Professional Engineering Ethics and Christian Values: Overlapping Magisteria Gayle E

Article

Professional Engineering Ethics and Christian Values: Overlapping Magisteria Gayle E. Ermer

Many faith-based colleges and universities with engineering programs find themselves trying to simultaneously satisfy two educational objectives: (1) meeting the requirements of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) to produce graduates who have “an understanding of professional and ethical responsibility” and (2) meeting the goals of their own institution for student spiritual formation and development of Christian moral values. This paper will describe and analyze several approaches to understanding the relationship between these two objectives and the implications of these approaches for engineering education. It could be argued that the two goals mentioned above are mutually exclusive. Since profes- Gayle E. Ermer sional ethical standards arise out of a secular context and by means of purely logical reasoning, they bear no relationship to personal religious commitments. The implication of this view would be that all engineers need to be taught the engineering code of ethics without regard to any commitments they might have to religiously determined moral absolutes. It could also be argued that the two goals mentioned above are one and the same. Each individual appropriates an all-encompassing system of values and this system is operative in all situations, including professional engineering work. The implication of this view would be that engineers do not need to know the engineering code as long as their parents, early school experiences, church, and devotional life had contributed to a strong moral conscience. This paper will argue that while each of the two areas has its own distinctiveness, each over- laps the other in content and depends on the other for successful ethical decision-making and action. This argument will be based on the Reformed Christian philosophical perspectives expressed by Abraham Kuyper and Herman Dooyeweerd. The paper will conclude with some practical suggestions for emphasizing the relationship between both domains within the engineering curriculum. A method for integrating engineering ethics into the technical portion of the engineering curriculum within the context of a Christian worldview will also be presented.

n 2002, I had the good fortune to be ested in promoting engineering ethics Iaccepted into a National Science Foun- among engineering practitioners and stu- dation (NSF) sponsored workshop on dents. Their goals, and the methods pro- Ethics Across the Curriculum in engineering moted to achieve them, struck me as worthy and science. In the course of the workshop, initiatives. I came back to my home institu- I was introduced to several scholars inter- tion, Calvin College, and proceeded to Gayle E. Ermer is an associate professor of engineering at Calvin College implement many of the workshop’s recom- and has taught there for thirteen years. She is a Calvin alumna who obtained mendations by designing our own Ethics a masters degree in manufacturing systems engineering from the University of Across the Curriculum program. But a nig- Wisconsin–Madison and a Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from Michigan gling doubt about the effectiveness of this State University. Her technical specialties are manufacturing systems and style of professional ethical analysis was machine dynamics. She has written papers on engineering ethics, women in generated by a comment made by the work- engineering, and Christian perspectives on technology and is a frequent shop instructor while addressing the issue contributor to the biennial Christian Engineering Education Conference. of “freeloaders.” The ethical theories and She resides in Hudsonville, MI, with her husband Eric and their three evaluation process discussed in the work- school-age children. shop assumed that professionals would

26 Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith Gayle E. Ermer

adhere to their codes of ethics because logic dictated it Professional Ethics: Goals, Content, and was beneficial to do so (if everyone follows the code, the Methods profession will be better able to achieve its humanitarian Every engineering program in the United States is goals). But what about people who choose the profession required to satisfy the criteria of the Engineering Accredi- primarily because of its financial or status rewards rather tation Commission (EAC) of the Accreditation Board than to achieve the profession’s goals? What would be for Engineering and Technology (ABET). This includes their incentive to follow the rules rather than following educating students to meet a list of specified outcomes, their own self-interest? The workshop instructor seemed including those related to ethics: students must have to indicate that the ethics principles we were discussing c) an ability to design a system, component, or pro- were inadequate to deal with someone who was not cess to meet desired needs within realistic constraints already willing to make sacrifices for the sake of profes- such as economic, environmental, social, political, sional goals (except to the extent that violation of the codes ethical, health and safety, manufacturability, and could be made to have serious consequences, which is not sustainability … f) an understanding of professional the case in engineering). The conversation at the workshop and ethical responsibility.2 seemed to imply that religious faith or personal virtues were irrelevant to professional ethics. Michael Davis (one of the sponsors of the NSF work- In 2006, I sat on Calvin’s all-college assessment shop), in his book, Thinking Like an Engineer, proposes that committee. One of our main tasks was to draft a list of a profession is partially defined by its published Code of assessment outcomes for the college. The list included Ethics: many of the standard goals for a college or university: The history of a profession tells how a certain occupa- we wanted our students to gain knowledge and skills tion organized itself to hold its members to standards as part of the educational process. But it became very clear beyond what law, market, and morality would other- as we looked at the Calvin College Expanded Statement wise demand.3 1 of Mission that our goals extended beyond knowledge If that is the case, the National Society of Professional and skills. We wanted our students to have knowledge Engineers (NSPE) Code of Ethics is an engineering mission of God and to understand their place in the world in statement. This code is representative of the codes for other light of that knowledge. We also wanted our students to engineering disciplines (although there have historically develop certain attitudes or virtues. Clearly, it seemed to been differences between the various codes) and expresses me, we have certain expectations for our students in terms the goals of the engineering profession as conceived of of their values and ethics as they go out into the world by its practitioners (Christian and otherwise) over the to develop God’s kingdom. But, I was struck by the fact past century. The fundamental principles and canons that these “virtue” goals were completely unrelated to are included in Table 1 (p. 28).4 The entire code includes the kind of ethical knowledge and analysis presented at sections on Rules of Practice and Professional Obligations the NSF workshop. which amplify the canons substantially, but are not I came to think that perhaps I had discovered two included here for the sake of length. camps with quite different perspectives on questions of This approach to professional ethics emphasizes that how we ought to convince engineering students and pro- engineering ethics is “special ethics,” in the sense that fessionals in general to behave responsibly. This paper the standards described in the codes do not necessarily is an exploration of the ethos of each of these two camps apply to everyone generally (as would the standards of and an examination of whether and how they are related common morality), but are a special set of standards to each other. I hope sharing some of these thoughts generated by the nature and content of the profession. will be instructive to others who also have “feet in both Ethical requirements for a professional are based on the camps” and wish to reconcile the goals and methods moral ideals of the profession. The result of implementing of each in ways that would allow engineering programs the mission of the profession is a set of standards the pro- to best educate our students to respond appropriately to fession decides each practitioner must follow. Therefore, the ethical problems that they might encounter in their ethical expectations, or at least the weight given to differ- engineering careers. ent expectations when they conflict, may differ depending The Two Camps on the profession. For example, the primary responsibility of a lawyer is to promote justice, which may require a high To clarify the problem of how these two camps are related, priority placed on maintaining confidentiality of client I will begin with a more thorough description of their information. For engineers, the safety of technology users goals and emphases. For the sake of brevity, I will refer to and the general public is of the utmost importance (which the emphasis reflected in the NSF workshop described may make confidentiality ethically undesirable). Although above as the Professional Ethics camp, and the emphasis it might be easy to argue that the canons themselves (in- reflected in the assessment committee discussion cluding the primacy of safety) merely summarize a set of described above as the Christian Values camp.

Volume 60, Number 1, March 2008 27 Article Professional Engineering Ethics and Christian Values: Overlapping Magisteria common ethical principles, examining the indicate that despite the idealist rhetoric, more detailed sections of the code reveals engineers do not strongly identify with the directives that are more specific to the ideals of engineering as a profession. In fact, discipline. many engineers work for organizations which have their own ethical codes. Though Those promoting this interpretation of these codes are unlikely to directly conflict engineering ethics emphasize using a with the professional code, they may assign “design process” (which is something very higher priority to values that are not seen as natural for engineers) to determine an action particularly helpful to the profession’s goals plan for ethical response in a given situation. (for example, a requirement not to disclose This step-by-step problem-solving method proprietary information). includes developing a clear description of the ethical problem, gathering relevant data The engineering code of ethics can be and principles, creatively generating possi- viewed by many engineers (and especially ble responses, evaluating the responses, engineering students) as a somewhat arbi- choosing an optimum response, and imple- trary list of “do’s” and “don’t’s” that discour- menting the response chosen. Within the ages honest moral reflection and inhibits evaluating step, ethical theories, like utilitar- the development of personal conscience. As ianism or duty ethics, can be used to mentioned above, there are disagreements evaluate different actions. among engineers about the relevance of some of the more specific items in the code Engineering codes and the methods of related to rules of practice and professional engineering ethics are supposed to guide obligations. The canons themselves may not the conduct of engineering practitioners. adequately reflect a robust understanding Unfortunately, there are reasons why this is of the mission of the profession. If engineers not always the case for industrial engineer- were to “conduct themselves honorably, ing work. Many engineers have never heard responsibly, ethically, and lawfully” (6), of the code, since the vast majority of engi- it seems unnecessary to specifically list (3), neers do not belong to the professional orga- (4), and (5) which also emphasize honesty nizations which generate them. This may and responsibility. Pursuing honorable conduct “to enhance the honor, reputation, and Code of Ethics for Engineers usefulness of the profession” in (6) seems self-serving. Preamble Engineering is an important and learned profession. As members It is also worth noting that the wording of this profession, engineers are expected to exhibit the highest of the fundamental canons is open to a great standards of honor and integrity. Engineering has a direct and vital deal of interpretation. In today’s postmodern impact on the quality of life for all people. Accordingly, the services and global culture, the meaning of a term provided by engineers require honesty, impartiality, fairness, and like “honesty” cannot be assumed to be the equity, and must be dedicated to the protection of the public same for all people. For example, some stu- health, safety, and welfare. Engineers must perform under dents do not view cheating as dishonest and a standard of professional behavior that requires adherence to in some cultures, lying is expected in order the highest principles of ethical conduct. to avoid social conflict. Despite these prob- The Fundamental Canons lems, the engineering code of ethics pro- vides a window into professional life, and Engineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties, shall: if used conscientiously with an ethical deci- 1. hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public. sion-making process, can help to clarify the 2. perform services only in areas of their competence. issues and provide direction in a given 3. issue public statements only in an objective and truthful situation. manner. Another perspective on engineering eth- 4. act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees. ics is provided by Martin and Schinzinger’s 5. avoid deceptive acts. influential textbook, Ethics in Engineering. 6. conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically, and According to this text: lawfully so as to enhance the honor, reputation, and Engineering ethics consists of the usefulness of the profession. responsibilities and rights that ought Table 1. NSPE Code of Ethics to be endorsed by those engaged in

28 Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith Gayle E. Ermer

engineering, and also of desirable ideals and per- College, are listed in Table 2. Although ethics does not sonal commitments in engineering … Engineering show up explicitly in the list, it is clear that knowledge of ethics is the study of the decisions, policies, and God, culture, and self, as well as skills in communication values that are morally desirable in engineering and reasoning, are all linked to the mission of the college practice and research.5 to produce students who are committed Christians, doing what is right in all the roles they assume in their lifetimes. This not only supports the importance of codes, by stressing the responsibilities of those who choose the The engineering department at Calvin has also devel- engineering profession, but it also broadens the discussion oped its own objectives and outcomes for student learn- to include the implications for society of implementing ing. These are reproduced in Table 3. The first three items different technologies. It also includes a short section on are general objectives, while the last three are a subset of the importance of personal motivations and religious more specific outcomes related to ethics. The very nature commitments to the practice of engineering. of these objectives implies that there can and should be an understanding of ethical responsibility that is distinc- Tau Beta Pi, the honor society for engineers, also places tive due to a Christian framework of understanding the a strong emphasis on ethics. In recognition of some of the world. These objectives indicate that Calvin engineers are poor ethical choices being made among students (studies expected to have more than just a commitment to a set of showing high rates of cheating) and among researchers professional ideals, but a commitment to the ideals of all (falsified and exaggerated results), in 2004, this organiza- Christians to spread the gospel, to mature in discipleship, tion, along with other college honor societies, generated a and to promote justice and shalom in this fallen world. program titled “A Matter of Ethics” intended to encourage members to reach their full potential by “building upon the core of one’s character, by encouraging honesty, trust- Degrees of Overlap worthiness, integrity … ethics.”6 This program does not Some members of each of the domains described above focus on a code, but does promote the use of a set of guide- believe (or at least behave as if they believe) that the two lines for resolving ethical dilemmas. Department Objectives: Students graduating with a BSE degree from Calvin College will be … Christian Values: Goals and Content … kingdom servants whose Christian faith leads All faith-based educational institutions have goals for them to engineering careers of action and their students that extend beyond strict adherence to pro- involvement, to personal piety, integrity, and fessional codes. These goals are often very broad and social responsibility, and to leadership with sometimes difficult to articulate, but they are directly tied a prophetic voice advocating appropriate to the mission and context of the institution. The recently technologies; adopted assessment outcomes for graduates of Calvin … firmly grounded in the basic principles and skills of engineering, mathematics, science, Students who complete a Calvin degree should: and the humanities, for correct, perceptive, Develop and articulate knowledge of: and sensitive problem assessment at a level · God as revealed in Scripture and creation as appropriate for entry-level professional work expressed in the Reformed Christian tradition, and graduate studies; · The diverse cultural, natural, and social forces … equipped to creatively move a project from that shape our world, problem statement to final design utilizing the · Themselves—their nature, gifts, and identity, interdisciplinary and interdependent character and of the engineering profession. · A chosen area of in-depth study. Demonstrate skills in: Department Outcomes: Calvin’s engineering program · Critical thinking, will demonstrate that its graduates have … · Sound reasoning, (f) an understanding of professional and ethical · Effective communication, responsibility from a Christian, holistic · Problem-solving, and perspective, · The particular methods of their area of in-depth (j) engaged contemporary issues demonstrating study. how their Christian faith relates to their Demonstrate—given a Christian commitment— profession, · A devotion to the life of discipleship, (k) an ability to use the techniques, skills, and · A dedication to Christian virtues, and modern engineering tools necessary for · An active pursuit of their vocation in renewing engineering practice to develop responsible God’s world. technologies

Table 2. Calvin College Student Learning Outcomes Table 3. Calvin Engineering Department Objectives

Volume 60, Number 1, March 2008 29 Article Professional Engineering Ethics and Christian Values: Overlapping Magisteria domains are mutually exclusive. The profes- neers, to do the right thing in their occupa- sional ethics promoters see their domain as tional activities. According to Davis: an essential part of engineering education, Because of the scale on which engi- while viewing faith-based values as only neers generally work, engineering is tangentially related to the ethical decision- particularly dangerous. Engineers There is making ability of an engineer. One of the long ago realized this and set about to ramifications of this view for engineering ensure, as much as possible, that engi- nothing in the education is that ethics becomes just another neering would be used for good rather content area within engineering, similar to than evil.7 engineering electronic circuit analysis or machine dy- According to Martin and Shinzinger, one of namics. All of these technical content areas the purposes of studying engineering ethics (including engineering ethics) are viewed as is to “increase one’s ability to deal effectively code of ethics independent of faith commitments. with moral complexity in engineering.”8 These statements share some of the same One of the benefits of this approach for that directly concerns as Calvin’s engineering student the educational process is the assumption outcomes. conflicts with a that there is something distinctive to engineering ethics that can and must be taught. On the other hand, those promoting That is, engineering ethics is not like moral- Christian values sometimes argue that engi- Christian ity in general, which students absorb from neering ethics is just a subset of general a variety of sources, such as family upbring- morality. Students should be encouraged to understanding ing, primary school experiences, church develop a broad Christian world- and life- programs, and engagement with art and view which encompasses their career along of moral literature. Since students know, or at least with all other aspects of living. The assump- think they know, this kind of morality al- tion is that good Christians will do the right responsibility. ready, engineering ethics gives engineering thing because of who they are and what educators something to add. This approach they believe, regardless of their profession. …An also fits well with the preferences of many The educational focus should then be on engineering faculty (including Christians) inculcating Christian values into the person, engineering who feel uncomfortable discussing such rather than learning profession-specific stan- “personal” issues as faith commitments and dards and ethical decision-making methods. curriculum moral values in the classroom setting. In engineering education, the core curriculum of the college (or even chapel atten- In today’s postmodern cultural context, dance and Bible studies) can be relied on to engineering professors do not want to be constructed to produce the sorts of people and develop the accused of sermonizing or indoctrinating skills and knowledge to make appropriate students into particular worldview perspec- meet the goals ethical decisions, which those people will tives, which would imply intolerance of then carry into the engineering context. other systems. It is much safer to simply specified in the The implication is that special engineering focus on the professional expectations which ethics does not need to be taught as such, are particular to engineering work and and codes are unnecessary. This attitude is code should which have broad application independent prominent among some Christians who fear of worldview. From the professional ethics that using a code of ethics generated by therefore also standpoint, engineering ethics can be taught secular individuals through purely logical the same way—wherever you are and who- processes may conflict with their absolute ever your students are. Some Christians also be consistent moral standards. view engineering ethics this way, and do with what not see a need to make explicit connections There is nothing in the engineering code between faith and ethics. of ethics that directly conflicts with a Chris- a Christian tian understanding of moral responsibility. What is obscured by treating the two For the most part, these are goals that domains as mutually exclusive is the com- Christians can readily appropriate. Chris- engineer would monality of their goals. Most broadly, both tians certainly want to use their knowledge the secular professional accrediting boards and skill for the enhancement of human want to teach. and Christian educators are concerned with welfare, and to be truthful, faithful, and fair. encouraging professionals, including engi- The emphasis on safety holding priority

30 Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith Gayle E. Ermer

in design work is central to the engineering ethos. to their chosen career path. It can expand their under- A Reformed understanding of common grace allows us standing of the complexities involved in contributing to to recognize that even those engineers without experience a large-scale engineering project once they graduate and of God’s saving grace can still do good in this fallen world. of what will be expected of them both technically and An engineering curriculum constructed to meet the goals ethically as professionals. specified in the code should therefore also be consistent with what a Christian engineer would want to teach. Cer- Engineering ethics appeals mostly to the intellect. In tainly our ultimate loyalty does not belong to our clients this sense it can be reductionistic. The assumption is that or employers, to our profession, or even to the public. an engineer needs to know certain things in order to do But, in most cases, serving these constituencies faithfully what is right. The impression is given that ethical prob- can be an expression of our ultimate loyalty to God. This lems are just like technical design problems, which in a should mitigate the fear that appropriating this “secular” way they are. But, often behaving ethically requires more approach is a danger to Christian values. than just knowledge. Empathy and willingness to sacrifice personal gain for the greater good are also needed. An engineering code of ethics embodying the profession’s Strengths and Weaknesses of goals usually functions as an extrinsic motivator. The code is applied as a legal document, forcing practitioners to fol- Each Approach low the rules for fear of penalties, rather than emphasizing In order to educate engineers who can truly further God’s conscience. Professional ethics does not speak very much kingdom through their work with technology, we need to the intrinsic motivation that is necessary for someone to to identify the strengths and weaknesses of each of the care about behaving ethically in the first place and to have domains described previously, and appropriate the best the will to carry out ethical actions. The code can also be contributions of each to achieve our goals. Table 4 summa- interpreted as providing the minimum requirements for rizes some of these. Further elaboration of the bulleted adequate engineering practice, rather than encouraging items will be included in this section. individuals to pursue the best possible contribution to The value of the engineering ethics approach centers the profession from an ethical standpoint. around the usefulness of the tools and the direct connec- The engineering ethics methods tend to address indi- tion provided to engineering practice. Engineering ethics vidual decision-making within a limited context (micro has a very strong problem-solving focus. Usually, a step- issues), rather than system level consequences of organiza- by-step approach is advocated for designing a solution tional or corporate decision-making in society. As such, to an ethical problem. This recognizes that most ethical the codes (currently, at least) do not address all the princi- choices are not right/wrong, but better/worse. The ples Christians care about. An obvious example is the lack choices are constrained by multiple factors and often of inclusion in the NSPE code of any ethical responsibility involve prioritization of competing factors (tradeoffs) to the environment and sustainability. The Christian val- along with the element of creativity. This is something ues approach should encourage reflection on the overall engineers gravitate toward and have experience with in ideals of the profession. In this way, students are encour- their technical work. In fact, there could be significant aged to think beyond the micro issues of a particular benefits in exporting this approach to the liberal arts side ethical dilemma toward broader issues of how technology of the curriculum. The professional ethics perspective can benefit society. makes good use of ethical theories for helping to clarify ethical problems and evaluate the merit of particular The Christian values side emphasizes holistic personal responses to those problems. The engineering code can development. This is often neglected in engineering ethics also be used as one of those evaluative tools. Engineering education (or given only lip service). The truth is that each ethics has the added attraction for students of focusing individual needs personal character to be committed to on case studies and situations that are directly relevant behaving ethically in the engineering arena. The knowl-

Strengths Weaknesses

Engineering Ethics • Design Approach • Reductionism • Ethical Theories • Extrinsic Motivation • Relevant Examples • Micro Issues • Industry Expectations • Minimal Approach

Christian Values • Intrinsic Motivation • Broad Principles • Macro Issues • Maximal • Holism • Conflicting Principles

Table 4. Distinctive Features of Each Domain

Volume 60, Number 1, March 2008 31 Article Professional Engineering Ethics and Christian Values: Overlapping Magisteria edge of professional expectations and codes activities, needs to reflect our Christian faith. can help, but so can a recognition of Christ’s Hermann Dooyeweerd, expanding on the claim on us to become more like insights of Abraham Kuyper, argues that him through the power of the Holy Spirit. everyone approaches theorizing (about The Christian values approach lends itself ethics or anything else) with an accepted set more readily to consideration of issues at of presuppositional commitments. This I want to the macro scale, such as social justice. These shapes the process and affects the outcomes issues are especially important for engineers of their theorizing.10 So, it makes a difference characterize the to think about as they move into manage- how engineering ethics problems are ment in industry or help to develop govern- approached and solved if those involved are two domains ment policies governing technology. committed to Christian presuppositions. The weaknesses of the Christian values One key Christian presupposition is that focused on approach include the fact that it tends to God is the Creator and Sustainer of all focus on broad principles that are difficult things. He is the only nondependent entity in this paper to apply to specific technical problems. It is and all of creation is ultimately dependent even more difficult to apply these principles on him. Many non-Christians elevate some- when they seem by nature to conflict (for thing in creation to the position of God, for as “overlapping example, justice and mercy). These values example matter and/or energy. Those who are naturally considered to be maximal in choose something within creation as non- magisteria.” … nature, that is, the claims of faith have dependent, or “divine,” must necessarily priority over all of our decisions. In an explain all of the world’s activity in terms I see the extreme case, taking the demands of living of the divine.11 This leads, for example, the our Christian commitments seriously can physical naturalist to explain life processes relationship cause a student to consider leaving engi- and human emotions, as well as everything neering in favor of professions that seem else, in terms of interactions between mole- between more obviously tied to their Christian call- cules. A Christian can assert that God has ing, like missions or full-time church work. created a multi-faceted universe in which It can be helpful in these cases to emphasize activities are not reductionistically explained professional that engineering as a profession is dedicated by one domain’s set of laws. In fact, all to serving society, and that Christian engi- phenomena for humans are experienced engineering neers can participate in the profession as a holistically, that is, all of our God-given means for Christian service. faculties interact with the complexity of the ethics and creation. But, God has also created in us the Overlap and Dependence capacity to abstract things from this holistic Christian values picture in order to understand them better I want to characterize the two domains and determine their God-ordained structure. focused on in this paper as “overlapping not as The ethical aspect is one of those areas which magisteria.” The phrase references Steven J. can be abstracted in order to discover the Gould’s characterization of Science and rules governing this area, but actual ethical 9 one of Religion as “nonoverlapping magisteria.” decisions and actions cannot be separated I see the relationship between professional from the other aspects, including the physi- isolation, engineering ethics and Christian values not cal and the social, among others. as one of isolation, but as overlap and inter- but as dependence. The explanations above sup- One implication of this perspective is that port this interpretation from a practical professional ethics should not be reduced to standpoint, but reasons for this conclusion the logical aspect, which engineering ethics overlap and also are supported by a Reformed Christian tends to do. We can acknowledge the contri- philosophical perspective. butions of secular theories of ethics to the interdependence. discussion of ethical problems, but we should It is inevitable that people bring personal retain a healthy skepticism toward the claim values (or worldview) to their understand- of any particular ethical theory of providing ing of ethical responsibility, including with definitive answers. The secular theories and respect to their occupation or profession. processes upon which the domain of engi- Reformed Christians emphasize that all of neering ethics is founded can contribute creation belongs to God; therefore, profes- many good ideas, but ultimately they may sional ethics, along with all other human need to be modified and combined to fit the

32 Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith Gayle E. Ermer

more robust picture of what is good for society provided Third, all of the ethics-related topics are best integrated by a Christian worldview. Neither can the ethical aspect be into the technical curriculum via “micro-insertion.” Rather reduced to the faith aspect, as Christian values tend to do. than requiring an ethics course, or simply relying on other We ought not to assume that anyone with a Christian core subjects in the liberal arts to introduce ethics, insert- commitment will make the right choices with respect to ing ethics issues into technical courses in small chunks is technological design, since the ethical and economic an optimal way to maintain engineering student interest aspects have distinctive explanatory theories. An engineer in ethics and promote awareness of the relationship of needs to have specific information related to expectations ethics to industrial practice. Engineering students are not of the profession and the character of modern technical as interested in hypothetical issues as they are in what society in order to correctly assess the ethical implications they are likely to experience as professionals in industry. of his or her work. Ideally, the micro-insertion approach would fill the need for continuity in exposure to ethical issues through- Integrating a Christian Perspective out the engineering education experience and provide a on Ethics into the Curriculum structure for building on previous concepts. At the first- If the domains of engineering ethics and Christian values year level, students could start with simple problems can be understood as overlapping magisteria, then how where doing the right thing is relatively obvious. The can Christian engineering educators better tie together the “design process” for ethical decisions can be introduced, domains and integrate them into the engineering educa- with a focus on gathering relevant information (such as tional process? I suggest three methods for injecting the professional codes of ethics and biblical principles). Later strengths of both areas into the engineering curriculum. in their engineering education, they can be asked to consider more complex problems with significant ambiguity. First, engineering education at all levels should focus The emphasis can shift to evaluating ethical solutions that on the concept of vocation as a link between the profession have technical, as well as economic and political impli- of engineering and the commitment to Christian service. cations. There should also be a natural flow over the years Professional occupations in technology, mathematics, and from “micro” problems involving personal actions over the sciences provide opportunities for Christians to fulfill which individuals have a high degree of control to the calling to serve God and others by reforming his “macro” problems embedded in institutional and societal creation. Byron Newberry, in an essay in the Fall 2005 structures which require more than individual action. issue of Christian Scholars Review entitled “The Challenge of Vocation in Engineering Education,” discusses the Case studies are a particularly useful way to micro- benefits and trials of building in students the identification insert ethics topics into technical courses. In the “Introduc- of their engineering career with the service to which God tion to Engineering” course that I teach to first-year has called them by virtue of their gifts, talents, and students, I have used the “Catalyst B” case study devel- opportunities. oped by Michael Pritchard at Western Michigan Univer- sity,13 which presents students with the situation of a Second, all of the design experiences in the engineering newly hired engineer who is asked by his boss to ignore curriculum can be presented along with a holistic set of some data in a report supporting a design decision. design norms, such as those presented in Table 5. These Although the case is hypothetical, it is very important for design norms are requirements for technology based on students to recognize that there may be times in their a biblical worldview that reflects the holistic setting in careers when, based on their personal convictions and which designs operate.12 These design norms expand on understanding of professional obligations, they need to the narrower concept of ethics captured in the engineering say ”no” to an employer despite the potential for adverse code and emphasize broader issues. The norms provide consequences. This case study allows students to search a way to tie Christian values with specific engineering the code for relevant expectations, while also determining problems. The norms also emphasize the need to make for themselves what honesty requires in this situation, tradeoffs in design between technical as well as ethical allowing both personal values and the engineering ethics considerations. analysis methods to contribute to a correct assessment of Technology Should Promote … the problem. · Cultural Appropriateness · Transparency Conclusion · Stewardship Technology and the interactions of technology with · Harmony individuals and society are becoming more and more · Justice complex. Knowledge of the technologies themselves · Caring and methods used to produce them are necessary to · Trust determining moral actions with respect to technology. Table 5. Design Norms

Volume 60, Number 1, March 2008 33 Reviewers in 2007

Since engineers bear a great deal of responsibility for Notes technological development, they need to be aware of the 1An Expanded Statement of the Mission of Calvin College: Vision, Purpose, Commitment, rev. ed. (February 2004). ethical expectations of their profession. Christian values 2ABET Engineering Accreditation Commission, Criteria for go deeper and are more personal than the considerations Accrediting Engineering Programs (Baltimore, MD: ABET, 2007), 2. of professional engineering ethics as it is often taught in 3Michael Davis, Thinking Like an Engineer: Studies in the Ethics of secular settings. Without an appropriate value system, it is a Profession (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). 4 difficult to establish the importance of engineering ethics From the National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) website: www.nspe.org/ethics/ eh1-code.asp and to motivate individuals to choose the interests of their 5Mike Martin and Roland Schinzinger, Ethics in Engineering, 4th ed. profession over their own. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005), 8. 6From the Association of College Honor Societies (ACHS) website: We need to avoid the “two camps” mentality and allow www.achsnatl.org/ethics/ index.asp the strengths of both approaches to contribute to a robust 7Davis, Thinking Like an Engineer, 16. 8 understanding of the ethical responsibilities involved in Martin and Schinzinger, Ethics in Engineering, 9. 9Stephen J. Gould, “Nonoverlapping Magisteria,” Natural History being an engineer. We also need to integrate ethical issues 106 (March 1997): 16–22. Gould described the relationship between into the engineering curriculum in a way that allows science and religion as being a relationship, not of conflict, but of them the prominence they deserve relative to technical different domains, each prepared to address different questions. considerations. Christian engineers and scholars should I tend to disagree with this interpretation of the relationship of science to religion. be encouraged to continue to explore the connections 10See L. Kalsbeek, Contours of a Christian Philosophy: An Introduction between faith and action, between personal morality and to Hermann Dooyeweerd’s Thought (Toronto: Wedge Publishing professional ethical responsibility, and between ethical Foundation, 1975). theories and technological practice. Engineering students 11See Roy Clouser, The Myth of Religious Neutrality: An Essay on the Hidden Role of Religious Beliefs in Theories (Notre Dame, IN: and practicing engineers need to carefully consider a University of Notre Dame Press, 1991), chaps. 2 and 3. holistic approach to ethics and their work in order 12See Stephen Monsma, ed., Responsible Technology (Grand Rapids, to direct technological development along a path that MI: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1986), chap. 9. truly serves the kingdom of God. d 13This case study can be found online at http://ethics.tamu.edu/ pritchar/an-intro.htm under Larom, along with others.

Reviewers in 2007 We wish to thank the following people for their helpful work in reviewing manuscripts.

Charles C. Adams Ann R. Karagozian Bradley A. Minch Christopher M. Root Jerry D. Albert Michael N. Keas J. Terence Morrison Alan H. Russell Dean E. Arnold Roger H. Kennett Glenn R. Morton Peter Rüst Paul T. Arveson Douglas Kindschi Stephen O. Moshier Ward E. Sanford Stephen Bell Scott Kinnes George L. Murphy Eduard H. Schludermann Hank D. Bestman Tara Kishbaugh Lytton J. Musselman Dwight Schuster Leonard J. Bond David S. Koetje Robert C. Newman Rodney J. Scott Rolf T. Bouma John E. Korstad Ryan P. O’Connor Paul H. Seely Raymond H. Brand Charles H. Kraft Evelina Orteza y Miranda Kevin S. Seybold David C. Campbell David C. Lahti L. Kristen Page David F. Siemens Jr. John W. Cooper Denis O. Lamoureux Robin Pals-Rylaarsdam David W. Snoke Harry Cook Ronald G. Larson Peter E. Payne Mark A. Strand Edward B. Davis Joseph H. Lechner Thomas D. Pearson Liskin Swint-Kruse Lloyd J. Davis Raymond J. Lewis Alan W. Pense Walter R. Thorson Garrett J. Deweese Johnny Wei-Bing Lin Arthur F. Peterson David Vaillancourt Dick Fischer Erik D. Lindquist James C. Peterson Keith N. Vander Linden Margaret G. Flowers James F. Mahaffy Perry G. Phillips Nolan A. Van Gaalen Terry M. Gray Thomas J. Manetsch Douglas L. Phinney Edward L. Vezey Brian T. Greuel Bruce McCallum Kenneth Piers Michael A. Vincent Roger D. Griffioen Benjamin J. McFarland J. Brian Pitts Andrew P. Whipple Deborah Becker Haarsma John A. McIntyre Martin L. Price David L. Wilcox Randolph Haluza-DeLay Stephen F. Matheson Stephen D. Prince John R. Wood John W. Haas Jr. Eileen McMahon David K. Probst Robert L. Worthington Kirsch Gerald D. Hess Clarence Menninga Fazale R. Rana Donald A. Yerxa Kenn Hermann Ruth C. Miles Kermit O. Ratzlaff James E. Yoder Fred J. Hickernell Sara J. Miles Arnold E. Reif L. William Yoder Edward R. Huff Keith B. Miller Martin A. Rice Jr. Davis A. Young d

34 Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith