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Is That the Question for Botswana's Notwane River Catchment?

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Is That the Question for Botswana's Notwane River Catchment? A Special Issue on Botswana Notes and Records’ Golden Jubilee Volume in Honour of Sir Ketumile Masire Water for Urban Development or Rural Livelihoods: Is that the Question for Botswana’s Notwane River Catchment? Raban Chanda,∗ Bothepha T Mosetlhi,§ Saniso Sakuringwa♦ and Moemedi Makwati♠ Abstract The point of departure for this paper is the publication by Jeremy Meigh in 1995 entitled ‘The Impact of Small Farm Reservoirs on Urban Water Supplies in Botswana’. Urban water supply dams and small rural farm reservoirs occur within the same river catchments of Botswana’s eastern belt. The title of Meigh’s paper suggests conflict between the two sets of reservoirs. It could also be interpreted to imply the superiority or paramountcy of urban water needs over rural livelihood (agricultural) needs or of urban industrial development over rural development. There has been heightened debate in recent years as to what extent the failure of the Gaborone Dam late in 2014 was due to the small agricultural dams found upstream in the Notwane River catchment which is the source of its water. This paper uses documentary evidence to contribute to the debate. It highlights the legitimacy and livelihood significance of both the large and small dams and presents a more holistic explanation of the desiccation of the Gaborone Dam in the 2000s. It ends by noting the positive steps taken by the Botswana government towards sustainable water resource governance. Introduction Botswana is one of the driest countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. Water availability and its sustainable management and equitable supply are, therefore, arguably the most significant factors in the country’s long-term socio-economic development (Swatuk and Rahm 2004; SMEC and EHES 2006; World Bank 2010; Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources [MMEWR] 2012; and Statistics Botswana 2015). As Makgala (2008) aptly observed, the country’s currency was named after rain (‘Pula’) because of the economic, historical and politico-cultural significance of this scarce and variable resource to the well- being of the nation and all its people. Thus, while presently the country has the proud record of providing safe drinking water to nearly 100% of its urban population and approximately 90% of its rural population (Central Statistics Office [CSO] 2009; Government of Botswana and United Nations Development Programme [UNDP] 2012), serious issues of supply sustainability have in recent years occupied the minds of development planners and academics alike (Swatuk and Rahm 2004). Nowhere has this concern been more pronounced than in the southeastern urban-industrial region of the country dominated by Gaborone, the administrative and commercial capital. Here, as in the rest of the eastern fringe of Botswana, water for domestic/institutional, industrial and agricultural uses has been harnessed from river catchments through a number of large and small dams. Because of water’s indispensability to all sectors of society and economy, its increasing scarcity correspondingly raises the potential for conflict between and among competing resource uses and users. Such has been the case since the turn of the present millennium in the city of Gaborone and Notwane River catchment areas (Map 1) where the Gaborone Dam, which caters for domestic/institutional and industrial ∗ Raban Chanda, Department of Environmental Science, University of Botswana. Email: [email protected] § Bothepha T Mosetlhi, Department of Environmental Science, University of Botswana. Email: [email protected] ♦ Saniso Sakuringwa, Department of Water Affairs, Government of Botswana. Email: [email protected] ♠ Moemedi Makwati, Department of Agriculture, Water Development Section, Ministry of Agriculture Development and Food Security, Government of Botswana. Email: [email protected] 123 Botswana Notes and Records, Volume 50, 2018 water needs, is pitted against a multitude of small dams serving agricultural (livelihood) and environmental conservation purposes upstream of the reservoir. This paper contributes to the recently ignited debate on the role of the small dams in the failure of the Gaborone Dam late in 2014. It highlights the legitimacy and livelihood significance of the small dams and presents a more holistic explanation of the desiccation of the Gaborone Dam in the 2000s. It ends by noting the positive steps taken by the country towards sustainable water resource governance. Map 1: The Notwane River catchment showing Gaborone Dam and some of the small agricultural dams Source: Drawn by Botlhe Matlhodi, Department of Environmental Science, University of Botswana Methods and Dams in Human History and Eastern Botswana This article is based on review of the literature on water supply and demand in Botswana, with special reference to surface water resources harnessed in the river catchments of the eastern belt of the country. Both official government documents and academic literature throwing light on water resource governance and development to meet domestic, institutional, agricultural and urban-industrial needs were consulted. We also provide a brief historical note on dams in human history and eastern Botswana. In human history, many societies have manipulated the flows of proximate rivers for specific purposes, such as through damming and flow diversions for flood control, irrigation and transportation (Becket al. 2012). According to Beck et al. (2012), dam construction dates back to 6500 BC when the Sumerians built dams on the Tigris and Euphrates for flood control and crop irrigation. Dams (large and small) have remained common 124 A Special Issue on Botswana Notes and Records’ Golden Jubilee Volume in Honour of Sir Ketumile Masire instruments for local, national and rural development. Their benefits can far outweigh the unintended negative impacts on the health of user populations or on the downstream aquatic and socio-economic environments (USGS 1996). In Botswana there are two categories of dams namely those constructed to supply water for human and industrial consumption and those built principally for livestock watering during the dry season. The former are much larger than the latter, which are referred to as small agricultural dams. According to Statistics Botswana (2015), in 2014 there were nine large dams with a combined capacity of 903.2 million cubic metres (MCUMs) (Table 1). All these dams were constructed by the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) and are managed by the Water Utilities Corporation (WUC), a parastatal. All the nine dams in Table 1 are on tributaries of the Limpopo River which forms the eastern boundary with the Republic of South Africa. As can be noticed in Table 1, the primary function of these dams is to supply water for domestic, institutional and industrial purposes to major rural and urban demand centres in the eastern belt of the country in general, but especially in the greater Gaborone area (see below). More recent dams like Thune (2013) and Lotsane (2012) have also provided for horticultural irrigation, but it is too early to gauge the extent to which rural communities in the vicinity of these dams have taken advantage of this opportunity. Table 1: Large Water Supply Dams in Botswana Dam Year com- Capacity Yield Location Primary purpose(s) missioned (MCUMs) (MCUMs) Gaborone 1964 141.4 9.5 Southeast Domestic, institutional and industrial water supply to Gaborone District Nnywane 1970 2.3 0.6 Southeast Domestic, institutional and industrial water supply to Lobatse but also to Gaborone if necessary District Shashe 1973 85 23.0 Northeast Domestic, institutional and industrial water supply to Selebi-Phikwe, Francistown and Tonota. Original District primary purpose was to supply water to the copper- nickel mine in Selebi Phikwe. Bokaa 1993 18.5 4.9 Kgatleng Domestic, institutional and industrial water supply to Gaborone District Letsibogo 2000 100 24 Central Domestic, institutional and industrial water supply to Gaborone and nearby settlements through a 360 km District pipeline. The urban villages of Palapye, Serowe and Mahalapye are also supplied through the pipeline. Ntimbale 2008 26 3.6 Northeast Supplies water to all villages in the Northeast District and nearby villages in Central District District Dikgatl- 2011 400 62 Central Built to supply water to Gaborone and neighboring hong settlements through another pipeline. Francistown and District the urban villages of Palapye, Serowe and Mahalapye will also benefit from the dam and pipeline Lotsane 2012 40 6.6 Central Supplying potable water to Tswapong villages and to irrigated horticulture in the area District 125 Botswana Notes and Records, Volume 50, 2018 Thune 2013 90 6.5 Central Supplies water to the villages of Bobonong, Motlha- baneng, Mathathane, Tsetsebjwe, Mabolwe, Semolale, District Gobojango, Lepokole and Molalatau. The dam would also support irrigation farming at Mathathane Source: Adapted from Statistics Botswana (2015:7). The exact number of operational small agricultural dams in Botswana is not known, because many are reportedly out of service due to siltation and embankment erosion, but they could be well over 300 countrywide (Department of Water Affairs [DWA] SMEC and EHES Consulting Engineers 2006). They occur mostly in eastern Botswana where suitable sites and ephemeral rivers are more numerous. Some small dams were constructed during the colonial era. Good examples of these in the Notwane catchment are Mmakgodumu dam in Kanye and Mogobane dam in Mogobane village. Mmakgodumu dam was built in 1941 at the instigation
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