The Manhattan Project: Exploding Into the Nuclear Age

Michael Amin and David Youssef Junior Group Website

Annotated Bibliography

Works Cited

Primary Sources

Books

Fermi, Laura. Atoms in the Family: My Life with Enrico Fermi. Chicago, IL: U of Chicago, ​ ​ 1954. Web.

This book is by Enrico Fermi’s wife Laura Fermi. We used this book starting from page 97, because the beginning is mostly about his early life. The book explains Enrico Fermi’s clearly vast role in the­the bombardment of the uranium nucleus. It also explains his work in the Chicago Pile­1. This book mainly helps us with our Origin and Exploration pages.

Frisch, Otto Robert. What Little I Remember. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1979. Web. ​ ​ Otto Frisch is credited with the naming the process of bombarding neutrons, “nuclear fission” while skiing with his Aunt Lise Meitner. In this book, Frisch talks about his discovery along with his role in the Manhattan Project. Frisch also explains the that the scientists “did not believe in the atom.” We used this for our origin and exploration page.

Groves, Leslie R. Now It Can Be Told; the Story of the Manhattan Project. New York: Harper, ​ ​ 1962. Print.

In this book, General Leslie R. Groves talks about the Manhattan Project as a whole and the specific role he had in the making of the atomic bomb. He also tells us problems he faced while managing the Manhattan Project, which clearly affected him emotionally, physically, and psychologically. This book is good for our research because it is specific, and some of the other sources we used are more general. We used this book mainly for our Exploration and Encounter pages.

Teller, Edward, and Judith L. Shoolery. Memoirs: A Twentieth­century Journey in Science and ​ Politics. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Pub., 2001. Print. ​ In this book, Edward Teller talks about his early life including love in science and his role in the Manhattan Project. Edward Teller explains the importance of the proper utilization of the bomb, which better helps us better understand the tensions raised by the Soviet Union and the United States. Teller also talks about the fact that he had a small role in the beginning of the Manhattan Project, but in the interview, he says he had a big role in the Einstein Letter. This helps to understand that there is a lack of truth given by the scientists because they are trying to hide something. It also helps us with our Exchange Page.

Truman, Harry S. Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: Year of Decisions (vol. 1). New York: ​ ​ Doubleday, 1955. Print.

This book gives Harry S. Truman’s diary entries. We used this book to understand Harry S. Truman’s feelings after learning about the Manhattan Project for the first time, and after learning about the success of the atomic bomb. We used this for our encounter page timeline.

Images

Einstein and Szilard. Digital image. Atomic Heritage Foundation. Web. ​ ​ ​ Gaseous Diffusion Stage. Digital image. Atomic Heritage Foundation. Web. ​ ​ ​ General Thomas Farrell. Digital image. Atomic Heritage Foundation. Web. ​ ​ ​ Gun Site. Digital image. Atomic Heritage Foundation. Web. ​ ​ ​ Hydraulic Lift. Digital image. Atomic Heritage Foundation. Web. ​ ​ ​ K­25 Plant. Digital image. Atomic Heritage Foundation. Web. ​ ​ ​ Lyman Briggs. Digital image. Atomic Heritage Foundation. Web. ​ ​ ​ Major Charles Sweeney. Digital image. Atomic Heritage Foundation. Web. ​ ​ ​ Tinian Airfields. Digital image. Atomic Heritage Foundation. Web. ​ ​ ​ X­10: Graphite Reactor. Digital image. Atomic Heritage Foundation. Web. ​ ​ ​ The Atomic Energy Commission Members. Digital image. Oregon State University. Web. ​ ​ ​ This is a picture of the Atomic Energy Commission. This picture describes the mood in the meeting. This helped on our Exchange page.

B­Reactor. Digital image. Manhattan Project Voices. Atomic Heritage Foundation. Web. ​ ​ ​ This is a picture of the of the graphite sheet, that transformed uranium­238 to plutonium­239. This helped us on our Exploration page. It gave us a detailed analysis about the B­reactor.

Calutron Girls. Digital image. Los Alamos National Lab. Dept. Of Energy. Web. ​ ​ ​ In this picture, it shows the women that worked at the Y­12 facility in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. This picture was used on the Exploration page. It gave us general information on what the workplace looked like. This page helped us on the Exploration page.

Chemical Trace. Digital image. Courtesy of Advocated for World Health. Web. ​ ​ ​ This picture shows the gamma rays for extensive viewing of the body. It gave us an idea of the machines that use chemical trace. This helped us on our Exchange page.

Department of Energy. Digital image. Maine Public Broadcasting Network. University of Maine ​ ​ ​ System, and Colby, Bates and Bowdoin Colleges. Web.

This is a picture of the Department of Energy’s logo. It helped us understand the effect that the Manhattan Project had on today’s society. This page helped us on our Exchange page.

Dwight E. Eisenhower. Digital image. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. ​ ​ ​ In this picture, it shows his previous position before he became the president of the United States. He was a general in the Manhattan Project. It helped us on the Exchange page.

Energy Research and Development Administration Logo. Digital image. WorldStatesmen.org. ​ ​ ​ Ben M. Cahoon. Web.

This picture shows the design of the logo of the Energy and Development and Administration and the effect that the Manhattan Project had on today’s facilities. This helped us on our Exchange page.

Ernest Lawrence. Digital image. Berkeley Lab. Dept. Of Energy. Web. ​ ​ ​ This picture shows Ernest Lawrence's portrait. Ernest Lawrence began the scientific research that was held at the Y­12 facility. This played a major role and helped us on our Exploration page.

The Gadget. Digital image. Office of Scientific Technical Information (OSTI). Dept. Of Energy. ​ ​ ​ Web.

This picture portrays the detailed design and structure of the Gadget bomb. It gave us a brief viewing of what the Gadget bomb. This picture helped us and played a great role on our Encounter page.

Henry Stimson. Digital image. The Insignia of USS Henry L. Stimson. Web. ​ ​ ​ This is an image of Henry Stimson, secretary of War to Harry S. Truman and Franklin Roosevelt. It helped show the role he had in the Manhattan Project and helped with the exchange page.

J. R. Oppenheimer. Digital image. American Academy of Achievement. Web. ​ ​ ​ This picture illustrates Oppenheimer standing with another leader of the Manhattan Project. It helps describe his role in the Manhattan Project. This picture helped us on our Exploration page.

John R. Dunning. Digital image. New York Hall of Science. Web. ​ ​ ​ This is a portrait of John R. Dunning a scientist in the K­25 facility. He worked alongside Eugene Booth in the facility to experiment on the gaseous diffusion method. This picture helped us on the Exploration page.

Johnny Carson. Digital image. Thirteen Media With Impact. WNET. Web. ​ ​ ​ This is an image of Johnny Carson. He was an entertainer on a famous T.V. show that played in the 1945s. It helped us on our Exploration page and played a major role in keeping the people distracting from the project.

K­25 Plant. Digital image. Office of Scientific Technical Information (OSTI). Dept. Of Energy. ​ ​ ​ Web.

This is an image of the K­25 gaseous diffusion plant. It helps show the size of the plant and the environment the scientists that the scientists had to go to work in everyday.

Y­12 Plant. Digital image. Los Alamos Study Group. Web. ​ ​ ​ This picture shows the Y­12 plant and the areas around it. It illustrates the location of the facility in a secret mountain range. This picture played an imperative role on our Exploration page.

Interviews

"Dorothy McKibbin's Interview (1979)." Interview by Martin J. Sherwin. The Manhattan Project ​ Voices. Atomic Heritage Foundation, 2005. Web. ​ In this interview, McKibbin tells us about herself, including her very bad eyesight. Dorothy McKibbin also talks about the immense security taken at Los Alamos, which clearly illustrated the secrecy enforced by the government. This interview helps us mainly with out exploration page.

"Edward Teller's Interview." Interview by S. L. Langer. Manhattan Project Voices. Atomic ​ ​ Heritage Foundation, 1989. Web.

In this interview, Edward Teller helps us to understand his role in the Einstein letter, which in his words was very big. Edward Teller also talks about the about his role, after the Trinity site explosion. This helps us with the origin and exchange page.

"Eugene Wigner's Interview (1964)." Interview by Stephane Groueff. Manhattan Project Voices. ​ ​ Atomic Heritage Foundation, 1964. Web.

This interview explains Eugene Wigner’s vital role in the decision making for the Hanford reactors of the Manhattan Project. This leads us to understand that most of the process decision making and not actual experimentation. We used this in our Exploration page.

"Freeman Dyson's Interview." Interview by Cynthia C. Kelly. Manhattan Project Voices. Atomic ​ ​ Heritage Foundation, 2015. Web.

In this interview, Freeman Dyson talks about his job post­war. Dyson also discusses Oppenheimer's role, in nuclear peace in the world. This helps us without exchange page.

"General Leslie Groves's' Interview ­ Part 1 ." Interview by Stephane Groueff. The Manhattan ​ Project Voices. Atomic Heritage Foundation, 1965. Web. ​ This interview helps us us to understand the relationship between General Leslie R. Groves, Leo Szilard, and Eugene Wigner. Leo Szilard wanted the scientists control of the project, Eugene Wigner was shy, and when the two scientists spoke he spoke in Yiddish a language that Groves could not understand. We used this for exploration

"General Leslie Groves's' Interview ­ Part 5." Interview by Stephane Groueff. Voices of the ​ Manhattan Project. Atomic Heritage Foundation, 1965. Web. ​ In this interview, General Leslie Groves talks about how he led the Manhattan Project. Groves also discussed his military position post the Manhattan Project, how he originally did want to be to be the engineer but wished to fight overseas, and contrasts both his engineering job to his job hitherto. This interview helps us the management approach taken by the Manhattan Project, and us with the exploration page.

"Hans Bethe's Interview (1993)." Interview by Richard Rhodes. Voices of the Manhattan Project. ​ ​ Atomic Heritage Foundation, 1993. Web.

This interview helped us to realize the aftermath of the map. Bethe describes his role in the hydrogen bomb, and mainly talks about the international aftermath of the bomb. Clearly, a nuclear bomb is built there will be great hardships, on who gets it under their control. This interview helped us with the exchange.

"J. Robert Oppenheimer's Interview." Interview by Stephane Groueff. Voices of the Manhattan ​ Project. Atomic Heritage Foundation, 1965. Web. ​ In this interview, Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer explains his motives for joining the nuclear fission research and choosing Los Alamos, his daily life at the facility, his early assistance to the scientists, and the difficulties of implosion This information helps with mostly the origins and exploration of this project. Oppenheimer seems very secretive in the interview, helping us to realize that there may be faults on the internet, and we should focus intently on first­hand accounts of scientists or workers of this Project.

Letters Einstein, Albert, and Leo Szilard. "Einstein Letter." Letter to President Roosevelt. 2 Aug. 1939.

FDR Library. Web. ​ This letter helps explain the importance of the creation of the Manhattan Project and also the role the Einstein played in the Project. It displays Leo Szilard’s way of thinking and thought process. It helps show the mood and seriousness of the situation. This letter helped us on our Origin page.

Groves, Leslie R. "Atomicarchive.com." Oppenheimer's Travel Guidance. National Science ​ ​ Digital Library. Web.

In this travel guidance, Groves tells Oppenheimer to limit traveling as much as possible. This travel guidance explains and exhibits the importance of the secrecy in the Manhattan Project. It helps us understand how seriously and well the secret was kept from the public.

Groves, Leslie R. "Memorandum for Secretary of War." Letter to Henry Stimson. 18 July 1945.

Harry S. Truman Library. Web. ​ This letter from Groves to Stimson shows the communications between people in the Manhattan Project and how confidential the messages were. It portrays the precautions and measures that were taken in order to communicate with others in the Manhattan Project. This helped us on our Exploration page.

Oppenheimer, J. R. "Letter on the Properties of Uranium." Letter to James B Conant. 20 Nov.

1942. Nuclear Files. Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. Web. ​ ​ This letter from Oppenheimer to James B. Conant shows the imperative scientific research that was conducted in the Chicago and Berkeley labs. It explains the importance of getting the research correctly figured out. This helped us on our Exploration page.

Oppenheimer, J. R. "Memorandum on Los Alamos." Letter to Leslie R. Groves. 30 Apr. 1943.

Nuclear Files. Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. Web. ​ In this letter, Oppenheimer explains why he wanted the site to be in a remote location. This letter helps show that secrecy was paramount and that Oppenheimer was intrigued to work on Project Y. This letter helps us with the page on Los Alamos.

Szilard, Leo. "Letter on Discoveries of Uranium." Letter to Lewis L. Strauss. 25 Jan. 1939.

Nuclear Files. Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. Web. ​ In this letter, Leo Szilard informs his colleague Lewis Strauss, of the new discovery of the bombardment of the uranium bombardment, and the possibility of this being used in a bomb. This letter helps us understand the role of the Leo Szilard in the making of the atomic bomb and the early motives he had for creating the bomb. This helped us with the Origin Page.

Szilard, Leo. "A Petition to the President of the United States." Letter to President Truman. 17

July 1945. Harry S. Truman Library. Web. ​ ​ This letter was written by Leo Szilard for Harry S. Truman illustrating the doubts and concerns he has on bombing Japan, without an opportunity to surrender It shows us that some decisions were not exactly approved by everyone in the Manhattan Project. It describes the hesitation of Szilard. This helped us on the Encounter page.

Newspapers

"First Atomic Bomb Dropped on Japan; Missile Is Equal to 20,000 Tons of TNT; Truman Warns

Foe of a 'Rain of Ruin'" The New York Times 6 Aug. 1945. 7 Aug. 1945. Web. ​ ​ This newspaper article shows us the drastic effect the bomb had on Japan. It illustrates the destruction that occurred in Japan that day. It reveals how powerful the bomb could really be. It also uncovers the result of the Manhattan Project. This helped us on our Exchange page.

Kennedy, Edward. "The War in Europe Is Ended! Surrender Is Unconditional; V­E Will Be

Proclaimed Today; Our Troops on Okinawa Gain." The New York Times. Web. ​ ​ This article held a drastic role on our timeline. It describes the result of all the hard work and pain that was committed in the Manhattan Project. It shows that the work and effort were all worth it in the end.

Krock, Arthur. "Japan Surrenders, End of War!" The New York Times. Web. ​ ​ This article shows the relief and celebration in the United States. It awakens the spirits of those who had lost hope that the U.S. would win. It describes the drastic win by the United States against Japan. This helped us on our Exchange page.

Krock, Arthur. "President Roosevelt Is Dead; Truman to Continue Policies." The New York ​ Times. 2010. Web. ​ This newspaper explains the crucial role Franklin Delano Roosevelt played in the Manhattan Project and his mournful death. It also regards to Harry S. Truman taking the presidential seat and soon leading the U.S. into victory. This article helped us on our timeline.

Lawrence, W. H. "Atom Bomb Loosed on Nagasaki." The New York Times. Web. ​ ​ This newspaper shows the importance of strategy in war. It helps us understand the mood and the scene of the Soviet Union declaring war on Japan. This newspaper helped us with our Exchange page.

Reports

Alvarez, Luis. "Eyewitness Account of the Trinity Explosion, 7/16/1945." Nuclear Files. Nuclear ​ ​ Age Peace Foundation. Web.

In this account from Alvarez, Luis he explains the mood and the scene that was going on in the B­29 Bomber. He talks about what the blast looked like and how big the impact was. This helped us set the scene and connect the pieces of the bomb’s impact, which helped us on our Encounter page.

"Trinity Test, July 16, 1945 Eyewitness Brigadier General Thomas F. Farrell." Nuclear Files. ​ ​ Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. Web.

In this account from General Thomas Farrell, it explains the seriousness and anxiety that came from Dr. Oppenheimer. It illustrates the imperative role that the explosion played on the workers’ mindsets and the Manhattan Project itself. Everybody’s relief was completely portrayed from this account. This helped us on our Encounter page.

"Trinity Test, July 16 1945 Eyewitness Report by Edwin McMillan." Nuclear Files. Nuclear Age ​ ​ Peace Foundation. Web.

This account from Edwin McMillan reveals the true view and experience of the atomic bomb going off in New Mexico. It displays the exact details of how the bomb looked like and what the explosion itself looked like. This greatly influenced our Encounter page.

Secondary Sources

Videos:

The Moment in Time: The Manhattan Project. Youtube. University of California Television ​ ​ ​ (UCTV), 16 Jan. 2008. Web.

This documentary helped us understand the chronology of the Manhattan Project. At first, we very confused on how everything in the Manhattan Project flows together, but this made it simpler to combine all the concepts. There were also many primary accounts of scientists including Edward Teller and Hans Bethe.We used this documentary throughout the websites, and we also got a quote that helped us with the Encounter Page.

J. Robert Oppenheimer: "I Am Become Death, the Destroyer of Worlds. Youtube. N.p., 6 Aug. ​ ​ ​ 2011. Web.

In this video Oppenheimer states his famous well known quote. This video helped us understand the Encounter page and played a key role in describing the situation that they were in at the time.

Nuclear Pioneers: EBR­I. Youtube. Idaho National Lab., Web ​ ​ ​

In this video it explains the importance of the EBR­I reactor and the major role it played in the Manhattan Project. This video helped us on our Exchange page. It details the effect that it had on the future.

Truman Warns Japs To Give Up 1945/06/07. Youtube., 15 Sept. 2006. Web. ​ ​ ​

In this video it shows the speech that Truman gave about the Japanese. This speech detailed the importance of the atomic bomb. We used this video to help us understand the Exchange page.

Websites:

"100­ton TNT Shot." The Atomic Heritage Foundation. The Atomic Heritage Foundation, n.d. ​ ​

Web.

This website helped us understand the purpose and reason for conducting the 100­ton test. We learned that it was important to the workers’ safety to test an explosion first before the atomic bomb. This helped us understand the Encounter page.

B Reactor Museum Association. N.p., n.d. Web. ​

This website helped us understand the true role of the B­Reactor in the Manhattan Project. Other websites do not stress the importance of the B­Reactor as much as this one. Even though it played a crucial role in the Manhattan Project. This helped us with the Exploration page.

Bowersox, Paul. "Lise Meitner’s Fantastic Explanation: Nuclear Fission." ANS Nuclear Cafe. 4 ​ ​

Feb. 2012. Web.

This website uncovered the true meaning and explanation of Lise Meitner’s scientific research on nuclear fission. It stressed her struggles and efforts while experimenting on the project. It stated the explanation in terms that are easy to understand. This website played a major role in the Origin page.

"Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board." Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board. Y­12 ​ ​

National Security Complex, Web.

This website uncovers the roles that the Y­12 played in the Manhattan Project. Other websites go into explicit information, but this one explained in detail and explained the roles of the Y­12. This helped us on our Exploration page.

Hanford Site. U.S Dept. of Energy, Web. ​ In this site two imperative facilities took place the B­Reactor and the T­Plant. These facilities helped the Manhattan Project greatly and helped us understand the Exploration part of the project much more. This website helped us on our Exploration page.

"Los Alamos, New Mexico." National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior, Web. ​ ​

This website painted a picture that no other website would compare to. It explained the procedure that occurred in the Los Alamos facility. This helped us understand the Los Alamos page in Exploration.

Madsen, Michael. "Pioneering Nuclear Science: The Discovery of Nuclear Fission."

International Atomic Energy Agency. Web. ​

This website explained to us the intricate process of nuclear fission, along with origins of the discovery. It also helps us understand why this project was called fission. This helped us with our origin page.

"The Manhattan Project." American Museum of Natural History. American Museum of Natural ​ ​

History, Web.

This website explained the genuine origin and background of the Manhattan Project. It helped us with the Einstein Letter and the Committee on Uranium. It also provided a picture that explained Roosevelt’s feelings towards the bomb. This helped us with the Origin page.

"Manhattan Project." Nuclear Files. Nuclear Age Peace Foundation, Web. ​ ​

This website mainly helped us with the Trinity site. It gave us the first­hand accounts of people who witnessed this discovery. It also helped us learn more about the Maud Committee. This helped us without origin page and the encounter page.

"Manhattan Project: United States History." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, ​ ​

Inc., Web.

This website gave us general information on the origins of the Manhattan Project. We used an image from this website of Dwight Eisenhower. It helped us with our exchange page.

"The Trinity Test." History. A&E Networks, Web. ​ ​

This page helped us with our encounter page. The website condensed the whole Trinity Site Test into 2 paragraphs, which helped us better understand what happened at the site.

Truman, Harry S. "First Speech to Congress (April 16, 1945)." Miller Center. University of ​ ​

Virginia, Web.

In this speech, President Truman talks about the death of President Roosevelt and explains that the country requires the “unconditional surrender” of the Axis Powers, as did Harry S. Truman. This helped us understand the effect that Roosevelt's death had America and the threat posed by Germany and Japan.

"Voices of the Manhattan Project." Voices of the Manhattan Project. The Atomic Heritage ​ ​

Foundation, Web.

This website contains primary source interviews by Manhattan Project Veterans. It also gives us pictures of the veterans. We used this for information throughout the whole website.