To Act Or Not to Act Tiina Kikerpuu

Home , SL (Stockholm), Solna Municipality, Stockholm County, Stockholm Municipality

To Act or not To Act Municipal Authority over Green House Gas mitigation

Tiina Kikerpuu

Degree project in sustainable development, 2010 Examensarbete i hållbar utveckling 30 hp till masterexamen, 2010 Biology Education Centre, Uppsala University, and Division of Industrial Ecology, KTH Supervisors: Nils Brandt and Kristin Fahlberg

To Act or not to Act? Municipal Authority over Green House Gas mitigation

Author: Tiina Kikerpuu Uppsala University Master Programme in Sustainable Development

Supervisors: Nils Brandt, Kristin Fahlberg Division of Industrial Ecology Royal Institute of technology - KTH Abstract

The purpose of this study is twofold. Firstly, it is a feasibility study intended to contribute to further research on the municipal authority to mitigate green house gas emissions. This will be done by studying the municipal authority on green house gas mitigation measures in three Swedish municipalities. To fulfil the purpose the following questions are set to be answered.

What is the municipal authority over green house gas mitigation measures in these three municipalities?

- What is the formal ability of municipalities in Sweden to act on GHG mitigation? - What measures do these three municipalities use to mitigate GHG emissions? - How do the municipalities consider their climate authority?

The study focused on measures within three sectors; traffic and transport; energy, and information and out-reaches. Transport and energy make up the main sources of GHG emissions in the municipalities, and information was a common measure.

4 categories of authority were developed; Legal authority, Economic authority, Climate competence and Collaborations, this to get a picture of what influenced climate authority. The idea for this came from previous research that involved aspects similar to the categories. The result showed that municipal climate authority is quite relative, the categories are relevant, but political will and ambitions on tackling climate change are decisive. In the transport sector the municipal authority was restricted due to the authority of other actors. The authority in the energy sector was limited because national legislation had precedence.

The municipal climate authority is considered strong within its own organisation, the municipal role as wide and involving many responsibilities. The role was described as wider than the municipal authority. Most of the climate measures are directed towards the municipality’s own organisation, the premises of the municipality and the services it provides. Outside the municipal organisation and services, but within its geographic unit, in the specific measures developed in this study, the climate authority was weaker and mainly exercised through collaborations. The municipalities are not using their climate authority in full. By implementing measures like climate considerations in public procurement, their authority could be improved.

Acknowledgments

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Nils Brandt, Associate professor and Kristin Fahlberg, PhD at the division for industrial ecology at The Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm, for letting me on this project and for their constructive critique and enthusiasm in their supervision.

I would also like to thank Brita Svensson, programme coordinator at Uppsala University, for her patience and organisation of this thesis course.

Finally I would like to thank my friends and family for their support.

Tiina Kikerpuu Stockholm, May, 2010

Abbreviations, Acronyms & Clarifications

CDM- Clean Development Mechanisms

EU – European Union

GHG – Green House Gas (In the data for the Swedish municipalities - CO2, CH4_ekv, HFC_ekv, N2O_ekv, PFC_ekv och SF6_ekv) When studying the measures for GHG emission mitigation use of the terms ―climate change measures‖, ―climate measures‖ will sometimes be used interchangeable. The general work of the municipalities to mitigate GHG emissions will be called ―climate work‖, and ―climate authority‖ is the authority to mitigate GHG emissions.

KLIMP- Climate investment programme. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency supports municipalities and invests in local actions to mitigate GHG effect.

KSL –Stockholm County Association of Local Authorities

KTH - The Royal institute of Technology

LIP – Local investment programme of the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency promoting ecological sustainability.

NGO – Non Governmental Organisation

SKL –The Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Regions (SALAR)

SL – Stockholm Public Transport, Storstockholms Lokaltrafik

Content

1. Introduction ...... 7

1.1. Purpose and Research Questions ...... 9 1.2. Disposition ...... 9

2. Background ...... 11

2.1. Swedish municipalities ...... 11 2.2. The Municipal Role ...... 12 2.3. Local Autonomy and Self-Governance ...... 13 2.4. Municipal climate governance ...... 14 2.5. Municipal authority and its framework ...... 16

3. Methodology ...... 18

3.1. Qualitative research ...... 18

3.1.1. Selection of cases - municipalities ...... 18

3.1.2. Literature and material ...... 19

3.1. 3. Categories of Authority ...... 19

3.1.4. Semi-structures interviews ...... 21

3.1.5. Developing interview schedule ...... 22

4. The formal structure of municipal climate authority in Sweden ...... 24

4.1. Legislation ...... 24 4.2. The Environmental Objectives ...... 25 4.3. Sweden’s Climate Policy ...... 27

4.3.1. National objectives and measures ...... 27

4.3.2. National climate policy at local level ...... 28

6. Local climate measures ...... 30

6.1. Climate change mitigation measures in Uppsala ...... 30 6.2. Climate change mitigation measures in Upplands-Väsby ...... 34 6.3. Climate change mitigation measures in Solna ...... 37

6.4. Conclusion – climate mitigation measures ...... 41

7. Analysis of the Interviews ...... 43

7.1. The municipal climate work ...... 43 7.2. General outlook on climate authority ...... 49 7.3. The categorical authority ...... 53

7.3.1. Economic authority ...... 53

7.3.2. Climate Competence ...... 55

7.3.3. Legal authority ...... 56

7.3.4. Climate authority through collaboration ...... 57

7.3.5. Conclusion - Categorical authority ...... 59

7.4. The assessment questions ...... 60

7.4.1. Conclusion - the assessment questions ...... 70

8. Review ...... 73

9. Concluding discussion ...... 74

10. References ...... 78

1. Introduction

In the past decades reports followed by reports have stressed the impacts of increased volumes of green house gas (GHG) in the earth’s atmosphere due to human activity. The IPCC assessment report on Climate Change, the Stern Review Report on the Economics of Climate Change and the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future are perhaps the most commonly knows reports highlighting the effects of increasing GHG emissions. Emphasizing how human activity affects the climate of the planet, how it endanger its ecosystems and the continuation of our well-being. Climate change and GHG emission mitigation is on the agenda of the international community and nations all over the globe, and has been so for a while. During the Rio Earth Summit 1992 participating nations agreed on the implementation of Agenda 21 on a global, national and local level to combat negative human influences on the environment in all areas. The development of Agenda 21 had a strong impact with the local authorities in Sweden and an ambitious work to implement it took place.

Urbanization, the increasing numbers of city dwellers, makes cities, local and regional areas great CO2 emitters. This makes it crucial to involve local levels of governance in the work for a sustainable development and in mitigating CO2. Local governments in Sweden have set climate targets and commit to combating climate change. For nations to efficiently carry out their climate commitments it is evident that local authorities must be a part of this. From a democratic and participatory stand point it is an undisputable matter of course that local level governance is directly and highly involved as it is close to the citizens and the everyday life of people.

Municipalities in Sweden play an important part in the Swedish welfare system, producing a variety of services like health– and childcare, schools, urban planning etc. They are democratic bodies, with a democratically elected municipal assembly1 and a municipal executive board2. Swedish municipalities have a great amount of autonomy, this is to strengthen the democratic output of decisions and ensure that the decisions are taken as close to those concerned as possible. Therefore they are very influential and have a critical role in the national strive for emission mitigation and in reaching emission goals.

1 In Swedish Kommunfullmäktige 2 In Swedish kommunstyrelse 7

In the efforts of the Swedish government to implement Agenda 21, municipalities and local governments were highly involved. Municipalities have continued to work ambitiously with climate change and sustainable development, putting into practice climate strategies and goals. When setting targets municipalities have different kinds of methods and strategies for developing and extracting them. Also, when put into practice there are various means and measures for reaching the climate goals. The initiative for this study came as a consequence of research conducted at The Royal institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm where Kristin Fahlberg and Nils Brandt were investigating climate strategies and conducting a follow-up study on The Action Programme on Climate Change of Stockholm city and a Reference Scenario Report over the city. When carrying out research on the city of Stockholm they came across the problem of recognizing the source behind the reductions of GHG in the city. The question was what caused the reductions, were the GHG reductions due to measures taken by the city or other actions? This required a closer look at the action programmes and measures to see what measures were used and what effect they had on GHG reduction. The authors of these reports identified a knowledge-gap on the authority of municipalities over climate measures and greenhouse gas emission mitigation. This was how the problem of authority was revealed.

1.1. Purpose and Research Questions

This thesis is to be a feasibility study, aiming at investigating the municipal authority over GHG emission mitigation. Focusing on their authority to set measures and implement them, for further research on the municipal authority to control emissions and effectively work towards goal attainment. A focus on measures was chosen to find out the municipal scope of authority over GHG mitigation. Not excluding the importance of the scope of authority in setting objectives and over the entire process of developing them. Measures were chosen as they are the end-products of the decision making process of climate strategies to mitigate GHG emission and the actual action that must be preformed, thus the authority to accomplish them is essential.

Purpose

Research questions

To fulfil the purpose the following questions are set to be answered.

What is the municipal authority over green house gas mitigation measures in these three municipalities?

1.2. Disposition

After chapter 1, where the purpose of this thesis has been presented and a short introduction on its relevance on a global scale, a background on municipalities and the concept of authority

9 follows in chapter 2. This includes some related research on municipal climate governance internationally and in Sweden. The research methodology is described in chapter 3. In chapters 4, 5, 6 and 7 the results of the research questions are presented and elaborated upon. Chapter 8 is a review of the results in the municipalities and chapter 9 a discussion of the results and purpose of the thesis.

2. Background

Before trying to identify the municipal role and responsibilities a few things will be said about Swedish municipalities.

2.1. Swedish municipalities

Swedish public administration has three levels; a central level - which is the government and parliament, a regional level - the county council and the local municipal level. (Lundqvist, 1992)

Sweden is divided into 290 municipalities which are responsible for most of the public services. The municipalities are legally responsible for providing services, like; social services, childcare and preschools, elderly care, primary- secondary education, support for the physically and intellectually disabled, health and environmental protection, emergency services and emergency preparedness, water and sewerage, collection and waste management, planning and building issues. Other services are voluntary for the municipality to provide for example; leisure activities, cultural activities, housing, energy, industrial, commercial services as well as climate incentives.

The municipality consists of a municipal assembly which is the governing and decision- making body and can be described as the parliament of the municipality. Elections to the council take place every four years at the same time as the general elections to the Swedish parliament and county councils. The assembly decides over the budget and taxes, appoints members to the municipal executive board and other sector-specific committees3. The executive board coordinates the work of the municipality. (SKL1) The central government indicates through laws and regulations the constitutional outline of the municipality. Grants, government subsidies and more detailed regulations have been steering methods used by the central government to control the municipalities, but are not commonly used methods today. A shift towards more indirect means of control taken place and this has given the municipalities a somewhat broader scope to act upon. (Peterson, 2001)

3 In Swedish - Nämnder 11

2.2. The Municipal Role

The municipal role varies extensively; it varies between nations, within nation and between different sectors within a municipality. (Hansen, J.B 1999) There are different types and classifications of municipalities. In the field of local government research in Europe a differentiation has been made between local governments in the south and north. Sweden naturally falls into the latter category. Northern local governments are characterized by strong decentralization, a high degree of discretion but weaker accessibility for local politicians to central government. (Page & Goldsmith 1987) John, P (2001) clarifies the term discretion used by Page and Goldsmith as “Discretion refers to the legal and administrative freedom locally elected authorities have in deciding how to administer services to allocate resources.”(John, P 2001:26). Studies have shown that the local discretion in Sweden can vary a great deal between different sectors, a municipality can for example have a great deal of discretion on health care, but much less discretion on education. (Hansen, J.B 1999) Swedish local authorities have in previous research also been classified as belonging to the group with the highest degree of local autonomy. (Hesse and Sharpe 1991)

Coenen & Menkveld (2002) look at the role of local authorities in transition towards a climate neutral society and how that role could be strengthened. They also come to the conclusion that municipal power over climate ambitions vary due to diverse reasons such as the general administrative structure of governance in the specific country, the municipal context – economy, geography, the availability of resources like energy etc. The authors call this the playing field of a municipality, which vary in both time and space. Thus some municipalities have more power over certain areas, important in terms of climate policy, than others depending on playing field. Sweden is among the countries defined to have considerable or very considerable municipal powers and jurisdiction in the field of climate. As basis for local climate policy the authors mention the scope of autonomy of municipalities and that a high level of local autonomy would give ambitious climate measures. However this depends on the specific scope of autonomy in climate relevant areas like transport and energy and the municipal capacity for action in regard to resources and competences. Other factors like public sensibility towards climate policies and a genuine political will also play a vital role.

2.3. Local Autonomy and Self-Governance

Municipal autonomy, in an article of Deangelo and Harvey (1998), is explained as being dual and consist of vertical autonomy and horizontal. Vertical autonomy relates to municipal autonomy and independence from higher levels of government in climate relevant sectors in this case. The horizontal autonomy depends on the municipal relationship to its local economic and social groups. Autonomy has also been explained to be determined by the amount of functional responsibilities distributed to the municipal level and how the functions work, what kind of services they give and of what quality. Even when looking at the municipal functions, differences can be made between having responsibility over a function and being able of taking decisions affecting the function, which could influence the definition of autonomy. (Page & Goldsmith 1987) In the Latin meaning of the word, autos means self and nomos means laws, regulations and could thus be understood as self-regulation. (Peterson 2001). Peterson (2001) argue that autonomy does not necessarily mean an absence of laws and regulation, which often is stated as a criteria, but that the laws should be independently settled regulations on a local level. Swedish municipalities have limited autonomy in this definition, as laws and regulations are set by the central government. He argues the autonomy can be more or less restricted. Giving an example of how when the public service sector in Sweden grew and the municipal activities with it, the space for municipal action shrank due to the detailed set of directives from the central government. Thus the amount of functions, mentioned earlier, did not mean greater autonomy. However, lately developments have taken another direction and the powers of local authorities have been extended, even though the amounts of functions have not.

Closely tied to the term autonomy is the concept of local self-governance. The concept local self-governance is defined in the European Charter of Local Self-governance as:

1. Local self-government denotes the right and the ability of local authorities, within the limits of the law, to regulate and manage a substantial share of public affairs under their own responsibility and in the interests of the local population. 2. This right shall be exercised by councils or assemblies composed of members freely elected by secret ballot on the basis of direct, equal, universal suffrage, and which may possess executive organs responsible to them. This provision shall in no way affect recourse to assemblies of citizens, referendums or any other form of direct

citizen participation where it is permitted by statute. (CETS No.: 122,article 3 European Charter of Self-Government)

Thus it has a legal and juridical meaning as well as democratic, and gives the municipalities a right to responsibilities over local matters, but the responsibilities are set under certain conditions, provided they have the resources to have the responsibility.

2.4. Municipal climate governance

Alber and Kern (2008) analyze the municipal position in the international multi-level governance system and how different modes of governance from various levels have influenced the implementations of climate policies. They look at the municipal way of governing on local level and define four different types of modes. The first mode is the Self- governing mode,” defined as the capacity of local government to govern its own activities...” (Alber and Kern, 2008:5). This includes for example improvement of energy efficiency in buildings owned by the municipality. This mode is argued to be used and be most relevant in the energy and transport sector. The enabling mode is when the municipality takes on the role as facilitator bringing actors together for collaboration within the municipality. Education and information also falls under this mode. These first two modes are argued to be the most common ones and also to be the ―soft‖ modes. The other two modes mentioned in the article are governing by provision, i.e. the role of the public service, which depends on what services belong to the municipality and what are privatized. Exemplifying with the energy sector, this mode is believed to decrease in importance as more privatization is taking place, which places the energy sector outside municipal governance when governing trough this particular mode. Privatization of the transport sector has meant a change from this mode to the use of the enabling mode or more governing by authority – which is the last mode. Governing by authority means governing through, for example regulations and sanctions. Practical examples of this mode could be when including climate considerations in the municipal comprehensive planning. This is however argued to be rather rare. Municipalities, in most cases, work with GHG emission reduction on a voluntary basis, and even if they can take stronger action they have often chosen not to. The reasons to this are several – difficulty in reaching political consensus on climate measures is mentioned as one, as well as opposition from other sectors, business and the public. Alber and Kern ask what forms of governance that have been employed i.e. modes have been used for certain kinds of climate measures, or resulted in

14 certain kinds of measures and tried to explain reasons for this. This research is highly relevant for this study, as the basic idea is similar.

In Global uppvärmning och lokal politik 4, Uggla & Elander, (2009) municipal climate work in Sweden is discussed from a social scientific perspective. The book emphasizes the municipal relationship to the central government, the tension between dependency and autonomy, discussing the municipal role and the municipal discretion, noting that even though municipalities are independent actors they are dependent on ambient factors. The book gives a good picture of municipal climate governance. The authors approach global warming by studying climate change as an object for local governance. It is argued a shift in governing and management over time has taken place as social and political conditions have changed. They call it interactive social management, relating it to the concept governance. Saying politics are shaped, decided over and executed by various actors in the public and private sector. Stressing climate is a policy that challenges traditional forms of governing, calling it third generation politics. Describing it as politics that include cooperation between public and private actors, in which the government has a more enabling role, not excluding traditional forms of governing but complementing them. It touches upon the issue of authority implicitly, but is focusing on governance structure and discretion. Even though Swedish municipalities are self-governing actors, their authority is restrained by laws and regulations, other actors’ authority, resources of economic and personnel character. Local climate politics exist in a context where many questions require attention simultaneously and some lay beyond the municipal authority. Collaboration is described as a tool for municipalities to compensate their lack in resources and competences.

From this previous research a general conclusion is difficult to make, but it can be said that different factors affect the municipal role and ability to govern. Nevertheless the role of municipalities has in this research been determined by the powers or authority of the municipality.

In the paragraphs above several terms and concepts have been presented that are used to determine the role of municipalities and way of governing in reducing GHG emissions. In next chapter these will be used to define how the municipal authority and scope of authority will be understood in this study.

4 Global warming and local politics 15

2.5. Municipal authority and its framework

Taking into account the municipal differences researchers have constructed models and methods trying to measure the power and authority of municipalities.

(1) Quite central for the evaluation of municipal authority has been the concept of municipal discretion whether it is high or low, and the concepts of municipal autonomy and self- governing, which implies the independence of municipalities from national governments and their ability to decide over their own affairs.

(2) The municipal role and power also depends on the tasks (functions) it has been ascribed, the importance of the ascribed tasks, and whether the municipality has responsibility over a task and is able of taking decisions affecting the task. This can depend on the governance structure.

(3) The ability and capacity of the municipality to carry out its work also depends on factors like financial resources, demography, geography, networks, competences, commitments, socioeconomic aspects and public support, - the municipal playing field.

In conclusion the municipal role and power varies and depends on many interrelated features. From what is known of Swedish municipalities they ought to have a rather good outlook on climate mitigation with high autonomy and discretion, and a wide range of services to provide. What is also highlighted is that the discretion and autonomy can vary depending on sector or area, thus we do not know how high discretion they have, or autonomy to act on climate measures. Swedish municipalities are also described as very ambitious in setting-up climate objectives and strategies, even more ambitions than the central government. This gives the impression that municipalities themselves believe they play a vital role in mitigating emissions and think they can make a difference and have the authority to do so. This is an important aspect and starting point when looking into the municipal authority. As most climate efforts are taken on a voluntary basis the authority of municipalities can vary depending on how ambitious they are. The municipal authority can be said to vary within a scope of authority. Within the scope a municipality has the authority to act, take decisions and implement climate measures. In the article by Alber and Kern (2008) they chose to look at various governance modes in which municipalities use or to influence action towards tougher climate actions. The scope of authority a municipality has over a certain measure in a certain

16 sector thus depends on what kind of mode or way of governing they choose to use or can use. This is a very valuable aspect; however the outlook in this study will be that the municipality within its scope of authority govern with the use of some of these modes, but that it is the municipal scope of authority that is decisive. The scope of authority is thus what will be evaluated. This will be done by the development of a few factors and different types’ categorical authority.

3. Methodology

The purpose and research questions are decisive when choosing methodological design. To be able to answer the overall question which has a more analytical angle, three more specific questions were developed. Studying the municipal authority required the development of a theoretical framework of conceptions and theories from previous research. These were used to explain and define the meaning of authority and scope of authority in this particular study. Next the methods chosen to study the municipal scope of authority will be explained and further operationalization of the concept into four categories of authorities.

3.1. Qualitative research

Qualitative research is said to be used to approach the ―world out there‖ (Kvale 2007:37) The qualitative method was chosen as this study in part is a feasibility study aiming at unravelling the idea of municipal scope of authority over climate mitigation. Almost like an empirical pilot study exploring and developing the concept. However, the aim is also to answer the question of what scope of authority theses municipalities have over climate mitigation. This was made by reviewing related research and literature to find similar lines of thought and related concepts. It required a good understanding of the municipal role and knowledge of strategies on climate change and climate mitigation. Some of this was to be found in literature on the municipal role and from various propositions, declarations and legal acts on the distribution of power. To give the study more dept, and bring something new to already existing research on municipal authority, the concept was to be exposed to the real-world situation, both to find the municipal scope of authority in climate mitigation and to test if the concept was functional. This was made by conducting semi-structured interviews in three municipalities.

3.1.1. Selection of cases - municipalities

The selection of the three municipalities was based on previous research in the field of climate strategies among municipalities conducted at KTH. Preceding this study a network of municipalities had been established for knowledge sharing and research on climate strategies of which these three municipalities were a part; this gave some pre-knowledge about their work on climate change. When trying to decide which municipalities out of the participating ones to chose, location and climate efforts were taken into account. The aim of the study is

18 not to be representational for Swedish municipalities but to generate a deeper understanding over the municipal authority over climate strategies and measures to mitigate GHG emission and to give direction for further studies on the municipal scope of authority over GHG mitigation. Thus the three municipalities were chosen due to their participation in the network, ambitions on GHG mitigation and proximity to Stockholm, from where this study is conducted; the municipalities are Solna, Upplands-Väsby and Uppsala.

3.1.2. Literature and material

Ideas and concepts related to municipal climate authority and governance from studies in other countries were revised. Literature on municipal governing over climate measures is quite limited and literature covering concepts related to the scope of authority investigating climate governing even more slim. Literature on local and municipal governing in Sweden was also studied to get a better general knowledge over municipal governing, mainly by reviewing books on municipal politics, public management and organisation and governmental organisation. The reviewed literature was mainly in the form of research articles from journals like Local Environment, Global Environmental Politics, and Journal of public policy found through various databases from Uppsala and Stockholm universities and recommended reading from supervisors.

To acquire knowledge on the municipal legal and formal climate policies government propositions on climate measures, national policy documents on sustainable development, the municipal act and the environment act were studied. These documents, acts and propositions were found on government homepages. Climate measures were gathered extracted from municipal annual reports, steering documents and information guides on municipal homepages.

3.1. 3. Categories of Authority

As research shows the municipal scope of authority can vary greatly and a lot of aspects can be, and perhaps should be considered, but as with all research, demarcations have to be made and boundaries be set for what to include and what not to. To find out the scope of authority of the three municipalities a few factors and types of categorical authority, empirical indicators (Esaiasson, 2003), were developed, to get a better understanding of what could influence the scope of authority. These four categories are legal authority, collaboration,

19 economic authority and climate competence. Alber and Kern’s (2008) idea of modes was the basis for the development of these modes.

The mode ―Governing by authority‖ entailing laws and regulations and strategic planning (Alber and Kern, 2008) has been used in the development of the municipal categorical authority Legal authority. Legal authority involve the municipal role as regulator, to give advice, instructions, set targets and develop plans for municipal climate efforts. In this study it is to be understood as somewhat broader than the legislative frame in which the municipality works and also comprise the municipal discretion mentioned earlier: “the legal and administrative freedom locally elected authorities have in deciding how to administer services...”(John, P 2001:26)

The development of the categorical authority Collaboration has derived from the ―enabling mode‖(Alber and Kern, 2008) looking at the authority municipalities gain, or have when functioning as a facilitator and/or collaborating and communicating with other actors. Collaborations thus imply the municipal scope of authority it has or receives through or in collaboration with other actors such as networks of municipalities, local business, other authorities, etc.

The economy of a municipality is an important factor affecting the capability and capacity of municipal action on climate mitigation. (Alber and Kern, 2008; Coenen & Menkveld, 2002) Economic authority is the economic resources the municipality holds in implementing measures.

In studies of Swedish municipalities a request and need for climate competence among municipalities has been presented and insecurities due to lack in competence are recurrent problems. (Elander,Uggla, 2009:) As the interviewees are climate and ,or environment strategists, known to work with climate change at their municipalities, a general understanding of the affects of climate change and importance to deal with it exist at the municipalities. By competence is meant competence on knowledge about available, efficient measures, including competence among politicians and people within the municipal organisation, personnel working in sectors important for climate mitigation. Thus competence entails more than a general understanding about climate mitigation. It aims to find out if the interviewees consider municipal competence on climate mitigation to be influencing the overall authority and how. The categorical authority investigated is the Climate competence.

3.1.4. Semi-structures interviews

To find out how the municipalities perceive and understand their scope of authority to mitigate GHG emissions, semi-structured, face to face interviews were conducted to bring substance to the study. As face-to-face interviews were possible to conduct it was chosen as it is the preferable method. E-mails can easily be forgotten, getting the answers can take a long time and it does not give room for discussion or interaction and through phone interviews you easily miss cues and visual emphasis. Other interview methods like unstructured, structured interviews or open questionnaires were not chosen as they are either too open to give the necessary answers or too superficial and not interactive enough to give room for discussions and depth.(Gillham, 2005) Semi-structured interview method was chosen due to the research questions and the analysis of the material that will be required, it is a structured way of having an interview that can involve interaction in the form of prompts and still provide answers that can be analysed. It was the preferable method from all aspects but the experience of the interviewer. Thus careful preparations were necessary and a ―practise interview‖ was made with a municipal employee.

Semi-structured interviews are time consuming; therefore the amount of interviews was limited to three. One of the most time consuming steps was the preparation phase and question schedule development. Relevant questions and prompts needed to be developed to keep the interview at an adequate time-span and get useful answers to the analysis. This was a process in which the questions were rewritten, changed, deleted and added several times after feed-back.

The interviews took place in the beginning of 2010, February and March. Two interviews were conducted at the municipalities and one at KTH in Stockholm. The interviewees were climate and/or environment strategists at their respective municipalities; they had all been part of a climate network at KTH and were to have some knowledge about the idea of climate authority. They were contacted by email approximately a month before the interviews and asked to participate, then contacted again, via email, a few days ahead of the interview and sent the questions in advance to be able to prepare adequate answers and feel comfortable with the interview. A dictaphone was used during the interviews. Each interview was carefully transcribed word by word, and then read through again and somewhat corrected and adjusted with punctuations and erasing of repetitive words and then analysed and translated from Swedish to English.

3.1.5. Developing interview schedule

The interview was divided into four parts. The first part was an introduction with questions aiming to give a general picture of the climate work of the municipality and the work of the interviewee. The second part was to give a general picture of the municipal approach to the idea of a municipal climate authority; the third consisted of questions about the categorical authority in the climate work of the municipality. The fourth part involved assessment questions on the municipal scope of authority on climate measures that lay outside the municipal organisation. The assessment questions contained of two parts, thus two ways of approaching the municipal scope of authority have been identified. The theory of modes lead to the idea of different categorical authorities, expanding this idea is arguing that these categories can be stronger or weaker and influence the overall authority of the municipality more or less. Another outlook was the influence of the categories on the municipal authority by looking at their importance in regard to the overall authority. First the interviewee was to evaluate if he or she considered the categorical authorities to be strong or weak for a specific measure. Then they were asked to rank the categories in order of importance to the general authority.

The construction of an appropriate scale of measuring the categorical authority was yet another process in which pros and cons were discussed and alternatives put forward. After considering, albeit discarding the idea of letting the interviewees give answers in a scale of importance between 1-5 or 1-10 due to lack of meaning of what the numbers on the scale actually would entail, the alternative of weighing the categorical authorities as weak or strong was chosen. This gives an idea of how the interviewee regards the categorical authority and complemented with a short explanation give a rather good insight in how the authority is used in that specific case. If the authority is strong the municipality can set measures and implement them, if it is weak the municipal cannot or has very weak authority to implement the measures.

The measures are fictive, but can all be related to measures found in municipal climate action plans. The measures are within the sectors Traffic and Transport, Energy and a more indirect sector –Outreach and Information. Traffic and transport and Energy sectors are great GHG emission sources which municipalities try to tackle. Municipalities are said to have limited authority over transport and traffic measures. They have authority over some planning instruments but cannot initiate new infrastructure, or change traffic patterns in the

22 municipality. (Elander, Uggla;2009) This made it an interesting sector to study. Campaigns, different forms of education and other forms of Outreach and Information were measures frequently found in municipal steering documents and therefore included in this study. When reading municipal climate strategies and objectives theses sectors were the most crucial ones in which, or through which municipalities had ambitions to decrease GHG emission, thus they were relevant sector to study climate measures and municipal authority. Looking at the municipal role in society, expectations from national level and from civil society, it could be argued that municipalities should do more than only engage themselves with internal climate measures, which many municipalities also do. Climate strategies and objectives are often set to cover the entire geographic unit of the municipality, including its own organisation and the rest of society in the municipality.(Klimatkommunerna) The practice of their authority towards the rest of the municipality is in the grey zone and more vague. Measures stretching outside the municipal organisation were chosen to get a picture of how municipalities worked externally, how they perceived their authority within the geographic unit and how they practiced it. Part four was concluded with some closing questions on municipal authority and GHG mitigation.

4. The formal structure of municipal climate authority in Sweden

- What is the formal ability of municipalities in Sweden to act on GHG mitigation?

4.1. Legislation

In Sweden the division of power is set in the Instrument of Government5 which is one of four documents of laws that comprise the Constitution of Sweden. The Instrument of Government includes the responsibilities of local authorities i.e. municipalities, county councils, and regions and their right of self-government. It states that local authorities have the right to determine over their own affairs and also that they need economic resources of their own to do so. This entails the municipal right to levy taxes.(Regeringskansliet, 2007).

The municipal right to decide over its own affairs is reaffirmed in the Local government Act which refers to fundamental requirements in the municipalities, like the existence of a municipal assembly and board, states its functions and character, even so the act consists mainly of general regulations. Thus it is much up to each municipality to form its own organization; therefore the municipal organizational forms vary. (Petersson, 2001)

The municipal responsibilities are also stated in some Special Acts6 – which are sector specific like the social service act7, the planning and building act and the environmental code8, the two later ones are relevant for municipal governing from a climate perspective.(SKL2)

The planning and building act appoint the municipalities their planning monopoly. It includes provisions for the municipal comprehensive planning chart on land and water use and for building and development. The comprehensive planning chart is to state how national interests and environmental concern are handled within the municipality and to provide guidance on land and water use. (Boverket) Regulations on municipal land and water use are exercised through detailed development plans. In spring 2010 the Swedish parliament is to vote on a new planning and building act which could includes more climate requirements in municipal planning and construction. (Frisk, 2010)

5 In Swedish - regeringsformen 6 In Swedish - speciallagar 7 In Swedish - Socialtjänstlagen 8 In Swedish - miljöbalken 24

The purpose of the environment code is to promote a sustainable development. (Naturvårdsverket) The code is a framework law, meaning it does not go into detail, it is done through ordinances from the government; only fundamental environment rules are included in the code. The code involves management of land and water, nature conservation, protection of plant and animal species, etc. In the code it is stated over which parts the municipality is responsible. The municipalities hold an operative role of supervision and supervision in various issues and sectors, it is responsible for authorizing permits as well as for the application of environmental sanction charges. (The Environment code)

The Environment code and planning and building act often overlap. (Ministry of Environment, Report)

4.2. The Environmental Objectives

In 1999 the Swedish parliament adopted the Environmental Quality Objectives for a sustainable Sweden. The objectives aim at within one generation having solved the major environmental problems, requesting encompassing efforts by authorities at all levels and the industry. Reduced climate impact is one of 16 objectives. The municipalities play a vital role in implementing the objectives on a local level, developing local goals and measures. This is done in different ways. Municipalities have included the goals in their local investment and environment programmes, climate strategies and regional progress programmes or in the development of environmental management systems. (Eckerrot, 2003) The progress of the objectives is monitored by the Environmental Objective Council. The environment code is one of the main tools, or instruments to attain these objectives. The environment objectives could also be used to set the direction for the application of the environment code towards a more sustainable development.(Naturvårdsverket) The environment objectives are not legally binding, but political objectives and how often the objectives are used as a direction for the application of the environment code is hard to say, the municipality of Uppsala declare having used the environment objectives as direction in their management as a supervisory authority in planning. (Eckerrot, 2003)

This essay is not to problematize how the environmental code or planning and building act are used, but to shortly present alternatives that exist in the municipal tool-box. Nevertheless some more things can be said about the relationship between the environmental objectives and the environmental code. A study performed in 2008 by the international institute for industrial

25 environmental economics in Lund, Sweden, investigated the legal possibilities for enforcement of the environmental objectives. Arguing that legislation and the environmental code will become more important, probably the most important instrument in reaching the objectives, next to other instruments of economic character, self-regulations, public procurement and collaborations between public and private actors. Licensing, supervision and the legally binding environmental quality standards in relation to the environmental objectives are what the author proposes need to be revised. He notes, even if governments on local level have the will, capacity and resources to implement and fulfil the objectives, there is an uncertainty in who holds the responsibility and how these ambitions could be integrate in the municipal work. He also looks at legal restrictions, even though there are local objectives, the legal possibilities to reach them might not exist. This uncertainty can restrain the will to integrate the environmental objectives in the conduct of licensing and supervision, uncertainty over what authority the municipalities have also influence this will. The report looks at all the objectives and speaks in general terms, but it is relevant to note that GHG emission mitigation is one of the objectives and the environment code designated as a tool to reach the objective, thus these implications in the relationship between the two is relevant. (Dalhammar, 2008)

The environmental code, the environmental objectives, especially the objective - reduced climate impact, and the planning and building act are various formal tools enabling and pushing municipalities to act on climate mitigation. They are a part of the foundation for municipal authority.

The Swedish Climate policy is managed by objectives. The parliament appoints the general objectives and set the direction of the climate work. The objectives, instruments and project grants are not binding and the municipal climate work is voluntary. To clarify the political climate ambitions of today, from national to local level, next chapter will presented the way the government thinks the climate challenge should be approached. This is to clarify the political formal authority municipalities hold in mitigating GHG emissions today.

4.3. Sweden’s Climate Policy

In March 2009 the government put forward two bills collectively called - An integrated Climate and Energy policy. The parliament sanctioned the bills in June 2009. (Climate bill 2008/09:162) In the following pages the Climate bill will be presented, this to introduce the current climate ambitions and policies from national to local level.

4.3.1. National objectives and measures

In the 2009 government bill on Climate and Energy policies the national goal is set for GHG emission reductions by 40 percent in 2020 compared with the 1990 emission level, excluding activities in the emission trading system. In figures this means a decrease of 20 million tonnes carbon dioxide equivalents for the non-trading sector compared with the 1990 level. The Climate and Energy bill is based on the European Union (EU) policy package on Climate and Energy. The Swedish government had previously set GHG emission reduction targets, formulated after the Kyoto Protocol definition, with the aim to reduce emissions during the period 2008–2012 with an average 4 percent as compared with 1990, and with a long term goal of a 50 percent reduction in 2050. The 2012 interim target has already been reached, the Swedish GHG emissions have been reduced with 9 percent since 1990. Thus the 2012 target is expected to be attained, but the achievements of the long term targets look less positive. (Climate bill 2008)

In the Climate and Energy bill the 2020 objectives are

50 per cent renewable energy 10 per cent renewable energy in the transport sector 20 per cent more efficient energy use 40 per cent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions

The long term objective, formulated more like a vision, for 2050 is to have a sustainable resource efficient energy supply with no net GHG emissions.

To reach these objectives Sweden is to reduce domestic GHG emissions as well as invest in flexible mechanisms, Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM) for emission reduction outside Sweden. 2/3 will be domestic GHG emission reductions and 1/3 will be emission reductions outside the borders of Sweden. (Climate bill, 2008) The Swedish climate strategy is carried

27 out by both soft and hard instruments and measures which have been developed gradually. This entails measures like information campaigns intended to spread knowledge about climate change and climate measures to the Swedish population. (EPA1) Other measures have had more of a legislative and economic character like the waste regulations and environment certification system of electricity. Sweden has also introduced CO2 taxes on fossil fuels and energy for environmental purposes and is working for the EU to do so as well. (EPA, 2008) Programmes like KLIMP9 and LIP10 were climate investment programmes supporting and providing funding for local climate strategies and measures that ran between 2003-2008. How far these measures have contributed to the emission reduction is another question. The decrease is believed to be mainly from households, services, business premises and district heating. (Climate bill, 2008)

4.3.2. National climate policy at local level

What does the bill say about municipalities and climate change mitigation?

The bill recognizes the importance of regional and local action on energy and climate change, emphasizing strategic and long-term commitment and collaboration between the different levels of governance, sectors and the business community. Municipalities and county councils are seen as important actors in realizing the national climate strategy. The county councils are to support the business sector and municipalities in their climate and energy efforts. A more integrated urban and regional planning in building and infrastructure through closer collaborations between the various actors and levels is requested. (Climate bill, 2008)

The role of municipalities is to achieve a healthy environment and habitat. It is stressed in the bill that municipalities play a great role in the goal attainment of the 16 national environmental objectives, but it also recognizes that municipalities have climate and energy ambitions of their own. By setting up climate objectives and action plans and through the application of the environmental code, planning and building act and green procurement the municipalities plays a vital role in the national climate strategy. Municipalities are by law obliged to have energy plans. Some municipalities have separate energy plans or combined with climate action plans or municipal waste or transport plans. In the bill the municipal

9 Climate investment programme 10 Local investment programme 28 comprehensive planning chart11 is greatly discussed. The planning chart is the municipal long term planning document for construction, land and water use and physical developments. As the municipality has authority over local land and water use (often referred to as the municipal planning monopoly), local public procurement and a significant part of the urban and regional planning, it is stressed that climate impacts of developments and exploitation is to be included in the planning chart. Examples are given on how municipalities through land allocation agreements and exploitation agreements can require energy efficient construction and energy efficient buildings. As property owners municipalities have the control and possibility to make their own premises more energy efficient in both new constructions and in renovation, even as managers over housing municipalities can influence the energy efficiency. The municipalities can also support the establishment and use of renewable energy resources in the physical planning. (Climate bill, 2008)

The bill states that social planning, traffic planning, infrastructural planning, building and exploitation planning and its climate effects should all be considered from an environmental and climate efficient perspective and included in the municipal planning chart. This includes both climate mitigation and adaptation measures. (Climate bill, 2008)

The local climate investment programmes KLIMP and LIP expire in 2008 and it is noted that municipalities from that point have to make economic space of their own to further incite climate cost-effective investments. There are also other forms of subventions and grants mentioned in the bill, for example on energy efficiency from the Swedish Energy Agency, and government subsidies for municipal climate consultation and earmarked planning grants for wind power, as well as government supported projects on sustainable urban development. Programmes for collaboration and knowledge exchange have also been established and examples are given like the Program for sustainable municipalities run by the Energy Agency and Klimatkommunerna an association of municipalities collaborating on climate issues. (Climate bill, 2008)

This proposition suggests what municipalities could do on a voluntary basis on climate mitigation and how the government supports municipal work. In next chapter the climate work of the municipalities will be presented.

11 In Swedish – kommunal översiktsplan 29

6. Local climate measures

- What measures do these three municipalities use to mitigate GHG emissions?

In research on climate change a distinction is made between climate mitigation and climate adaptation. Measures for both will probably be encountered when investigating municipal measures of climate change, however, the aim of the study is to investigate mitigation measures. Hence the measures for mitigation will be examined, but not measures of adaptation.

In this chapter the three municipalities will shortly be introduced and their climate work, based on what was found on their homepages. Measures within the sectors Traffic and Transport, Energy consumption and supply and Information and out-reach of the three municipalities will be presented.

6.1. Climate change mitigation measures in Uppsala

Total GHG emission - 941590,2 tonnes / year (RUS)

Uppsala municipality is located in Uppsala County, with an area of 2189 km2 and with 190668 inhabitants. (SCB, 2008) On the labour market the service sector is by far the leading sector and the public sector a major employer. Two universities are situated in the municipality; together with research intensive companies it creates new jobs and a well educated work force. IT technology and medicine are two growing sectors. Uppsala is located north of Stockholm, with good communications to the capital, approx. 45 min by car and 40 min by train and near Arlanda international airport. Uppsala is the 5th largest city in Sweden by population. (Uppsala)

Figure 1 Uppsala municipality (Wikimedia)

The main source of GHG emissions is Energy supply, followed by Transport and then Agriculture, Machinery, Waste, Sewage, Industrial processes, Solvent and other production use. (RUS, GHG emission data)

In Uppsala Municipality the following documents and information were studied to find measures: Sustainable Development Policy, The municipal Environment programme 2006- 2009, The Climate Challenge 2007-2011 and a climate brochure intended for the public.

The Sustainable Development policy from 2009 is based on three core values; Human Rights, Responsible Resource Use and Growth. Following theses values are the seven core objectives and one of these is for the municipality to participate in climate change mitigation by energy resourcing, sustainable travelling, promotion of new technology and focusing on the individual responsibility to gain a more sustainable life style. (Policy, 2009)

In 2001 the municipality revised the energy plan from 1990.The municipal board focused the new energy plan on energy efficiency, bio-fuel development and waste as energy resource. The structure of the energy plan aims to develop an ecologically and economically sustainable energy system based on reduced energy consumption and energy peeks, increased energy efficiency and optimal use of fuel and energy. (Energy plan)

The climate challenge is the municipal plan for action on climate change. It states that the long-term objective for Uppsala municipality, the climate goal, is to reduce its aggregated GHG emissions with 30 % until 2020, compared with the 1990’s level. (from its own 31 activities as well as and the entire municipality) The action plan consist of 5 areas of focus; (1) Influencing public opinion and partnerships; (2) traffic measures, (3) measures within the areas of buildings/settlement, (4) energy consumption and supply; (5) promotion of technical developments as well as the development of indicators for follow-ups and efficient management.(Climate challenge)

Traffic and Transport

Measures

o Several collaborations have taken place within the Regional council and with different local actors on various traffic paths, which has led to increasing rail traffic and prepared them for further improvements. o Reconstruction of Uppsala Resecentrum. o A long-term commitment to strengthen regional and local public transport based on the traffic plan. A main bus route has been established and several more are being planned to further connect regional and city traffic o A rail taxi study has been initiated, to investigate rail traffic possibilities. o Commodity supply developments are under study in collaboration with several actors o A decision on the purchase of green cars and work machines was taken o Municipal internal guiding principles for travel at work say that public transport is to be preferred. If there is no alternative to the car, the car is not to emit more than

120 grams of CO2 per kilometre. o 140 out of 365 cars in the municipal car fleet are green cars

Planned measures

o Phase out of fossil fuels driven buses o Measures to promote green cars/ vehicles, in accord with government tax deduction regulations and other benefits for green vehicles in the municipal responsibility sphere o Stricter municipal travel policy and buying carbon offsets o The aim is to increase the use of public transport with 50 %, this through strategic traffic planning.

o The bus traffic can be fossil free by 2020, 46 out of 111 buses run on bio-fuel in 2007 o Encouragement of bike-use by reconstruction and development of bike ways

Energy consumption and supply

Measures

o District heating expansion o Expansion of other forms of locally produced heating o Continued reduction of energy consumption in heating and electricity of the municipalities own premises o The municipal Energy Advisory Service to the public as well as internally continues o Electricity purchased by the municipality is certified (Bra Miljöval) o Premises owned by the municipality have objectives on energy efficiency, to decrease energy consumption with 20 %. Uppsala Hem aims at reaching this goal by 2012. Uppsala kommun fastighets AB has reduced its energy consumption with 25% the past 10 years in some areas (Both are municipal housing companies) o Regulations state that new constructions are limited to using 110 kWh/m2. New buildings by Uppsala hem use even less 85-95 kWh/m2 o Uppsala hem and the real estate office (Fastighetskontoret) intend to have phased out all oil boilers

Planned measures

o Development of more effective action plan and measurement on energy efficiency and indication on when the 20% objective can be reached o Closer collaborations with Energikontoret Mälardalen for improved impact and reach-out on energy efficiency matters as well as development on the locally produced energy

Information and out-reach

Measures

o Participation in Networks,projects: STUNS, Uppsala Energy Initiative (UEI), Mälardalens Energikontor, Den goda staden, Uthållig kommun, Klimat kommunerna. Stoppa onödan, School campaigns.

Planned measures

o Municipal manifestation for climate action o Collaborations with business and universities on the 30% objective o Educational efforts, promotion of the municipally produced movie Energijägrana, expansion of scholarships for research on energy. o Facilitate and promote accessible information on individual climate actions o Maintain collaborations with Energi kontoret Mälardalen and the Uthållig kommun project and realize the construction of the Energy house.

6.2. Climate change mitigation measures in Upplands-Väsby

Total GHG emission- 122990,1 tonnes / year (RUS)

Upplands-Väsby municipality is located in the County of Stockholm; it has 38248 inhabitants on an area of 75 km2. (SCB, 2008) Most jobs are found in trade and communications, health care and within financial activity. It has a strategic location, between Uppsala and Stockholm, connected with both by a highway and rail way and is also very close to Arlanda international airport. (UVP)

Figure 2 Upplands-Väsby municipality (Wikimedia)

The main emission source is Transport, followed by Energy supply and Waste and Sewage, Machinery, Agriculture, Industrial processes and Solvent and other product use. (RUS, GHG emission data)

The information on measures in Upplands-Väsby was found in The Annual report from 2008, 2007, a pamphlet on municipal climate actions from 2009 and their homepage.

Upplands Väsby has decided to by 2010 be ISO 14001- certificated. ISO 14001 is an environmental management standard that is to facilitate environmental management and practice in various organizations, to improve the organizations environment performance and reduce its damaging environment effects. (ISO) In accordance with the managements system Upplands Väsby municipality has a politically adopted environment policy from 2008 and environment objectives. (Upplands-Väsby)

2 of the overall objectives of the municipal environment related to climate efforts are:

A yearly decrease of municipal energy consumption in its own premises by 3 % A fossil fuel free municipal (passenger) car fleet

In the annual report from 2008 it was stated that the environment efforts took their stand in 5 prioritized areas including transport and energy efficiency. The municipal environment management is to be based on three pillars focusing on; (1) minimizing the environmental effects of the municipal activity (ISO certification), (2) environment conservation, (3) information and out-reach projects, coordination and collaboration with business sector and non-profit sector to spread information. The sector specific committees have been working internally and externally with environment issues. (Annual report, 2008)

In the municipal vision from 2006 a paragraph covers the municipal vision in regard to ecological sustainability. The vision is a society that economizes with resources protects biodiversity and natural environments, with clean, air and water. (Upplands-Väsby)

Traffic and Transport

o Hitherto 90 % of the municipal car fleet run on ethanol o A new travel policy has been developed o A proposition on a traffic strategy has been put forward o The transformation to a fossil fuel free municipal passenger car fleet has begun with the purchase of 11 new fossil free cars. o Collaborations on a common pedestrian and bike way between Sigtuna and Sollentuna municipalities have been initiated. o SL (Stockholm Public Transport) decided to keep the bus route to the city centre. o Construction of the pedestrian and bike way between Ekeby and Fresta was finished. o 30 km/h has been set as speed limit on several roads. o The garbage trucks use biogas

Energy consumption and supply

o Procurement on a new electricity supplier for municipal premises based on only renewable energy sources o Basically all forms of oil based electricity have been replaced to other sort s of heating, for example geothermal heating. o In Runby school the old ventilation system is being replaced with heat recycling system and energy windows are installed. o In the reconstruction of Sanda Ängar preschool geothermal heating, solar panels and sedum roofs were installed.

o Green IT investigation. o All municipal illuminated running tracks have been installed with new energy efficient lightening. o Energy efficiency investments have begun with the installation of heat pumps in Odenslunda school.

Information and out-reach

o The Nature school – education on the environment for the public o The web-based environment education conducted by all municipal employees has been made available for school children as well. o The municipality together with other actors arranged for The Environment Days for the 6th time. o In November 2009 the municipality and local business community agreed on taking climate efforts further. Participating companies signed a climate agreement in which they committed to take climate action and improve their emission performances. (Upplands-Väsby)

6.3. Climate change mitigation measures in Solna

Total GHG emission - 157515,9645 tonnes / year (RUS)

Solna is located in Stockholm County and covers an area of 19 km2 and has 65289 inhabitants. (SCB, 2008) Solna municipality is also a city and thus sometimes called Solna city. The service sector involving IT, Life science, and finance and assurance companies, is the most encompassing sector. Solna is the most work place intensive municipality in Sweden. It has more working persons than citizens. It borders to Stockholm municipality and has good communications to Stockholm city centre by bus, underground train and commuter train. Several high ways run through the municipality E4, E18, E20, it is close to both Bromma and Arlanda airport. Solna is known for its low local tax rate. (Solna, SCB)

Figure 3 Solna municipality (Wikimedia)

The main emission sources in Solna municipality are; Transport, Energy supply, Industrial processes, Machinery, Solvent and other product use and last emissions from Agricultural activity. (RUS, GHG emission data)

The measures of Solna were found in the Environment Programme 2005-2008, The Environment Policy, The Annual report for Solna city 2008 and Solna city homepage.

Solna had an Environment programme adopted by the municipal board in 2000. It was revised in 2004 and the Environment programme 2005-2008 was set to complement it. The 2005- 2008 programme focused on (A) Transport, (B) Energy resourcefulness, (C) Green procurement. The municipal scope of authority in dealing with the environment goals was mentioned and said to be taken into account in the development of the objectives in the general environment programme. Key figures were developed for proper follow up and revision. (Annual report, Solna)

The Environment programme was founded on the Environment policy from 1996, which involved the future vision 2020 for Solna city. In the policy document the environment ambitions for Solna city are stated and among these are; Develop local energy measures, in the long-term adapt to a sustainable cyclic society, engaging citizens, business and organizations, and considering the environment aspects in all decisions at every level in the municipality and strategic environment management. (Policy, Solna)

For 2009 Solna had a one year Environment programme centring on knowledge, awareness and appropriate measures, focusing on environment education for the municipal personnel. (Solna)

Each department is to have an environment representative who coordinates and manages the environment issues on its specific department and each year they set new objectives in accordance with, and to attain the overall environment goals.

Traffic and Transport

Measures

o In collaboration with Uppsala municipality all food waste from restaurants, caterers and food trade industry is transported to the plant in Uppsala for digestion and biofuel production. o The urban management department12 has made work bicycles available and public transport travel cards. o A bus- pool has been established in Bergshamra, which means that parents coordinate and collaborate in picking up and leaving children at school.

Planned Measures

o An environment inquiry is to investigate pros and cons with an environment zone on the local road system. o Parking benefits for green cars o The municipally owned car fleet, leasing cars, and cars used by the contractors and suppliers shall use fossil free fuel; by 2006 20 % shall be fossil fuel free and the rest of the cars shall be fuel efficient cars. By 2010 20 % must be so fossil fuel free. In 2020, 50 % of the cars shall be fossil fuel free. o The municipally owned car fleet, leasing cars, and cars used by the contractors and suppliers shall use environmentally adjusted lubricating oils, vehicle detergents and such. o The city departments shall adopt an appendix in which they document their environment concern in work travel.

12 In Swedish - stadsledningsförvaltningen 39

Energy consumption and supply

Measures

o The city lightning shall be replaced with energy efficient alternatives. o The municipality heats its own facilities with district heating from Norrenergi AB, which is owned by Solna and Sundbyberg municipalities, which is ecolabelled. (norrenergi.se) o The urban planning department/administration13 has set extensive environmental requirements in procurement of contractors. o Energy efficiency measures have also been taken by insulating attics, improved ventilation and replacing armature in schools, homes for elderly etc.

Planned measures

o Renewable energy demands in the coming procurements. o Energy reductions in the city owned premises with 10% compared to the level in 1996. o The establishment of an energy efficiency plan for the premises owned by the city. o The accomplishment of at least two major efficiency plans in the premises of the city. o During 2009 the city of Solna will plan for its own energy goals for 2013, with 2009 as staring point.

Information and out-reach

Measures

o The municipal company Överjärva gård arranged 20 environment educations for Solna and 8 for other municipalities. Almost all personnel has during 2008 received education on the environment. o The environment and public health department held information campaigns. o The municipality gave away an environment award and an environment scholarship in 2008. o The municipality has held in a project on environment and development based on the Lisbon strategy, together with the business community aiming on enhancing

13In Swedish stadsbyggnads förvaltningen 40

knowledge and information exchange, best practices and collaborations on local and regional levels, leading to 8 different projects.

6.4. Conclusion – climate mitigation measures

The municipality of Solna has no environment programme for 2010 yet and has not had any long term strategic plans in a while, meaning they do not have any reduction targets. However, they have environment work at the municipality which includes some climate change mitigation measures. Uppsala has most measures, some with figures as indicators and an articulated climate objective and Upplands-Väsby has three environment objectives, of which one focuses on energy and thus could be regarded relevant for climate.

Solna has a strong focus on its internal environment work and is not very active in collaborations with other actors, except for collaborations with local business on environment and development. Uppsala on the other hand is very active in several networks and collaborations. Uppsala has long-term, ambitious traffic measures in collaboration with others in the region and measures on strategic traffic planning. Upplands-Väsby has also a rather strong focus on its own organisation, but in traffic they have collaborations with a neighbouring municipality and with SL.

The level of ambition of the municipalities is a bit uneven, but one can clearly see that the focus is on the municipal organisation and sometimes stretches to include its services and when it goes even further it is usually in some sort of collaboration. Much of the measures focus on changes within the municipal organisation, for example purchases of green cars, introduction of travel policies or environment educations for municipal staff. Then there are measures that stretch further, to the municipal services as energy efficiency measures in premises owned by the municipality, shifting to low energy lighting, parking benefits for green cars. Through information they try to reach citizens with campaigns and Environment days.

The municipalities are all located in the lake Mälaren region. Solna and Upplands-Väsby are in the County of Stockholm and boarder to Stockholm municipality, they share the same public transport system. Transport is the main emission source in these two municipalities followed by Energy. Uppsala is in Uppsala County, north of Stockholm County. Uppsala

41 municipality has most inhabitants and thus greater municipal tax revenue. Uppsala municipality is the centre of the County of Uppsala, whilst Solna and Upplands-Väsby are smaller municipalities in Stockholm County, where Stockholm is the obvious centre. This can perhaps explain and be a reason to why Uppsala is initiating much more collaborations and participating in more networks as they are a larger and more significant municipality in their region.

7. Analysis of the Interviews

This chapter is divided into four parts. The parts are built up step by step to give a broad approach to the understanding of municipal authority of the interviewees. The parts will be summarised and shortly analysed in each step.

- How do the municipalities consider their authority?

7.1. The municipal climate work

- In part one questions were asked to get a general picture of the municipal climate work. The interviewees were asked about the municipal role in regard to the climate issue, the organisation of the climate work and about obstacles and difficulties in carrying out climate ambitions.

Uppsala

The interviewee from Uppsala works as climate strategist positioned at the municipal executive committee, on the unit for strategic urban development, responsible for leading, steering, coordination and follow-up of the climate work.

The climate objective of Uppsala municipality is a 30% reduction of GHG compared to 1990 level in 2020, for the municipal organisation as well as the rest of the municipality. The strategist said the municipality has no interim objectives but some energy objectives and that the committees set their own goals based on the guidelines of the municipal assembly, thus there are probably more climate goals on committee level.

The strategist described the municipal role saying;

“…by aiming for the 2020 goal the municipality is taking responsibility for this [climate change] social issue”, ―We try to work with all important sectors, whatever authority we have”.

The climate work is integrated in the comprehensive planning chart of the municipality. In the new plan for 2010 climate will be one of three challenges in focus. The municipality has focused on developing one steering document for the municipal executive committee on climate called the Climate challenge. When asked about obstacles in the implementation and

43 development of climate goals and measures the strategist answered that; many municipalities develop action plans in their strategy with a lot of specific measures, Uppsala does not have that, but has a broader approach instead through their climate plan identifying important aspects. There has been no problems in developing this plan; however traffic is the most difficult issue from a climate perspective to tackle.

Upplands-Väsby

The interviewee in Upplands-Väsby is environment strategist working on behalf of the municipal executive office14, placed on the support and process unit. She is responsible for the overall environment work of the municipality, which is divided into three parts; the environmental management system, nature and water care and environment in interaction with business and the public. She described the municipal role like this:

―I think it is obvious that it is things we have authority over, i.e. our own, our facilities, our vehicles.”,

She continues by explaining that the role is wider:

‖..we have a role towards the general society as well, as inspirers, coordinators, initiators.” “You can’t do everything, but you have responsibilities.”

The current overall objective says the municipality shall actively work for the fulfilment of the national climate objectives. The municipality has not initiated its strategic climate work yet. Their action plan states that the climate strategy is to be developed and a baseline study on the municipal climate situation be conducted. They plan to do it in 2010. When asked if this was done together with the implementation of the environment management system, she said no. As their climate work will go beyond the management system and also involve interaction with other actors, business etc. and they cannot control it the same way. The municipality has declared transport, traffic and energy prioritized sectors. On goal attainment the municipality has reached the goal of switching to cars run by fossil free fuel. The interviewee says that goal attainment is no problem on goals under direct control and authority of the municipality, like the internal work.

14 In Swedish - kommunledningskontoret 44

When setting measures the municipality has to some extent investigated its authority through the environment management system, which requires this and in which the municipality included authority as a criterion to be considered. She says that

―Working like this has opened their eyes to the broader role the municipality can hold and that it gives confidence to their work”.

The environment aspect register covers the internal work of the municipality and different criterion that have been measured in a scale from 1-3 including the municipal authority. Looking at energy supply and climate for example, the municipality had set their authority to be 2, which is medium. 1 was small and 3 large. Adding together with other criterion, like how important the issue was from an environment perspective etc., the question got a total 3, which meant the municipality was to work with it. The interviewee argues this shows the municipality is committed to the climate issue and does what it can most of the time, but not always, concluding that it feels like they’ve found an effective system to handle the issue. They defined authority as the municipal possibility to influence on an issue. Saying;

”Political ambitions can increase the authority to work with a certain issue and lead to investments in it.”

A great GHG emitter in the municipality is the highway; the interviewee gives that as an example of an emission source they do not have authority over, which makes it a great obstacle in the mitigation work.

Solna

The interviewee in Solna worked as environment strategist at the environment and health department. The main tasks are environmental outreach questions of a voluntary character towards businesses, organisations and citizens since 1996. The strategist starts off by describing the climate efforts in their own organisation and towards their contractors. Saying:

“Well I think we have several roles, one can partly have demands on the own organisation, on the departments, how the facilities are run, what cars are procured and what entrepreneurs used in procurement agreements.”

The strategist from Solna also mentions the role the municipality holds in urban planning by setting standards in exploitation agreements of land and in construction agreements and their responsibility to put pressure on SL.

The municipality does not have specific climate goals, but the departments have specific goals on departmental level that could be described as climate objectives. The city of Solna has a politically adopted future vision on which the overall environment efforts rest ―Sustainable Solna - A city compromising strong economic growth with environment consideration and social development. ―The municipality does not have a separate climate agenda; it is integrated in the environment programme and the general work of the municipality

For 2009 Solna municipality had one specific environment objective, which was to educate all employees in environment. This was an intermediate goal as the municipality aimed at developing a more comprehensive environment programme for 2010. Not everyone had received the education. According to the environment strategist this was due to lacking interest and follow-up. Saying that as there is no control or follow-up on the goals, people tend to do other things. On what obstacles she believes the municipality to have in the implementation of climate measures the interviewee brought up conflict of interests as Solna has a business friendly profile that overrides other interests. She believes it could in part be solved with a generation shift. Saying that Solna has received awards for business friendliness and this profile permeates the work of the municipality. Also arguing civil servants working with this issue [climate] get cold feet when it is lifted to political level. She also thinks that the low tax rate in Solna hampers possibilities to work with these questions, as they lack personnel and competence. She gives the example of a school renovation in the municipality. After renovation it was still the school consuming most energy, she asked how this could be possible and they answered that they only received money to renovate it to its previous standard. She believes this was their interpretation of the situation and that they could have received funding to also make energy efficiency measures if they had applied for it. These sorts of things make it difficult to work with the issue; she says it is a vicious circle and not enough political pressure.

When asked about the main difficulties in reducing GHG emissions within the geographic unit of the municipality the interviewee mentioned traffic as roughly 40 000, 50 000 persons travel to Solna for work every day. The difficulty, she argued, was that this was an issue over which the municipality could not decide, as roads for example are under the authority of the

Swedish transport administration15. She thinks it requires more collaboration within the region on traffic. She mentions the low tax rate, business friendliness profile and the political conviction that climate is important as reasons that make it difficult to GHG emission reduction. She describes her own situation saying,

―They like what I do and let me do it and work towards companies, but I never get to the point where it becomes a conflict”

Conclusion

The role of the municipality is multifaceted. Solna and Upplands-Väsby firstly described the municipal role towards its own organisations and then they extended it towards the general society. Outside their own organisations they explained the role as inspirers and promoters of climate efforts. The strategist from Uppsala described the municipal role in more lose terms, not going into details. The role they portrayed included responsibilities and was quite wide and similar to the responsibilities and measures described in the Climate bill (2008). Many of the examples given, like climate considerations in procurements and exploitation agreements were not found among the measures the municipalities themselves are taking or planning to take. The municipalities are not in fact living up to the role they describe. An interesting approach to the municipal role was presented by two municipalities. Upplands-Väsby differentiated between the municipal role in climate work in its own organisation where they have authority and the wider role they hold towards society, adding that goal attainment is no problem for goals within the municipal authority. In a way saying that over internal issues they have authority, but not explicitly saying that the world outside the municipal organisation is outside their authority but described the municipal role towards it differently. Also stating that by investigating their authority they got a better understanding of the municipal role. The climate strategist from Uppsala did not exemplify how the municipal role was exercised, but gave it a rather wide definition, implying that the role and its responsibilities could include sectors over which the municipality did not have authority. Both answers give the impression that their understanding of the municipal role goes beyond the municipal authority.

In the national bill on Climate and Energy the municipal comprehensive plan is stressed as an important instrument in mainstreaming climate change mitigation into the work of the municipality, therefore it was interesting to know if the municipalities had considered this.

15 Before 1st of April 2010 Swedish road administration 47

In Uppsala the climate work was described as integrated and included in the comprehensive plan. The strategist from Upplands-Väsby said that until now the broader role and responsibilities of the municipality had not been realized and climate change not been taken seriously and gave that as a reason to why climate was not a part of the comprehensive plan yet. Solna had not included it either. The strategist from Solna believed climate was not a part of the comprehensive planning chart because the municipality feared contractors would be absent if climate considerations were required. She compared Solna, a municipality who could have these sorts of requirements, to a smaller municipality on the country side, for whom it might be much more difficult to have demands. Stressing that in the long-run this would gain the real estate owner with lower operating costs, noting it might not benefit the constructors.

Clearly there is a difference in the climate work of the three municipalities. Looking at where in the municipal organisation the climate/environment strategists are positioned it can perhaps explain to some extent how the municipalities have approached the climate issue. The strategist from Uppsala is places at the municipal executive committee; he explains that the municipality has integrated climate management, meaning they do not have a separate climate office, all departments include climate in their work. The strategists in Upplands-Väsby and Solna have been placed on less central positions. In Upplands-Väsby they work strategically with the environmental management system, but it only compromises the internal organisation. In both Solna and Upplands-Väsby the climate work was a part of the environment work/programmes. The strategist in Solna was not sure where in the hierarchy the environment programme would be, what dignity it would have.

In contrast to Upplands-Väsby who explained that the seriousness of climate had not been taken into consideration until recently and Solna who was not clear on the status of their climate work, Uppsala could be understood as the municipality taking their climate efforts most seriously and to be most committed.

There was an agreement that traffic is the most difficult issue to tackle and a great emission emitter. Both Solna and Upplands-Väsby underline the municipal lack of authority to take action on traffic measures an obstacle. Solna thinks it requires more collaboration within the region on traffic.

7.2. General outlook on climate authority

- Part 2 aimed to give a perception of the strategists’ outlook on municipal climate authority. They were asked if the municipality considered its authority when developing action plans, measures or setting goals and what they thought affected the municipal authority and if they thought the municipality had enough authority.

Uppsala

According to the strategist the municipality does not engage itself in discussions on its authority. The municipality does not consider its authority when setting climate objectives or action plans. The strategist explains they have not strategically investigated their authority, but this takes place on a more concrete level, as a natural part of the implementation process, on departmental and committee level they investigate how to tackle climate issues, looking at their authority and available tools. Saying;

―I think we are ready to take on most challenges, whatever it is and identify our authority and if we don’t have the authority, well then we have to pair-up and collaborate. We do this is in several issues to get somewhere when we don’t have the tools and when we have the tools we might still choose the same way, through collaboration.”

He argues that the municipal authority depends on level of ambition of for example; staff, leaders and the political will. Implying the political ambitions cannot be separated from the municipal authority to act.

“I mean depending on level of ambition and will to do things one define authority, one perhaps define authority based on how much one wants to do.” “..the municipal level of ambition is also dependent on people, the political will, leadership...” “it is always politics independent of if it is politics of bureaucrats or party politics.”

He believes that it is always politics that determine the municipal scope of authority, giving an example of when Uppsala County was investigating its authority and chose to exclude their power plant as it belonged to the EU emission trading system and thus judged it to be beyond their authority.

The strategist from Uppsala thinks the concept of authority is problematic and restricting the municipal will to act;

“I sometimes think the discussion on authority can restrain and put on hold ambitions, willingness and possibilities.” “In my experience, from other places, it can lead to a reverse discussion in which one rather looks at the restrictions than the possibilities.”

However, he believes the municipality has a rather extensive authority and possibility to influence due to the role of Swedish municipalities as self-governing. He notes municipalities have a lot of tools and an administrative and developing role, but that municipalities not fully use all their authority because of political will and other priorities. The authority is not adequate in regard to the climate issue, as he believes it to need more urgent measures. He believes there is a need for sharper decisions in both public and private spheres to restructure society and change and that the municipality could do more if sharper instruments where available.

When asked in which sectors he thinks the municipality to need more authority, he says that what is necessary is perhaps for the national legislation to allow municipalities to act more, or to support the municipalities in issues where they have authority. Looking at traffic, measures by the municipality like attempts to expand public transport need to be complemented with national measures or have national support for a transfer from car travel to public transport to take place. He calls for national financial and economic incentives.

Upplands-Väsby

In Upplands-Väsby the municipality is strategically working on defining its authority. The strategist believes it is useful and helpful in the climate work and says the municipality considers its authority when setting climate goals and when developing climate action plans in the sense that it is a part of their environmental management systems aspect register. This focuses the municipal work on the greater environment issues they can influence, like traffic, transport and energy efficiency. She believes this has lead to a greater social responsibility and to alternative ways of working, looking beyond laws and paragraphs and trying other means like information and collaboration to influence and coordinate. Saying;

―One can easily get stuck in thinking we cannot influence, we cannot control companies, we cannot do this, you think too narrow and only look into laws and paragraphs. When you start 50 looking deeper into it, more systematically, you see we have an enormous impact through our information, our campaigns, and our possibility to coordinate. The way I see it, we are the only actor in society taking this broad responsibility and working unselfishly towards a common good within the geographic unit and for the future.”

Adding:

“When knowing ones authority one can work broader and more efficiently.” “Political ambitions can increase the authority to work with a certain issue and lead to investments in it.”

If tougher demands would be set for climate mitigation, she does not believe the municipality has authority enough to implement them, saying;

“ When the very tough objectives are set, perhaps from higher political level, saying now we must reduce, I don’t think we have adequate authority. In that case we must be given more opportunities to control and decide or other measures to get there.

The municipal authority is very restricted in building permits and energy, it is mainly through information and in their own housing projects they can have some control. In traffic and transport other actors like the Swedish transport administration and national interests make it difficult to enforce their ambitions, saying that they are much in the hands of other actors. Upplands-Väsby is collaborating with SL to have a bus route to their industries. It has been difficult to get this measure through but the municipality is considering to support SL financially to have this route. She thinks others ought to take some social responsibility too, as she is not entirely comfortable with this solution. Sometimes, the interviewee argues, it could be more useful to have economic instruments or national decisions or requirements to lean on than municipal regulations.

Solna

On the question if the municipal authority is considered when action plans are developed the interviewee answered that she thought the departments simply asked themselves; what can we do? The environment manager at her department held a background from private business and for her to know the role and discretion of her specific department in relation to other departments was something the interviewee considered problematic as things overlapped and

51 this made boundaries and responsibilities a bit unclear. The interviewee explained that the previous environment programme had specified boundaries for which organisations it involved; including the departments, the municipal companies etc., but the new programme had not specified this. Meaning the municipality has not considered its authority when developing this programme.

The interviewee said the main factor influencing the municipal climate authority was the conflict of interest between the business friendly profile of the municipality and other interests. This affected whether environment programmes were adopted or not and how the climate work developed.

“well, somehow it is the conflict of interest with business and construction, it can be a great factor if a program is adopted or not, what the programme looks like, how the objectives..., or what the climate work looks like”

The strategist from Solna thinks the municipality has adequate authority, but is not using it in full due to conflicts of interest and mainly because of their business friendly profile. The strategist thought that if the municipality took all the opportunities it could to mitigate GHG emissions through procurement etc, it could have sufficient authority over the climate issue. She thinks the municipality could do more in the construction sector, on traffic, waste management, energy efficient housing, parking and carpooling and be a better role model by running its own premises better.

Conclusion

Both Uppsala and Upplands-Väsby express urgency for more authority. The strategist from Upplands-Väsby believes it is necessary as she expects decisions on more emission reductions in the future, which would require more authority. She would like to have somewhat more authority on traffic and transport and energy efficiency. At the same time she expresses unwillingness to the decision the municipality is taking on keeping the bus route by paying SL. She does not seem to think it is the responsibility of the municipality to take such a measure. Uppsala thinks it is necessary already today for the municipality to have more authority to be able to take more drastic climate measures for a change in society. Also saying the municipality has, in general, a rather decisive authority, however dependent on the political will and not adequate in climate. The strategists believe the municipalities need more

52 authority to be able to take on the climate issue but they also ask for more government support, in the form of national laws or direction, national economic incentives and support for municipal authority.

Solna is not asking for government support or more regulations to strengthen their authority in climate, but looks at its own internal organisation, whilst Uppsala and Upplands-Väsby believe they need more authority and that it must come from a higher level. It could be interpreted as if Uppsala and Upplands-Väsby are using their authority in a wider scope than Solna and are now requesting national support as they have come across conflicts outside their organisation, whilst Solna is restricted from using its full scope of authority due to internal conflicts of interest.

By the answers from the three strategists it is evident that they think the authority is dependent on other factors, they mention the political will and conflicts of interest. Thus authority in their opinion seems to be dependent on external conditions for its specific character. The strategist from Uppsala points out that the political ambitions are decisive for the municipal authority and Upplands-Väsby that the political will decides how to distribute the resources so if the political support exists it can lead to investments in climate.

7.3. The categorical authority

Part three introduces the four categorical authorities; Economy, Legal authority, collaboration and competence as factors influencing the general authority. The part involved some assessment question on how the strategists determine the categories in relation to the general authority.

7.3.1. Economic authority

Uppsala

Funding comes from tax money and from KLIMP, LIP and EU financed projects, the municipality is investigating how they could expand this sort of financing. The municipality pools its resources in collaborations and co-funds with other actors to carry out measures and run projects. The municipality is a candidate for a government funded pilot project on personal rapid transit (PRT). The interviewee thinks PRT could be very useful in many medium sized Swedish cities, but notes that municipalities cannot afford it. Instead

53 municipalities are financing national investment plans on PRT. He thinks it ought to be the other way around, the government should take care of its roads and tracks and help local authorities.

He believes a stronger economy would give stronger authority but states that more money makes no difference if the idea of authority is very restricted. Giving the example of when the environment department hired an energy strategist it lead to progress, concluding that if the organization hired more staff dedicated to the question it would make a positive difference, saying the economy is vital.

Upplands-Väsby

The municipal climate work is funded through tax money, and they are looking at EU-grants as well. Upplands-Väsby municipality has not applied for any KLIMP or LIP projects or funding, this due to lack of time, money and competence on how or where to apply. She calls for collaboration and support in this from SKL16 and KSL17. She believes in some extent that it is necessary and possible to strengthen the municipal authority with more economic resources, as information, competence development and coordination requires a lot of economic resources. She says economic resources are important for the municipal authority, but she thinks the political will is more important.

Solna

The climate work is mainly funded through tax money. They have had no KLIMP or LIP projects. The Energy Consultancy available for citizens and business is government funded. The interviewee thinks the economy is essential for the scope of authority she hold in her work and also thinks increased funding is necessary to strengthen the authority.

Summary

Tax money is the main source of finance for the municipal climate work. Uppsala has also applied and received KLIMP and LIP project funding, the other two have not. Besides having funding from actors outside the municipality, Uppsala is also collaborating and running projects together with other actors to bring through measures more cost efficiently.

16 Sveriges Kommuner och landsting, The Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Regions (SALAR) 17 Kommunförbundet Stockholms län, Stockholm County Association of Local Authorities 54

All three think economic resources are important for the authority they hold and believe more financing is needed to give stronger authority. Upplands-Väsby points out that the political will is more important than the economy for the authority and Uppsala that the perception of ones authority is crucial. The two municipalities also stress that the economic resources are useful as it gives opportunity to invest in competent staff for example. Upplands-Väsby calls for more support on how to apply for project funding. It seems to be a vicious circle, as they do not have the resources in time or money to apply for funding. Uppsala on the other hand has received project funding and is working on developing this sort of financing.

7.3.2. Climate Competence

Uppsala

The strategist said he made a survey during a leadership day, in which 350 out of 650 municipal managers and chiefs participated. They were asked what they needed in their climate work. The majority answered they wanted more practical knowledge on what they could do, what measures to take, how to measure efficiency and so on. Following that was a request for more money and, or support from the board and only a few wanted more general knowledge about climate. The organization finds itself in a situation where it looks for actions to take, the interviewee experiences this a lot, as the climate strategist he is often confronted with questions and requests about climate measures and what actions to take.

He believes the municipality has adequate climate competence and that they make use of it, but also that increased knowledge would give stronger authority. They work to make use of the knowledge generated by the two universities for business and for the whole society. He thinks it is important to always be present and make sure climate is taken into consideration and this necessitates adequate climate knowledge.

Upplands-Väsby

Climate competence among the employees at the municipality is not adequate according to the interviewee; she says more people should know about the relations and complexity of the climate issue to be able to take the right measures. Due to lack of time and resources and knowledge in where to gain the right competences the interviewee thinks the municipality is not making use of available competence. Improvement in climate competence is necessary for the climate work to be effective and could lead to stronger authority. 55

Solna

The interviewee does not think Solna has sufficient climate competence nor are they making use of existing competence. She thinks increased competence is necessary, especially for certain key persons for example real estate managers and politicians. Saying that just by looking at the municipal premises, if increasing competences there, it could give different kinds of investment. Stressing investments are important to make savings further on.

Summary

The strategists of Solna and Upplands-Väsby do not think that the municipalities hold adequate climate competences. The strategist from Uppsala on the other hand holds the opinion that Uppsala municipality does. All three believe better or more competence would give stronger authority and that good climate competence is necessary. The strategist from Uppsala specifies that what is needed is competence on effective, available and cost effective measures. The strategist from Upplands-Väsby calls for better understanding of the climate issue and its complexity, whilst Solna thinks knowledge is mostly needed for specific key persons and also considers it to be a long-term investment. Both Solna and Upplands-Väsby note that increased competence require more economic resources.

7.3.3. Legal authority

Uppsala

On legal authority the interviewee thinks the municipality has done a lot, mentioning energy and climate supervision, the comprehensive planning chart, also noting there is still much left to do in urban development. Saying the municipality needs to use sharper instruments to advance faster, but is restricted by current legislation, construction regulations and the planning and building act. The interviewee does not think the municipality is using all its legal authority, stating they could use existing tools further.

Upplands-Väsby

The interviewee answers that the municipality is probably not using all legal authority it holds. She argues that the legal authority is perhaps more important to improve from a national perspective rather than municipal, as climate is a complex issue. She gives an

56 example of when she worked at the environment and public health office and they tried to implement local healthcare regulations without government support and it was very difficult.

Solna

According to the interviewee the municipality is not using its legal authority to full extent, saying ; ―No I don’t believe so, to do so we would have to risk perhaps being convicted, I don’t think we’d want that.” She thinks if legal authority was strengthened it would give stronger general authority.

Summary

None of the strategists believe the municipalities are using their legal authority in full extent. In the understanding of the strategist from Solna extending its authority could entail getting into disputes and perhaps losing, which the municipality would never risk. Upplands-Väsby thinks that the legal authority on national level is more important to improve than municipal. The strategist from Uppsala sees restrictions in the municipal legal authority due to clashes with other legislation.

7.3.4. Climate authority through collaboration

Uppsala

The municipality collaborates with other actors and is a member of the networks Klimatkommunerna and Uthålligkommun. The partnerships contribute to more cost- effectiveness, by decreasing double workload, getting ideas from others, run questions together, and sharing of experiences, stressing the municipality is no isolate.

In sectors like traffic, climate and energy efficiency the municipality has focused its collaborations towards the universities, businesses, companies, particularly clean-tech and technology companies. They support NGO:s and collaborate on initiative of the NGOs. The interviewee says as the citizens receive information through media, NGOs and companies and the municipal Energy and Climate Advisory Service, the climate work of the municipality has chosen to focus on other actors.

Upplands-Väsby

The municipality has initiated climate agreements with local business, the aim is to decrease the environmental and climate affects through strategic management. Upplands-Väsby participates in a network for environment strategists, through KSL, but also informally with other strategists. This to gain new ideas and spur their own work, but also share good examples between the actors and engage as many as possible. In the long run they might be able to engage construction companies as well for it to be sustainable and long-term she says.

On the Environment Day they collaborate with NGOs and they are thinking about initiating a collaboration called the climate vow, in which the citizens take a vow to make climate measures. Collaborations with the business community she considers very important. She believes it is important to work towards and with the citizens as it puts pressure on local companies and social developments. The municipality is also looking at EU, the Covenant of mayors agreement for example, for further collaborations, but has not initiated anything yet.

Solna

Solna collaborates with SL (Stockholm Public Transport) on transport and traffic in the region. The municipality participates in a network lead by KSL in energy workshops and developing indicators. It gives them knowledge. In the past the municipality has also collaborated with NGOs, the municipality has been invited to hold lectures and they have arranged events together. The interviewee says collaborations with NGOs are important, but that NGOs have a hard time surviving in big city regions. Collaborations with business she thinks to be very important and collaborations with citizens too, even though she says it is less common.

Summary

The municipalities collaborate with various actors, in networks and through other organizations. They seem to think the business sector is most important to collaborate with, as all of them underlined it as very important. The citizens and the public seem to be more difficult to engage with and collaborations with NGO:s are mostly initiated by the NGO:s.

Collaborations in networks and partnerships give the municipalities new ideas and knowledge, inspiration and an opportunity to share experiences. Upplands-Väsby mentions the chance to engage new actors in the climate work. Uppsala stresses the economic benefits from collaborations. 58

7.3.5. Conclusion - Categorical authority

The categories of different authority were important for the general climate authority in the opinion of the interviewees.

Looking at the answers it can be noted that the categories economy, collaboration and competence often join together. Through collaborations Uppsala municipality practice their authority together with others and also gain more economic authority as they put their resources together. Collaborations give economic benefits and competence, which are needed for the municipal authority. Moreover Economic authority is needed to make investments in competent staff and competence development which was stressed by Upplands-Väsby. Solna thought of competence as a long-term investment and Uppsala emphasized it is important to have the competence to be able to keep climate on the agenda. Competence is also important in collaborations to be able to argue for climate and persuade partners. Collaborations lead to action.

It seems be difficult to get started on an ambitious climate agenda or difficult just to make an agenda as can be seen from the answers by Upplands-Väsby. The strategist states that lack of competence makes it difficult to even know where to start looking for the ―right‖ kind of competence or to make use of the existing knowledge at the municipality. Acquiring the financial resources to get stated is not easy either, as the strategist explained it takes time and money to apply for project funding. Thus if you apply because you need the funding to get started it is obviously difficult, and also requires some knowledge in how to successfully apply.

7.4. The assessment questions

The interviewees were asked to assess the municipal authority over certain measures. The measures were quite specific and related to measures that could be found in municipal action plans or programmes, but fictive. The interviewees were to review their current authority and answer whether they considered it to be weak or strong in the respective measure. Even though the interviewees were given the alternatives strong or weak they sometimes estimated it to be medium, so therefore medium has been included when they deemed the authority to be so. Then they were asked to rank the categorical authorities - Economy, Competence, Legal, Collaboration, according to which category they estimated was most important in regard to the municipal authority to implement each respective measure.

The answers have been put into two different tables for each measure. The first table is for the assessment question, following the first table is a short motivation explaining how the strategists thought. The second table is for the ranking of the categories, which is also followed by a short explanation and then an analysis of the entire assessment.

Assessments 1 and 4 include questions about the authority to reduce GHG emission through energy efficiency measure and green energy use. The aim of assessment questions 2 and 3 was to have the interviewees consider measures to decrease traffic, as traffic is one of the main GHG emission sources. The 5th question was to have the interviewees consider the authority to use information to inform about climate friendly behaviour, to in the long run change behaviour in that favour.

Municipal authority to make private constructors build energy efficient Uppsala Upplands-Väsby Solna housing

Economic authority Weak Weak Weak

Climate Competence Weak, medium Strong Weak

Legal authority Weak Weak Weak, medium

efficiency Collaborations

Energy and Energy and Energy Strong Strong Weak

Uppsala - The National Board of Housing18 restricts the municipality from setting higher energy efficiency requirements on housing than existing law permit. The municipality has tried but is not allowed to. The interviewee compares Uppsala municipality to Stockholm municipality emphasising the use of land exploitation agreements. Stockholm being a bigger city and attractive to live in and who owns a lot of land can set requirements through agreements. Uppsala does not own that much land and has no political intentions to do so and cannot make use of the same instruments as Stockholm, therefore he considers the legal authority to be weak. He says the only way for the municipality to influence is through collaborations with construction companies, which they do, thus he deems the authority through collaborations as strong. The municipality has no economic authority in construction of energy efficient housing. The climate competence in regard to construction of energy efficient housing he believes to be medium, saying the competences are good, but could be better; he compares Uppsala with Västerås where they have a definition for low energy houses and have tools to calculate this.

Upplands-Väsby - The municipal authority in construction of energy efficient housing is weak, the general authority as well as the economic authority. Only in constructions for the municipal housing company or when the municipality owns the land can they exercise their authority and require passive houses to be built, when this is the case the authority is strong, but with some economic limitations. The strategist answers their legal authority is weak, implying the municipality does not own much land. The municipality has climate relevant competence to run this question, but it could be stronger.

The municipal ambitions have a chance to be realized through collaborations. The municipality is planning a housing fair in 2015 focusing on sustainability and they arrange an urban development day every year, this year with sustainable urban development as topic. Her vision is that in the future constructors know that if they want to build in Upplands-Väsby, they have to build sustainably. In her opinion, to get there will require cooperation.

Solna - The interviewee says the municipality has more authority than it makes use of. She finds the question of economic authority irrelevant and weak, as she believes the fundamental problem is the incapability of the municipality to set energy efficiency standards fearing construction companies would not build in their municipality and business not establish. She

18 In Swedish - Boverket 61 believes more competence is necessary, thus it is currently weak. Wishes it was possible to have requirements, saying the legal authority is mediocre. The municipality could come further with more collaboration.

Construction of energy efficient housing in the private construction sector Ranking of the categories (1- Most important – 4 Least important) Uppsala Upplands-Väsby Solna

1. Legal 1. Collaboration 1. Economy

2. Competence 2. Competence 2. Competence

3. Collaboration 3. Economy 3. Collaboration

4. Economy 4. Legal 4. Legal

Uppsala - The interviewee believes Legislation is the most important factor and says that the municipality must have the Competence, ranking it second. Thirdly he puts Collaboration which leaves Economy least important.

Solna - In the understanding of the interviewee Economy is the most important factor saying the municipality is afraid companies will not establish business in the municipality and it is very important to the municipality to be on top. Further explaining that it does not directly lead to economic benefits for the municipality but it gives them a good reputation. The profile of the municipality is to be business friendly.

Upplands-Väsby - If the municipality had legal authority it would have been the most important tool, but as this is not the case, the legal authority is currently not important. The same kind of reasoning goes for Economy. If they would have owned the land they could put different prices depending on what kind of construction that was to take place, but as they do not have the authority to do so the interviewee cannot see how economy is relevant. Competence and collaboration go together, as competence is needed for collaborations to be successful, stating collaborations is the most useful course of action.

Summary

The authority to implement the measure was considered more or less weak by all municipalities. All of them thought the economic authority to be weak as well as the legal.

Uppsala and Upplands-Väsby believed they had authority through collaborations. Upplands- Väsby considered the municipality to have the competence as well.

Uppsala ranked legal authority as most important in the understanding of it as most influential to their general authority over private constructors today, but estimated their legal authority to be weak. The other municipalities have chosen to rank legal authority as least important; in their understanding it is also weak and thus less important as they do not use their authority from a legal perspective. Uppsala emphasized the legal conflict between municipal authority and legislation and has probably ranked legal authority as most important because it is the main obstacle and restricts them from setting higher efficiency standards.

The strategist from Uppsala ranked collaborations second lowest, but considered it to be strong, also stressing that the general authority for the municipality is weak in this measure. This could be interpreted as collaborations to be contributing less to the general authority, even though it is strong as they use it a lot, it is not considered important.

Both Uppsala and Upplands-Väsby described their authority through collaborations as strong because it was the main authority they used, which probably is the reason to why Upplands- Väsby ranked it as most important. Solna sees collaborations to be weak as she believes the municipality could collaborate more, also saying they are not exercising their authority in full extent. Solna argued the economic authority was irrelevant, meaning other things affected the municipal authority in this measure; nevertheless she ranked it as most important. From her point of view the municipality did not hold economic authority, but other economic authority was the reason to why the municipality did not have authority to implement such a measure.

Municipal authority on establishing carpools in the public Uppsala Upplands-Väsby Solna

Economic authority Weak Weak Strong,medium

Climate competence Weak Weak Weak

Legal authority Traffic Weak Weak Weak

Transport and and Transport Collaborations Strong Strong Weak

Uppsala - The authority is weak in all categories, except for in collaborations. The interviewee explains that if the municipality was to instigate such a measure it would be by procurement of the function carpool for the municipal employees to use it. The municipality has a carpool for its own organisation, however it is run by another actor, thus other people can use the cars as well, not only municipality staff.

Upplands-Väsby – The economic authority is weak. She thinks climate competence to be stronger than the economic authority, but still weak and the legal authority even weaker. The municipality can work as an instigator and coordinator in developing carpools. The Swedish Transport Administration has projects supporting municipal action on this. Through collaborations is how the municipality could exercise its authority.

Solna - According to the strategist it is more of an ideological question, each citizen’s right to use their car, than a question of economy. Nevertheless, with more money they could inform about the existing carpools more. She did not think everyone knew about carpooling and answered there were no legal authority to rest on, nor collaborations on carpooling. The categories were all weak.

Establish and make use of carpools among the public Ranking of the categories (1- Most important – 4 Least important) Uppsala Upplands-Väsby Solna

1. Collaboration 1. Collaboration 1. Competence

4. Economy 2. Economy 2. Collaboration

4. Legal 3. Competence 3. Economy

4. Competence 4. Legal 4. Legal

Uppsala - The interviewee could not see how any factor but collaboration could be of any importance.

Upplands-Väsby - Legal authority is not useful and thus least important. Economy could be useful in the sense that the municipality might be able to get cost advantages from large-scale carpooling, but collaborations most important.

Solna - Competence was ranked first as the interviewee interpreted this factor to be closest to the will, stressing she thinks it is an ideological question.

Summary

Uppsala and Upplands-Väsby municipalities stressed collaboration was the only way through which they could have authority over such a measure. Solna estimates all categories to be weak, noting that with more money they could inform more about existing carpools, thus implying they have some economic authority and that it could be improved. Nevertheless she thinks it is primarily an ideological question of personal right and freedom to use the car. Meaning the ideology takes precedence over these sorts of measures.

The municipal authority is clearly weak in this measure, even though Uppsala and Upplands- Väsby see they can have authority through collaborations. They also ranked collaborations as most important, as it was the authority they could practice in this sort of measure.

Municipal authority on having the citizens use the car less Uppsala Upplands-Väsby Solna

Economic authority Weak medium Weak, medium Weak

and and Climate competence Weak Strong Weak

Legal authority Traffic Weak strong Weak, medium

Information Outreach Outreach Transport and and Transport Collaborations Weak, medium Strong Weak

Uppsala - The legal authority to have the citizens use the car less is weak, the economic somewhat stronger and the collaborative authority pretty strong, but could be improved, he suggests in cooperation with work places for example. The competence should be improved, it is currently weak.

Upplands-Väsby – The interviewee thinks the economic authority is quite strong, noting the municipality will be supporting SL financially to have a bus route in the municipality and has built parking space at the train station, which is free of charge, this is also why she considers the legal authority to be strong, seeing they have legal authority to take measures to have people take the train instead of the car.

Solna - It is not citizens of Solna that contribute to traffic in Solna, it is other people, says the strategist. The public transport is good in general, but knowledge on the importance of exercise and not contributing to GHG emissions and congestion is perhaps not. Thus climate competence is weak, but a very important instrument as knowledge is vital to develop preconditions and alternatives to the car. Stockholm city has introduced congestion taxes and in the opinion of the interviewee this affected traffic in Solna, as car drivers now use Solna as a drive-through. The interviewee interprets it as an example of the use of municipal legal authority that made a difference. She believes the legal authority to be medium, between weak and strong, based on the Stockholm example.

Have the citizens use the car less Ranking of the categories (1- Most important – 4 Least important) Uppsala Upplands-Väsby Solna

1. Economy 1.Collaboration 1. Legal

2. Legal 2. Legal 2. Competence

3. Competence 3. Economy 3. Collaboration

4. Collaboration 4. Competence 4. Economic

Uppsala - Economy is considered most important as more money is needed to expand the public transport system. The legal authority is also important, but he regards the national legislation to be more important than municipal. About Collaborations and Competence he thinks it to be important from a marketing aspect, how they try to influence people to consider their behaviour.

Upplands-Väsby - The municipality collaborates with SL, which makes collaborations most important. Legal authority is more important than competence, as the municipality could make it difficult to use that car, or set up free parking for green cars and in various ways use its legal authority.

Solna - She regarded legal authority to be most important as it is being practiced in the form of congestion taxes in Stockholm and has been successful.

Summary

The strategist from Upplands-Väsby held good confidence in the municipal authority to have the citizens use the car less. In her understanding and in the view of the strategist from Solna the legal authority was quite important and both of them gave examples of measures that had already been taken which they deemed to be of legal character. Solna considered the legal right Stockholm had gained to establish congestion charges. The two strategists assessed their respective legal authority to be strong, or medium. Uppsala on the other hand estimated the legal authority to be weak, but considered it to be quite important on a national level.

It has been argued that Transport and Traffic are sectors in which the municipal authority is weak. The government has authority over infrastructure and highways running through the municipality. Nevertheless, the municipalities in this study regard the legal authority to be quite important, but both Uppsala and Solna give the impression that it is not necessarily the municipal legal authority that is important, but that the authority on a national level can be more important. Or as for Solna, the authority Stockholm holds over Traffic and Transport, as it directly affects Solna who is a close neighbor.

Municipal authority on having the citizens to chose green electricity Uppsala Upplands-Väsby Solna

Economic authority Weak Weak Weak

Climate competence Weak Strong Weak, medium

Legal authority Weak Weak Weak efficiency, efficiency,

Information Outreach and Outreach Collaborations Energy and Energy and Energy Strong Strong Weak

Uppsala - Uppsala municipality has no legal, economic authority to have citizens to choose green electricity; the only mean available is through collaboration.

Upplands-Väsby - The municipality invests in the Energy Advisory Service, beyond that they do not engaging themselves with it the question. Thus she answers collaborations and competence are stronger as competence can be gained from the advisory service. The legal authority is weak.

Solna - The municipal authority is very weak over this measure. The municipal Energy and Climate Advisory Service is the only way they engage themselves with this issue. 67

Having the citizens chose green electricity Ranking of the categories (1- Most important – 4 Least important) Uppsala Upplands-Väsby Solna

1. Collaboration 1. Collaboration 1. Competence

4. Economy 2. Competence 2. Economy

4. Legal 3. Economy 3. Collaboration

4. Competence 4. Legal 4. Legal

Uppsala - The municipality is only using collaboration in this measure. Thus the other factors are irrelevant.

Upplands-Väsby - Collaboration and competence are ranked 1 and 2 as the municipality has made Energy Advisory Service available for the citizens. The fact that they can provide this service has economic costs, ranking it third before legal authority.

Solna - Competence is thought to be most important, that the citizens gain knowledge. Secondly she thinks it can be an economic issue for the citizens and saying the municipality has no legal authority.

Summary

The strategist from Solna saw it from the perspective of the citizens and their economic possibilities thus ranking economy as second important and ranking knowledge about green electricity alternatives first, seeing it from the authority the citizens hold in making this choice. Both Upplands-Väsby and Solna mentioned the Climate and Energy Advisory Service and Uppsala collaborations as a way to inform and give access to knowledge about green alternatives, thus assessing collaboration and competence to be quite strong and also regarded as quite important. Authority through collaborations is ranked most important by Upplands- Väsby and Uppsala, they believe it to be strong as well, as it is the authority they would use to implement this measure.

The strategists all say that the authority to affect the demand for green electricity is very weak, the economic and legal authorities especially.

Municipal authority to use informative means to have citizens Uppsala Upplands-Väsby Solna shop climate smart Economic authority Weak Weak Weak

Climate competent authority Strong Weak Weak, medium

Legal authority Strong Weak Weak

Information Outreach and Outreach Collaborative authority Strong Strong Weak

Uppsala - Uppsala municipality has the mandate to use information as a mean to reach out. Clarifying that Uppsala has decided to have authority to do so, underlining it is usually a question of political character. The legal authority is thus strong and climate competence and authority through collaborations is strong as well. The economic authority is weak, saying they do not have that much funds to run campaigns.

Upplands-Väsby - The only measure they use is the Energy and Climate Advisory Service. Thus the economic and legal authority is weak, the competence a bit stronger as they have the advisory service, but still quite weak. Authority through collaboration is stronger according to her, since the municipality collaborates with local NGOs and associations on the Environment Day for example to promote locally produced products etc.

Solna - The interviewee does not think they use information as a mean to change behaviour much. The categorical authorities are all weak, except for climate competence, were she thinks there is some authority as the municipality has the nature school for example.

Informative means to have the citizens shop climate friendly Ranking of the categories (1- Most important – 4 Least important) Uppsala Upplands-Väsby Solna

1. Legal 1. Collaboration 1. Competence

2. Economy 2. & 3. Competence 2.Collaboration

3. Collaboration 2. & 3. Economy 3. Economy

4. Competence 4. Legal 4. Legal

Uppsala - As the municipality has authority to give information, legal authority ranked most important. Secondly financing is necessary, he says that informative measures are often regarded ineffective, but argues this is because campaigns are not financed enough, if they would commit more he believes it would affect behaviours.

Upplands-Väsby - They collaborate with grocery stores and companies to bring forth locally produced products during the Environment day. The municipality is not using its legal authority in full she says exemplifying with procurement where they could do more.

Solna - She regards competence to be very important.

Summary

Uppsala ranked legal authority as most important and strong as the municipality has a mandate to inform. The other municipalities either do not have this or do not consider this. In the opinion of the strategist at Uppsala municipality, they have a rather extensive authority to inform about climate smart consumption, not saying they use this authority however to do so, but stressing it was a political stand point.

7.4.1. Conclusion - the assessment questions

The municipal authority over these measures is weak, based on the outcome from the assessment questions. The measures are very specific and do not give answers to be generalized.

In these assessment questions authority through collaboration was ranked to be most important in influencing the general authority. This conclusion is drawn from investigating the amount of 1st rankings. None of the categories was ranked 1st by all of the municipalities for any measure, but in the measure ―Establishing car-pools‖ collaboration was ranked 1st by two municipalities and 2nd by one, as well as in the measure ―Have the citizens chose green electricity‖. Another general result was that collaboration was the category estimated to have the stronger scope of authority when putting the results from all measures together. No category was considered strong for a measure by all municipalities, but collaboration was thought to be the stronger category by two municipalities in four measures. On the whole, authority through collaboration contributes and has the strongest influence on the general authority in implementing these fictive measures according to the answers from the 70 strategists. In the interviews the strategists often motivated this by saying it was the only authority available for such a measure. The assessment shows a clear difference in the perception of authority between the municipalities and the most evident difference is in collaborations. Uppsala and Upplands-Väsby perceived themselves to have a strong authority to collaborate, whilst the strategist from Solna never answers that authority through collaboration is strong. Uppsala and Upplands-Väsby have more collaborations, perhaps better collaborations. Looking back at Uppsala, when investigating their measures it showed that they are involved in many collaborations, which probably is the reason why they perceived their authority in collaborations to be strong. Wise versa in Solna, they did not have many measures that involved collaborations and the strategist did not find collaboration to give them authority.

The strategists often argued the competence was good, but could be improved and therefore saying it was weak. Competence was estimated to be strong more times than economy or legal authority, but it was not ranked as important, only legal authority was ranked 4th (least important) more times than competence. Solna often ranked competence 1st or 2nd in importance as she saw it as an ideological question in how climate was understood in the municipality.

The legal authority was estimated as quite weak for these measures and unimportant. The legal authority did simply just not exist or as in the case of ‖energy efficient housing‖ was in conflict with other legislation. Could be understood as either there is legal authority - meaning it would be strong and thus important, or there is no legal authority - thus it is weak and unimportant. The latter seems to be the case as the strategists often answered there was no legal authority and therefore it was unimportant. When Uppsala answered the legal authority was strong on ―municipal authority to use informative means‖ and when Upplands-Väsby estimates it to be strong on ―having the citizens use the car less‖, they also ranked it as quite important. The legal authority was rarely estimated to be weak but important, but for one case. When Uppsala municipality answered the first assessment question, but it seems as if the strategist thought the legal authority to be important as it was legislation that restricted further requirements on energy efficient housing.

The economic authority was assessed as weak in all categories. Accordingly the municipalities most have very weak economic authority, even weaker than their legal authority. Why this is the case is a bit unclear, the economic authority was not considered

71 very important or unimportant either. Reconnecting with the answers in part three of the interview analysis it can be noted that the economic authority was thought to be important, but explained to be most important indirectly, as it is important for strengthening staff and competence. Seeing the economic authority as an indirect category can perhaps explain the result from the assessment.

The general impression is that in these measures the municipalities hold a quite weak authority. Only in one measure ―influencing the citizens to less car travel‖ did a municipality estimate more categories to be strong than weak. This seems to be based on a recent success in the municipality on keeping a bus route and thus recently exercising its authority enforcing a measure. Even though the municipalities can exercise their authority through collaborations and it was estimated the stronger categorical authority, the answers from the interviews gave a picture of a weak municipal authority in these measures.

8. Review

Uppsala - The authority through collaboration was estimated strong in the fictive measures. The legal authority and authority to collaborate was assessed to be most important and competence least important. The answers from the assessment questions conform with the way the strategist described the municipal climate work and to the investigation of the municipal climate measures. The strategist was quite satisfied with the climate competence thus estimated it to be less relevant or important. Legislation and the legal authority were important and influential aspects. The municipality is very active applying its authority in several collaborations. As mentioned before, even though the municipality collaborates they can have a weak authority. In the energy sector, the authority of the municipality was restricted due to competing and overriding legislation. Perhaps this is why the strategist asked for more national support in the climate work to be able to take more action, even though they are active in many collaborations.

Upplands-Väsby – The category collaboration is estimated to be important and the legal authority least important, authority through collaboration is assessed as strong as well. The legal authority is estimated as rather unimportant and the strategist is emphasizing the role of national decisions, support and legislation, thus perhaps thinking climate authority is more important on national level than local. The authority was limited in traffic and transport because other authority on national level had precedence over the sector. Maybe because Upplands-Väsby is a municipality in the periphery of Stockholm County, with rather low tax revenue (as it has the least inhabitants of the three municipalities in the study) it feels more climate authority should rest on national decisions as its own authority is quite weak.

Solna- From the assessment questions the result shows that Solna is estimated to have weak climate authority. The legal authority was assessed quite unimportant and climate competence most important. It has already been stated why the strategist thought competence to be most important as she regarded it to be a question of will to have authority or not have it over the measures and will was related to competence. From the interview it becomes clear that the climate authority is weak due to the lacking political will to prioritize, which confirms with the climate mitigation measures of the municipality that are quite marginal. Just as Upplands- Väsby, the municipality found their authority in traffic and transport to be limited due to the authority of other government institutions.

9. Concluding discussion

Being a feasibility study this thesis aimed at providing ideas, in-put and perhaps give some answers on how to approach municipal authority in climate mitigation for further research. The interviews presented many interesting ideas on how the municipal authority can be perceived; it confirmed some of previous research and lead to many new questions.

The municipal authority to take on measures to mitigate GHG emissions is formed by the legal foundation on which the municipality rests. By widening the perspective of municipal authority, including climate competence and authority through collaborations it opened up for a discussion on if the municipal authority is relative or absolute. Studying the different categorical authorities at least the legal authority could perhaps be argued to be absolute, as the law should be the same wherever applied. The strategist from Uppsala compared Uppsala to Stockholm, saying Uppsala did not have the same opportunities as Stockholm to have climate requirements in exploitation agreements, this because Uppsala does not own land, but Stockholm does, giving Stockholm a stronger legal authority in such measures. Upplands- Väsby also recognized this, saying that their legal authority to implement energy efficiency measures in housing and construction could have been strong, if they would have owned more land. The municipalities are not obliged to use all their legal authority, as for Solna municipality where they do not make use of their legal authority for climate efforts in exploitation of land. Even though the legal authority is presumed to be absolute, it can thus vary between municipalities. None of the strategist thought the legal authority was used in full extent. In the climate bill public procurement was given as an example of a measure the municipalities could take. From the interviews it was clear that it was a measure the municipalities were resistant to take, albeit all three interviewees mentioned it as an important measure which would strengthen their authority. Where the boundaries go for the legal authority seems to be unclear. The strategist from Solna explained that the municipality was not using its legal authority in full out of fear of being convicted, meaning get into conflict for perhaps surpassing its legal authority. The strategists requested more government support and national standards to rest the climate work on, this would give them a stronger and probably also clearer authority. In the report on the environmental objectives and the environmental code, Dalhammar (2008) argues the legal authority could be considered vague as it is unclear where the authority lays and that this affects the achievement of the environmental objectives. As climate measures still are taken and committed to mainly on a voluntary basis it is perhaps not too difficult to understand that the climate authority is a bit unclear. 74

As the statutory climate work is very limited and primarily takes the form of voluntary recommendations for emission reductions it is much dependent on the political will and competence among civil servants and politicians. All interviewees emphasized the political ambitions to tackle climate change as decisive for how much of the authority that was exercised. During the interview the strategist from Solna frequently emphasized that Solna municipality had a business friendly profile, to attract businesses to establish in Solna and this profile was critical and all other efforts subject to it. Therefore she argued the climate authority was weak as it was not prioritized. The strategist from Uppsala underlined the municipal ambitions as crucial for the municipal authority and Upplands-Väsby highlighted the political ambitions could strengthen the authority. Municipal collaborations are often argued to be means to move beyond the municipal authority, but in this study the perspective is that engaging in collaborations is a way of exercising the municipal authority, using a greater part of the scope of authority and gaining more authority not necessarily stronger. The strategist from Uppsala states that the municipality works through collaborations when it is necessary and this is probably the general approach. That collaborations are established when the law is not adequate, or when the budget is too small, or in search of competence. The strategist adds that Uppsala municipality collaborates even though it is not necessary, thus collaborations can add to already existing authority. However it is a highly relative categorical authority as it depends on the ambitions of the municipality to engage in collaborations, just as competence depends on the interest of the staff and politicians in climate.

Investigating the municipal measures showed that the municipalities focus most measures on their own organisation, but some measures go outside it and those measures usually consisted of some sort of collaboration. With collaborations the municipality can use its authority and reach further; nevertheless the authority seems to be weaker when it is not complemented with competence, legal or economic authority. Which could be understood as if the municipal climate authority becomes weaker the further away the measures are from the municipalities own organisation or services.

The municipal authority over measures to mitigate GHG emissions outside its organisation clashed with the authority of other government institutions, organisations and actors. This is particularly evident in traffic and transports one of the main sources of GHG emissions, where the Swedish Transport Administration is a key actor and has precedence over municipal planning on traffic. Its authority is nationwide. The advantage of having authority on a national level is of course the coherence and coordination an advanced traffic system

75 necessitates, but it seems to restrict action on local level for a more climate neutral traffic system. The interviewees in this study were not convinced of where the authority would be most efficient, on local or national level. The same reasoning was presented in establishing higher municipal climate standards for housing and building. In this sector the municipal authority was restricted due to national legislation, and a stronger argument to have the authority on local level was put forward. Now changes in this sector are taking place on a national level as the bill on a new planning and building act has been proposed which stresses climate to be considered in municipal planning. It does not say anything about energy efficiency standard requirement which was the measure the interviewee from Uppsala wanted to be able to take. To be able to get a better understanding of the scope of authority, if there is a limit to it and how far it could stretch identifying and mapping the authority of actors in the same sphere of influence as the municipality could be useful, at least the government institutions. Sharing the sphere of influence with other instances must not mean the municipality has no authority, as authority through collaboration could most probably still be exercised, if the resources, knowledge, time, economy and interest to do so exists. The specific conditions of each municipality should also be included, like if they own land or not which appears to be quite crucial for the municipal climate authority over building and housing.

The possibility of a region or city to progress, create jobs, a good living standard and keep the municipality attractive for residents and to attract new residents is essential as they make up the basis for the municipal tax revenue. How far climate efforts and GHG mitigation could be a mean to draw residents to a municipality is hard to say, job opportunities, schools and health services are most probably more important. However, on a more concrete level employers and schools working with climate to cut their emissions and contribute to a sustainable development could perhaps be attractive. The interest of civil society is important as the municipality is a democratic institution. In a way it could be looked upon as a ideological question of how far the citizens wish the municipal authority to stretch. Saying the municipal authority should be limited to questions regarding society and not stretch into the private life of people sounds reasonable. Nonetheless climate change begins with the acts of each person, as GHG emissions from energy use or traffic depends on people’s use of electricity and transport. Just as the municipal climate authority gets into conflict with other government institution’s authority, it clashes with the authority of people to act on their own behalf. With economic incentives and progressive social planning the actions of people could

76 change in favour for a climate neutral society. Now this is a very sensitive issue and structural social changes that are of national, global character cannot be dealt with on a local level without cohesive government support. The requests for government support from the interviewees are understandable and the support necessary especially for ambitious municipalities who want to decrease the GHG emissions within its geographic unit.

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