11-16 December 2016 Meeting Reports Qhy Nonh, Vietnam Int. Conf.: Search for Life—From Early Earth COSPAR Panel on Planetary to Exoplanets Protection Colloquium, Bern, http://rencontresduvietnam.org/conferences/20 16/search-for-life/ Switzerland, September 2015 [Report by G. Kminek (ESA, The Nether- 15-19 May 2017 lands), V.J. Hipkin (CSA, Canada), A.M. Lisbon, Portugal rd Anesio (University of Bristol, UK), J. 3 Int. Ocean Colour Science Meeting Barengoltz (Consultant), P.J. Boston (New http://iocs.ioccg.org/ Mexico Tech, NM, USA), B.C. Clark (Space 1-5 August 2017 Science Institute, CO, USA) C.A. Conley Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (NASA, USA), A. Coustenis (Obs. de 38th IUPS Congress Meudon, France), E. Detsis (ESF, France), P. www.iups.org/congresses/2017-congress/ Doran (LSU, LA, USA), O. Grasset 19-26 August 2017 (Université de Nantes, France), K. Hand (JPL, Montreal, Canada CA, USA), Y. Hajime (JAXA, Japan), E. 32nd URSI Gen. Assembly and Scientific Hauber (DLR, Germany), I. Kolmasová (Charles University, Czech Republic), R.E. Symposium www.ursi.org Lindberg (University of Virginia, USA), M. Meyer (NASA, USA), F. Raulin (Université 27 Aug.-1 Sept. 2017 Paris XII, France), G. Reitz (Consultant), N.O. Cape Town, South Africa Rennó (University of Michigan, USA), P. IAPSO - IAMAS - IAGA joint Assembly Rettberg (DLR, Cologne, Germany), J.D. www.iugg.org/IAGA/iaga_pages/assemblies/ia Rummel (McGill University, Canada), M.P. ga_assemblies.htm Saunders (Consultant), G. Schwehm (Consult- 18-22 September 2017 ant), B. Sherwood (JPL, CA, USA), D.H. Wuhan, China Smith (The National Academies, USA), P.E. ISPRS Geospatial Week 2017 Stabekis (Consultant), J. Vago (ESA, The www.isprs.org/ Netherlands)] The COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy 14-22 July 2018 describes requirements for different planetary Pasadena, CA, USA protection categories depending on the type of 42nd COSPAR Scientific Assembly mission, the target body and the type of Contact: [email protected] scientific investigations [1]. Updating the COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy is an iterative process that involves the scientific community. This process is based on new scientific discoveries, new understanding of scientific observations, or, responds to needs identified to prepare future space missions. In consultation with the COSPAR Scientific Commissions B (Space Studies of the Earth- Moon System, Planets, and Small Bodies of the Solar System) and F (Life Sciences as Related to Space), the COSPAR Panel on Planetary Protection organised a colloquium at the International Space Science Institute (ISSI)
42 in Bern, Switzerland, in September 2015, to The COSPAR workshop in 2009, however, did discuss two pertinent topics: not cover Earth return missions. - Icy moon sample return planetary Based on the Planetary Protection Categories protection requirements III and IV assignment for missions to - Mars Special Regions planetary Enceladus and the response of ‘no’ or protection requirements ‘uncertain’ to all six questions described in the COSPAR Category Requirements for sample These two topics were addressed in two return missions from Small Solar System separate sessions. Bodies, it is recommended that Enceladus be The recommendations described in this report added to the list of target bodies for a Planetary are based on discussions in the course of the Protection Category V, restricted Earth return. colloquium and reflect a consensus of the 1.2 Planetary protection requirements for colloquium attendees that participated in one Europa and Enceladus or both separate sessions. Any opinions, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in In line with the current Planetary Protection this report are those of the attendee(s) and do Categories III/IV for missions to Enceladus not necessarily reflect the views of the and with the recommended Earth return organisations that provided support for their planetary protection categorization for participation. Enceladus (see above), it is recommended that the current Planetary Protection Categories 1. ICY MOON SAMPLE RETURN III/IV/V Requirements for Europa be extended PLANETARY PROTECTION to Enceladus. REQUIREMENTS To clarify the time period for which the Responding to the interest within the scientific probability of contamination applies, it is community to return samples from the plumes recommended that the following sentence be of icy moons in general and from Enceladus in added: particular, the COSPAR Scientific Comm- ission B (Space Studies of the Earth-Moon The probability of inadvertent contamination System, Planets, and Small Bodies of the Solar of a Europan or Enceladan ocean of 1x10-4 System) identified a need to establish planetary applies to all mission phases including the protection requirements for such missions, duration that spacecraft introduced terrestrial which are currently not covered in the organisms remain viable and could reach a COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy. sub-surface liquid water environment. 1.1 Earth return planetary protection The current requirements for sample return categorization for Enceladus from Europa have been copied from the relevant set of requirements for Mars. The A previous COSPAR workshop on “Planetary requirement that is covered in the first bullet of Protection for Outer Planet Satellites and Small the sample return missions from Europa Bodies” [2] issued a recommendation to add requirements refers to a level of contamination Enceladus to Planetary Protection Categories not described for Europa: III and IV. These categories cover fly-by, orbiter, and landed missions “to a target body “Unless specifically exempted, the outbound of chemical evolution and/or origin of life leg of the mission shall meet the contamination interest and for which scientific opinion control requirements given above.” provides a significant chance of contamination For Mars, this refers to the requirements for which could compromise future invest- Planetary Protection Category IVb. The reason igations”. This recommendation was for having biological contamination control subsequently adopted by COSPAR and requirements within the framework of sample introduced in the COSPAR Planetary return requirements is explained in the second Protection Policy [1].
43 part of the first bullet in the sample return current sample return missions from Europa missions from Europa requirements: requirements be modified to read: “This provision should avoid “false positive” Reviews and approval of the continuation of indications in a life-detection and hazard- the flight mission shall be required at three determination protocol, or in the search for life stages: 1) prior to launch from Earth; 2) in the sample after it is returned. A “false subsequent to sample collection and prior to a positive” could prevent distribution of the manoeuvre to enter a biased Earth return sample from containment and could lead to trajectory and 3) prior to commitment to Earth unnecessarily increased rigour in the require- re-entry. ments for all later Europa missions.” 1.3 Future research In line with this explanation and the overall It was generally recognised that evaluating the COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy individual terms in the overall probability of statement “The conduct of scientific contamination of a sub-surface ocean on investigations of possible extraterrestrial life Europa and Enceladus is challenging and forms, precursors, and remnants must not be would benefit from further work and guidance jeopardized”, a biological contamination on the following aspects: requirement for Europa and Enceladus in-situ life-detection and sample return missions is Response of organisms to the missing. It is recommended that this topic be conditions of impacts discussed in the joint session (B.06) of Physical exchange processes for Scientific Commissions B, F and the Panel on transport from the surface to the sub- Planetary Protection during the next COSPAR surface Scientific Assembly in 2016 to address this Survival of organisms during transport issue and help develop a proposed wording to from the surface to the sub-surface describe an adequate biological contamination requirement. 1.4 Conclusions on icy moon sample return planetary protection requirements To avoid any ambiguity, it is recommended that plumes be considered as part of the Europa The participants of the colloquium proposed a and Enceladus environments that warrant the categorisation for sample return missions from same level of caution within the framework of Enceladus. The associated requirements are sample return requirements as the surface and identified in the Planetary Protection Category sub-surface. III/IV/V Requirements for Europa and are listed in Box 1. To avoid misunderstandings and to properly reflect the Planetary Protection Category V The intention of these modifications is to close policy statement “The Moon must be protected a gap in the current COSPAR Planetary from back contamination to retain freedom Protection Policy and to provide a basis for from planetary protection requirements on technology developments and icy body sample Earth-Moon travel”, it is recommended that return mission studies. the third bullet in the current sample return 2. MARS SPECIAL REGIONS missions from Europa requirements be PLANETARY PROTECTION modified to read: REQUIREMENTS No uncontained hardware that contacts Mars Special Region is a term used to material from Europa, Enceladus or their designate those places on Mars where the plumes, shall be returned to the Earth’s conditions might be conducive to microbial biosphere or the Moon. replication because Mars is cold, but not In order to keep the trade-space open for always, and very dry, but not everywhere. different mission and trajectory options, it is The concept of Mars Special Regions was first recommended that the fourth bullet in the discussed during the COSPAR Panel on 44
Planetary Protection Meeting in Warsaw, July experts had confidence that replication of 2000, and was recommended for inclusion in terrestrial microorganisms had been observed. the COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy Based on the 2007 COSPAR Panel on during the COSPAR/IAU Workshop on Planetary Protection Colloquium [5], this Planetary Protection in Williamsburg, April margin is currently set at a conservative value 2002. of 10C. Since the last update of the To ensure that the COSPAR Planetary requirements for Mars Special Regions in 2007 Protection Policy is based on current scientific more data have confirmed cell division at - knowledge the parameter definition of what 15C and literature not identified in the 2006- constitutes a Mars Special Region as well as 2007 review demonstrates cell division can examples of environments on Mars that are occur down to -18C (references in [6]). treated as Special Regions should evolve over It is recommended that a margin of 10C on time as new scientific observations become the threshold for the low-temperature limit that available. constitutes a Mars Special Region be A first set of reviews of the Mars Special maintained. As a consequence, it is Regions concept and definition started with a recommended that the new low-temperature NRC study in 2006 [3], followed by a NASA limit for parameters that defines Mars Special MEPAG study in the same year [4], and Regions be set to -28C. culminated in a COSPAR Panel on Planetary As more experiments are published and Protection Colloquium in 2007 [5]. Associated knowledge and confidence improves, the updates to the COSPAR Planetary Protection margin of 10C may be relaxed in the future, if Requirements for Mars Special Regions were deemed appropriate by expert review. introduced and approved by COSPAR in 2008 [1]. In line with the MEPAG-SR-SAG2 report and the Academies/ESF Joint Committee report, it A second set of reviews of the Mars Special is recommended that the current lower limit Regions concept and definition was initiated for water activity of 0.5 be maintained. with a NASA MEPAG study in 2013-14 [6], followed by a National Academies of Sciences, In line with the MEPAG-SR-SAG2 report and Engineering, and Medicine/European Science the Academies/ESF Joint Committee report, it Foundation (Academies/ESF) Joint Committee is recommended that the current long-term study in 2014 [7]. Both reports served as input time limit for changes in the environmental to the colloquium discussions. conditions of 500 years be maintained. 2.1 Mars Special Regions parameter 2.2 Features that must be treated as Special definitions Region The current parameters defining Mars Special No Special Regions have been directly Regions are: detected on Mars. However, current features that suggest the existence of environmental Temperature: > -25C conditions that would qualify them as Special Water activity: > 0.5 Regions, and that therefore must be treated as Timescale of astronomical or Mars Special Regions are: geological events that could affect the environment: 500 years Gullies, and bright streaks associated with gullies Determining the lower temperature limit for Pasted-on terrain the replication of terrestrial microorganisms is Subsurface below 5 m challenging mainly because the time required Others TBD (including dark streaks, for replication increases nonlinearly with possible geothermal sites, fresh craters decreasing temperatures. A margin was added with hydrothermal activity, modern to the lowest published temperature in which
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outflow channels, or sites of recent special interest. The lack of knowledge about seismic activity) the source(s) and sink(s) of methane requires that its sources, if identified, be evaluated to Since the last 2006-2007 review, the determine whether they should be designated understanding of gullies has evolved and as non-special, uncertain, or special regions. discoveries of new features such as Recurrent Slope Lineae (RSL) [8] and near-surface In line with the Academies/ESF Joint atmospheric methane [9] have been made. Committee report, it is recommended that localized “sources of methane” be added to the In line with the MEPAG-SR-SAG2 report and list of sites that must be treated as Special the Academies/ESF Joint Committee report, it Regions until demonstrated otherwise. is recommended that gullies of taxon 2 through 4 be treated as Special Regions until The MEPAG-SR-SAG2 report classified dark proven otherwise. The definition of the various slope streaks as non-special (Table 11 in the taxons is based on the MEPAG-SR-SAG2 MEPAG report, supported by finding 4-8 in report [6]. the same report) [6]. The Academies/ESF Joint Committee report describes recent publications In line with the MEPAG-SR-SAG2 report and suggesting that not all dark slope streaks can the Academies/ESF Joint Committee report, it be explained by dry granular flow, and is recommended that confirmed and partially therefore aqueous processes cannot be confirmed Recurrent Slope Lineae (RSL) be definitely excluded for all dark slope streaks treated as Special Regions until demonstrated [7]. As a consequence, the Academies/ESF otherwise. Joint Committee advised, and the colloquium Due to an artificial observational bias it is attendees have recommended that dark slope recommended that candidate Recurrent Slope streaks be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Lineae (RSL) be evaluated on a case-by-case 2.3 Maps, landing and operational sites basis. The concern of the Academies/ESF Joint It is recommended that the following def- Committee with respect to the use of large- inition of observational evidence for Recurrent scale maps is supported by the participants of Slope Lineae (RSL), adapted from [10], be the colloquium. It is recommended that maps used: be dated and only used to illustrate the general Confirmed: observed simultaneous concept of Special Regions but not be used to incremental growth of flows on a delineate their exact location because many warm slope, fading, and recurrence of relevant features and processes are likely to be this sequence in multiple Mars years sub-grid scale for such maps. Partially confirmed: observed either Until now it has been common understanding incremental growth or recurrence and practice that the temperature and water Candidate: slope lineae that resemble activity thresholds have to be exceeded at the RSL but observations needed for same time for a location to qualify as Mars partial confirmation are lacking Special Region. In line with the MEPAG –SR-SAG2 report and The MEPAG-SR-SAG2 has critically reviewed the Academies/ESF Joint Committee report, it the timing of available liquid water and is recommended that caves and subsurface sufficiently high temperatures needed to allow cavities be treated as Special Regions until replication and identified this as one of the demonstrated otherwise. knowledge gaps [6]. Taking into account the The colloquium participants agreed that it is precautionary approach for planetary appropriate that special consideration be given protection, the colloquium attendees expressed to the presence of methane, recently detected their concern about this aspect, mainly due to near the surface of Mars [9]. Methane is the lack of experimental data, the limited considered to be an organic compound of understanding of microenvironments and 46 disequilibrium conditions, and known abiotic Accordingly, the stated COSPAR Planetary and biotic processes to capture and retain Protection Policy must not be compromised to liquid water. accommodate a human mission to Mars. In line with the Academies/ESF Joint In addition, it is recommended that the Committee report and taking into account the following implementation guideline be deleted: critical review of the MEPAG-SR-SAG2 “Neither robotic systems nor human activities report regarding the timing of available water should contaminate “Special Regions” on and sufficiently high temperatures, it is Mars, as defined by this COSPAR policy.” recommended that the following requirement to the current requirements for Mars Special And replaced with the following statement: Regions be added: Requirements for human activities must be Planned 3-sigma pre-launch landing ellipses imposed to control the contamination of Mars must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis as in general and of Mars Special Regions, part of the (landing) site selection process, to specifically, in line with the COSPAR determine whether the mission would land or Planetary Protection Policy. come within contamination range of areas or 2.5 Future research volumes meeting the parameter definition for Mars Special Regions or would impinge on The MEPAG-SR-SAG2 and Academies/ESF already described features that must be treated Joint Committee reports have identified a large as Mars Special Regions. The evaluation must number of research activities to reduce be based on the latest scientific evidence and in uncertainties and excessive conservatism in the particular include an assessment of the extent requirements. to which the temperature and water activity Based on this array of research activities it values specified for Mars Special Regions are would be beneficial to investigate the separated in time. The evaluation must be following issues through laboratory updated during the mission whenever new experiments on Earth, modelling, and evidence indicates that the landing ellipse observations from Mars orbit and on the and/or the operational environment contain or surface of Mars, with the highest priority: are in contamination range to areas or volumes meeting the parameter definition for Mars Replication of terrestrial Special Regions or already described features microorganisms in the absence of that must be treated as Mars Special Regions. liquid water (e.g., using atmospheric water vapour only) 2.4 Planetary protection and human The capability of terrestrial missions to Mars microorganisms to replicate if liquid The current COSPAR Planetary Protection water and sufficiently high Policy contains principles and guidelines for temperatures do not occur human missions to Mars. simultaneously In line with the concerns raised in the Water activity in pore spaces, Academies/ESF Joint Committee to avoid particularly in the presence of fluid- misunderstandings and to ensure that the gas interfaces primary COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy Methane production and localization statement is properly reflected in the current Translocation of viable biological guidelines and future requirements, it is contamination on Mars recommended that the clarification of the Conclusions for Mars Special Regions principles be extended to read: planetary protection requirements The intent of this planetary protection policy is The colloquium participants recommend a the same whether a mission to Mars is number of updates to the current COSPAR conducted robotically or with human explorers. Planetary Protection Requirements for Mars 47
Special Regions (see Box 2). Most of these COSPAR’s Information Bulletin, Space recommended updates are based on the Research Today, 193, 7-17 MEPAG-SR-SAG2 report [6]and the 2. Rummel, J.D., Ehrenfreund, P., and Peter, Academies/ESF Joint Committee report [7] N., eds. (2009) COSPAR Workshop on discussed during the colloquium. Planetary Protection for Outer Planet Satellites A few clarifications are also recommended for and Small Solar System Bodies. COSPAR, the current COSPAR Planetary Protection Paris Principles and Guidelines for Human Missions 3. National Research Council (2006) to Mars. One additional aspect identified by Preventing the forward contamination of Mars, the MEPAG-SR-SAG2 study and endorsed by National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. the colloquium participants is that the spread of terrestrial biological contamination on Mars 4. Beaty, D., Buxbaum, K., Meyer, M., is not only a concern for scientific Barlow, N., Boynton, W.,Clark, B., Deming, investigations but could also impact life- J., Doran, P.T., Edgett, K., Hancock, S., Head, support systems and the availability of Martian J., Hecht, M., Hipkin, V., Kieft, T., Mancinelli, resources to human explorers as well. R., McDonald, E., McKay, C., Mellon, M., Therefore, planetary protection requirements Newsom, H., Ori, G., Paige, D., Schuerger, are an integral element of sustainable human A.C., Sogin, M., Spry, J.A., Steele, A., Tanaka, Mars exploration. K., and Voytek, M. (2006) Findings of the Mars Special Regions Analysis Group, 3. CLOSING STATEMENT OF THE Astrobiology, 6, 677-732 COLLOQUIUM 5. Kminek, G., Rummel, J.D., Cockell, C.S., This report will be presented and discussed at Atlas, R., Barlow, N., Beaty, D., Boynton, W., the COSPAR Panel on Planetary Protection Carr, M., Clifford, S., Conley, C.A., Davila, during the 41st COSPAR Scientific Assembly A.F., Debus, A., Doran, P., Hecht, M., in Turkey, Istanbul. Heldmann, J., Helbert, J., Hipkin, V., Horneck, The publication of this colloquium report in G., Kieft, T.L., Klingelhoefer, G., Meyer, M., the current issues of COSPAR’s Information Newsom, H., Ori, G.G., Parnell, J., Prieur, D., Bulletin is providing an opportunity for the Raulin, F., Schulze-Makuch, D., Spry, J.A., interested members of the wider scientific Stabekis, P.E., Stackebrand, E., Vago, J., Viso, community to become familiar with the M., Voytek, M., Wells, L., and Westall, F. proposed updates and to better contribute to (2010) Report of the COSPAR mars special the discussions during the Assembly. regions colloquium, Adv. Space Res., 46, 811- 829 Updates to the current COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy will be prepared by the 6. Beaty, D., Buxbaum, K., Meyer, M., COSPAR Panel on Planetary Protection, taking Barlow, N., Boynton, W., Clark, B., Deming, into account the colloquium report and the J., Doran, P.T., Edgett, K., Hancock, S., Head, discussions during the Assembly, and J., Hecht, M., Hipkin, V., Kieft, T., Mancinelli, submitted to the COSPAR Bureau with a R., McDonald, E., McKay, C., Mellon, M., request for adoption. Newsom, H., Ori, G., Paige, D., Schuerger, A.C., Sogin, M., Spry, J.A., Steele, A., Tanaka, The organizers of the colloquium would like to K., and Voytek, M. (2006) A new Analysis of thank the staff of ISSI for their excellent Mars “Special Regions”: Findings of the support in preparing and conducting this Second MEPAG Special Regions Science meeting. Analysis Group (SR-SAG2), Astrobiology, 14., References 887-968 1. Kminek, G., and Rummel, J.D. (2015) 7. Rettberg, P., Anesio, A.M., Baker, V.R., COSPAR’s Planetary Protection Policy, Baross, J.A., Cady, S.L., Detsis, E., Foreman, C.M., Hauber, E., Ori, G.G., Pearce, D.A., 48
Renno, N.O., Ruvkun, G., Sattler, B., The mechanisms and timescales of Saunders, M.P., Smith, D.H., Wagner, D., and transport to a Europan or Enceladian Westall, F. (2016) Planetary Protection and subsurface liquid water environment Mars Special Regions—A Suggestion for Organism survival and proliferation Updating the Definition, Astrobiology, 16, before, during, and after subsurface 119-125 transfer 8. McEwen, A.S. et al. (2011) Seasonal flow Preliminary calculations of the probability of on warm martian slopes, Science, 333, 740-743 contamination suggest that bioburden 9. Webster, C.R. et al. (2015) Mars Atmos- reduction phere. Mars methane detection and variability will likely be necessary even for Europa and at Gale crater, Science, 347, 415-417 Enceladus orbiters (Category III) as well as 10. McEwen, A.S. et al. (2014) Recurrent for landers, requiring the use of cleanroom slope lineae in equatorial regions of Mars, technology and the cleanliness of all parts Nature Geosciences, 7, 53-58 before assembly, and the monitoring of spacecraft assembly facilities to understand the Box 1: Recommended update of the bioburden and its microbial diversity, requirements for Europa including specific problematic species. (Proposed changes in bold) Specific methods should be developed to eradicate problematic species. Methods of CATEGORY III/IV/V REQUIREMENTS bioburden reduction should reflect the type of FOR EUROPA AND ENCELADUS environments found on Europa or Enceladus, Missions to Europa and Enceladus focusing on Earth extremophiles most likely to survive on Europa or Enceladus, such as cold Category III and IV. Requirements for Europa and radiation tolerant organisms (SSB 2000). and Enceladus flybys, orbiters and landers, including bioburden reduction, shall be applied Sample Return Missions from Europa and in order to reduce the probability of Enceladus inadvertent contamination of a Europan or Category V. The Earth return mission is -4 Enceladan ocean to less than 1 x 10 per classified, “Restricted Earth return.” mission. The probability of inadvertent contamination of a Europan or Enceladan Unless specifically exempted, the ocean of 1x10-4 applies to all mission phases outbound leg of the mission shall meet including the duration that spacecraft the contamination control introduced terrestrial organisms remain requirements given above. This viable and could reach a sub-surface liquid provision should avoid “false positive” water environment. These requirements will indications in a life-detection and be refined in future years, but the calculation hazard-determination protocol, or in of this probability should include a the search for life in the sample after it conservative estimate of poorly known is returned. A “false positive” could parameters, and address the following factors, prevent distribution of the sample from at a minimum: containment and could lead to unnecessary increased rigor in the Bioburden at launch requirements for all later Europa or Cruise survival for contaminating Enceladus missions. organisms Unless the samples to be returned from Organism survival in the radiation Europa or Enceladus are subjected to environment adjacent to Europa or an accepted and approved sterilization Enceladus process, the canister(s) holding the Probability of landing on Europa or samples returned from Europa or Enceladus Enceladus shall be closed, with an
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appropriate verification process, and system is restricted to a surface the samples shall remain contained bioburden level of ≤ 30* spores. during all mission phases through Case 2. If the special region is transport to a receiving facility where accessed through horizontal or vertical it (they) can be opened under mobility, either the entire landed containment. system is restricted to a surface The mission and the spacecraft design bioburden level of ≤ 30* spores, OR must provide a method to “break the the subsystems which directly contact chain of contact” with Europa or the special region shall be sterilized to Enceladus. No uncontained hardware these levels, and a method of that contacts material from Europa, preventing their recontamination prior Enceladus or their plumes, shall be to accessing the special region shall be returned to the Earth’s biosphere or the provided. Moon. Isolation of such hardware from If an off-nominal condition (such as a hard the Europan or Enceladan environment landing) would cause a high probability of shall be provided during sample inadvertent biological contamination of the container loading into the containment special region by the spacecraft, the entire system, launch from Europa or landed system must be sterilized to a surface Enceladus, and any inflight transfer bioburden level of ≤ 30* spores and a total operations required by the mission. (surface, mated, and encapsulated) bioburden Reviews and approval of the level of ≤ 30 + (2 x 105)* spores. continuation of the flight mission shall be required at three stages: prior to Planned 3-sigma pre-launch landing ellipses launch from Earth; 2) subsequent to must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis as sample collection and prior to a part of the (landing) site selection process, to manoeuvre to enter a biased Earth determine whether the mission would land or return trajectory; and 3) prior to come within contamination range of areas or commitment to Earth re-entry. volumes meeting the parameter definition for For unsterilized samples returned to Mars Special Regions or would impinge on Earth, a programme of life detection already described features that must be treated and biohazard testing, or a proven as Mars Special Regions. The evaluation must sterilization process, shall be be based on the latest scientific evidence and in undertaken as an absolute precondition particular include an assessment of the extent for the controlled distribution of any to which the temperature and water activity portion of the sample (SSB 1998). values specified for Mars Special Regions are separated in time. The evaluation must be updated during the mission whenever new Box 2: Recommended update of the evidence indicates that the landing ellipse requirements and definition for Mars and/or the operational environment contain or Special Regions are in contamination range to areas or volumes (Proposed changes in bold) meeting the parameter definition for Mars Special Regions or already described features Category IVc. For missions which investigate that must be treated as Mars Special Regions. Martian special regions (see definition below), even if they do not include life detection Definition of ‘Special Region’ experiments, all of the requirements of A Special Region is defined as a region within Category IVa apply, along with the following which terrestrial organisms are likely to requirement: replicate. Any region which is interpreted to Case 1. If the landing site is within the have a high potential for the existence of extant special region, the entire landed Martian life forms is also defined as a Special Region. 50
Given current understanding of terrestrial assumes attainment of Category IVa surface organisms, Special Regions are defined as cleanliness, followed by at least a four order- areas or volumes within which sufficient water of-magnitude reduction in viable organisms. activity AND sufficiently warm temperatures Verification of bioburden level is based on pre- to permit replication of Earth organisms may sterilization bioburden assessment and exist. The physical parameters delineating knowledge of reduction factor of the applicable water activity and temperature sterilization modality. thresholds are given below: †Description for Gully taxon ref. [6] Lower limit for water activity: 0.5; ‡Observational evidence for Recurrent Slope Upper limit: 1.0 Lineae (RSL), adapted from [11]: Lower limit for temperature: -28C; No Upper limit defined Confirmed: observed simultaneous Timescale within which limits can be incremental growth of flows on a identified: 500 years warm slope, fading, and recurrence of this sequence in multiple Mars years Observed features that must be treated as Partially confirmed: observed either Special Regions until demonstrated otherwise: incremental growth or recurrence Gullies (taxon 2-4)†, and bright streaks Candidate: slope lineae that resemble associated with gullies RSL but observations needed for Subsurface cavities partial confirmation are lacking. Subsurface below 5 meters [NOTE FROM THE EDITOR: As mentioned Confirmed and partially confirmed above the content of this report does not ‡ Recurrent Slope Lineae (RSL) necessarily reflect the official opinion of Features, if found, that must be treated as COSPAR. Responsibility for the information Special Region until demonstrated otherwise: and views expressed lies entirely with the author(s). Any recommendations or proposed Groundwater changes in COSPAR policy mentioned therein Source of methane must be duly processed by the relevant Geothermal activity Scientific Commissions and the COSPAR Modern outflow channel Bureau.] Observed features that require a case-by-case evaluation: “Earth Observation of Trans- Dark streaks boundary Water Resources,” Pasted-on terrain Candidate RSL‡ COSPAR Capacity Building Workshop, 26 October-6 Spacecraft-induced special regions are to be evaluated, consistent with these limits and November 2015, Ho Chi Minh features, on a case-by-case basis. City, Vietnam In the absence of specific information, no [Report by Bob Su (ITC, University of Special Regions are currently identified on the Twente), Vu Hien Phan (Ho Chi Minh City basis of possible Martian life forms. If and University of Technology)] when information becomes available on this The COSPAR Capability Building Workshop subject, Special Regions will be further on Earth Observation of Transboundary Water defined on that basis (Kminek et al., 2008) Resources took place at Ho Chi Minh City *This figure takes into account the occurrence University of Technology (HCMUT), Ho Chi of hardy organisms with respect to the Minh City, Vietnam, from 26 October to 6 sterilization modality. This specification November 2015. The workshop was co-
51 organised by Ho Chi Minh City University of ment, in combination with in-situ observation Technology (HCMUT) and the Faculty of data and modelling and data assimilation. As Geo-Information Science and Earth Observ- such the availabilities, changes and extremes in ation (ITC), University of Twente, the trans-boundary water resources can be Netherlands. Funding was provided by transparently assessed for different regions and COSPAR, ESA, and the University of Twente. countries. HCMUT provided the lecture room, and Satellite EO data from the European Space computing facilities for participants. Agency (ESA) and the National Aeronautic The rationale of the workshop was that trans- and Space Administration (NASA) as well as boundary water resources pose huge chall- from other national and regional space enges for monitoring, assessment, planning, agencies provide indispensable resources for and management because of the difficulty in assessing the water resources variability. The collecting all needed data by traditional means challenges to users are how to translate the and the different national and regional interests satellite data into water cycle and water that need to be served. Often there is no resources information. agreement on how much water resource is The aim of this workshop was to provide available in a river basin and how it changes in training for young researchers from South East space and time. Climate change and direct Asia to develop skills in the access, processing, human intervention (e.g. via hydraulic-infra- analysis and use of satellite EO and in-situ data structures and land-use changes) have as well as state-of-the-art model outputs for exacerbated these challenges further. Recent transboundary water resources applications. advances in Earth Observation (EO) however More specifically we aimed to provide hands- have opened many new opportunities for on guidance for the participants to be able to quantifying and analysing the terrestrial water apply datasets and model outputs for their own cycle, including precipitation, evapotrans- specific regional applications. Focus was given piration, soil moisture, water level of reservoirs to the applications of satellite data from ESA and lakes, snow and glaciers, as well as storage and NASA, including ESA’s Climate Change changes in time and space. Initiative (CCI) data. The workshop consisted Because EO data are available from local to of keynote lectures in the morning and regional and global scale, use can be made to practical hands-on sessions in the afternoon. assist transboundary water resources manage-
COSPAR Capacity Building Workshop in Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam, group photo 52
Data and model outputs were provided by the other, which had proven a successful strategy organisers with a focus on open-access data so in the ESA TIGER and the ESA Dragon that the participants can continue to build on programme, in which ITC of the University of what they have learned during the workshop. Twente has been responsible for advanced The course built upon recent advanced training courses. trainings in the ESA Dragon programme and Participants the research programme and MSc curricula of ITC, University of Twente. The following The participants were mainly junior specific objectives were achieved: researchers and staff members from universities and governmental organisations Provide theory and insights in the involved in areas of hydrometeorology, water available EO and model data to study resources and earth observation. 46 candidates the terrestrial water cycle. Focus was from South-East Asian countries were selected on precipitation, evapo-transpiration, among more than 100 applicants. But four soil moisture, and changes in storages. selected candidates could not participate in the Provide guide in downloading, workshop due to logistical problems. processing and analysing the suite of EO-data available over transboundary Organising Committee river basins in SE Asia. The science organising committee consisted of Provide case studies in monitoring and Dr. Pierre-Philippe Mathieu (ESA, COSPAR evaluating water availability, extremes PCB), Prof. Ernesto Lopez Baeza (COSPAR (floods and droughts) and water use PCB), Prof. Z. Bob Su (University of Twente, relevant to water resources ITC), and Dr. Vu Hien Phan (HCMUT, management and food security. Faculty of Civil Engineering). The local organising committee consisted of Dr. Tam Data and Processing Software Minh Nguyen (HCMUT, Faculty of Civil Engineering), Assoc. Prof. Dr. Duc Trong Tran Used satellite data included those from (HCMUT, Faculty of Civil Engineering), and research and operational satellites and sensors, Dr. Vu Hien Phan (HCMUT, Faculty of Civil including MODIS, GRACE, GPM/TRMM, Engineering). SMAP, ERS, ENVISAT, SMOS, Sentinels, as well as other publically accessible sources. Lecturers and Supporting Staff Data from global reanalysis including those The supporting staff included: ME. Viet Tuan from ERA-Interim and GLDAS as well as in- Duong, ME. Ngan Truong Nguyen, Mrs. Nga situ data from other publically available Kim Nguyen of the Department of Geomatics sources were also used. Engineering, HCMUT and Mrs. Anke de Koning of the Department of Water Resources, The operating system was Windows. The ITC, University of Twente. software used was open source and has been used annually at the ESA Dragon training The lecturers were: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wataru courses. The software included ILWIS (ITC), Takeuchi (University of Tokyo), Dr. Quan BEAM (ESA) as well as others identified by Nguyen- Hong (Institute for Environment and the lecturers. Resources, Ho Chi Minh City), Dr. Nguyen Lam-Dao (Vietnam Southern Satellite The organisers have proposed to establish a Technology Application Center), Dr. Vu Phan- network of participants for providing technical Hien (Ho Chi Minh City University of advice after they have returned home after the Technology), Professor Bob Su (University of workshop through the ITC alumni networks Twente), Professor Thuy Le-Toan (Centre and the ITC water and climate group d'Etudes Spatiales de la Biosphère), Dr. Jean- (facebook) and have encouraged the Louis Fellous (COSPAR), and MSc. Lichun par ticipants to set up collaborative research Wang (University of Twente). projects with the organisers and with each 53
Workshop Outcome and Evaluation Report on the COSPAR Capacity A team of international and national experts Building Workshop, “Planetary provided teaching and practicals. The state of Missions Data Analysis”, art science and techniques in Earth Observation of Transboundary Water Guaratinguetá, São Paulo, Brazil, Resources was offered. 26 October-6 November 2015 1. Anticipated outcomes (deliverables) [Report by Silvia Maria Giuliatti Winter, were that participants should have UNESP, Brazil] gained knowledge and skills in EO data The workshop took place in the Universidade access, processing and analysis for Estadual Paulista (UNESP) from 26 October to transboundary water resources moni- 6 November 2015. Primarily organized by toring. Participants received workshop COSPAR, it received support from UNESP materials (on USB sticks) and related and some international organizations such as software as open source codes for the space agencies ESA and JAXA, and the adaptation to their specific applications. International Astronomical Union (IAU). 2. The format of the workshop was a two-week workshop with lectures given Since 2001 COSPAR has been organizing by international and local experts with Capacity Building Workshops to promote the hands-on practical sessions. The use of data from space missions among workshop focused on the assessment scientists and students, mainly in developing and monitoring of precipitation, evapo- countries. Nowadays there are several data transpiration, soil moisture, and derived bases available of free access with data from runoff and storage variables. Lectures several space missions that have not been were combined with hands-on widely used, mainly because of lack of practicals of regional case studies. A knowledge of the existence of the facilities and computer lab was available with freely how to use them. available software for visualization and Due to the increasing number of scientists processing. Participants’ own laptops working on planetary sciences in Latin were also used to facilitate, identify and American countries this Workshop was utilize observational data and devoted to the use of planetary missions model/assimilation products as well as databases. The purpose was to increase the use to adapt to particular applications after of data obtained from the planetary space the workshop. missions and promote collaboration among 3. Participants were asked to form scientists. There is a large amount of data working groups choosing a topic of obtained from space missions, some of them interest and worked together during the with free access. workshop. Seven groups were formed and excellent research-grade present- This Workshop was intended to provide ations were given before the closing of enough information to the participants in order the workshop. to enable them to use the available tools to analyse the data. The Workshop was divided An online evaluation was conducted before the into Introductory and Planetary Missions data final group work presentation. Very positive base lectures, and the development of a responses were received from participants and research project using the data. There were suggestions made for organising future some introductory lectures about present workshops. More information about the knowledge of the solar system and its workshop can be found at this website: formation and the space missions. The http://cospar2015.hcmut.edu.vn/destination.ht participants worked with computers with ml. Internet access in order to download and work with the data.
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Participants Enceladus' plumes? Analysis of images from Cassini ISS, e) Surface thermal emission in This Workshop was oriented to participants Venus, f) Propellers morphology, g) Cor- from Latin American countries (Brazil, relation between gravitational potential and Argentina, Uruguay, Colombia, Peru, roughness of Itokawa, h) Venus, revealing hell, Paraguay, Chile, Mexico, etc) interested in i) Near-IR oxygen nightglow and altitude- planetary sciences. The level of the intensity profile for Venus, j) Analysis of the participants was MSc and PhD students, post- Venus' southern pole vortex, k) Reconstruct docs and also young professionals. The the light curve of Itokawas by using the following criteria were adopted in order to Hayabusa AMICA, l) Comparison of Rosetta select the participants: i) background in the navigation camera and OSIRIS images taken at area; ii) experience in data reduction comet approach in August 2014 and m) techniques, and iii) possibility to continue the Calculate the orbital evolution of ejecta and research in their home institutes. debris caused by the impactor. On the last day A total of 33 applicants were selected out of a the participants presented their projects and 43 candidates. The selected participants were some results. from Latin American countries (11 from Results Argentina, 17 from Brazil, 1 from Chile, 1 from Mexico and 3 from Uruguay). Some At the end of the workshop each group gave a undergraduate students were also selected short presentation of 15-20 minutes (plus 5 since they were working in planetary sciences. minutes for discussion) summarizing their results. For some students was the first time Lecturers they gave a talk in English. Most of the results The introductory lectures were given by Dr. were good, and it seemed that all the Gonzalo Tancredi (Facultad Ciencias, participants understood the methodologies Uruguay), Dr. Tabaré Gallardo (Facultad developed in the project. Most of them were Ciencias, Uruguay) and Dr. Rodney Gomes able to continue the project in their home (Observatório Nacional, Brazil). The planetary university/institute. missions data base lectures were given by Dr. Venue Makoto Yoshikawa (JAXA), Dr. Radwan Tajeddine (Cornell University, USA), Dr The Workshop took place in the Universidade Bernhard Geiger (ESA/ESAC, Spain) and Dr. Estadual Paulista-UNESP in Guaratinguetá, in Alejandro Cardesín Moinelo (ESA/ESAC, the campus of the Faculty of Engineering. The Spain). The following missions data were host department was the mathematics depart- analysed: Cassini Mission, Hayabusa, Rosetta ment, which recently moved to a new building. and Venus Express. In fact, the Workshop was the first event, inaugurating the facilities of this new building. The second week of the Workshop was The lectures were presented in the auditorium dedicated to the preparation and presentation and the practical activities took place in the of the projects. laboratory, both located on the same floor. The Projects auditorium and the laboratory had enough The lecturers presented several projects and the space to comfortably accommodate the partici- participants could choose which one they pants and lecturers. The lecturers also had their would like to develop. There were 13 groups own room in the department. working in the following projects: a) The campus is connected to the RNP (“Rede Astrometry of Daphnis, based on Cassini's ISS Nacional de Pesquisa” – National Research images, b) Classification of gravity waves in Network) which provided a fast and reliable VIRTIS data, c) Characterization of dust grains link. There was full Internet coverage via Wi- around comet 67P as seen in Rosetta Fi within the building. Most of the participants navigation camera images, d) What about brought their own computers, and the
55 organization also provided a number of was the software advisor and was present, desktops to be used in the laboratory during the helping the participants, during the two weeks. developing of the projects. Dr. Rafael Sfair
Participants, lecturers and some organisers of the Workshop during a coffee break
In the first week of the event we had a special The lecturers were excellent professionals and dinner with all the lecturers in a different helped the participants all the time. The restaurant, and in the second week the Workshop had full support from the Faculty, lecturers, local and non-local participants went which made the event possible. The Local to a restaurant for a celebration, tasting local Organizing Committee, the Scientific Organ- food and enjoying local music for an enjoyable izing Committee, and UNESP, COSPAR, IAU, night. ESA and JAXA were responsible for the success of this event. The Excursion On Sunday the group went to the National Park of Itatiaia, a beautiful region with lakes, rivers Report on the COSPAR Capacity and waterfalls. It was a great opportunity to see a wide variety of different species of birds. The Building Workshop “Improved group also stopped in Penedo for lunch and a Accuracy in the Equatorial Region walk around. Penedo is a town founded by and Progress toward a Real-Time Finnish settlers in Brazil with approximately 5,000 inhabitants. IRI Model”, 2-13 November 2015, Bangkok, Thailand General Evaluation [Report by Assoc. Prof. Pornchai Supnithi From the opinion of most of the participants (King Mongkut's Institute of Technology the Workshop was a success. Despite the hotel Ladkrabang, Thailand) and Prof. Dieter Bilitza, not being close to the university, the bus took (George Mason University, USA)] less than 20 minutes to bring participants and lecturers to the university. Guaratinguetá is a Training Week, 2-6 November 2015 small town, which was good for the Workshop, Ten lecturers and 33 trainees participated in surrounded by pleasant sites. the five-day training session that took place in the computer lab #109 of the Engineering
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Instructional Building, Faculty of Engineering, Problem 2: Compare the annual and semi- KMITL. The trainees were competitively annual variation of foF2 in the two hemi- selected from 114 applicants and represented spheres. What are the differences? What could 11 mostly Southeast-Asian countries including be possible causes? What does IRI predict? Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, Problem 3: Investigate storm effects on foF2, Indonesia, Vietnam, India, South-Korea, hmF2, and TEC at a location in the Northern Taiwan, China, and USA. On each training hemisphere. What are the differences? What is day, lectures were given in the morning, while the storm effect on the slap thickness? the afternoons were devoted to the practical Compare with IRI and IRI-Real-Time pre- part and the time for Team Projects. On 2 dictions. Use the Halloween storm (28 October November we welcomed Assoc. Prof. Komsan – 1 November 2003) or select your own storm Maleesee, the Dean of Faculty of Engineering, event. who presided over the opening session and welcomed the participants. In addition, Prof. Problem 4: Investigate storm effects on foF2, Mariano Mendez welcomed the participants hmF2, and TEC at a location in the Southern and introduced the COSPAR activities and hemisphere. What are the differences? What is opportunities for fellowships. Prof. Dieter the storm effect on the slap thickness? Bilitza gave a welcome message as well on Compare with IRI and IRI-Real-Time pre- behalf of the COSPAR/URSI International dictions. Use the Halloween storm (28 October Reference Ionosphere (IRI) project. – 1 November 2003) or select your own storm event. The lecture topics during the training week were: Ionosphere—An introduction; IRI- Problem 5: Different profile functions have Introduction and open problems; comparison been proposed for the representation of the of IRI with ionosonde data from the Asian topside electron density profile. Which ones sector, IRI web and related online services; are used in IRI and other models? Which give ionosonde measurements; Real-Time IRI; the best results? With each profile type a ionosondes in the Asian Sector; ionosonde data different scale height is defined how do they online; GIRO and SPIDR; GNSS data and compare to the theoretically expected scale ionospheric studies; irregularities at equatorial height? latitudes; TEC comparisons with IRI in the Problem 6: How well is the Equatorial Asian sector; access to GNSS data; coupling Ionization Anomaly (EIA) represented in IRI? between ionosphere and thermosphere at low Use the EIA parameter model developed by latitudes; ion densities and plasma Xiong et al. (2013) based on CHAMP and temperatures; solar irradiance and upper GRACE data. Compare with EIA parameters atmospheric chemistry; incoherent scatter determined from IRI. Suggest ways to improve radar; and ionospheric storms. IRI. On the first training day the trainees were Problem 7: An East-West Coast difference has divided into eight teams and the eight science been reported over the continental US. problems were distributed to the teams via Investigate analogous effects in the South- lottery. A lecturer was assigned to each Asian sector. What are the causes for these problem to work as adviser with the specific differences? Are these differences reproduced team. Below are the topics/problems assigned by IRI? to each team. Problem 8: E-region physics. Investigate List of Problems improvements of the representation of foE and Problem 1: Compare the annual and semi- hmE for use in IRI. IRI currently depends on annual variation of foF2 in the two hemi- the 12-month running mean of sunspot spheres. What are the differences? What could number. Find out if a daily or monthly index be possible causes? What does IRI predict? can be used. Do you see a dependence on magnetic activity? 57
Lecturers: Profs. Bodo Reinisch and Ivan Presentation Week, 9-13 November 2015 Galkin (University of Massachusetts, USA), During this week, a conference format with Prof. Dieter Bilitza (George Mason University, oral presentations and poster presentations was USA), Assoc. Prof. Pornchai Supnithi organized. We had received 116 abstract sub- (KMITL), Asst. Prof. Prasert Kenpankho missions from 25 countries. The accepted (KMITL), Prof. Andrzej Krankowski presentations were distributed in sessions (University of Warmia and Mazury, Poland), entitled ‘Improved Accuracy of IRI at Prof. Shigeto Watanabe (University of Equatorial Latitudes I, II, III’, ‘Progress Hokkaido, Japan), Dr. Vladimir Truhlik Towards Real-Time IRI’, ‘F-peak Modelling (Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Czech and Comparisons’, ‘Description of Plasma Republic), Dr. Takashi Maruyama (National Temperatures and Ion Composition in IRI’, Institute of Information and Communications ‘TEC and Topside Modelling and Technology, Japan), Dr. Susumu Saito
(Electronic Navigation Research Institute, Japan). Besides the academic programme, some social activities and an excursion were included. On Sunday 1 November all trainees and lecturers were invited to attend an Ice Breaker dinner where everyone introduced him/herself and learned a little bit about Thai culture and about general issues to be aware of while being in Thailand. On Wednesday 4 November we all visited the Ladkrabang Satellite Ground Station, a backup site of the Thai Geo-Informatics and Space Development Agency (GISTDA). We were given a tour of the facility and an overview of the activities of the stations. GISTDA operates the Thai THEOS satellite, which produces pan- chromatic (2-m resolution) and multi-spectral (15-m resolution) imagery of Thailand. This site can receive satellite signals from many remote-sensing satellites. After the overview, we were all invited to witness a Landsat satellite fly-by as well as the real-time image production. GISTDA ground satellite station visit
During lunch on Wednesday and Thursday, Comparisons’, ‘Description of the Ionosphere there was a brief tour of the Rooftop Below the F-peak’, Poster session, ‘New In- Laboratory, where GNSS receivers and puts and Applications’. satellite beacon receiver are operated, and a brief overview of some ionospheric research The opening session on 9 November was activities at KMITL was given. presided by Assoc. Prof. Supan Tungjitkusonman, Vice Provost in Academic On Saturday 7 November there was a tour to and Research Affairs, and Assoc. Prof. the Emerald Buddha Temple, the Grand Palace Komsan Maleesee, the Dean of Faculty of as well as the Reclining Buddha Temple. Engineering. Representatives of the sponsor organizations received an appreciation certificate and a small gift.
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A welcome reception was organized on electron density, the F-peak height hmF2, the Monday evening, where participants learned ion composition at very low solar activities, some basic Thai dances in circles. On and the occurrence probability of spread-F. Wednesday afternoon, two excursions were High priority was assigned to the inclusion of organized. One to the PTEC, the other to the GNSS measurements into the Real-Time IRI Ladkrabang Satellite Ground Station. algorithm. On Wednesday evening, the workshop banquet The venue for the next IRI 2017 Workshop took place during a Chaopraya River Cruise. was discussed and proposals were presented The participants enjoyed the dinner buffet and for Havana, Cuba and Irkutzk, Russia. Drs. views of the Chaopraya river, the main artery Pornchai Supnithi and Prasert Kenpankho were of Bangkok, the Old Historic section and the elected as new members for the IRI Working new modern section of Bangkok. Group. Finally, the awards for the best teams were given to: During a special session on Thursday, rep- resentatives of each team project from the first Gold award: Team 5, Problem 3 (Chinmaya week made presentations about their findings Kumar Nayak, Adrian Teck Keng TAN, and results. A lively question/answer period Punyawi Jamjareegulgarn, Ednofri) ensued after each presentation. Three judges Silver award: Team 1, Problem 1 (Malini (Profs. Shigeto Watanabe, Shunrong Zhang, Aggarwal, Siti Aminah Bahari, Wang Zheng, and Yongliang Zhang) were assigned to choose Sanit Arunpold) the best three teams, to receive awards during the final session on Friday. At the end of this Bronze award: Team 4, Problem 4 (Dessi session, certificates from COSPAR were given Marlia, Azad Ahmad Mansoori, Sarawoot out to each trainee. In the last session of Rungruenwajiake, V. Rajesh Chowdhary) Thursday poster presentations were made. The 2nd COSPAR Symposium, “Water and Life in the Universe”, 9-13 November 2016, Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil [Report by Othon Cabo Winter, Symposium Chair] The 2nd COSPAR Symposium was held from 9 to 13 November 2015 on the theme “Water and Life in the Universe” in Foz do Iguaçu, The Ice Breaker dinner Brazil. About 187 participants from 23 countries attended the meeting. The venue was On Friday morning, participants were invited splendid with the nearby Cataratas do Iguaçu by the KMITL president to attend the welcome waterfalls, the huge ITAIPU hydroelectric session of Her Royal Highness Princess Maha power plant, and the magnificent bird Sirindhorn who graciously presided over the sanctuary Parque das Aves, among other opening of four new buildings on KMITL attractions. campus and the graduation ceremony. Just after the Opening Ceremony there were On Friday the IRI Business Meeting was held two keynote speeches, the first given by Prof. in conjunction with final discussions and Paulo Artaxo (USP, Brazil): “Amazonia: The decisions regarding the next version of the IRI close links between water, biological activity model. As a result of the presentations at the and climate change” and the second by Prof. workshop new improved descriptions will be Fabrizio Capaccioni (INAF/IAPS, Italy) on introduced into the IRI model for the topside 59
“Water in the Solar System: Results from Giuliatti Winter (UNESP, Brazil) talked on ROSETTA”. After this there was a space “Pluto System Dynamics & the New Horizons agencies round table, chaired by Prof. Lennard Mission”. There was then an Invited Lecture to Fisk (President of COSPAR), with the open activities each morning. The first one on presence of representatives from the Brazilian “The ASTER Mission: Exploring for the First Space Agency (AEB), the National Institute of Time a Triple System Asteroid” was delivered Space Research (INPE), the Argentinian Space by Dr. Elbert Macau (INPE, Brazil). Agency (CONAE), the Italian Space Agency, On Wednesday Dr. Dara Entekhabi (JPL, (ASI), the French Space Agency (CNES), the USA) talked on “The NASA Soil Moisture Japanese Space Agency (JAXA), the European Active Passive (SMAP) Mission Status and Space Agency (ESA) and the USA Space Early Results”. The following day, Dr. Masaki Agency (NASA). Fujimoto (JAXA/ISAS, Japan) talked on Opening the activities of the first two "Formation of the Solar System, Terrestrial afternoons there was a Plenary Talk. On Water and Life: Sample Returns of Hydrated Monday it was given by Dr. Eduardo Janot Dust and Organics from Small Bodies”. Pacheco (USP, Brazil) on the PLATO 2.0 Finally, on Friday there was a lecture on mission. The following day Dr. Silvia Maria "Exploration and Sample Return from Other
Some of the organisers and participants of the 2nd COSPAR Symposium in Foz do Iguaçu
Shores: Planetary Protection for the Water water, ices, organics in the galaxy, interstellar Worlds” by John Rummel (McGill University, medium, around stars and on exoplanets. They Canada). The Symposium was composed of reviewed the status of exoplanets research, in oral and poster presentations distributed into particular in the new context of habitability. nine sessions, described as follows: They discussed the potential of upcoming space mission, and proposed observatories for Session 1 - Space astronomy missions to the future. detect ingredients for life and exoplanets in the universe: status of current and future approved missions and new proposals.
This session presented results from space missions and ground observatories to study 60
Session 2 - Water and life in the universe underneath the satellites affected by strong and on Earth: impact on human tidal forces of giant planets. Organics and consciousness and societies. volatiles are also discovered by meteoritic analysis, space missions and astronomical This was an interdisciplinary (and even trans- observations of asteroids, comets, and icy disciplinary) session connecting hard and bodies. social sciences, and even society, in the tradition of the education and outreach session Cosmic dust plays a major role as a delivery at the COSPAR. The idea was to have lectures vehicle of water and organics to the Earth. or contributions from scientists involved in Extra-terrestrial water resources are also astrophysics, geophysics, and environmental expected as a future exploitation target to sciences, but also in geography, economy, support future deep space human exploration. sociology, history, health sciences, etc. and Session 5 - Water from chemical, biological, maybe an artist’s view to get a picture of the and physical perspectives. impact of water both on Earth and in the cosmos on life, on society(ies), and on Water use and reuse for life support, sources humanity. (combustion/propulsion reaction by-product; celestial bodies; organic decomposition; …). Session 3 - Satellite and probe missions for There have been very important theoretical & water remote sensing on Earth, planets, and experimental developments in the mystery of other celestial bodies. water such as: (i) Constructions & prototypes The main goal of the session was: 1. to show of water batteries; (ii) Low frequency achievements of especially dedicated satellite phenomena in water & their impact on the bio- water missions such as ESA`s water mission system; (iii) Ferro-electric ordered domains in SMOS (Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity); water leading to a super-phase of water; (iv) NASA`s SMAP (Soil Moisture Active and Low frequency magnetic phenomena in water; Passive Mission); pioneering missions based (v) Electromagnetic signals from DNA in on GNSS-R signals also transmitting water (vi); Coherence & non-transient effects information on soil moisture (ESA`s PARIS in water. (Passive Reflectometry and Interferometry Water in the Earth`s middle atmosphere is very System) In orbit-demonstrator, and GRACE small in amount but plays important roles. It (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment). was recently discovered that latent heat 2. to show how the GPM and TRMM missions released by cumulus convection in the tropo- (NASA-JAXA) are helping to advance our sphere plays an important role in generating understanding of Earth`s water and energy atmospheric waves, such as gravity wave and cycle, improving forecasting of extreme events tides, which go up to the mesosphere and even that cause natural hazard and disaster, and thermosphere and ionosphere up to a few extend current capabilities in using accurate hundred kilometres above ground, transporting and timely information to directly benefit momentum and energy and driving the society. atmosphere circulation and variations of iono- Session 4 - Water and Life in the Solar sphere. Water vapour is also one of the System. greenhouse gases and the trend in the middle atmosphere is of interest. Solar system research has revealed evidence of present water both inside and outside the snow Session 6 - Role of water from the ground to line, from Mercury, Moon, Mars to Europa, the upper atmosphere. Ganymede, Enceladus and beyond. The At mesopause, water becomes ice in the “habitable zone” concept has been expanding summer polar region and forms noctilucent from surface habitats on the terrestrial planets in close heliocentric orbits to deep habitats, like thermal vent eco-system on the Earth,
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Session 8 - Water and life support for human exploration in low Earth orbit, the Moon and beyond. The session discussed the use and recycling of water and organics for human missions and their reuse for life support on the ISS and beyond. The possibility of using water and organic resources on lunar sites (including poles), asteroids and Mars was discussed for life support, propulsion fuel, in-situ manu- facturing and other by-products enabling human exploration. The session included talks Checking out the poster session and posters on terrestrial simulation analogue campaigns, and precursor robotic space experi- warming. Molecules related to water, such as ments to survey these materials, to demonstrate OH, are also used for remote sensing of the their use for supporting biological and techn- mesosphere lower thermosphere region. This ical investigations, and provide lessons for session treats various aspects of phenomena future life support systems in human bases on above ground up to the upper atmosphere the Moon and beyond. related to water. Session 9 - SWOT altimetry mission for Session 7 - Astrobiology: habitability, hydrology; synthesis of organics in ice, and prebiotic This was a session dedicated to SWOT, the chemistry in liquid water. altimeter mission for hydrology. On 12 The session covered three topics: i) November there was a special session to Habitability: defining the notion of habitability celebrate the one-year anniversary of the related to the nature of the stars, then, landing of Philae on the surface of comet expanding to habitability on Mars, icy 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. satellites and possible exoplanets; ii) Synthesis Simultaneously to the Symposium some other of Organics in Ice: reports on laboratory work events were organized, including a public to synthesize organic molecules related to lecture, a teacher training session for local astrobiology in ices (water + CO + NH3 + …); school teachers with lectures, hands-on iii) Prebiotic Chemistry in Liquid Water: could activities and a planetarium session, and also a early prebiotic chemistry develop on surfaces drawing contest for 8-11 year olds on the of Mars or in icy satellites of giant planets? theme “Water and Life in the Universe”.
One of the winners of the children’s drawing contest Teacher training sessions were held in parallel with the Symposium In the two weeks preceding the Symposium, a Capacity Building Workshop (CBW) on "Data
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Analysis from Space Missions" was organized currently during the origin of life on Earth and in the city of Guaratinguetá, Brazil, and some for several billions of years thereafter. Yet, of the works developed by the participants of stellar evolution calculations support the Sun the CBW were presented in the Symposium. reaching the Zero Age Mean Sequence at ~75% of its present luminosity, and linearly
increasing in time up to its current level. International Conference on Climate models predict a “Snowball Earth” for ‘Solar Variability and its such a low solar constant. As of now there is no theory, or even a credible scenario, to Heliospheric Effects’, 2-6 resolve this issue. Sokoloff (Moscow State November 2015, Athens, Greece University, Russia) presented available observations for the solar variability, including [Report by Olga E. Malandraki, Chair of SOC catastrophic events like Maunder minimum and LOC, IAASARS, National Observatory of and other grand minima occurrences. It was Athens] argued that noisy contributions to the dynamo This international conference took place in drivers can be sufficient to explain the Athens at the History Museum of the observed variability of the solar cycle. Lefevre University of Athens, from 2 to 6 November et al. (ROB, Belgium) presented the new 2015. The conference was organized under the sunspot number since its creation in 1849 and auspices of IAASARS of the National the simultaneous re-calibration of the Group Observatory of Athens (NOA). This is the Number (www.sidc.be/silso/). All applied cor- sixth conference organized in the framework of rections were described in detail. A main result the Balkan, Black Sea, and Caspian Sea was the uniform peak cycle amplitudes found Regional Network on Space Weather Studies over the last three centuries. Kilçik et al. (BBC SWS), which comprises 11 countries: (Akdeniz University (AU), Turkey) using the Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bosnia/ Herzegovina, multi taper method and Morlet wavelet Bulgaria, Croatia, Georgia, Greece, Romania, analysis methods showed that solar rotation Russia, Serbia, Turkey, and Ukraine periodicities are present in active latitudes of (www.bbc-spaceweather.org/). The main goal both hemispheres for cycles 21, 22, and 23. of the conference was to bring together experts Both northern and southern hemisphere active in different areas of solar-terrestrial research, latitudes were found to shift toward the equator in order to obtain a comprehensive picture of from the beginning of the cycle until the end the chain of events originating from the Sun following an oscillating path. Eren (AU, affecting the heliosphere and the Earth’s Turkey), applying a Pearson correlation environment and climate. 45 scientists attended method, concluded that the main source of X- the conference. In total 35 papers, with 31 oral ray solar flares are the complex/large sunspot (invited and contributed) papers and four groups. Georgieva et al. (BAS, Bulgaria) found posters were presented. Many young scientists that the characteristics of both the slow and and post-docs had the chance to participate as fast solar wind change from minimum to well as targeted invited scientists from the minimum, which can explain the changes in international community (e.g. USA, Germany, the geomagnetic activity in consecutive United Kingdom, Belgium, Spain). The sunspot minima, and can provide a proxy for scientific presentations given in the conference long-term variations of solar wind parameters. covered various aspects of solar-terrestrial Kirov et al. (BAS, Bulgaria) described the research and space weather effects. Langmuir probes included in the “Obstanovka” In Session 1, ‘Sun and solar activity’, Martens experiment aboard the International Space (Georgia State University, USA) focused on Station (ISS) which has been operating since the ‘Faint Young Sun Paradox’: The geological April 2013. One of the main goals of this and biological records support that the Earth’s experiment is to study the surface charging of biosphere was considerably warmer than super-big objects like the ISS. Using measure-
63 ments by the SDO/AIA instrument Nindos et swirling motion with an average speed of 13 al. (University of Ioannina, Greece) found hot km/s, and (2) an expanding motion at a rate of flux ropes in 32% of the flares but almost half 4–6 km/s. Georgoulis (RCAAM, Greece), (49%) of the eruptive events contained a hot highlighted major outstanding problems: stoch- flux rope configuration. It is argued that these asticity in solar-flare triggering, the flare-CME percentages should be considered as lower connection, understanding of solar pre- limits of the actual rates of occurrence of hot eruption configurations, the response and flux ropes in large flares. Miteva et al. (NOA, impact of the Parker spiral and the solar wind Greece) presented a new SEP catalogue based in the propagation of eruption products. on wind observations, which reports the date, Bothmer (Universität Göttingen, Germany) onset and peak time, peak intensity and onset- highlighted the key importance for any space to-peak fluence of the proton events and the weather forecast to predict the arrival times, properties of the SEP-associated flares and field intensities and directions of CMEs and CMEs. Small-scale quiet-Sun swirling was the also provided a brief summary of the state-of- focus of the work by Tziotziou et al. (NOA, the-art modelling of CME magnetic field Greece). Upflow events were found that configurations enabling the quantitative exhibited two distinctive apparent motions in forecast of geomagnetic storms. the plane of sky for a few minutes: (1) a
Some of the scientists at the conference on Solar Variability and Its Heliospheric Effects
In session 2, ‘Solar Wind and Heliosphere’, current sheet (HCS) embedded into the Khabarova et al. (IZMIRAN, Russia) pre- heliospheric plasma sheet (HPS). A new sented a new mechanism responsible for approach was presented by Pavlos et al. particle acceleration. The presence of magnetic (DUTH, Greece) who estimated the Tsallis q- islands inside magnetically confined cavities in triplet statistical parameters of Tsallis non- the solar wind may lead to local particle ener- extensive statistics as well as other dynamical gization, especially in the case when the characteristics of the solar wind system during particles have already been pre-accelerated to quiet and CMEs periods. keV energies, for example, at shocks or due to The results showed faithful agreement with the magnetic reconnection at the heliospheric predictions of complexity theory and the non- current sheet. Kislov et al. (IKI, Russia) extensive statistical theory of Tsallis. presented a single-fluid 2-D analytical model of the axially-symmetric thin heliospheric 64
Session 3 was dedicated to ‘Solar Wind- HmF2), (b) on slant Total Electron Content Magnetosphere coupling’. As Troshichev (sTEC) residuals calculated from the signals (Arctic and Antarctic Research Inst., Russia) transmitted from GNSS satellites seen by highlighted, in 2013 IAGA endorsed the polar receivers co-located with the ionosondes and cap magnetic activity (PC) index as a proxy of (c) on the reconstructed Electron Density the solar wind energy that enters into the Distribution using the Topside Sounders magnetosphere. Three researchers from the Model Profiler (TaD) over the specific DPS4D Romanian Academy, Romania presented ionosondes. The results indicated that it is important results. Demetrescu presented a case important to distinguish between LSTID study on geophysically induced currents in signatures and the super-fountain effect. Europe as an example of space weather hazard, Another very important result was that the TaD based, on annual means of measured and model is sensitive in LSTID propagation and reconstructed solar, heliospheric, and magneto- the corresponding electron density spheric parameters, as well as on measured and disturbances can be reproduced by the model modelled main geomagnetic field data, and on predictions at heights around the maximum recorded 1-min geomagnetic data from the electron concentration. Chaldoupis et al. network of European geomagnetic (University of Crete, Greece), taking observatories. Dobrica et al. discussed the advantage of an existing data base, reported correlation between pairs of magnetospheric on solar flare-related electron density indices at various time scales, from hours to measurements made with the Arecibo radar interdecadal, showing the effect of the long- which monitors the ionosphere from 60-430 term solar activity on the magnetosphere km altitude with a height resolution of ~600 m variability, as well as the two solar sources of and a time resolution of ~1.8 min. Results were the geomagnetic activity (sunspot- or non- shown on the structure of the modified electron sunspot-related) in relation to solar magnetic density profiles and the temporal altitudinal field. Beşliu-Ionescu et al. presented the variations of electron densities relative to the current status of the problem and the methods radiation changes measured by GOES in the proposed to evaluate the energy transfer from short (XS) and long (XL) X-ray bands of 0.5- the solar wind into the magnetosphere during 4.0 Å and 1.0-8.0 Å, respectively. These intense geomagnetic storms that occurred in results can be useful in the validation of solar cycle 23. Advances on the multi- existing D region photochemical models as spacecraft studies (e.g. 4 Cluster spacecraft) of well as VLF (very low frequency) and HF Kelvin-Helmholtz instability in the Sun-Earth (high frequency) radio wave propagation system were presented by Foullon (University models, and can also provide a judgment on of Exeter, UK). A range of benchmark values the significance of ionospheric TEC changes were derived from multi-spacecraft anticipated during solar flare events of observations which form real constraints and different magnitude. Results on modelling the references for input and for matching the ionospheric storm response to different solar observations with numerical simulations. wind drivers were presented by Tsagouri et al. (NOA, Greece). Observations obtained from In Session 4, important results were presented ground-based ionosondes were analyzed in on ‘Solar effects on the ionosphere, atmo- comparison with climatological estimates to sphere and climate’. Belehaki et al. (NOA, quantify the ionospheric disturbances and Greece) explored additional techniques for the follow their latitudinal and local time identification and tracking of Large scale dependence through superposed epoch travelling ionospheric disturbances (LSTIDs) analysis. Solar wind parameters were obtained over Europe, benefiting from the dense from ACE and magnetospheric/geomagnetic network of DPS4D ionosondes and of GNSS activity indices and energetic particle fluxes ground-based receivers. This was a combined from NOAA/POES satellites were used as analysis based (a) on ionogram traces and the proxies of the solar wind energy input and retrieved scaling parameters (foF2, hmF2, FF, dissipation in the Earth’s magnetosphere, to 65 unmask the underlying processes that In Session 5: ‘Space Weather monitoring differentiate the ionospheric response to instrumentation, Data and Services’, Bothmer different space weather manifestations and (Universitaet Goettingen, Germany) high- help the prompt and accurate prediction of the lighted the advances that the Wide-field ionospheric structure under all possible Imager for Solar Probe Plus (WISPR) will conditions. Didebulidze et al. (Abastumani provide and what the capabilities will be for Astrophysical Observatory (AAO), Georgia) the new era of heliospheric imaging and space considered the inter-annual variations of the weather applications. Posner (NASA HQ, atmosphere-ionosphere parameters since 1957 USA) highlighted that the forecasting of the in the region of the AAO. The importance of sudden increase in intensity of protons from annual and semi-annual variability in the long- SEP events is relevant for radiation protection term variations of the ionosphere F2 layer of humans on exploration missions and extra- parameters (NmF2, hmF2), the hydroxyl OH vehicular activities. He discussed an analysis bands, the oxygen green 557.7 nm and red of the REleASE method of short-term 630.0 line intensities observed from forecasting of the intensity of prompt solar Abastumani were noted. energetic protons of hazardous energies (~40 MeV) with relativistic electrons. He showed Furthermore, in order to investigate the how REleASE forecasts from a near-Earth formation of sporadic E under the influence of vantage point can be used to provide essential atmospheric gravity waves, 2-D numerical warnings also for human space exploration of simulations were performed in the case of Mars via the Hohmann-Parker effect. Núñez northward directed background wind and (University of Malaga, Spain) presented how formation of multi-layered sporadic E was the UMASEP scheme is being applied in the demonstrated. Haralambous et al. (Frederick new ‘HESPERIA’ space weather project University, Cyprus) presented strong spatial within HORIZON 2020 of the European Union and temporal variations of ionospheric for predicting >500 MeV SEP events. The new characteristics over Europe driven by trough forecasting system will use a real-time cor- displacements during geomagnetic storms of relation analysis between hard 1-minute X-ray the present solar cycle, currently undergoing flux and 1-minute neutron and proton flux. A its declining activity phase. In a study of the prototype of this is expected to be released in March 2012 CME and its related super storm, May 2016. Malandraki (NOA, Greece) Anagnostopoulos (DUTH, Greece) showed presented and discussed the ‘HESPERIA’ solar and magneto-spheric particle events HORIZON 2020 project, coordinated by NOA, control extreme weather events all over the its main objectives, as well as the added value globe, as for instance, the historic March 2012 to the SEP research. The project will produce heat wave in East USA/ Canada, rainfall in two novel Solar Energetic Particle (SEP) south-east Mediterranean. Statistical results for operational forecasting tools based upon 28 strong ICMEs observed between 1997 and proven concepts (UMASEP, REleASE) May 2015, confirmed a strong correlation (http://hesperia-space.eu/). At the same time, it between Solar Energetic Particle (SEP) events will advance our understanding of the physical and extreme atmospheric weather events. The mechanisms that result into high-energy SEP procedure followed for the development of a events through the systematic exploitation of solar radiation database using an integrated the high-energy gamma-ray observations of the solar radiation model (MRM) developed at FERMI mission and other novel published NOA was presented by Kambezidis et al. datasets (PAMELA; AMS), together with in (NOA, Greece). The final database includes situ SEP measurements near 1 AU. 15-year hourly values of the most important parameters for sizing solar energy systems i.e. Presenting materials (PDF) of these papers air temperature, relative humidity, global and have been linked to the final programme diffuse solar radiation on horizontal plane. posted to the webpage of the conference (www.space.noa.gr/bbc-sws/programme/). We
66 hereby would like to express our deepest entitled ‘Settling scientific disputes in public’, thanks to the various organizations whose Physics World, 14 July 2015. financial support made this conference possible: Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), Variability of the Sun and its Publications Terrestrial Impact (VarSITI)/Scientific Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Physics Advances in Space Research: Top (SCOSTEP), Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR), National Observatory of Reviewers of 2015 Athens (NOA), and the Institute of Astronomy, Advances in Space Research (ASR), as with Astrophysics, Space Applications and Remote any established scientific journal, insists on a Sensing (IAASARS). rigorous peer-review process to maintain the integrity and quality of its published papers. An essential part of this process is the Letter to the Editor reviewer, spending his or her valuable time using unique expertise to evaluate the scientific quality of a manuscript and help the Editor Scientific Disputes and the Public make a fair and timely decision. [From Dileep V. Sathe] To further highlight the vital importance of reviewers to the quality of ASR, the Editors In July 2015, the UK’s Institute of Physics have selected their 10 top reviewers for the carried out a unique activity in Bristol, year 2015, taking into account criteria such as involving the public in scientific disputes the number and the quality of the referee (Physics World, 14 July 2015). It was initiated reports performed during this year. By in response to the long-standing dispute publishing the names and short biographies of concerning the Big Bang theory and the Steady these selected reviewers in this issue of Space State theory of the origin of universe. Of Research Today, we would like to course, one can doubt the value of involving acknowledge their valuable efforts. As an the public in disputes relating to advanced additional token of appreciation, these physics, such as the origin of universe, but, on reviewers are offered an Amazon voucher by the other hand, I think it would be useful to Elsevier, and their names will also be involve the public in latent educational acknowledged on the journal homepage of disputes among students. For example, ASR. students give contrasting answers to very simple questions on circular motion – reported We also feel deeply obliged to all ASR first by John Warren in Physics Education in reviewers who have contributed this past year 1971 and raised by others later. Contrast in who are not mentioned here, and we sincerely answers can be attributed to contrasts in the thank all of them for bringing the journal up to mode of evaluation of answers. Actually, its current scientific standard. wrong answers from some students stems from Pascal Willis, ASR Editor-in-Chief pre-Newtonian ideas, used by even Kepler. José Stoop, ASR Publisher (Elsevier) Hence, I think that organizers of future debates, discussions and events can very well think of having sessions focusing on such contrasting answers, even involving the public, especially teachers, students and parents with appropriate academic background for throwing light on such educational latent disputes. I suggest that readers of SRT read the article
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