The Role of Attention and Response Based Learning in The
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THE ROLE OF ATTENTION AND RESPONSE BASED LEARNING IN THE VISUOSPATIAL HEBB SUPRA-SPAN SEQUENCE LEARNING TASK: INVESTIGATING AGE-RELATED LEARNING DEFICITS MELISSA BRASGOLD Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the PhD degree in Psychology DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA © Melissa Brasgold, Ottawa, Canada, 2012 GENERAL THESIS ABSTRACT Using Hebb’s (1961) paradigm, it has been shown that older adults (OAs) fail to learn recurrent visuospatial supra-span sequence information (Turcotte, Gagnon, & Poirier, 2005); a deficit which has not been demonstrated on verbal versions of the same task or in younger adults (YAs). Since the Hebb paradigm is thought to rely on working memory and thus attention (Conway & Engle, 1996), one interpretation concerns an OA’s capacity to allocate the necessary attentional resources to carry out the various components of the task. Five studies investigated this proposal. The first three (Article 1) examined attention in a general manner by reducing the amount of attentional resources that a YA could devote to carrying out the visuospatial Hebb supra-span sequence learning task through the implementation of a verbal dual task (DT) procedure. The fourth (Article 2) further investigated the role of attention by using a DT induced at retrieval that overlapped extensively with the requirements (spatial and response features) of the visuospatial Hebb task. The final study (Article 3) aimed to use our previous findings to demonstrate learning among OAs in a visuospatial Hebb learning paradigm in which the motor response was replaced by a verbal response. Our findings confirm that attentional resources employed at the retrieval phase of the task appear to be particularly important for the demonstration of visuospatial sequence learning. The inclusion of a spatial and motor based DT at recall eliminated learning of the repeated sequence in YAs. Interestingly, the learning deficit of OAs was partially eliminated when the motor and spatial requirements at retrieval were reduced. Our findings offer strong support to the contention that supra-span learning of the Hebb type is not altered by the effect of age. However, learning deficits can be observed among OAs when the retrieval ii component of the task overly taxes attention-related processes. In the case of the visuospatial sequences, the basis of the deficit likely concerns an individual’s capacity to discriminate between responses made to previously presented sequences versus those that need to be made in reaction to the just seen sequence. iii CO-AUTHORSHIP STATEMENT In all cases, the key ideas, primary contributions, experimental designs, data analysis, interpretations, and the written portion were carried out by the author. Aside from Sylvain Gagnon, the contribution of any co-authors mentioned in this manuscript was primarily through the provision of hands on research assistance, as opposed to data analysis, literature review and manuscript preparation. Sylvain Gagnon provided substantial changes to and in- depth feedback on the manuscript. I am aware of the University of Ottawa’s Policy on Authorship and I certify that I have properly acknowledged the contribution of other researchers to my thesis. I certify that with the above qualification, this thesis, and the research to which it refers, is the product of my own work. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT These five studies were implemented in order to partially fulfill the requirements of the Doctorate in Psychology degree at the University of Ottawa. I would like to take this opportunity to extend a very special thank you to my supervisor, Dr. Sylvain Gagnon. He has provided endless support and guidance throughout this experience; graciously donating hundreds of hours of his time to help me not only complete these projects, but ultimately survive graduate school. My appreciation cannot be overstated. I wish to also thank Arne Stinchcombe, a fellow graduate student and lab-mate, as well as Katia Pershin, and Chantel Rodericks, two undergraduate-honors students who gave so much of their time to help me in completing these projects. For that I have recognized them as authors in the following articles. Additionally, a special thanks to Damilola Abitoye, my computer programmer, without whom none of these projects would have ever seen the light of day. He spent countless hours programming these experiments and that will not soon be forgotten. Finally, I wish to extend a very special thank you to my parents, my sisters, to my aunts and uncles, and close friends (you know who you are) who have provided me with genuine support throughout my training. I am finally this much closer to realizing my dream, and without these special people in my life, I would never have gotten to where I have today. They have helped me through many challenges over the last seven years and there are no words to express how grateful I am to have such wonderful people in my life. v DEDICATION To my loving parents who never stop believing in me. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS GENERAL THESIS ABSTRACT ............................................................................... ii CO-AUTHORSHIP STATEMENT ............................................................................. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................. v DEDICATION ............................................................................................................. vi LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... xi LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... xiii LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................................................................ xiv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................... xv 1. CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................................................... 1 1.1. General Introduction ........................................................................................ 1 1.1.1. Aging and Sequence Learning .................................................................... 1 1.1.2. Deficits in Sequence Learning and the Role of Familiarity ........................ 6 1.1.3. Working Memory and the Role of Awareness in Sequence Learning ........ 9 1.1.4. Similarity, Task Difficulty, Awareness and Sequence Learning .............. 12 1.1.5. The Implicit/Explicit Debate: Implicating Awareness .............................. 15 1.1.6. Limitations in Working Memory .............................................................. 21 1.1.7. Working Memory and the Role of Attention and Inhibition ..................... 23 1.1.8. Age-Related Deficits in Attentional Control ............................................. 28 1.1.9. Why Only a Deficit on Visuospatial? ........................................................ 32 1.1.10. Attention, the Hebb paradigm, and the Present Research Endeavor ....... 34 2. CHAPTER TWO: ARTICLE 1- Cognitive aging, attention and sequence learning: A look at the visuospatial Hebb supra-span sequence learning task….37 vii Abstract ................................................................................................................... 38 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 39 Experiment 1 ........................................................................................................ 43 Method...………………………………………………………………………55 Participants ...................................................................................................... 44 Materials .......................................................................................................... 44 Procedure ......................................................................................................... 47 Scoring……………… ..................................................................................... 99 Results & Discussion ......................................................................................... 50 Span Assessment Task .................................................................................... 50 Visuospatial Hebb Supra-Span Sequence Learning Task ............................... 50 Experiment 2 ........................................................................................................ 54 Method ... ………………………………………………………………………55 Participants ...................................................................................................... 55 Materials, Procedure, Scoring ......................................................................... 55 Results & Discussion ......................................................................................... 56 Span Assessment Task .................................................................................... 56 Visuospatial Hebb Supra-Span Sequence Learning Task ............................... 56 Experiment 3……………. ................................................................................... 60 Method...………………………………………………………………………61 Participants ...................................................................................................... 61 Materials, Procedure, Scoring ........................................................................