population alike. When was invited to open the new , she is alleged to have consented on condition that the statue of Cromwell be removed. The statue remained; Victoria declined; and the Town Hall was opened by the Lord Mayor. During the 1980s the statue was more appropriately relocated outside , which had been occupied by Cromwell and his troops.

During the 1890s plans to erect a statue of Cromwell outside Parliament caused considerable controversy. Pressure from the Irish Nationalist Party forced the withdrawal of a motion to seek public funding for the project and eventually it was funded privately by Lord Rosebery. In 2008 the statue was restored in time for the 350th anniversary of Cromwell's death.

During the reign of George V, Parliament entertained the idea of naming a battleship HMS Cromwell; the King was not amused, and the proposal was dropped.

During the first half of the twentieth century, Cromwell's reputation was often influenced by the rise of fascism in Germany and Italy. Wilbur Cortez Abbott, for example — a Harvard historian — devoted much of his career to compiling and editing a multi-volume collection of Cromwell's letters and speeches. In the course of this work, which was published between 1937 and 1947, Abbott began to argue that Cromwell was a proto-fascist. However, subsequent historians such as John Morrill have criticised both Abbott's interpretation of Cromwell and his editorial approach. Ernest Barker similarly compared the Independents to the Nazis. Nevertheless, not all historical comparisons made at this time drew on contemporary military dictators.

Late twentieth century historians have re-examined the nature of Cromwell’s faith and of his authoritarian regime. Austin Woolrych explored the issue of "dictatorship" in depth, arguing that Cromwell was subject to two conflicting forces: his obligation to the army and his desire to achieve a lasting settlement by winning back the confidence of the political nation as a whole. Woolrych argued that the dictatorial elements of Cromwell's rule stemmed not so

83 much from its military origins or the participation of army officers in civil government, as from his constant commitment to the interest of the people of God and his conviction that suppressing vice and encouraging virtue constituted the chief end of government.

Historians such as John Morrill, Blair Worden and J.C. Davis have developed this theme, revealing the extent to which Cromwell’s writing and speeches are suffused with biblical references, and arguing that his radical actions were driven by his zeal for godly reformation.

84 Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, was converted to Puritanism by Swithun Butterfield of Pembroke College, Cambridge:

 Swithun Butterfield of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, influenced Oliver Cromwell towards Puritanism. Pembroke College is a college of the University of Cambridge, home to over six hundred students and fellows, and is the third oldest of the colleges. Physically, it is one of the larger colleges in the university, and contains buildings from almost every century since its founding, as well as extensive and immaculately maintained gardens. The college is a financially well-to- do institution, and has a level of academic performance among the highest of all the Cambridge colleges. Not only is Pembroke College home of the first chapel designed Pembroke College by Sir , but it is also one Cambridge University of the Cambridge colleges to have produced a British prime minister, William Pitt the Younger.

The college library, one of the finest in the university, with a Victorian neo- gothic clock tower, is endowed with an original copy of the first encyclopaedia to contain printed diagrams. The college's current master, Sir Richard Dearlove, was previously the head of the 's Secret Intelligence Service.

On Christmas Eve 1347, Edward III granted Marie de St Pol, widow of the Earl of Pembroke, the licence for the foundation of a new educational establishment in the young university at Cambridge. The Hall of Valence Mary, as it was originally known, was thus founded to house a body of students and fellows.

The statutes were notable in that they both gave preference to students born in France who had already studied elsewhere in England, and that they required students to report fellow students if they indulged in excessive drinking or visited disreputable houses.

The college was later renamed Pembroke Hall, and finally became Pembroke College in 1856.

85 The first buildings comprised a single court (now called Old Court) containing all the component parts of a college - chapel, hall, kitchen and buttery, master's lodgings, students' rooms - and the statutes provided for a manciple, a cook, a barber and a laundress. Both the founding of the college and the building of the city's first college chapel (1355) required the grant of a papal bull.

The original court was the university's smallest at only 95 feet by 55 feet, but was enlarged to its current size in the nineteenth century by demolishing the south range.

The college's gatehouse, however, is original and is the oldest in Cambridge. The Hall was rebuilt in the nineteenth century by Alfred Waterhouse after he had declared the existing one unsafe.

The original chapel now forms the Old Library and has a striking seventeenth century plaster ceiling, designed by Henry Doogood, showing birds flying overhead. Around the Civil War, one of Pembroke's fellows and Chaplain to the future Charles I, Matthew Wren, was imprisoned by Oliver Cromwell. On his release after eighteen years he fulfilled a promise by hiring his nephew Christopher Wren to build a great chapel in his former college. The resulting chapel was consecrated on St Matthew's Day, 1665, and the eastern end was extended by George Gilbert Scott in 1880.

Pembroke's enclosed grounds also house some particularly well-kept gardens, sporting a huge array of carefully-selected vegetation. Highlights include "The Orchard" (a patch of semi-wild ground in the centre of the college), an impressive row of Plane Trees and an immaculately-kept bowling green which is reputed to be among the oldest in continual use in Europe.

86 Swithun Butterfield of Pembroke College, Cambridge, ministered under the patronage of Marie de St. Pol de Valence:

 Marie de St Pol de Valence (c.1303-) was the wife of Aymer de Valence, the Earl of Pembroke, and is best known as the founder of Pembroke College, Cambridge The daughter of Guy III of Châtillon, legend has it that she was maiden, wife, and widow all in the space of a single day when her husband Aymer de Valence was killed in front of her in a friendly jousting match, on their wedding day. However, this is probably apocryphal as documentation suggests he died of apoplexy after three years of marriage. Marie was only seventeen when she married, whilst her husband was already fifty. In 1347, Marie obtained license from Pembroke College Edward III to establish an educational Cambridge University establishment in the still young university town of Cambridge.

The resulting college was known as the Hall of Marie Valence, and is known today as Pembroke College, home to over 600 students and professors.

Marie’s aged husband, Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke (c. 1275 – 23 June 1324) was a French-English nobleman. Though primarily active in England, he also had strong connections with the French royal house. One of the wealthiest and most powerful men of his age, he was a central player in the conflicts between Edward II and his nobility, particularly Earl Thomas of Lancaster. Pembroke was one of the Lords Ordainers appointed to restrict the power of the king and his favourite Piers Gaveston. His position changed with the great insult he suffered when Gaveston, as a prisoner in his custody whom he had sworn to protect, was removed and beheaded on the instigation of Lancaster. This led Pembroke into close and lifelong cooperation with the King. Later in life, however, political circumstances combined with financial difficulties would cause him problems, driving him away from the centre of power.

Though earlier historians saw Pembroke as the head of a 'middle party', between the extremes of Lancaster and the king, the modern consensus is that he remained essentially loyal to Edward throughout most of his career. Pembroke was married twice, and left no legitimate issue, though he did have a bastard son. He is today remembered primarily through his wife's foundation of

87 Pembroke College in Cambridge, and for his splendid tomb that can still be seen in Westminster Abbey.

Aymer was the son of William de Valence, son of Hugh X, Count of La Marche and Isabella of Angoulême. William was Henry III's half-brother through his mother’s prior marriage to King John, and as such gained a central position in the Kingdom of England. He had come to the earldom of Pembroke through his marriage to Joan de Munchensi, granddaughter of William Marshal. Aymer was the third son of his family, so little is known of his birth and early years. He is believed to have been born some time between 1270 and 1275. As his father was on crusade with the Lord Edward until January 1273, a date towards the end of this period is more likely. With the death in battle in Wales of his remaining brother William in 1282 (John, the elder brother, was dead in 1277), Aymer found himself heir to the Earldom of Pembroke. William de Valence died in 1296, and Aymer inherited his father's French lands, but had to wait until his mother died in 1307 to succeed to the Earldom. Through inheritance and marriages his lands consisted of – apart from the county palatine in Pembrokeshire – property spread out across England primarily in a strip from Gloucestershire to East Anglia, in south-east Ireland (Wexford), and French lands in the Poitou- and Calais areas.

In 1297 he accompanied Edward I on a campaign to Flanders, and seems to have been knighted by this time. With his French connections he was in the following years a valuable diplomat in France for the English King. He also served as military commander in Scotland, and won an important victory over Robert Bruce in 1306 at the Battle of Methven, only to be routed himself by Bruce at Loudoun Hill the next year.

King Edward I died in 1307 and was succeeded by his son Edward II. The new King at first enjoyed the good will of his nobility, Valence among them. Conflict soon ensued, however, connected especially with the enormous unpopularity of Edward's favourite Piers Gaveston. Gaveston's arrogance towards the peers, and his control over Edward, united the Baronage in opposition to the King. In 1311 the initiative known as the Ordinances was introduced, severely limiting Royal powers in financial matters and in the appointment of officers. Equally important, Gaveston was expelled from the realm (as Edward I had already done once before). Pembroke, who was not among the most radical of the Ordainers, and had earlier been sympathetic with the King, had now realised the necessity of exiling Gaveston.

When Gaveston without permission returned from exile later the same year, a Baronial council entrusted Pembroke and John de Warenne, earl of Surrey, with the task of taking him into custody. This they did on May 19, 1312, but not long after Thomas of Lancaster, acting with the Earls of Warwick, and Arundel, seized Gaveston and executed him on June 19. This criminal act had the effect of garnering support for the King, and marginalising the rebellious earls. As far as Pembroke is concerned, the seizing and execution

88 of a prisoner in his custody was a breach of the most fundamental chivalric codes, and a serious affront to his honour. The event must therefore be seen as pivotal in turning his sympathies away from the rebels and towards the King.

In the following years Pembroke worked closely with the King. He was appointed the King’s lieutenant in Scotland in 1314, and was present at the disastrous English defeat at the Battle of Bannockburn, where he helped lead Edward away from the field of battle. In 1317, however, while returning from a papal embassy to Avignon, he was captured by a Jean de Lamouilly, and held for ransom in the Holy Roman Empire. The ransom of £ 10,400 was to cause Pembroke significant financial difficulties for the remainder of his life.

Although ostracized by the murder of Gaveston, Thomas of Lancaster had regained virtual control of Royal government in the period after Bannockburn. Proving himself as incapable to rule as Edward, however, he soon grew unpopular. Pembroke was one of the magnates who in the years 1316-18 tried to prevent civil war from breaking out between the supporters of Edward and those of Lancaster, and he helped negotiate the Treaty of Leake in 1318, restoring Edward to power. Peace did not last long, however, as the King by now had taken on Hugh Despenser the younger as another favourite, in much the same position as Gaveston. Pembroke's attempts at reconciliation eventually failed, and civil war broke out in 1321. In 1322 Lancaster was defeated at the Battle of Boroughbridge, and executed. Pembroke was among the Earls behind the conviction.

After Boroughbridge Pembroke found himself in a difficult situation. The opponents of Hugh Despenser and his father had lost all faith in him, but at the same time he found himself marginalised at court where the Despensers' power grew more and more complete. On top of this came his financial problems. On June 24, 1324, while on an embassy to France, he suddenly collapsed and died while lodging somewhere in Picardy

T.F. Tout, in 1914 one of the first historians to make a thorough academic study of the period, considered Pembroke the one favourable exception in an age of small-minded and incompetent leaders. Tout wrote of a 'middle party', led by Pembroke, representing a moderate position between the extremes of Edward and Lancaster. This 'middle party' supposedly took control of royal government through the Treaty of Leake in 1318. In his authoritative study of 1972, J.R.S. Phillips refutes this view. In spite of misgivings with the King’s favourites, Pembroke was consistently loyal to Edward. What was accomplished in 1318 was not the takeover by a 'middle party', but simply a restoration of royal power.

Aymer married twice; his first marriage, before 1295, was to Beatrice, daughter of Raoul de Clermont, Lord of Nesle in Picardy and Constable of France. Beatrice died in 1320, and in 1321 he married Marie de St Pol, daughter of Gui de Châtillon, Count of St Pol and Butler of France. He never had any

89 legitimate children, but he had an illegitimate son, Henry de Valence, whose mother is unknown. Pembroke's most lasting legacy is probably through his second wife, who in 1347 founded Pembroke College in Cambridge. The family arms are still represented on the dexter side of the college arms. Aymer de Valence was buried in Westminster Abbey, where his tomb can still be seen as a splendid example of late gothic architecture, elaborating on the design of the near by tomb of Edmund Crouchback.

90 Marie de St. Pol de Valence was the favored daughter of Gui III of Châtillon, Count of Saint Pol:

 Guy III of Châtillon, Count of Saint Pol (1277 – April 6, 1317), French nobleman, was the son of Guy II of Châtillon and Matilda of Brabant, and the father of “Sweet Marie”. In 1292, he married Marie of Brittany, daughter of John II, Duke of Brittany and Beatrice of England. This made “Sweet Marie” ties to not only the Angevin throne of England, but also the independent Duchy of Brittany, heir to the Celto-Roman elite which fled the British Isles at the collapse of the Roman Empire. Gui Three was son of Gui Two. Guy II of Châtillon, Count of Saint-Pol (died

1289), French nobleman, was a younger son of Hugh I of Châtillon and Marie of Arms of Châtillon, forming the Avesnes. left half of Pembroke Hall’s own arms.

While his elder brother John I of Châtillon succeeded to their mother's County of Blois, Guy was given their father's county of Saint-Pol-sur-Ternoise at his death in 1248.

On January 16, 1255, he married Matilda of Brabant (d. 1288), daughter of Henry II, Duke of Brabant and Marie of Hohenstaufen, and thereafter was a supporter of his brother-in-law Henry III against Guelders. Also known as Maria of Swabia, Marie of Hohenstaufen was born in Arezzo,Tuscany, Italy on 3 April 1201. Her paternal grandparents were Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor and Beatrice I, Countess of Burgundy. Her maternal grandparents were Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos and his first wife Herina Tornikain. This gave “Sweet Marie” family this to the ancient Duchy of Brabant, the fabled von Hohenstaufen emperors of the Holy Roman Empure, and the Emperors of the Byzantine Empire at Constantinople. Emperor Frederick II was her first cousin.

In 1208, at the age of seven, Sweet Marie’s namesake, Maria of Swabia was left an orphan by the unexpected deaths of her parents. On 21 June, her father was murdered by Otto of Wittelsbach, and two months later her mother died after giving birth to a daughter, who did not live beyond early infancy. Marie had three surviving sisters.

91 Conclusion of the Pembroke intellectual line

So what is the lesson of the Pembroke line’s intellectual legacy within New York Alpha?

The Pembroke line reminds us of our connections to the military traditions of our Republic, rooted through the New England colonists back to the New Model Army of the Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell. This is a abolitionist line, mirroring New York Alpha’s strong civil rights tradition, its Puritan predecessors, and the literary value in congregation provided by the Hartford Wits of Timothy Dwight IV. Finally, at its core, the Pembroke line is a tie to the medieval Greek traditions of Byzantium and the classical Greek scholarship preserved by the Empire.

The Pembroke intellectual line is part of New York Alpha’s local Chapter lore, first recorded by brother Cadwalader E. Linthicum (1885)(1889) and preserved by Walter Sheppard (’29)(’32) and Fred E. Hartzch (’28)(’31).

“To know the lore, is to tend the Tree.”

92