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Handbook of Police

Jack Kitaeff

Introduction and History of Police Psychology

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780429264108-1 Jack Kitaeff Published online on: 24 Jun 2019

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 used by police during thelast100 years.used by during policepsychologists Münsterberg said: toolsofthesamenamesthathave“hypnosis”) ofthemodern that stands outastheforerunners been (andhencetheuseofprimitiveperhaps hiswork onthedetectionofcrime profiling”“criminal and tions, confessions, untrue thesuggestibility ofwitnesses, hypnosis, prevention. andcrime Butitwas Münsterberg talked aboutmany topicssuchasillusions, ofwitnesses, thememory theeffectsofemo- under thewatchful eye . oftheexperimental InhisbookOntheWitnessStand(1908), investigator, themechanisms of thecourtroom, allcametogether andthedetectionofcriminals becausehewrote,police psychologist ofthe20thcentury, atthebeginning how thelaw, thecriminal Hugo Münsterberg is often called the first tion, andstress counseling, (Kitaeff, amongothers 2010). (e.g., policeofficers,includes topicssuchasscreening andhiring conductingscreenings forspecialsquads andmethodstolaw enforcement. principles cation ofpsychological Thisbroad andgrowing area topolicework andlaw principles logical enforcement. of technology policeworkapplicationofpsycho- andprofessionalism ofmodern andthe became thiscountry’s policemen. first Levy andhisbrethren couldnever levels thecurrent imagine served ontheBurgherGuard inNewarms (New YorkCity)in1657, they inessence thelast100 years.United Statesduring colonistAsserLevy andhisbrothers-in- WhenAmerican The professions ofpolicing, psychology, andpolicepsychology have inthe grown geometrically Today, psychology appliedtopolicing, orpolicepsychology, canbroadly bedefinedastheappli - and there isprobably noonewhodesires toincrease thenumber of “experts” in ourcriminal mindmaysecrets beunveiled. ofthecriminal Allthishas, ofcourse, nolegalstandingto-day, become, indeed, amagnifying-glassforthemostsubtlemental mechanism, andby itthe hypnosis]. training cangive, outwith theskillwhichonlylonglaboratory Carried ithas and strength tothenervous wreck. association method, notonlyprotect theinnocentandunmask guilty, health but bring whoseekstodiscoverThe psychologist thesecret connectionsofideasmay thus, by his SWAT), fitness-for-duty evaluations, investigations, hostagenegotiations, training andconsulta- INTRODUCTIONHISTORY AND Yet ourchiefinterest belongstothelegalaspectofthismethod[free associationand OF POLICEPSYCHOLOGY Police TheBeginnings Psychology: forensic psychologist. Yet in many ways he was also the first Jack Kitaeff 1 1 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 tion inthemilitary, andthisincludedincreased involvement inpolicework andto sorts ofvarious andmotivationschach variables could beusedtopredict jobsatisfaction for promotion. system)toagroup ofNewandfoundthatsome Ror- YorkCitypoliceofficers test (Klopferscoring that tooktoolongtocomeor never cameatall. Kates(1950)administeredinkblot theRorschach out ofpolicework altogether toother, higherpaying occupationsratherthanwaiting forpromotions this may have thatthemostintelligent beenduetothefact enforcementoftenmoved officers eral, patrolmen scored higherthanthelieutenantswhocommandedthem. concluded that Thurstone intheDetroit serving PoliceDepartment.ligence testtoagroup ofofficers Hefoundthat, ingen- wereand performance conducted. Forexample, in1922, L. L. gave Thurstone AlphaIntel- theArmy make suchevaluations viable (Inwald, 1990, 1992). he was forusingtheseevaluations aforerunner asameans of obtainingtheneededresearch datato speculative anddidnot involve testsusedinlaw thekindsofpersonality enforcement selectiontoday, fordifferent occupationalgroups. ofperformance in establishing norms WhileTerman’s studywas between of establishingstressed correlations the importance test scores and future performance, and did feelthattestingwould oneday bevaluable typesofoccupationsand asaselectiontoolforcertain validity ofpoliceofficerselection. oftheStanford-Binet forthespecificpurpose However, Terman ful forpre-employment evaluations, hisresults abouttheactualcriterion-related lacked information ofasinglenumber, testresults intheform theintelligencequotient. As aresult, reviewed Stern findingsinthefieldand developed theprinciple theideaofexpressing covered. was influenced Stern by the work ofAlfred Binetandhisstudiesofintelligenceinchildren. process ofinvestigating individuality thatthereal andintelligencecouldbedis- essenceofpersonality He attemptedtoclassifypeopleaccording totypes, norms, andaberrations. ToStern, it was inthe ogy” or “individuality” was problem destinedtobethemainpsychological ofthe20thcentury. Stern, Alfred Binet, andLewis Terman. (1912)decidedthat WilliamStern psychol- “personalistic whoinfluencedthefledglingfieldofpolicepsychologyOther earlypsychologists includedWilliam In the1950s, psychology becameincreasingly utilizedinmany areas beyond testingandclassifica- In theearly1920s, investigations afew experimental testingonpoliceattitude ofpsychological While Terman’s (1916)studywas tosuggestthattestingusingtheStanford-Binet thefirst was use- training of a psychological laboratory.training ofapsychological must beexamined also,facts notby thelayman, but by thescientificpsychologist, withthe havejust asthebodilyfacts tobeexaminedby thechemistorphysiologist, themental whichfits every rule no hard casemechanically. andfast Butallthisindicatesonlythat, many ways imperfect, andifclumsilyapplieditmay bemisleading; moreover, there exists scientific, more humane, whichjusticedemands. outthetruth andmore reliable inbringing secrets to light;falsified the time-measurement of associationis swifter andcleaner, more twentieth century. The “third degree” may themindandforceor eithercorrect brutalize out ofdate, psychology are ofthe working too:themethodsofexperimental inthespirit abouttechnicalities inadmittingthe attorneys “evidence” tonotafew appears somewhat the “third degree” belongtotheMiddleAges, inevery form andmuch ofthewrangling while now record procedure theshorthand ofthecourt seemsamatterofcourse. It iswell oncemetwithvehement known opposition, in trials thattheuseofstenographers psychology cannot longer be excluded from of law.the methods of experimental the court courts. andliesbe disentangled. Butjusticedemandsthattruth Thetimewillcomewhen Of course, we ofitsdevelopment; are onlyatthebeginning thenew methodisstillin willbecomenotlessindispensable.The helpofthepsychologist Thevulgarordeals of Police Years TheEarly Psychology: Jack Kitaeff 2 (1908, pp. 109–110) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 psychology intheUnitedStates. unit. service chological In many ways, police ofmodern Schlossbergcanbeconsidered thefather a doctorateinpsychology,by then)hadearned heasked Harvey Schlossbergtodesignapolicepsy- uniform. adoctorateinpsychology whilestillafull-timepoliceofficerin officer intheUnitedStatestoearn and hisdoctorateatYeshiva University. In1971, Harvey known Schlossbergbecamethefirst police fromdegree Brooklyn College, Schlossbergwent onforhismaster’s atC.W. degree PostCollege day“The first I wore ofacopI felttallerthanusual” theuniform (p. looked inthemirror. Heknew onething:Withthatuniform, hisbadge, andhisgun, hefeltdifferent. home.uniform Hismotherdidn’t even recognize him. Hedidn’t even recognize himselfwhenhe (Kitaeff, 2006a). could never have backthenthathewould imagined for20 years remain withthepolicedepartment howlearn toshootapistol. Mostofall, thistime. heknew thathewould during getpaidasalary He figured he givewould itatry. thathe Helearned would have toattendanacademy where he would ies. Hedidn’t know alotaboutwhatthepolicejobentailedbut heard they were recruiting, sohe school, money whileheattendedtohisstud- hefeltthatthismightbeajobinwhichcouldearn City PoliceDepartment. Ashewas incollegeatthetimeandcontemplating attendinggraduate patrol situations, suchascrowd control. policewere employing todealwith totrainofficers afull-timepolicepsychologist various werements inGermany ofcapacitiesasearly1919. inavariety usingpsychologists In1966, the to1977. prior psychologists inEurope, Thesamehadnotbeentrue however,- where policedepart and law enforcement, has estimatedthatonlysixpoliceagenciesintheUnitedStateshadfull-time cal AssociationConvention. Reese(1987a, 1987b), topolice services onpsychological ahistorian - Psychologi attheWestern Psychologist Reiserpresented apapertitledThePoliceDepartment Martin Super, 1997). forpolicepsychology is1972,importance standsoutin A datethatfurther when ality Inventory (MMPI), agroupRorschach, atree drawing, & (Blau interview psychiatric andabrief usingthe MinnesotaMultiphasicPerson- screening allapplicantstotheLosAngelesPoliceDepartment the CIA. Successintheseareas quicklyexpandedtopostwar civilian life. (OSS), selectionevaluations personnel Services fortheOfficeofStrategic perform theprecursor to area was thework andcolleagues, Murray ofHenry to assessmentinstruments whousedpersonality ofselectingspies,purposes saboteurs, andintelligenceoperatives ( service.cally unfitformilitary Inaddition, they becameinvolved inconducting evaluations forthe toassistSelective service Boardsmilitary inidentifyingindividuals Service whowere- psychologi degrees.various WorldWar IIandtheKorean War, During were psychologists employed by the unitwould services logical provide. They included: officer. Schlossberg distinction.was both—a important very this new psycho- He listedthe services established hiswiththeLosAngelesPoliceDepartment). ButReiserwas apsychologist, notapolice Reiser afterMartin (thesecondinthecountry unitwithinthepolicedepartment services logical 2. 1.

In In 1972, heard (adetective Murphy thatoneofhisofficers whenPoliceCommissioner Patrick WithaGun,In hisbookPsychologist Schlossberg(1974)recountstimehe thefirst wore hispolice In 1958, Harvey Schlossberg(shieldnumber 16844)becameapatrolman withtheNew York In 1954, Reiserbecamethenation’s Martin full-timepolicepsychologist, first whenhebegan therapy would totreat them. berecommended andanattemptmadetofindpsychiatrists to be allowed a gun. to carry If they were found to be, or long-term then either short-term orcomingto[his]office weresent to[him]byvoluntarily tooemotionally upset theirsuperiors interviews,Psychiatric diagnosis, andprognosis, all inanattempttodiscover policemen ifcertain evaluations,The conductingofpsychological testing. consistingofpsychological Psychologist With aGun,Psychologist Schlossberg(1974)outlinedhisthoughts forestablishing apsycho- Introduction andHistory Introduction 3 Janik, 1990). Mostnotable inthis 29). hisbachelor’s Afterearning Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. sive, Active, andResponsible. temperament: Sociable, Ascendant, Cheerful, Placid, Accepting, Tough-Minded, Reflective, Impul- inventoryreport through himselfwithrespect to10dimensionsof whichtheindividual describes (MMPI), andtheHouse-Tree-Person (H-T-P) Test (Kitaeff, 2006b). (CMI), theEdwards (EPPS), PersonalPreferenceSchedule theMinnesotaMultiphasicPersonalityInventory tests. DimensionsofTemperament Scale, ThesetestsincludedtheThorndike MedicalIndex Cornell the psychological alongwiththeadministrationofcertain clinicalinterview that includedastructured remained thesameforlast75 years even thougharestandardization process tookplacein1989. such ashysteria, disorders thathavetinguish groups of peoplewithpsychiatric somewhat exotic-soundingnames and three scales. validity supplementary scales plus various The clinical scales were intended to dis- attheUniversityby ofMinnesota. andapsychiatrist apsychologist Thetesthad10clinicalscales andtobe (to influenceothers regarded asaleader), in trouble). andnurturance(tohelpothers center ofattention), intraception (toanalyzethemotives andfeelingsofoneselfothers), dominance accomplish somethingdifficult), towhatisexpected), deference (toconform exhibition(tobethe content appeared tofiteachneed. (todoone’s Examplesincludedtheneedforachievement bestand ning with15needsdrawn from Murray’s listofmanifestneeds, Edwards prepared setsofitemswhose need system” ofH. theory A. andhisassociatesattheHarvard Murray Clinic. Psychological - Begin complaints, andthelastsixwithmood andfeelingpatterns. view. Itconsistedof195questionsdivided into18sections; 12sectionsdealtwithsomatic thefirst naire developed toobtaindetailsoftheperson’s asanadjuncttothemedicalinter- medicalhistory 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3.

The The screeningIn thepsychological ofpolicerecruits, Schlossberginstitutedan assessment battery The original MinnesotaMultiphasicPersonalityInventory(MMPI)was developedThe original inthelate1930s The encountered by supervisors. topromotion problems services classesonrecognitionInstructional ofpsychiatric commonly selection andresearch intofunction. forpersonnel Research andoperationalconsultationstootherunitswithinthedepartment testingandevaluationPsychological ofallrecruits. testingandevaluationPsychological ofcandidatesforpromotion. offamilies,Referral wives, orchildren fortreatment ifthey neededit. Guidance andcounselingtopolicewhohadminorproblems. counseling, problemsMarriage where marital impaired apoliceman’s work. would includereferral, payment, ofthetherapeuticprocess. andsupervision whoneededtherapy,Continued officers administrationofapilotprogram forcertain which consultants. whoserved theMedicalDivision as psychiatrists Maintaining ofliaisonwiththehonorary the force. of members concerning matters surgeonsonpsychological Acting asconsultanttothedistrict Conducting ofspeciallectures problems onpsychological related tospecialpolicefunctions. organizations. inlectures before matters onpsychological Representing lay thedepartment andprofessional Consultant on behavioral patterns in crime situations. incrime Consultant onbehavioral patterns Teaching units. fordepartment ofspecializedcourses problems relating tothedemandsofpolicework. (p. andasadvisortothemonspecial andpsychologists Acting asliaisonwithcivilian psychiatrists Cornell MedicalIndex(CMI)wasCornell created in 1949 andwas aself-administered- healthquestion was originally published in1966andwas DimensionsofTemperament Scalewasaself- Thorndike originally Edwards (EPPS)was PersonalPreferenceSchedule developed in1959basedonthe “manifest psychopathic deviate,psychopathic . and psychesthenia clinicalscaleshave The namesoftheseprimary Jack Kitaeff 4 93) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 ments, were sufficientfor selectingthebestcandidatesforjob. inthelate Somepsychologists conducted completely by themselves, along with the medical and physical examination require- late 1960sand1970s, mostchiefscontinued tobelieve thatthe pre-employment they interviews police candidates became more than in the past. acceptable to police administrators Still, the during mental topolicework. ofevaluating- thatwould testsforthepurposes bedetri psychological applicantsforcharacteristics that by 1975 every law enforcement agency employ a trained professional who could administer CommissiononAnnual JusticeStandardsThe NationalAdvisory andGoals(1967)recommended ofassessingemotionalstabilityinofficercandidates. emphasized theimportance report Specifically, screeningin thepsychological ofalllaw enforcement candidates( onlawof Justice(1967)report enforcement slowly in motion a trend that would eventually result deputies. tions forsheriff’s working half-time, conductingresearch, andproviding consultationsandpre-employment evalua- asthefirst Department was appointedby “in-house” theKingCountySheriff’s policepsychologist gists’ roles andapplicationsinthelaw enforcement field. In1963, JamesShaw ofWashingtonState Unfortunately, higher-upsshotdown policedepartment thisideaastakinguptoomany man-hours. police work. By making such visits mandatory, the officer’s machoself-image could be maintained. of suchanapproach would beto remove thestigmaofseeing “shrink,” in whichsooften occurs sessions asameansofwarding offproblems before they grew intobiggerones. A majoradvantage tion was needed. Schlossbergalsorecommendedhave tothepolicebrassthatofficers regular therapy nals inapoliceofficer’s would setoffa performance alarm” “psychological thattherapeutic interven- nightmares. Heinstitutedwhathecalledan system”“early warning markers orsig- inwhichcertain in thegroups. Schlossbergfeltstrongly thatitwas besttocatchproblems before they developed into ing thesegroupswere oftenmore accuratethanSchlossberginspottingtheviolent-prone officers counseling sessions. Interestingly, hefound, forexample, thattheselay therapist-copswhowere lead- in tohelpotherofficers troubleHe trainedpoliceofficers andtobe“group leaders” ofpolice group seling, orhaving copscounselothercops, was atechniquebrought totheforefront by Schlossberg. cop. “I ran afterbadguysonthesamerooftops asthey did,” hewould say (Kitaeff, 2006a). Peercoun- who they perceive whattheworld asnotunderstanding ofapoliceofficerislike. officers would be amajorissue. andofoutsiders Policeofficers are traditionally distrustful wary very offered ofindividual afullarray department andgrouppsychotherapy. counseling for them as well.psychological Accordingly, unit of the police services the psychological that itwas screen notenoughtopsychologically policerecruits; itwould toprovide benecessary ally stable individual “changes” whenhebecomesapolice officer. Accordingly, Schlossbergknew becameapoliceofficer.person Butthere was (andis) much tosuggestthat even themostemotion- personality. were tothestimulus notattributable itself, hebelieved they hadtoberooted intheindividual’s basic process.inner image of primary Because it was assumed that the content and quality of the H-T-P He believed that through drawings, subjects objectified unconscious difficulties by sketching the creativityfelt artistic thatflowed represented astream characteristics graphic art. ofpersonality onto theH-T-P,In administering thesubjectisasked ahouse, todraw alternately atree, andaperson. Buck anoutgrowth ofthe originally “Goodenough” scalethatwas usedtoassessintellectualfunctioning. As aresult oftheseandotherdevelopments, theconceptof pre-employment selectionevaluations for In 1967, therelease ofthePresidential CommissiononLaw Enforcement and theAdministration The 1960s witnessed significant legal and cultural changes that led to the expansion ofpsycholo- For Schlossberg, this was not an issue because, in addition to beinga psychologist, he was also a Schlossberg knew thatforalmostallpoliceofficers, thecredibility ofanyone therapy for offering This screening process was designedtoensure fitand thatonlythepsychologically “normal” The House-Tree-Person Test(H-T-P) isaprojective techniquedeveloped by JohnBuckandwas Introduction andHistory Introduction 5 Janik, 1993; Ostrov, 1990). The Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 involving 2% ofNYPD’s and appliedthose findings intohisknowledge 40,000 officers gained from styles.cal illustrationsleadingtoconceptually fleshed-outpublic safetypersonality Hedid research matic neurosis alive inscientificterms, inthe niches” “eco-ethological ofpolice work. ofthisinvolvestreatment Part oftraumaandgrief. trau- makingsenseofthechaoticexperimental New YorkCityPoliceDepartment. “Dr. police psychology, bookonhis his first inthe havingwork withtraumatizedpoliceofficers written required tobeprovided services throughout the cityona “24/7” basisforfouryears. firearms, inthecity. assessmentsandinterventions andambulatory forallaffectedofficers His work clinical decisionsregarding allsick, duty, restricted modifiedduty, restoration offirearms, removal of and CBA) andby order of theChiefofPolicePersonnel. Inthisnew role, Rudofossimadethe by Psychologist ofthepoliceunionpresidents the agreement Division (PBA, Uniform SBA, LBA, program created by theOfficeofMayor. Rudofossi was alsoappointedastheofficialMedical Program (MAP), whichwas joint PoliceDepartment–Police thefirst Unionemployee assistance Assistance member(sergeant)oftheMembership chology andsubsequentlybecame auniformed man. Heserved asastreet officerfornine years, but in1996 received hisdoctorateinclinicalpsy- PoliceDepartment. ton PoliceDepartment, Authority andtheMetropolitan WashingtonAirports Department, Office, theStafford CountySheriff’s theFallsChurch PoliceDepartment,- theWarren Office, Office,the Arlington County Sheriff’s Sheriff’s Police the City of Alexandria the Alexandria area, Virginia in the Northern departments including skills to various services police psychological counseling ofofficers. InadditiontotheArlingtonCountyPoliceDepartment, Kitaeffappliedhis of beingapoliceofficer, aknowledge thathelpedhimtremendously inboththeassessmentand awareness inanattempttogainatrue inpolicecars ofthenaturehundreds riding ofthejob ofhours Personality Factor(16PF)test, whichheusedasaguideinhisapplicantselectionprocess. Healsospent tests,psychological AdultIntelligenceScale (WAIS), includingtheWechsler MMPI,Sixteen andthe ton CountyPoliceDepartment. Inthisrole, hedeveloped usingstandardized asetoflocalnorms and selectiontechniques. In1984, fortheArling- policepsychologist JackKitaeffbecamethefirst andafterthepresentations,During many active testingprograms discussionstookplaceaboutvarious als working inthefieldfrom around theUnitedStatesbegantodevelop astrong nationalnetwork. Quantico, Virginia. Atthisconference, approximately andotherprofession 150policepsychologists - ducted afive-day attheFBIAcademy Services in NationalSymposiumonPolicePsychological consultants. policepsychologist on stafforutilizepart-time Today, have mostlargeandmany medium-sizedpolicedepartments afull-timepolicepsychologist required and73%ofmunicipal policedepartments screening.state policedepartments psychological screen topsychologically theirapplicants, police departments statutes requiring and by 1990, 64%of about nil to almost omnipresent. known What is further forsure is that by 1985, 11 states had passed andresearch services application ofpsychological tolaw enforcement settingshasgonefrom just emy in 1984 (Bartol, 1991; McKenzie, 1986). What is clear, however, is that since the 1960s, the (NSPPS), Services began attheNationalSymposiumonPolicePsychological heldattheFBIAcad- ables (Inwald, 1998, 2006, 2008). Administration (LEAA)studyfocusedonpredicting patrol officerbehavior from- psychological vari onaLaw Department Enforcement Assistance dent research associatefortheLosAngelesSheriff’s projects. Forexample, in1969, beganworking stu- ofCalifornia asagraduate Joseph Fabricatore to have more they direct could provide and the services contact with psychologists through grant 1960s conductedresearch consultantstolaw enforcement asexternal agencies, andagenciesbegan Rudofossi’s multi-axial diagnosisandmultiple therapeuticapproaches are anchored inreal clini- Rudofossi—now apublished author, poet, lecturer, andprofessor—forged anew direction in In 1987, attherankofpatrol DanielRudofossijoinedtheNew YorkCityPoliceDepartment - In September 1984, JamesT. Reese(from theFBI)andHarvey Goldsteinorganizedandcon - oftheprofessionIt hasalsobeenexpressed thatthebeginning ofpolicepsychology officially Dan” ashewas known, hashadauniquemethodforthe Jack Kitaeff 6 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 Harvey Schlossberg of the NYPD, Captain Dr. San Francisco Police Department tration’s (DEA)Employee AssistanceProgram. predecessors asDr. Heseeshislearned Enforcement Director Adminis- fortheDrug istrative andTrainingCurriculum Psychologist whilestillanactiveanother doctoraldegree duty policeofficer. theAdmin- Rudofossiiscurrently program, andaprofessor atNew YorkUniversity, where hereceived two master’s and degrees York andNew Jersey, aconsultanttotheSaybrook University PoliceClinicalPsychology doctoral Frankl, founderofLogotherapy. developed research scalesfortheMMPI-2(Ben-Porath, 2006). Detrick, 2003; & Chibnall, Detrick 2002), ofIPI scores withthoseofnewly includingcomparisons recentfrom influxofofficersreturning dutyin the MiddleEast(Inwald, military overseas 2002, 2006). as aresult ofdiscussionsatthe1998FBIConference onDomesticViolenceby andthe PoliceOfficers ofAppliedPsychologyin1998(Sarchione,Journal Cuttler, Muchinsky, research conductedonthevalidity itemsthatwas ofindividual life history alsopublished inthe tler’s “online PHQ” forevaluating public safetyofficerapplicants.grew Thisnew from instrument ade ofthe21stcentury. In 2000, Law Enforcement Services, Inc. (LESI), published MichaelCut- assistant policechiefpositions(Inwald, Resko, trator screening, includingsome assessments conducted by for police chief and police psychologists screening. was Thisinstrument usedforpublic safetyofficerpromotions andpublic safetyadminis - SWAT teammembers, andsoforth. evaluations (FFDE), and thegrowing specialdutyassignmentevaluations forhostagenegotiators, thattappedjob-related inpre-employment, behavioralinstruments characteristics fitness-for-duty saw an increased role in the 1990s as evaluators of police psychologists sought to use personality problem of vehicularplain about the recurring accidents in their departments. Inwald’s instruments was developed continued foruseinthepolice/public tocom- safetyfieldafterpoliceadministrators scales focusingonattitudesandbehaviors related tosafetyissues, aswell asself-control inotherareas, (seeADAoffers laterinthischapter)forpolicescreening (Inwald, material 1995). TheHSRI, withits Inwald’s RiskInventory HilsonSafety/Security (HSRI)was published foruseinpreconditional tially stopped any movement (Ones et al., to banthese instruments 1993). Andin 1995, Robin Force report. The generalizabilityandtestvalidities of “integrity” testswere established, whichessen- included Inwald Inventory Personality (IPI)validity datapreviously mentionedintheAPA Task evaluating public safetyofficerapplicants. automated Johnson, Questionnaire (PHQ), History Personal Roberts a300-itemquestionnaire for allow himtogainafootholdonpolicetraumaandthepublic safetyofficers’ experiences. initial proposal andcontentvalidity analysiswhendesigninghisassessmentinstrument, whichwould Dr. choanalyst Dr. included Dr. relevant anywhere. toemergencyresponders andpublic safetypersonnel Rudofossi’s supervisors personnel. Thegenesisofthiswork may have beenintheurbanintensityofNYPD, but itis a uniqueandholisticapproach andtreatment abouttheunderstanding ofpoliceandpublic safety Police Officer-Patients: A Clinician’s GuidetoComplexPTSDSyndromesinPublic SafetyProfessionalsis withpoliceandotheremergencyresponders.his therapy experiences WorkingWithTraumatized James Reeseofthe FBI’s Behavioral Science Unit, whoassisted Rudofossi in developing an Rudofossi eventually fortheDetective becametheChiefPsychologist Clinic ofNew Crime Additional independentIPIvalidation research theseyears was (Chibnall & completedduring In 2002, HilsonResearch published RobinInwald’s HilsonTraumaRecovery Inventory (HTRI) were forpublicNew safetyassessmentpurposes instruments dec- alsodeveloped thefirst during In 1996, HilsonResearch published Inwald’s HilsonManagementSurvey (HMS) forpromotional In 1993, ofAppliedPsychologythat Onesandassociatespublished intheJournal amonograph In 1989, & Associatespublished their andMichaelJohnsonofRoberts MichaelRoberts

Albert Ellis,Albert founderofRationalEmotive Behavior Therapy (REBT); psy- thefamed Charles Brenner; andDr. Introduction andHistory Introduction Bob Barnes, Dr. whowas ofthefamed asupervisee & Favuzza, 1996). 7 & Nelson-Gray, 1998).

Al Benner, and (Detective)

Viktor Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 in itstechnicalmanual (Tellegen & Ben-Porath, 2008). (MMPI-2RF),Form oftheMMPI-2thatincludedasetlaw arevised enforcement form norms and other instruments. In 2008, Assessments, Pearson Inc., published the MMPI-2 Restructured and anotherwas theimpression measures managementlimitations ofself-report suchastheMMPI thatcanbegleanedfrom Comprehensive theRorschach of personality-related information System, Gacono, 2008; Zacker, 1997). Thisreview was completedforseveral reasons. Onewas thewealth inkblot method(Exner, assessments(Weiss, 2003)forpolicepsychological 2002; Weiss, Weiss, developed forpublic safetyofficerscreening (Davis & Rostow, 2008). Systems, Inc. (MHS), Davis Rostow’s published Robert andCary “M-PULSE,” test apersonality Attitude Survey (IPS)forusewithpolicecouples(Inwald, 2007, 2008). In2008, MultiHealth (ICCQ), Inventory Personality Inwald (IPPI), Partners Inwald Survey Personality (IPS), andInwald forpublic safetyofficercandidates. instrument putes between peoplefrom allwalks oflifeandmakingimmediate decisionsonwhomightbeinthe offense. criminal andchargedwithaparticular arrested They are putinthepositionofmediating dis- whetherornotaviolation ofthelaw hastakendetermining placeandwhethersomeoneshouldbe ing thepeace, andresponding tocallsforservice. They are alsorequired toexercise discretion in system intheirtransactionswith citizens. They are responsible , forenforcing thecriminal keep- foreffective & Chibnall,ity characteristic policing(Detrick 2002). hopelessness. ofguardedness Yetsomedegree - andcircumspectiontobeadesirable personal appears neurosis referstogeneralizedanxiety,TR term phobias, self-doubts, andfeelingsofhelplessness predict fewer jobproblems serious amongpoliceofficers(Hiatt&Hargrave, 1988b). Thepre-DSM-IV- being free of “neurosis” (excessive anxiety, worry, self-doubt, andphobias)have alsobeenshown to tended to receive ratings.and discernment better supervisory Having conventional attitudes and MMPI, Inwald and Shusman (1984) found that patrol who exhibited heightened officers awareness intelligent, sociable, andself-assured. A decadelater, usingtheInwald Inventory Personality andthe theirbestofficersasfunctionally described good policeofficer?Hogan thatsupervisors (1971) reported traits andstandardized inventories psychological andtestswould beinappropriate. Whatmakes a ness, self-reliance, organization, andhighenergylevel (Kitaeff, 2010). from the16PF—includeemotional warmth,primarily dominance, conscientiousness, socialbold- different. inpolicework—assessed theauthorhasfoundimportant attributes Someofthepersonality ofourclinicalarmamentarium. Thepresent tobeusedasonepart authorisno perfectly appropriate observation line”“on thefiring have allowed ustoalsodevelop certain working hypotheses thatare police administration. Asany practicingclinicianwillalsodisclose, however, and years ofexperience work in the selection of police recruits, the evaluation of present officers, and our consultation with theirfindingsintoourdaily we toincorporate ofthesestudiesandtry appreciate theimportance ful policeperformance. trainedinresearch, Aspsychologists empiricism, andthescientificmethod, oftraits,degrees thatarewithorsignificantlypredict discrete correlated aspectsoffuture success- 2007; Kitaeff, 2006b). to beconscientious, agreeable, emotionallystable, self-controlled, honest, (Berry, andmorallyupright Who are the police, and how are they expected to behave? For one thing, the police are expected In 2008, PeterWeiss, WilliamWeiss, andCarlGaconoreviewed theuseofRorschach In 2007, Inwald Research, Inc., published theInwald CouplesCompatibilityQuestionnaire In 2005, IntegriQuest, LLC, published Andrew Ryan’s RPIQ, anautomatedbiodatacollection The police in the United States are the major representatives of the government and the legal Of course, derived personality withouttheuseofempirically completereliance onthesefactors haveControlled experiments traits, beendesignedandconductedtoidentifythepersonality or The Nature of Policing:WhatMakes Police aGood Officer?The Nature of Jack Kitaeff 8 & Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 relations and.28with academy of.06withpatrol performance. performance of.19betweencorrelations Wonderlicscores andpatrol performance. Hankey (1968)hasfoundcor- pre-employment jobscreening is20.91withastandard deviation of6.14. Super(1995)hasfound .88 to.94(McKelvie, 1989). Theaverage of score ofpoliceapplicantstakingtheWonderlicaspart range from .73to.95, ofodditemsonthetesttoeven andcorrelation itemsonthetestrangesfrom derlic have atest–retest reliability, from ranging .82to.94(Dodrill, 1983). reliabilities form Alternate (Dodrill, 1980, 1981, 1983; Dodrill intellectualfunctionsandmaygests thattheWonderlictapsvarious beatestofglobalintelligence by the proctor. Computerized, large-print, language versions of the test are and 11 alternate available. in order ofdifficultyandallow thetesttaker 12minutes tocompletethetest before beingstopped figures, problems solutions. eithermathematicalorlogical andstory requiring Questionsare arranged parallelism, theneedtofollow directions, number comparisons, number series, analysisofgeometric (Wonderlic,and closersupervision 1999). individuals willneedmore detailedsupervision, hands-onpractice, greater more timeandrepetition, ized trainingbut alsobemore effectively likely tolearn from on-the-jobexperience. Modestscoring career. individuals willnotonlygainmore from claimthathigherscoring Thepublishers individual - solve problems onthejob, andhow satisfiedthey are likely tobewiththedemandsoftheirchosen trained, how well situationsanddemands, they canadjustandadapttochanging how easilythey can and solves problems. It provides a measurable and quantitative look into how easily individuals can be ligence or “g” andisameasure ofthelevel atwhichanindividual learns, instructions, understands general cognitive ability(Aamodt, 2004). Suchcognitive abilityisoftenreferredtoasgeneralintel- aswellprivate industry aslaw enforcement. testof thetestasashort-form describe Thepublishers The withonlylimitedlikelihood ofgettingcaught(Kitaeff,for corruption 2010). of power. Furthermore, theaverage officeriscontinuously exposedtotemptationandopportunities wrong ortheright. Indeed, forbetterorworse, areofinordinate policeofficers possessors amounts The reason forthisisthatbraindamage, psychoticdeterioration, andemotionaldifficultiesseem to ofpsychopathology aswell forms can indicatevarious asneuropathology and associatedproblems. eye–hand coordination, concentrationandattentiveness, and social awareness. Resultsfrom these tests gence suchasjudgmentandcommon sense, vocabulary, generalknowledge andinformation speedof measures. verbalvarious andperformance be individually administered by trainedpsychologist, aqualifiedandappropriately anditconsistsof WAIS-3. Thetestscannotbeproctored forgroupadministration(astheWonderlic can)but must times: oncein1955astheWAIS, againin1981astheWAIS-R, andmost recently in2000asthe Scale (Wechsler, 1939). version, Sincetheoriginal theWechslerScalehasbeenrestandardized three research since1939, Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence withtheintroduction starting oftheoriginal ligence inusetoday. ofclinicalandeducationalpsychology practiceand part Ithasbeenanintegral The Wechsler AdultIntelligenceScale(WAIS) highlywiththeWechsler The WPTcorrelates (r =.92), whichsug- The WPT consistsof50 questions, includingword comparisons, sentences, disarranged sentence The testsare useful inassessinggeneralintelligenceaswell asmore specificcomponentsofintelli- Wechsler AdultIntelligenceScale(WAIS)Wechsler isoneofthemostcommonand “global” testsofintel- Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT) is one of the most frequently used cognitive testing devices in Pre-employment Assessment Cognitive Psychological Selection: The WechslerThe Intelligence Scale The Wonderlic Personnel Test The & Warner, 1988). Research also suggests that scores on the Won- Introduction andHistory Introduction 9 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 properly administer. andinterpretation. Thisdoesnotincludethetimeneededforproper scoring test isdesignedtobeindividually administered. TheWAIS-R, forexample, requires to 11/2 hours isthetimeittakes toproperlythe WAIS(inany incarnations) ofitsvarious administerthetest. The afterone officers year onthejob was alsofound(Aamodt, 2004). Oneofthemajordrawbacks of academy grades, of.38between ratingsofpolice andacorrelation WAISscores andperformance not been researched to any extent regarding great its ability to predict law enforcement performance. disorders.certain Indeed, theWAISisrecognized asavalid andreliable testofintelligencebut has affect someintellectualfunctionsmore thanothers. analysisofWAIS scores may Andapattern reveal and generallypresent anemotionallyhealthy image(Mills &Stratton, 1982). Studieshave foundthat assessment formore thanhalfacentury. applicants. AsBlau.T.(1994)observed, ithasbeentheworkhorse ofpaper-and-pencilpersonality been andremains testintheassessment ofpoliceofficer themostcommonlyusedpsychological leveledcriticisms againstitbut maintaineditsusefulness. TheMMPI, andlatertheMMPI-2, has validityand increase itsface aswell (Daniels &King, 2002). (e.g., Affiliation). MMPIcontaineddated, thattheoriginal In objectionableresponse toconcerns items Femininity), 6(Paranoia), 7(Psychesthenia), 8(Schizophrenia), 9(Hypomania), and0(Social scales 1(Hypochondriasis), 2(Depression), 3(Hysteria), 4(PsychopathicDeviate), 5(Masculinity–­ ity scalesconsistofL(Lie), F (Frequency), andK(Defensiveness). The10clinicalscalesare criterion-keyedtestthat pretests clinical scales. items used on the various an empirical The valid- ofclinicalpsychopathology. questionsrelated forms tovarious orfalse 566 forced-choice true Itis The forcause. being terminated and Rostow (2003)foundasignificantnegative (r =−.09)between correlation Shipley scores and of .39and.50(Mullins &McMains, 1995; Scogin, Schumacher, Gardner, between Shipley scores andpoliceprobationary performance. Otherresearch hasfoundcorrelations for thepre-employment selection ofpolicepersonnel. Gardner of.16 (1994)foundacorrelation Most oftheusesShipley scalehave beeninclinicalandneuropsychological settingsandnot ing. Thetestcanbeadministered toagroupofindividuals andtakes about20minutes tocomplete. The Aamodt, scores between correlate (r =.38)and.59)withpoliceacademy(Rose, grades 1995; Surrette, nal reliability of .96, reliability of .90. form and alternate Some research suggests that Nelson-Denny vocabulary. Thetesttakes about45minutes tocompleteandhas atest–retest reliability of.77, inter- The From thelimitedresearch available, of.61was acorrelation foundbetween WAISscores with Policegroupfall inthe asatendto officers “normal” MMPI(orMMPI-2)rangeonclinicalscales The new version oftheMMPIwas avast improvement over theolderoneasitsatisfied items thatwere religious, sexual, andintrusive), itwas republished in1989toaddress theseissues Shipley InstituteofLivingScaleconsists60items, andmeasures vocabulary andabstractthink - Nelson-Denny ReadingTest isa118-itemtestdesignedtomeasure reading comprehension and Minnesota MultiphasicPersonalityInventory(MMPI)was published in1937andconsistsof first & Serafino, 1990). Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Personality MinnesotaMultiphasic The Personality Assessment Instruments Shipley Institute of Living Scale Living of Institute Shipley Nelson-Denny Reading Test Jack Kitaeff 10 & Chaplin, 1995). Davis Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 3 (Hysteria), 4 (Psychopathic Deviate), and 9 (Hypomania) (Bernstein, Schoenfeld, tendsomewhatpolice officers toscore onscalesK(Defensiveness), higherthannon-policeofficers (F, 4, 9, andCYN)toidentifyhighlyaggressive law enforcementand applicants. officers AndWeiss termination. Otherresearchers suchasHargrave et al. (1988) have usedacomposite ofMMPIscores index” consistedofacombinationscales4and9plustheLscale andwas astrong predictor of whichofficers were13 years todetermine eventually terminated. Heconcludedthatan “immaturity on thisidea, (1991)followed Bartol from 600policeofficers 34small-town policedepartments over (Hargrave, officers (Hypomania) thansatisfactory 1987; Hargrave, Hiatt, tend toscore significantlyhigher onscale4(PsychopathicDeviate), scale6(Paranoia), andscale9 (Weiss, ofprobationaryofficers termination Serafino, Serafino, Wilson, more closelyexamined. Otherresearchers have foundthatscale4subtleitemswere associatedwith asapoliceofficerwhenthe withdissatisfaction correlated “Subtle-Obvious” distinctiononscale4is groups of police officers;and poor performance Weiss, Buehler, and Yates (1995) found that scale 4 high-strung. Shusman, Inwald, inseparatinggood andKnatz(1987)foundscale4tobeimportant moody, thrill-seeking, andresentful. asaggressive, Womenare described emotionallychangeable, and relationships,and aggressive intheirinterpersonal sarcastic andcynical, ostentatious, exhibitionistic, not) that “the world ismy oyster.” ashostile Maleswhoscore described highonscale4are further profit from experience, emotional shallowness, andthestrongly held belief(whetherconsciousor involvesity pattern disregard arepeated andflagrant forsocialcustomsandmores, aninabilityto disorders(Weiss,with psychopathicpersonality Buehler, because the scale in the selection of policeofficers was developed to assist in identifying persons susceptible toimpulsive,particularly aggressive, orabusive behavior intheirroles aspoliceofficers. ance oftheseapplicants, alongwiththeirdefensiveness andinflatedsenseofself-worth, makes them behavior withtheseindividuals. orbehavioral aberrations However, thevery inadequatestress toler- socially conforming. backgroundinvestigations Policedepartment todiscover oftenfail any criminal not obvious; rather, they are subtle. Theseapplicantstendtoberigid, moralistic, conventional, and negatively but andattitudesthatcanmost certainly are ality attributes impactpoliceperformance didates forpolicework becausethey appearso “normal.” TheLscalemeasures- aclusterofperson MMPI-2, withoutanactualMMPI-2administration, may very easilybemisidentifiedasgoodcan- problem solving. They have poor tolerance for stress and pressure. in thinking and inflexible in They are unoriginal ness ofconsequencestootherpeopletheirown behavior. They overevaluate theirown worth. most people. They manifest littleornoinsightintotheirown . They show littleaware- asdefensive,described denying, andrepressing. extentthan toagreater They tendtoclaimvirtues themselves by notbeinghonestintheirresponses totheMMPI-2testitems. Theseindividuals are given by Graham(1993). tocreate theseindividuals afavorable astrying Hedescribes impression of ofhighLscores lematic policeofficerbehavior. thedescriptors considering Thisisnotsurprising Weiss, Davis, Rostow, andKinsman(2003)suggestthattheLscaleisavaluable predictor ofprob- with future problematic policeperformance. to obtainhighscores ontheLscale. Scores ontheLscalealsohave generally beenfoundtocorrelate afterbeinghired.officers Boes, Chandler, officers were likely andTimm(1997)foundthatcorrupt elevations ontheLscaleof the MMPI-2appeared related to subsequent poor behavior ofpolice groups. (1998)found that officer criterion Herndon andunsatisfactory guish between satisfactory Raza & Carpenter, 1987). Overall, studieshave various by theirsupervisors ratedasunsatisfactory suggestedthatofficers Scale 4(PsychopathicDeviate) oftheMMPIisgenerallythoughttohave relevance particular It shouldbenotedthatthetypesofpoliceapplicantswhowould obtainhighLscores onthe Overall, research has found that elevated L scores are with poor police performance. correlated by HargraveA studyperformed (1987)foundthattheLscaleandFtendedtodistin- Introduction andHistory Introduction 11 & Yates, 1996).- A psychopathicpersonal & Knoll, 1998). & Gaffney, 1988). Building

& Costello, 1982; Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 predict policeofficerperformance. differedofficers somewhat from theMMPI-2normative sample, thecontentscales were notable to successful andunsuccessfulsmall-town andfoundthatalthoughthescores policeofficers ofpolice and King (2002) examined the predictive ability of the MMPI-2 content scales in differentiating tation (BIZ), Cynicism(CYN), FamilyProblems (FAM), andWorkInterference (WRK). Daniels but are not limitedto, Anxiety(ANX), Obsessiveness (OBS), (HEA), HealthConcerns Men- Bizarre and behaviors not available from the standard MMPI-2 scales (Clark, 1994). Content scales include, ious contentscalesoftests. Thecontentscaleswere designedtoprovide relevant traits dataoncertain and MMPI-2inpredicting future policeofficerfunctioning, few studieshavevery addressed the var- in policeofficercandidates. et al. (1998)foundthatscale4haspredictive power ratings forbothjobretention andsupervisory It consistsof25scalesandonevalidity scale(Guardedness). measured by The25constructs theIPIare: employment screening personality ofpoliceapplicants(Inwald, 1992). thosebehaviors from specificallyforthepre- indicators statisticallyderived personality inferring public safety/law enforcement candidates and documenting their admitted behaviors, rather than The areas assessingsocialization,primary responsibility, values, interpersonal andcharacter. mance thanpoliceacademy variables. generallyscored Thehigherratedofficers higherontheCPI concluded thatCPIprofilesThe authors have amore consistent relationship withfuture jobperfor- the CPIandfoundthatprofiles distinguishedbetween thosesuitable andunsuitable fortraining. and tosupervisors’ ratings(Bartol, 1991). Hargrave with andHiatt(1989)tested575 policerecruits (Leo),ment orientation anxiety(ANX), narcissism (NAR), andtough-mindedness(Tm). entation (Wo), creative temperament(Ct), potential(Lp), amicability(Ami), law enforce- 4. 3. 2. 1. areas: 20 dimensions infourprimary of theMMPI(e.g., dominance, sociability, and flexibility. Thesesubscalesstandin contrastto thediagnosticcategories ity inventories, totheMMPI, issimilarinformat traitsas but itssubscalesincludesuchpersonal The

Although theresearch indicatesmodestsuccessusingthevalidity andclinicalscalesoftheMMPI The test isa310-item, questionnaire thatusually requires true–false about 45 minutes tocomplete. Scale scores ontheCPIhave beenfoundtoberelated topolicetrainees’ academy performance The CPIalsoyieldsscores onseveral potential(Mp), specialscalessuchasmanagerial - work ori masculinity. mindedness, Style—psychological Measures ofRoleandInterpersonal flexibility, andfemininity/ ment viaindependence, andintellectualefficiency. Measures ofCognitive andIntellectualFunctioning—achievement viaconformance, achieve- impression, communality, well-being, andtolerance. andValues—responsibility,Measures ofNormative Orientation socialization, self-control, good independence, andempathy. Measures ofPoise—dominance, capacityforstatus, sociability, socialpresence, self-acceptance, Inwald PersonalityInventory(IPI)was developed ofdirectly withtheexpress questioning purpose California Psychological Inventory (CPI), Psychological California one of the oldest and most respected- of the personal Psychopathic Deviate andDepression). Answers tothe434itemsyieldscores on The California Psychological Inventory Psychological California The The Inwald Personality Inventory InwaldThe Personality Jack Kitaeff 12 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 Chaplin, 1995). tive (Inwald, behavior officers inpoliceandcorrections 1992; Scogin, Schumacher, Gardner, that acombinationoftheIPIandMMPIismostsuccessfulapproach forpredicting maladap- totheMMPIinpredicting policeacademyIPI tobesuperior success. Several studieshave found Shusman & Inwald, 1991). Inacross-validation study, Shusman, Inwald, andKnatz(1987)foundthe absences, lateness, measures more anddisciplinary oftenthantheMMPI(Inwald & Shusman, 1984; • • • • turance, Change, Endurance, Heterosexuality, andAggression. Law enforcement research usingthe Order, Exhibition, Autonomy, Affiliation, Intraception, Succorance, Dominance, Abasement, Nur- sistency score andscores on15 dimensions ofmanifestneeds. These are Achievement, Deference, andtobe influence others regarded asaleader), introuble). andNurturance(tohelpothers center ofattention), Intraception (toanalyzethemotives andfeelingsofoneself others), Dominance (to and accomplish something difficult), appeared tofiteachneed(Murray, 1938). (todoone’s Examplesincludedthe NeedforAchievement best with 15needsdrawn from Murray’s list ofmanifestneeds, Edwards prepared setsofitemswhosecontent ofH.theory A. andhisassociatesattheHarvard Murray Clinic(Anastasi, Psychological 1976). Beginning The and conscientiousresponsible, dependingonthescalesexamined. alternatively asassertive scalesare described highoncertain andcompetitive,and individuals scoring earlier, thetestisusedfrequently inpre-employment assessmentinlaw psychological enforcement, ­Conscientiousness—were (Aamodt, significantly related to police performance 2004). As indicated (Tension). Resultsofonemeta-analysissuggestthatthe16scales, onlytwo—Dominance and “O” (Apprehensiveness), “Q1” (Openness), “Q2” (Self-reliance), “Q3” (Perfectionism),“H” and (Social boldness),“Q4” “I” (Sensitivity), “L” (Vigilance), “M” (Imagination), soning),“N” (Forthrightness), “C” (Emotionalstability), “E” (Dominance), “F” (Enthusiasm), “G” (Conscientiousness), the mostrecent revisions (1993, 1998)usedby many law enforcement agenciestoday. vs. suspicious (Cattell, Eber, 16 scores insuchtraitsasreserved vs. outgoing, humble vs. assertive, shy vs. venturesome, andtrusting requires about1 hourtocomplete. test—published in1949by R.B. Theoriginal Cattell—yielded The Some studies have measures suchasretention ortermination, found the IPI predicting criterion In itspresent form, needs andyieldsatestcon- ofpsychological theEPPSconsistsof225 pairs ofthe16PFconsist factors “A”The 16primary warmth), (Interpersonal “B” (Abstractrea- Edwards(EPPS) was Preference Schedule Personal developed manifest needsystem on the 1959 based in ciousness (US), Familyconflicts(FC), (SC), Sexualconcerns andSpouse/mateconflicts(SP). Conflict:Lackofassertiveness (LA),Interpersonal difficulties(ID), Interpersonal Unduesuspi- andthoughts(EU). experiences (PH),personality Obsessive (OB), personality Depression (DE), Lonertype(LO), and Unusual (IC), Conflict:Illnessconcerns Internalized Treatment programs (TP), Anxiety(AN), Phobic style(RT),Rigid andTypeA (TA). Acting OutAttitudes:Substanceabuse (SA), Antisocialattitudes(AS), Hyperactivity (HP), ( Acting OutBehavior: Alcoholuse(AL), use(DG), Drug violation(DV), Driving Jobdifficulties (16PF) is a 187-item personality inventorySixteen PersonalityFactorQuestionnaire(16PF)isa187-itempersonality thatusually JD), Trouble withsocietyandthelaw (TL0), andAbsenceAbuse (AA). The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire Factor Personality Sixteen The The EdwardsThe Preference Schedule Personal & Tatsuoka, 1970). Since 1949, the 16PF has been revised six times, with (to conform to what is expected),Deference (to conform Introduction andHistory Introduction 13 (to be the Exhibition (to be the & Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 requires about1 hourtocomplete(Weiss, Rostow, Davis, syndromes. psychopathological assess various Thistest, introduced in2004, consistsof344itemsand The completing apoliceacademy. for Achievement (r =.37)andconsistencyincompletingthetest.22)were associatedwith EPPS hasbeenratherlimited(Aamodt, 2004). ButBalch(1977)foundthathigherscores onNeed could include law enforcement selection (Meyer, 2004; Meyer, Mihura, and assessment devise in other areas, it could be employed effectively unused areas in hitherto that in hiscomprehensive system (Exner, 1978). ing, responses. of Rorschach and interpretation He usedratios, indices, and combinations of variables taken by Exner(1974, 1978, 1993), whopresented astandardized systemfortheadministration, scor- the years. atdeveloping soundsystemwas Butthemostambitiouseffort under- apsychometrically andelaboratetheir earlier responses. toclarify opportunity of eachblot towhichtheassociationswere given. thisinquiry, During therespondents alsohave the of all10cards, theexaminerquestionsindividual systematicallyregarding andaspects theparts the test session.and other incidental behavior of the examinee during Following the presentation responses, positionorpositionsinwhichcards are held, spontaneousremarks, emotionalexpressions, be. Besideskeeping averbatim record oftheresponses toeachcard, theexaminernotestimesof the examineeisshown eachinkblot, heorsheisasked totelltheexaminerwhatblot could red,contain additionaltouchesofbright andtheremaining three combineseveral pastelshades. As nique utilizes10stimulus cards. Five ofthestimulus cards are inshadesofgrayandblack only, two for thelast90 years. Rorschach, Developed Hermann tech - by the Rorschach theSwisspsychiatrist The tive impression ofneglectduty. (NIM)aspredictors plaints. Significantcoefficients were alsoobtainedforantisocial- seeking(ANTS)andnega- (ANTE)asapredictor ofinsubordination andexcessivefor antisocial-egocentricity citizencom- excessive citizencomplaints, andneglectofduty. The results indicatedhighlysignificantcoefficients insubordination,officer candidates variables were examined as possible predictors ofthe criterion In astudyby Weiss, Zehner, Davis, andRostow (2005), PAIresults of800maleandfemalepolice • • • • Some researchers and clinicians believe that, the Rorschach’s considering utility as a diagnostic testhasbeensubjectedtoseveral andinterpretiveThe Rorschach systemsthrough majorscoring The PAIcontainsthefollowing scales: Interpersonal scales: dominance (DOM) and warmth (WRM)(Aamodt, scales:dominance(DOM)andwarmth Interpersonal 2004) (NON),port andtreatment rejection (RXR). Treatment (AGG), considerationscales:aggression suicidalideation(SUI), stress (STR), nonsup- (ANTE),egocentricity (AGG), aggression andsubstanceabuse (DRG). ality (BOR), (ANTA), antisocialpersonality antisocial-stimulus seeking(ANTS), antisocial- depression (DEP), mania(MAN), paranoia (PAR), schizophrenia (SCZ), borderline- person Clinical scales: somaticcomplaints(SOM), anxiety(ANX), anxiety related disorders (ARD), Validity scales:inconsistency, infrequency, negative impression (NIM), andpositive impression. Personality AssessmentInventory(PAI) isanobjective inventory designedto ofadultpersonality Rorschach Inkblotassessment Testhasbeenoneofthemostpopulartechniquesforpersonality Rorschach Personality Assessment Inventory Personality Assessment Rorschach Inkblot Test Jack Kitaeff 14 & DeCoster-Martin, 2004).

& Smith, 2005). Indeed, the Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 research andeffectiveness. itsappropriateness must beundertaken todetermine be considered acceptable asanassessmenttoolforthescreening ofpoliceapplicants, considerable ations foremployees, includingairlinepilots(Ganellen, 1996). Butinorderto fortheRorschach other fields(Exner &Weiner, 1994). hasalsobeenusedforfitness-for-duty TheRorschach evalu- the testhasbeenused successfully inother settings, includingemployment-related screenings in is appropriate andjustified”is appropriate (2005, p. and psychopathologyassessment ofpersonality andthatitsresponsible assessment useinpersonality documented reliability andvalidity usedinthe similartoother generallyacceptedtestinstruments Assessmentconcludedthat oftheSocietyforPersonality Board ofTrustees possesses “the Rorschach ous). Then the applicant is required to make a decision as to how forcefully he or she would respond dangerous theperson’s behavior is(e.g., interaction withsomeone. Theapplicantmust quickly make an appraisal( related events. Forexample, canpresent apsychologist toanapplicantavideothatshows apotential applicants mightsay orwhatthey mightdoinresponse tointeractive videosthatdepictpolicework- pencil tests, situationaltestsdesignedtomeasure may what psychologists administercomputerized depthlaterinthisvolume,As will be discussedingreater besidestheadministrationofpaper-and- ismeager. police suitabilityorperformance pational Scales, andmore than120specificjobs. The theStrongresearch supporting asapredictor of (organization, data, finance). The most recent producesversion 30 Basic Interest Scales, 244 Occu- fare, community (business, services), Enterprising politics, leadership, influence), andConventional ries, ideas, data), (self-expression, Artistic appreciation), art Social (people, team work, human wel- well asindividuals (Anastasi, 1976):Realistic(machines, tools, outdoors), Investigative (science, theo- occupationsas six basicoccupationalthemes(calledHollandcodes)thatcanbeusedtocategorize revised many timessincethen. Theinventory was basedonthework ofJohnHolland, whodefined The that theKuderMechanicScalewas alsoapredictor ofsuccessinpolicework. usedtheKudertoselectpoliceofficercandidatesincityofLosAngelesandfound same authors of.24betweencorrelation ratingsofperformance. theMechanicalInterest scaleandsupervisor The toassesspoliceapplicants(Spielberger,battery 1979). Azen, Snibbe, (1973)founda andMontgomery sive, artistic, literary, musical, clerical, andsocialservice). (including police)and10occupationalareas (outdoor, mechanical, computational, scientific,- persua The inventory takes about45minutes tocomplete andyieldsscores on119occupationalgroups keying vocational procedures throughinterests of measuring (Kuder, criterion for the purpose 1985). pational InterestInventory(Aamodt, 2004). TheKuderisa100-iteminterest inventory developed The While no data for the successful use of the Rorschach in selecting police officers currently exist, currently inselectingpoliceofficers While nodataforthesuccessfuluseofRorschach There have beenrecommendations that an interest inventory ofany testing be included aspart (SII) was originally formulated in1920by E. formulated Strong InterestInventory(SII)was originally K. Strong Jr. andhasbeen Kuder PreferenceRecord was developed in1948andthenreplaced in1971by theKuderOccu- Kuder Interest Inventory Occupational Vocational Interest Inventories Strong Interest Inventory 221). Introduction andHistory Introduction using a scale ranging from using ascaleranging notatalldangerous tovery danger- Situational Tests 15 judgment) astohow Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 (e.g., variations intheirbloodvariations pressure and pulserate. ofdetecting deception, Althoughnotforthepurpose that a person’s stimuli, changed under certain breathing pattern and that thischange, in turn, caused stimuli (Kitaeff, 2010). in which he observed Mosso was on experiments to the first report waves in asubject’s blood pressure causedby cycleinresponse changesintherespiratory tocertain how thesechangedunderspecified conditions. Theuseoftheplethysmograph revealed periodic cardiovascular activity. andrespiratory Healsostudiedblood and circulation andbreathing patterns undergoing questioning. Hestudied, inparticular, theeffectsofemotions suchasfearonsubjects’ tuations intheamountofblood orairitcontains)inhisresearch onemotionandfear in subjects changes in volume within an organ or ment whole for measuring body, usually resulting from fluc- thecaseasawhole. inbetterunderstanding such evidence willassistthejury standard,ated usingtheDaubert whichallows suchevidence intotestimony ifthejudgeassessesthat ously, times, inmodern theadmissibilityofvoice isusually identification evaluevidence intocourt - burned, rice, spit dry orhave difficulty swallowing apieceofbread (Smith, 1997). Asindicatedprevi- one whoislying)haslesssaliva mouthandtongue)thusismore likely (dry to have theirtongue a slice”“trial ofbread, agoinEngland)isthatthetense, aspracticedcenturies (the nervous person (e.g.,ers wasburned considered truthful. underlyingthisprimitive testaswell Thecommonprinciple asoth- required ofconflictingstatementstolickahotiron. theauthors Theonewhosetongue was not backas300B.C.E.versions ofitscomponentsexistedasfar TheBedouinsofArabia, forexample, oranotherfornearlyacentury, hasbeenusedinoneform polygraph The modern andmuch cruder comeback asanadjuncttopre-employment screening psychological forpoliceapplicants. andpre-employment security screening. forpersonnel graph Butitseemstoslowly bemakinga AgencyandtheCentralIntelligencemake significant useofthepoly- National Security the time, few studiesof these testshadbeenpublished inpeer-reviewed journals. Today, mostlythe studied much. Inhis1994book, testsavailable Theodore Blauindicatedthatofthe40integrity at ing theuseofpaper-and-pencilhonestytestsand tests.”“integrity testshave notbeen Butintegrity nonfederal policeagencies, newly unemployed becameinterested examiners in promot polygraph - augment ortoreplace theMMPI-2. inorder innature)additional tests(sometimesnonpsychological toeither totheirstandard batteries safety officer candidates. Thisled many involved psychologists in pre-employment assessment toadd showedupdated norms fewer far elevations forthemore “normal” anddefensive police/public clinicalnorms, thatthenew MMPIprofiles expressedto interpreting usingtheoriginal concern new test. Whilewelcoming obsoleteitemrevisions, policepsychologists, whowere accustomed MMPI-2, validation toattemptfurther studieswiththe causedpolicepsychologists whichinturn literature,chological whichwould beneededtovalidate them. that situationaltestsusingthecomputerare very expensive andare notbacked psy- upby empirical tothejobassessmentanditself.ment inclinationsapplicantsbring Butitshouldbenoted appreciable amountoftime. andjudg- experiences shouldassessisthepersonal Whatpsychologists applicants to have the same fund of knowledge as someone who has been a police officer foran evaluation. However, suchevaluations, whenperforming shouldnotexpectpolice psychologists applicant’s judgmentsanddecisions, whichmay reveal aggressive inclinations. In 1878, calledaplethysmograph Italianphysiologist- AngeloMossousedaninstrument (aninstru Also, Actof1988bannedtheusepre-employment whenthePolygraph for polygraph In 1989, a major revision of the MMPI was published (Butcher et Results from addtotheapplicant’s situationaltestscangreatly pre-employment screening and

using a scale ranging fromusing a scale ranging an spitting drier rice powder thathadbeenplacedinone’s rice spitting drier mouth, orbeinglessable toswallow The Polygraph Machine Context: Pioneers inHistorical Early The Polygraph escapable action to a Jack Kitaeff 16 lethal action). can evaluate The psychologist the al., 2001), resulting in the Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 baseline for truthfulness are usuallytakenbaseline fortruthfulness assignsoflying(Kitaeff, 2010). lished by askingthesubject questionswhoseanswers theinvestigator knows. Deviations from the change, increases, perspiration andsoon.- isestab A baselineforthesephysiological characteristics measurably nervous aboutlying. increases, Theheartbeat blood pressure goesup, breathing rhythms response orGSR). isthatwhenpeoplelie, ofthepolygraph Theunderlyingtheory they alsoget processesological suchasheartbeat, blood pressure, respiration, resistance (galvanic andelectrical skin (Barland & Raskin, 1976; Lykken, 1988). schoolsopeningacross resulted examiners inatleast30polygraph theUnitedStates for polygraph & Bartol, (Bartol usedforliedetectionpurposes 2004).graph Inthe1930s, theincreasing demand solve acaseunderinvestigation (Larson, 1969). Thisinstrument, tomany, poly- true becamethefirst wasafter John Larson asked by the chief of police in Berkeley, California, to develop a lie detector to ofdetectingdeception(Lykken, questioningforthepurpose during 1988). blood pressure systolic blood cuff and a stethoscope to take pressure intermittent readings of a suspect would polygraph. laterbecomeonecomponentofthemodern Marston’s techniqueusedastandard oftheliedetectorwhen,form in1915, hedeveloped thediscontinuous systolicblood pressure testthat deception. tional changewithinasubjectthatresulted indetectible changesthatwere respiratory indicative of regarding symptomsoflying. therespiratory experiments Heconcludedthatlyingcausedanemo- Using apneumograph—a device thatrecorded asubject’s conducted breathing patterns—Benussi and detecting deception in a subject. the truth inhalation to exhalation time as a meansof verifying apoliceinterrogation.pressure andpulserateduring suspect’s to measure the physiological in a crime changes that occurred in his experiments blood Lombroso calledahydrosphygmograph modifiedanexistinginstrument andusedthismodifieddevice camein1895whenItalianphysician,for thispurpose psychiatrist,Cesare andpioneercriminologist ever beenused. designedtomeasure useofascientificinstrument Thefirst physiological responses paper. Untiltheendof19thcentury, device forthedetectionofdeceptionhad nomeasuring vascular pulses(radial, venous, by way andarterial) ofastylusontorevolving ofsmoked drum medical examinations with the capability to simultaneously record undulated line tracings of the polygraph clinical Sir JamesMackenzie thefirst in1892, constructed tobeusedfor aninstrument actual chart responses.actual chart would examiners even Mostexperienced concur thatthekey fora ingredient suchasthesubject’sindividual ofsuchfactors examiners generaldemeanorratherthanhisorher examinationdoesprovideaccuracy thepolygraph seemstocomefrom theconclusionsmadeby systems.by usingcomputerized ofthescientific evidence indicatesthatwhatever Butthemajority caneventhe accuracyofpolygraphs beincreased through intensive trainingoftheexaminerand rate,measures suchasheart perspiration, andrespiration. Inaddition, someevidence suggeststhat responseswhereas are untruthful hypothesized tocausesignificantfluctuationsin physiological (Allen,telling thetruth 2002; Allen & Iacono, 2001; Kitaeff, 2010). suffice ittosay, they ifanindividual are is ofsuccesstohelpascertain all usedwith degrees varying Knowledge Test(GKT). Thedetailsofeachthesetestsare beyond thescopeofthischapter, but referred toastherelevant–irrelevant technique), (2)theDirected LieTest(DLT), and(3)theGuilty There are three basicapproaches test:(1)theControl tothepolygraph QuestionTest(CQT)(also A modern polygraph machine is an instrument thatsimultaneously records machineisaninstrument polygraph changesinphysi- A modern The ideaof “lie detection” the1920sand1930s caughtonrapidlyintheUnitedStatesduring William MoultonMarston, aU.S. andpsychologist, attorney iscredited withinventing anearly In 1914, Benussi invented Vittorio Italianpsychologist amethodtocalculatethequotientof From atheoretical standpoint, responses are truthful accompaniedby relatively flat reaction lines, Approaches Test to thePolygraph Introduction andHistory Introduction 17 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 ing place. leave Onlyafew courts theiradmissibility uptothejudge(Kitaeff, 2010). examination tak- tothepolygraph allow themiftheiradmissibility is stipulatedbyprior bothparties (U.S.and truthfulness v. at313). Scheffer Since1998, results reject oronly polygraph almostallcourts justicesystemisthatjurors are theultimateandmostreliablethe criminal evaluators ofcredibility evidence asawhole. JusticeThomas, forthemajority, writing stressed thatafundamentalpremise of U.S. v., Scheffer emphasizedthe poor reliability where of polygraph in an8-to-1decisiontheCourt law (Lacono &Lykken, 1997). Theissuewas settled in 1998 with theU.S. caseof Supreme Court countermeasures,beaten by easilylearned of andthattestresults shouldnotbeadmittedincourts respondents answered liedetectionisnottheoretically sound, thatpolygraphic thatthetestcanbe and (Ben-Shakhar, 2008; Iacono &Patrick, 1999; Oksol &O’Donohue, 2003). Cross, 1985)aswell asinmore recent outfortextsinpolygraphy evaluations oftheliterature carried These opinionsare reflected in reviews spanningseveral decades(Lykken, 1988; Saxe, Dougherty, positives totheprocessrate offalse ofcontribution establishing innocence” andadearth (p. (where hadnoknowledge examiners ofguiltorinnocence). Theresults suggesteda high “staggering andblind scoring usingmockcrimes onthepolygraph experiments oflaboratory results ofaseries professionclaims ofthepolygraph are exaggeratedandindefensible. the (1988)summarized Carroll professiongraph have repeatedly reviewed thescientificliterature andconcludedthattheaccuracy from eachother.stances cannotbediscriminated Scientistswithnodirect involvement inthepoly- detection,false andthephysiological reactions recorded underthesetwo by thepolygraph circum- chargesare leveledwhen false againsthim. Thefearofdetectionisindistinguishable from thefearof response to lying are likely similar in nature to those resulting from the passionate denial that occurs from tellers.techniques thatcandistinguishliars truth Indeed, aperson’s physiological reactions in Moreover, the brainmechanismsinvolved inlyingare unknown, itdifficulttodevelop rendering Shakhar & Dolev, 1996). polygraphers, moredetected by are difficulttodetect(Ben- far experienced mentalcountermeasures or maximizetheemotionalimpactofquestions. Althoughphysical canoftenbe countermeasures 100 orthinkingofapeacefularousing scene. Inthisway, toeitherminimize theexamineetries usingtechniquessuchascountingbackwardures includedeliberateattemptsatdistortion from response toquestionsfrom thepolygrapher” & Bartol, (Bartol 2004, p. with apinmay induceenoughpaintopromote aphysiological response thatmasksthesubject’s example, to deceive in an effort the polygrapher, “biting one’s lip or tongue or subtly jabbing oneself or psychological. usedare eitherpainormuscle Themostcommoncountermeasures tension. For & Bartol,to foolthemachineandexaminer(Bartol 2004). canbephysical Countermeasures usedbyOne oftheproblems isitssusceptibilitytocountermeasures examinees withthepolygraph (Kitaeff, 2010). anddeceptive classificationoftruthful correct examineesrangesbetween 70%and80%atbest procedure isused(Iacono, 2008). scoring is the examiner—regardlesscompetently administered polygraph of whether a computerized attempting to “screen out” forpolice inappropriate thoseapplicants foundtobepsychologically In general, have psychologists designed pre-employment psychological-screening programs by In a1997survey from of195psychologists theSocietyforPsychophysiological Research, most Overall, itisgenerallyrecognized thatnophysiological response isuniquelyassociatedwithlying. Currently, theresearch orcontrolled conductedunderlaboratory conditionsindicatesthatthe Pre-employment, Psychological Screening, andtheLaw Criticisms of the Polygraph Test thePolygraph of Criticisms Jack Kitaeff 18 86).- Mentalcountermeas 27). & Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 didates includedtheMMPI, theCPI, the 16PF, theEPPS, projective andvarious tests. Because the retention, orpromotions. Commissions (EEOC). Suchcomplaintscouldbebasedonrace, age, inhiring, orsexdiscrimination stemmingfromin federalcourt acomplaintfiledwiththeU.S. EqualEmployment Opportunity force tochangeitsprocedures themunicipality ordepartment orbehaviors). suitsfiledunder42U.S.C. ofcivil rights because thepurpose 1983isessentiallyinjunctive (i.e., to the circumstances. awards, Althoughsuchsuitscanresult inmonetary theamountsare usuallynot great or policy and deliberate indifference, both of which are loosely defined concepts but similar to specific amendmentoftheConstitution. inthis Thestandardsregard usedinfederalcourts are custom their employees) can be sued if it is shown that they were acting “under color of law,” and violated a ties (andtheiremployees), (andtheiremployees), policedepartments (and departments andsheriff’s that there hasbeenaviolationof someone’s undertheU.S. civil rights Constitution. asaviolation ofTitle42theU.S.be filedinfederalcourt Code. Thisisalegalclaimthatalleges reason didnottake possible stepstominimizethatdanger. Ininstancessuchasthese, alawsuit may shouldhaveapply whenapolicedepartment tothepublic, hadtheabilitytoforesee arisk but forany canmake solegallyliable.destructive adepartment characteristics Deliberate indifferencemay besaidto lawful, sometimesdeadlyforce andrestraint ofpoliceapplicantsknown iswhy topossess thehiring totakeofficers “lifeandliberty” underspecialcircumstances. InU.S. society, toexert thisprivilege is apoliceofficer.granted tocommissionedpolice risk stemsfrom Thisincreased theprivileges themwithpolice responsibilities). toentrusting prior officers have beendisciplined, demoted, (inadequatelypreparing ordismissed)andnegligententrustment also bechargedwithnegligentretention (keeping employees onthejobwhenthey clearlyshould department’s toconductfullbackgroundinvestigations failure ofapplicants. can Policedepartments assault andbattery, arrest, false imprisonment. andfalse Gross negligencemay beassumedby a “beyond areasonable doubt.” is “by apreponderance oftheevidence,” standard of whichismuch easiertomeetthanthecriminal out his or her official responsibilities.carrying Furthermore, the standard of proof in these civil cases in others conductthatwould ofharming create orprior anunduerisk attributes sesses personality neglect. A toproperly caneasilybeconsideredof apolicedepartment selectpoliceofficers asevere of form wrong donetotheplaintiffwas severe particularly intheeyes ofthecourt. Underthelaw, thefailure In addition, may courts imposepunitive aspunishment ifthe damagesagainstthepolicedepartment awardsin thelegalsense)canusuallyonlybesettledby monetary fordamagesdonetotheplaintiff. lawmay asatort claim. befiledinstatecourt (a Thisisthepreferredmethodbecauseatort “wrong” likelysettled out ofcourt amounting tohundreds of millionsdollars. Lawsuits againstthepolice as theaverage award jury isover $2 million. Thisdoesnottake intoaccountthehundreds ofcases cants isnecessary. Suingthepoliceisvery popularintheUnitedStates. Itcanalsobevery profitable, or more tests. personality enforcement agenciesemploy composedofaninterview, ascreening battery acognitive test, andtwo tocommunity unrestcontribute thana “stable” officer. who Mostpsychologists work withlaw an officerwhois unstable” “psychologically ismore likelyrights ofcitizensand toviolatethecivil ated with highly functioning officers. The screening-out method is based on the hypothesis that work andto “screen in” thosewithpositive characteristics, attitudes, andtraitsknown tobeassoci- During thelate1970s,During tests mostcommonlyusedwithpublic safety officecan- thepersonality A lawsuit by againstapolicedepartment present employee orpoliceapplicantmay alsobefiled claim, underacivilAlthough individual rights statescannotbesuedinfederalcourt municipali- tomunicipal governmentThe risk (andtothepublic) isconsiderable whenapotentialemployee Tort liabilityassociatedwithlawsuits may againstpolicedepartments alsoincludewrongful death, There are legalandliability-related reasons why thepre-employment screening ofpoliceappli- department maydepartment be liable for a charge of negligence by employing an individual who pos- Introduction andHistory Introduction 19 totality of Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 began to appear inthe 1970s (Azen, 1974; Azenet suggesting theusefulnessofMMPIinpolicesettings, forpre-employment particularly screening, research inanattempttopredict policeacademy(King, grades Norrell, ing inthepoliceandpublic safetyofficerselectionfield(Murphy, 1972). Itfirst usedinpolice was atthetime,cal psychologists itwas anaturalchoicetobeusedby whobeganwork psychologists - MMPI was themostwidelyusednonprojective available assessmentinstrument personality toclini- Success Quotient(HPP/SQ), comprehensive thefirst inventory personality measuring “emotional Index(HCSI),Satisfaction was developed andvalidated by RobinInwald (Inwald & Kaufman, 1989). ality inventory developed for “fitness-for-duty” evaluations ofpublic safetyofficers, the HilsonCareer there was aneedfor more specializedassessmentinstruments. In 1986, comprehensive thefirst - person fitnessfordutyofalready (Rice, hired officers ter thistestasanaidfordetermining 1985), it wasclear whowereWhen somepsychologists usingtheIPIforpre-employment screening begantoreadminis- no cutoffscores were suggestedforlaw enforcement officercandidatesorforotherjobapplicants. System,” stillwere in1984. MMPIclinicalnorms usedintheMMPIprofilegraphs, Theoriginal and duced anMMPIcomputer-generatednarrative report, the Selection Personnel “Minnesota Report: usingpublic safetyofficerapplicantnorms,interpreted NationalComputerSystems(NCS)intro - new area.” inanimportant totestconstruction “contribution Association’sYork StatePsychological Research Award”“Meritorious was presented toInwald for public safety assessment by professional psychology organizations. For example, in 1982, the New Beutler, 1986). Alsoatthistime, there was someearlyrecognition area ofpolice– oftheemerging candidate testresults by genderandethnicity(Inwald, 1988; Inwald & Shusman, 1984; & Scogin cross-validationgitudinal publications thatdirectly studiesandthefirst compared law enforcement Several IPIresearch publications andindependentstudieswere completed, lon- includingthefirst gists, especially as its validity for pre-employment the 1980s. screening became established during screeningchological attheoutset. failed toprovidethey decisionsif couldhave difficultiesdefendinghiring adequatepsy- serious police psychological-screening programs many in that its outcome persuaded reluctant chiefs that claim (Bonsignorev. theCityofN.Y., 1982). Thiswas case inthedevelopment avery important of result. In the lawsuit that followed, awarded the jury his wife $425,000 in damages on her negligence wife andthentocommitsuicide. motordysfunctionasa Hiswifesuffered braindamageandserious December 20, 1976, NYCpoliceofficerBlaseA. Bonsignore usedhisoff-duty revolver toshoothis usedforthisapplicationwasof theinstruments recognized. ing pre-employment establish the evaluations andtheneedtofirmly validity forpolicedepartments publications begantoappearasmorecles andinstrument becameinvolved psychologists inconduct- interest anddevelopment testing, inpolice/public safety personality alargernumber ofresearch- arti (Mills & Stratton,MMPI asapredictor ofpoliceperformance 1982). was growingabouttheinadequacyofavailable concern instruments, the orofevidence tosupport positions(Inwald,these sameindividuals suggestedpotentialdifficultiesforhigh-risk 1982). There discoveredantisocial behavior patterns inbackgroundinvestigations for interviews andpsychological for theMMPIoftenshowed “normal” rangesforindividual candidates, and whereas thejobhistories job applicantsforlaw enforcement officerpositions. It was noticed thatthenorms by practitioners hospitalsandnotwithmore highlyfunctioningandsymptom-denying with inpatientsinpsychiatric 1974; Saxe & Reiser, 1976). However, hadbeendeveloped foruse andnormed theMMPIoriginally In 1988, attheIACP annual convention, Inwald introduced Profile/ theHilsonPersonnel In 1985, began to expand their practices to include police psychologists “fitness-for-duty” testing. was report published in 1982,After the IPI computerized specifying how test results could be Meanwhile, theshorter, withpolicepsycholo- 310-itemIPIsoongainedconsiderable popularity In 1981, became aware police psychologists lawsuit of an important in New York City. On The 1980srepresented another decade of change forpolicepsychology. With much growing Jack Kitaeff 20 al., 1973; Saccuzzo, Higgins, & Erlandson, 1959). Articles & Lewandowski, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 intelligence” (Inwald, 2004; Inwald opined that a “policeman frequently works alone, authority, wields great lethal weapons” carries and, pre-employment screening. psychological saiditbestwhen PerhapsanIndianaappellatecourt of points why andotherlaw someform policedepartments enforcement agenciesshould perform state, orlocalgovernments. acted withmaliceorreckless indifference; however, suchdamagesare not available againstthefederal, Punitive damages(usedtopunishanagencyforwrongdoings) alsomay beavailable ifanemployer losses,pensate foractualmonetary losses, future monetary andmentalanguishinconvenience. also may beavailable isfound. where intentionaldiscrimination Damagesmay beavailable tocom- a remedy undertheADA. UndermostEEOC-enforced laws, andpunitive compensatory damages Reasonable accommodation (makingchangesinthenature oftheemployee’s job)isalsoavailable as back pay, andattorney’s fees. remedies containedinTitleVII. Theseremedies canincluderehiring, promotion, reinstatement, 90 days afterreceiving anoticeof tosue”“right from theEEOC. TheADA the alsoincorporates filed underTitleVIIoftheCivil RightsActof1964. may party filealawsuit A charging within charge through conciliationfollowing thesameprocedures usedtohandlechargesofdiscrimination throughout theUnitedStates. TheCommissionwill investigate andinitiallyattempttoresolve the on thebasisoftheirdisabilitycanfileachargewithCommissionatany ofitsoffices located The provisions oftheADA statethatindividuals whobelieve they have against beendiscriminated assessment. encouragedincreased andvalidation scholarship certainly research inthearea ofpublic safety/police workplace.” Inany case, Actandsubsequent thePolygraph “honesty testdebate” ofthelate1980s that(honestytests)canreliably theassertion predictbasis forsupporting dishonestbehavior inthe showed conflicting results. TheOTA concludedthat report “existing research isinsufficientas a Callahan, 1989). from Whenthefinal reports OTA (1990)andAPA (1991) were published, they published onthesubject(Inwald, 1984b, 1988, 1992; Sackett & Harris, 1984b; Sackett, Burris, forusewithouttheinputofapsychologist,and others several andresearch articles reviews were no published research connectedwithpoliceperformance, were marketed directly topolicechiefs tests not previously used to screen law enforcement applicants. Because these tests, with little or this time, expressed practicingpolicepsychologists growingaboutclaimsof validity for concerns Association (APA)Psychological alsoorganizedaspecialtaskforce toreview available research. At now floodingthemarket (thoughmostlyinthe retail area). Withsimilarconcerns, theAmerican Office ofTechnology Assessment(OTA) launched aninvestigation intothe validity ofthesetests officers. The results were ofAppliedPsychology (Inwald, published intheJournal 1988). five-yearbased onthefirst prediction study, longitudinal including cross-validation, forpublic safety absence, lateness, actionstotheIPI’s anddisciplinary report. computerized Theseequationswere employment andpromotional testbatteries. out theUnitedStates, theHPP/SQbecameastandard additionto many policepsychologists’ pre-­ convention and, after validation data were analyzedforlaw enforcement officer applicantsthrough- ­popularity/charisma, andsocialsensitivity. were Norms collectedforpolicechiefsatthe1988IACP suchasinitiative,ure focusedonacombinationofcharacteristics “winner’s image,” work ethic, andpromotion, hiring personnel andbasedonInwald’s “Success QuotientTheory,” thismeas- Certainly there areCertainly numerous reasons from legal, psychological, safety, andcommonsensestand- A complaint may also be based on alleged violation of the Americans withDisabilities Act(ADA).A complaintmay alsobebasedonallegedviolationoftheAmericans Because ofcomplaints about “honesty/integrity” tests received by of Congress, members its In 1988, Inwald prediction equationsfortermination, alsoaddeddiscriminant-function-derived Reasonable Accommodations & Brobst, 1988; Inwald Introduction andHistory Introduction 21 & Brockwell, 1988). Validated for police & Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 officers areofficers public employees. organizations, ofquasi-military Policeofficers aremembers derives from two specialfeatures ofpolicework: thepower thatpolice ofthepositionandfact tress, and4.7%were beingconsidered forofficers rehire following anemployment separation. involving domesticviolence. They behavioral reported concerns, psychopathology oremotionaldis- of themore they than200referrals analyzedinvolved alcoholuse, but they more reported referrals intheirownsis oftheFFDreferrals Midwesternpractice. SimilartoStone, they foundthat16.5% from behavior implicatingpoorjudgment, and9%from domesticviolence. (i.e., diagnosable mental condition), 19%from excessive force issues, 15%from substanceabuse, 13% oftheUnitedStatesresultedown region from practiceinthesouthern suspectedpsychopathology hospitalization,psychiatric or a disability claim. that 26% of the cases from Stone (2000) reported his judgment), off-dutyconduct(e.g., (e.g.,psychopathology associated withon-dutyperformance for-duty evaluations (FFDEs)are many andvaried. They may involve suspicionofjob-relevant Monroe Co. Sheriff’s Dept., 2002; Tingler v. CityofTampa, 1981; Watsonv., CityofMiamiBeach 1999). Conte v., Horcher 1977; Deenv. Darosa, 2005; Kraft v. PoliceCommissionerofBoston, 1994;functions becauseofaknown condition(Colonv. orsuspectedpsychological McKnightv. CityofNewark, 2006; evaluations ofpoliceofficers reasonably believed theirjob tobeimpaired intheirabilitytoperform fitness-for-duty(FFD) have tomandatepsychological thisdutytoincludetheauthority interpreted other officers, an employing agency’s reputation, of the community. and the trust courts Various liability (Bonsignorev. CityofNewYork, consequencestocitizens, 1982)andserious theexaminee, theirduties,tally andemotionallyfittoperform failure todosocan and result insignificant civil Police employers have alegaldutytoensureundertheircommandare thatpoliceofficers men- Dowler, 1986at1081). “It isnotanoccupationfor . 2004). Instead, theemployer’s dutyisbalancedby public interests andtheemployee’s constitutional, Grand Rapids, 2005; Holstv. Veterans Affairs, 2008; v.Jackson LakeCounty , 2003; McGrealv. torequireunfettered suchevaluations right ofany policeofficerinany Ostrov, instance(Denhofv. Cityof 1989, at 671). tions where they may needtoemploy deadlyforce” Employees (NationalTreasury Unionv. VonRaab, thatemployeesthe risk whomay sufferfrom impaired andjudgmentwillbe[in]posi- 1973/1974, atheadnote1). Inthewords ofthe U.S. Supreme Court, “The public shouldnotbear of thepublic tohave anefficientandcredible policedepartment” (Richardson v. CityofPasadena, public employees, they right to privacy as a private citizen to the superior “subordinate their right As citizens,rights (e.g., policeofficers retain theirconstitutional The right ofapoliceemployer privacy ofitsofficers The right onthemedicalandpersonal tointrude Dawkins, Griffin, andDawkins (2006)utilizedanalternative classificationschemefortheiranaly- In Chapter 13ofthisvolume, Corey tofitness- expresses thatthecircumstances rise giving The employer’s dutytoensure fit apsychologically workforce doesnot, however, extend an power touselawful force anddetainthem. toarrest and dangerous power thatademocraticstatepossesseswithrespect toitsresidents—the called uponfordutyatalltimes, atalmostalltimes, armed andexercising themostawesome . . withquestionable emotionalstability” aperson (CityofGreenwoodv. (Policemen’s Benevolent AssociationofNew Jerseyv. Township Fitness-for-Duty Evaluations domestic violence, whileintoxicated), driving asuicideattempt, Jack Kitaeff 22 excessive force, repeated problems of Garrity v. Garrity NewJersey, 1967), but as of Washington, 1988, at141) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 less probative obtainedfrom othersources thaninformation withhigherreliability. testing,and psychological suggeststhathisorherresponses are unreliable, they shouldberegarded as general, however, whentheexaminee’s response style, basedonevidence from sources third-party limitations inthereliability oftheexaminer’s opinionsasaresult oftheemployee’s response style. In overt alongwithany concealmentshouldalways reservations party or tothe referring bereported in an FFD examination)(Heilbrun, 2001). Evidenceof frank lying, dissimulation, falsification, or a pre-employment evaluation may notbecomparable onvalidity scalestoincumbentemployees werenorms derived from respondents from adecidedlydifferent context(i.e., policeapplicantsin are notjudgedtobedefensive ordissimulating onthebasisofvalidity scalesalonewhenthescale however, group, norm to the base rates of these scales in a particular such that examinees in an FFDE information.cially whenusedinconjunctionwiththird-party Considerationshouldalways begiven, 2-RF, PAI, CPI, MCMI-III, and16PF, alsocanserve usefulroles inevaluating response style, espe- sistencies anddiscrepancies across andwithindata sources meansofweighing are important validity. collateral source shouldbeconsidered tobemore reliable thantheexaminee, but ratherthatcon- andtestingefforts”clients whosabotageinterview (pp. andmayis probably betheonlyviable onewith themostaccuratemeansofdetectingfabrication Melton et but also to its potential for detecting malingering, defensiveness, dishonesty, and uncooperativeness. tied notonlytotheimproved obtainedthrough depthandbreadth collateralsources ofinformation built-in measures ofresponse style. information. togatherthird-party Itisimportant Itsutilityis assessmentinstruments, and psychological information third-party ortests,style ofanofficer: with officer-employee? civil, andinterests. andproperty rights ofan Buthow tellingonthepart truth dowe determine in treatment caneasilycometobelieve thattreatment (erroneously) compliance willorshould for thebenefitofemployee and nottheemployer). Furthermore, employees required toengage ,Government 2009, reached where adifferent thecourt conclusionwhenthemandatedconditionsare to engageintreatment (Sehiev. CityofAurora, 2005; seealsoTodd v. LexingtonFayette UrbanCounty responsible forthecostof treatment andcompensationto theemployee forany on-dutytime used requires treatment asanemployment condition, have somejurisdictions heldthatthe employer is mendations designedtorestore party. fitnessunless requested by the referring Whenanemployer condition, toacknowledge itisusuallymore unfitstatus andnotaddress prudent thecurrent recom- unfitness expectedto current results fromrespond quicklytotreatment. aminorimpairment fitness isunlikely tobesustainedwithoutadditionalorongoingtreatment, orbecause theemployee’s cally is rationalized in one of two ways: either because the examiner believes the employee’s current employee’s incounselingorothertherapy. participation Whensuchaconditionisstipulated, ittypi- is adequateevidence ofeffectiveness. limit theirtreatment recommendations, includingmodalitiesandduration, tothoseforwhichthere iner address how fitnessmightbe restored. Whenthisisthecase, evaluators shouldstill becareful to that anemployee unfitforduty, ispsychologically often requests thattheexam- party the referring injured,is psychologically suffering, orotherwisedistressed. Indeed, whenanevaluator concludes Clinicians generallywishtobehelpful, withanexamineewho whenfaced andthisisespeciallytrue If causationisacompellingtopicforclinicians, totheattractiontreatment. itpalesincomparison Standardized assessment instruments withvalidityStandardized assessmentinstruments scalesorindices, suchastheMMPI-2, MMPI- Corey (see Chapter 13 in thisvolume) means for assessing the response pointsout two primary In caseswhere theemployee unfitfor duty becauseofa isjudged tobecurrently remediable Most importantly, offitnessonan shouldbecareful examiners nottoconditionadetermination al. (1997) observed that contradicting the client’s“obtaining information version of events Introduction andHistory Introduction Treatment 23 57–58). Thisisnottosay thatany given Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 examiner, itmay beusefultoreference thepracticalguidanceofEEOC: be silentonthisquestion. Whentheemployer doesrequest treatment recommendations from the specifically requested theexaminertoopineontreatment or restoration offitness, should the report shield themfrom problematic consequencesforpersistent behavior. has party Unlessthereferring Passed with the American Psychological Association’s Psychological Passed with the American support, written and before APA executives law prohibited “pre-conditional offerpsychological/medical” testingandbecameeffective in1992. are always anemployer’s decision, notanexaminer’s. toaseparatestageoftheevaluation.deferred Underany circumstances, reasonable accommodations party; thatquestionsabout accommodationsbe thereferring policedepartment it isbesttoinform withthestatutes,iner isfamiliar regulations, andcaselaw toreasonable pertinent accommodation, and stoptimeofanemployee’s work schedule; seeGuice-Millsv. Derwinski, 1992). Unless theexam- functions ofajobasreasonable accommodation, andtheessentialfunctionsmay includethestart by asreasonable thecourts (e.g., dation, theexaminershouldbecome knowledgeable aboutthetypes ofaccommodationregarded and/or compassionanemployer askstheexaminertomake recommendations regarding accommo- reasonable accommodationfrom theFFDquestion. However, whenintheinterests ofexpediency Air., Inc., 2000). Thus, employers may prefer—and usuallyare bestadvised—toseparatequestionsof tion abouttheemployee’s v. conditionandthebasisforrequesting anaccommodation(Barnett U.S. employer hasanaffirmative duty toengageinthe “interactive process” toobtain relevant- informa oftheemployer onthepart accommodation efforts (Larsonv. RefiningCo ., Koch 1997). disabling condition, even anFFDexaminer’s may findingtothecontrary notbesufficient require v. NorwestBankIowa N.A., 1999); ontheotherhand, where theemployee openlydenieshaving a the word initiatetheaccommodationexplorationprocess disabled (Cannice ordisabilitytoformally the employee tellstheemployer heisdisabled (Hammonv. DHL, 1997). Theemployee neednotuse it isgenerally the case that the employer’s only when obligation toexplore accommodationarises may nevertheless render anemployee unfitforduty. Moreover, exceptincasesofobvious disabilities, oftheADA.terms Indeed, someconditionsthatmay notmeettheADA’s definitionofadisability dition thatrenders himorherunfitforduty, itisnotperselegallyequivalent toadisabilityunderthe limitation ofaqualifiedindividual withadisability. Even whenanemployee con- has apsychological and providing additionalunpaidleave treatment. fornecessary include jobrestructuring, ormodified part-time work schedules, reassignment toa vacant position, individual withadisabilitytoenjoy equalemployment opportunities” (29C.F.R. §1630.9). This may as “any change in the work environment or in the way done that enables an things are customarily tion would imposeanunduehardship” (EEOC, 1997, p. mental limitationsofaqualifiedindividual withadisabilityunlessitcanshow thattheaccommoda- Under theADA, anemployer “must provide areasonable accommodationtotheknown physical or As notedelsewhere, in1990, withDisabilities Actwas passedby theAmericans Congress. This Once anemployee specifically condition,requests anaccommodationfora work-impairing the Employers are onlyresponsible, however, forproviding areasonable accommodationtoaknown employer engagedindisparatetreatment). tial ADA claims(e.g., conduct. Employer commentsaboutthedisabilityanditstreatment couldleadtopoten- medical conditions, employers should focus instead on addressing unacceptable workplace Regardless ofwhetheremployers believe they tohelpemployees are trying whohave the employer “regarded” theemployee ashaving adisabilityorthe an employer isnotrequired torestructure or reallocate theessential Accommodation Jack Kitaeff 24 12). A reasonable accommodationisdefined (EEOC, 2008, p. 12) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 on an article about the job-relatedness of suchquestions (Inwald,on an article Kaufman, the country, anddatabases. pooledthesedatafrom testinginstruments various They collaborated Roberts, who between them at that time had the largest collection of pre-employment test data in theearlystagesofapplicantinvestigationsuse during andscreening. RobinInwald andMichael 1992, were saving largesumsofmoney andresources departments aboutalcohol/drug by inquiring new law had a major, mostly negative, impact on police assessment. Police psychologists, to prior had notifiedDivision ofADA’s 18policepsychologists ramificationsfortheirassessment work, this the value of using separate group norms tobestpredictthe value policeandotheremployee’s ofusingseparategroupnorms performance. and two researchers in the field. Paul Sackett and Robin Inwald presented research data supporting use separategendernorms, APA’s Diane Brown organized ameetingwithEEOCrepresentatives field. thatpoliceassessment validity With concerns would bedecreased shoulditbecomeillegalto a strong development impactonassessmentpracticesandinstrument inthepolice/public safety of rejection letter. unnecessary. Thisisnotto say, however, thatrejected applicantsstilldidnot receive form thisgeneric clear, andmisleading andtheneedforcryptic “other more qualifiedapplicants” letter would be andwasapplicant hadbeensuccessfulupuntilthepsychological thenrejected, thereason would be manner, itwould bethelastappointment forany given applicant. Undersuchanarrangement, ifan decided toadministertheentire attheendofapplicantscreening psychological process. Inthis other basedonPhase2. Accordingly, thisauthor, together law with thevarious enforcements served, additional work two neededby reports, inwriting thepsychologist onebasedonPhase1andthe on theapplicant, thedepartment, andthepsychologist, forschedulingtwo andforthe interviews area. Virginia ments inthenorthern Thedownside ofthisprocess was theadditionaltimeburden the requirements oftheADA- depart was utilized by policeandsheriff’s the authorwith various combinedwithamentalstatusevaluation.a clinicalinterview Thistechniqueforworking within she was invited backfor “Phase 2,” whichconsistedoftheMMPI-2, theWonderlicPersonnelTest, and possibly hintatadisabilitywere notused. Iftheapplicantpassed “Phase 1” ofthescreening, heor would ofthe beadministered aspart “Phase 1” screening. psychological thatcould Any otherfactors nonconformity, beingsolutionoriented, self-assuredness, beingopentochange, andself-discipline of warmth,“normal” traitssuchasinterpersonal personality dominance, seriousness, vs. conformity a disabilitywas coupledwitha test”“general personality suchasthe16PFthatonly indicateddegrees specifically, devoid ageneralinterview ofamentalstatusexaminationorquestionsthatcould reveal author andconsistedofconductingpre-employment screening psychological intwo phases. More yet afouloftheADA. atthesametimenotrunning Oneofthesesolutions was developed by this (i.e., ofallthehitherto information pre-ADA) administered questions testsinterview psychological other words, there was anotheroptionavailable whodesired topolicepsychologists toretain the healthissuesafterthejobofferornotatall,psychological/mental was notactuallydichotomous. In order toavoid lawsuits andtoclearlybewithinthelaw. changedtheirpre-employmentpsychologists assessmentpracticesafterthepassageofADA in intheirdepartments, toconditionaljoboffers screenings usingtheMMPIorIPIprior mostpolice of thescreening process. Whereas continued somepsychologists toconduct “psychological/medical” tions onlybeasked afteranactual “conditional offerofemployment” hadbeenmadeneartheend published ADA guidelines required that police agencies adhere to the requirement that such ques- ADA exclusionofpublic failed. safetyorganizationsonbehalfofpracticingpolicepsychologists The across variables, manyformance testscalesandperformance Inwald andRoberts’s campaignforan did, instruments personality/psychological use onwritten infact, predict poorpoliceofficerper- for the new law). of alcohol and/or past drug Despite the admittedly clear evidence that patterns ofthegovernment’sattempt to influencethe writers upcomingADA (guidelines Guidance report A secondlaw passedsubsequenttotheADA was theCivil RightsActof1991, whichalsohad theMMPIandassociatedtests,But thechoicebetween administering into alongwithinquiring Introduction andHistory Introduction 25

& Roberts, 1991) in an Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 accurate prediction equationsalsoillegal. employee illegaltoconsiderethnicityorgenderduring selection,purposes) thusmakingthemost by genderandethnicitymergegroupsintooneoverall norm. Itbecame(forallintentsand Act of1991resulted inresponsible having selectiontestpublishers tochangeavailable separatenorms topreserveDespite theirefforts thebestpredictions possible foremployee selection, theCivil Right in themid-1990s. Inthisstudy, more than1,500policeadministrators, representing every public such aspolicechiefsandadministrators, was conductedby MichaelCuttlerandRobin Inwald published tests and documenting their relative psychological to subject matter experts importance forevaluatingment norms public safetyapplicants. Inventory. Like theIPIandotherHilsonResearch testreports, relied thisreport onlaw enforce - rections, andPublic SafetySelectionReport” tobeusedwithMorey’s Assessment 1991Personality wereinstruments includedintheHLAPTechnicalManual (Inwald et al., 1996). offered asapossible replacement forthemuch lengthierMMPI, between andcorrelations thesetwo actual functioning in personal, social, life. and family Also published in1996, this inventory was 110-item inventory foridentifyingpsychopathology aswell asassessingapolicecandidateorofficer’s ­inventories beingadministered, Inwald developed the “Hilson LifeAdjustmentProfile (HLAP),” a ized pre-employment screening programs, oftencomplainedaboutthelengthofpersonality associatedwithviolent behavior.cally ontheidentificationofcharacteristics inventory personality the first developed andapplicantsthatfocusedspecifi- forpublic safetyofficers et al., 1996). This110-iteminventory, version, alongwithitsshorter theInwald Survey 8(IS8), was conference, theInwald Survey 2(IS2)was published by HilsonResearch thefollowing year (Inwald violentbehavior (Inwald,inappropriate asofficers 1995). Asadirect result ofdiscussionsatthisFBI the 1970sor 1980s andlaterbecameinvolved who hadbeen tested during public safety officers in FBI Academy in Quantico. At this conference, Inwald research presented summary on those police/ (Inwald,relationship andtheirspousesorpartners issuesspecifictopolicepersonnel 1993). ence anddeveloped theHilsonSpouse/Mate Inventory, for evaluating assessmentinstrument thefirst the FBIAcademy inQuantico, Virginia. RobinInwald conductedaresearch studyforthisconfer- alsoaddedittotheir psychologists “post-conditional-offer” and “fitness-for-duty” batteries. oftheir cies begantousethistestaspart “pre-conditional-offer” screening programs andmany police of theIPIorMMPInow was illegalunderADA untiltheendofscreening process. Policeagen- atthe behavioral information “pre-conditional offer” phaseofscreening becausetheadministration (Inwald & Gebbia, 1992). Inwald developed togive critical theIS5inaneffort policepsychologists and anger management, areas of integrity uring among others, was published by HilsonResearch definition of “medical” diagnoses). In1992, theInwald Survey 5(IS5), whichincludedscalesmeas- not containitemsthatwould reveal psychopathology orpastsubstanceabuse (includedintheADA thatwere andvalidatedassessment instruments onpublic normed safetyofficerapplicantsanddid conditional offer” testunderthenew ADA guidelines, Inwald ofnew wrote personality aseries ence inMinneapolis, Minnesota. mally the presented98th Annual IACP these guidelines to the IACP during Confer- membership Flanagan (New York), (Maryland), StephenCurran andJamesJanik(Illinois), RobinInwald for- “Fitness forDuty:Standards andPracticesforthe’90s,” whichincluded presentations by Catherine for-Duty Evaluation Guidelines” at its Annual Section In 1991, the IACP’s Section Services Psychological The first comprehensiveThe first jobanalysis, psychological found in focusingonpersonality variables In 1997, AssessmentResources, Psychological Inc., published the “PAI Law Enforcement, Cor- Because many andpublic policepsychologists safetyadministrators, whoconductedor organ- In 1995, theFBIsponsored aconference titled “Organizational IssuesinLaw Enforcement” atthe In 1993, theFBIsponsored aconference titled “Law Enforcement Families:Issues &Answers” at Rather thanalteritemsandscalesoftheIPIsothatitcouldcontinue tobeusedasa “pre- Jack Kitaeff 26 formally adopted Inwald’sformally revised “Fitness- Meeting. In a conference program titled Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 and IPI, (Ones, amongothers 2003). sional conferences. established the tests, Thisfirmly validityofpersonality suchastheMMPI, CPI, coefficients from tests allpersonality-based available atthetime were presented at numerous profes- toupdatepsychological-screening guidelines.(POST) organizationinitsefforts Over 19,000validity researcher’s abilitytodirectly compare thevalidities ofdifferent tests. whocouldbefollowed therangeofofficers restricted inpredictive research studies, limitinga results.chological Althoughbeneficialforsociety, the rejection ofnearlyallpoorlyratedcandidates of thenew requirements oftheADA). Now agenciesrarely hiredwith officers “questionable” psy- andwhenthetestingcameatendofscreeningrespect process intheirdepartments (because number of “failures.” the1990s, Thissituationchangedduring hadgained whenpolicepsychologists tests.psychological Thisallowed forvalidation studiestobeconductedwhere there were alarger continued to hirepolice administrators manydespite theirquestionable suitabilitybasedon officers unlike inearlieryears, begantotake theirpsychologist’s ratingsvery seriously. the1980s, During Gaffney (1986); (1995). andKornfeld revised MMPI-2. by includearticles Brewster Examplesfrom (1996); thisperiod Hargrave, Hiatt, and et al.,(Cortina 1992). thistime, During several researchers continued toexaminethevalidity ofthe et al., 1994), includingonelinkingtheIPIandMMPIwith “Big Five” Factors Personality Inwaldto theupdatedandrenormed Survey 5-Revised (IS5R)in1999. tifying thoseindividuals mostlikely tobecomeinvolved indomesticviolence. Thisscalewas added long presentations anddiscussionsonthistopicconcluded, RobinInwald developed ascaleforiden- the FBIsponsored a “Domestic Violenceby PoliceOfficers” conference atQuantico. Afterthe week variables intheiragencies(Inwald, 1998). assessment toolusedby toevaluate administrators therelative ofdifferent personality importance this andotherstudies, theHJAQ was jobanalysis published in1998andwas computerized thefirst ontheHilsonJobAnalysisQuestionnaire (HJAQ). forpoliceofficerperformance important Using Carolina,safety agencyinthestateofNorth they identifiedthepersonality believedvariables most ing program to identify officers unfit to carry guns, its ing program unfittocarry heldthe cityliable toidentifyofficers forthe injuries thecourt weapons.fitness tocarry Basedon thecity’sfailure toimplementaneffective test- psychological on andoffduty, testinginplacetohelpensure thecityhadnoconsistentpsychological theofficers’ for excessive (1980). an arrest force gunsboth during Althoughthe city required to carry its officers In law enforcement powers andresponsibilities) (Kitaeff, 2006b). them with to entrusting prior officers (inadequately preparing dismissed) and negligent entrustment job whenthere issignificant evidence thatthey shouldhave beendisciplined, demoted, or even cant. canalsobechargedwithnegligentretention (keeping Policedepartments employees onthe by adepartment’s toconductafullbackgroundinvestigation failure onaprospective policeappli- and battery, arrest, (Kitaeff, false imprisonment andfalse 2006b). Gross negligencemay beassumed Tort liabilityassociatedwithlawsuits alsoincludeswrongful againstpolicedepartments death, assault Hild v. Bruner, finding of in Newmunicipal liability Jersey upheld a jury court a federal district In 1999, PoliceOfficerSelectionandTraining DenizOnesbeganaproject fortheCalifornia However, research inthefieldsoon efforts were hampered factthatpolicedepartments,by the Additional IPIstudiesfrom independentresearchers alsowere published inthe1990s(Mufson of1998,In thefall astheresultaboutdomesticviolenceinpolicefamilies, ofincreasing concerns Negligent Hiring and Retention, and Duty to Adequately andDuty andRetention, Negligent Hiring Negligent Hiring and Negligent Hiring “Tort” Liability Train andSupervise Introduction andHistory Introduction 27 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 commonly used psychological testintheworld.commonly usedpsychological (Blau, T. 1994; & Strawbridge, Strawbridge 1990). Butthenagain, theMMPIwas (andis)themost not use any tests, psychological and the three most widely used tests were the MMPI, CPI, and IPI thetestsusedforapplicantselection.order todetermine Resultsofthis survey revealed that51%did of continued expansion. In 1990, a survey of 72 major law enforcement agencies was conducted in reflecting changesinbothsocietyandtheprofessional role ofpsychology, the1990s were adecade The judgedismissedthesuit. 3. 2. 1. seling forangermanagement. Thelawsuit, filedinstatecourt, claimed: all rankstobetestedevery three years. Oneoftheofficers incoun- was laterdirected toparticipate all policeofficers. Two of andtheunionchallengeda12-year-old officers officers policy requiring records ofdueprocess andrespects (1998). theirright screening isconstitutional, provided thatmanagementprovides fortheprivacy ofofficers’ filesand his wife and killed himself (1982). In another case, psychological concluded that periodic the court punitive damageswhenanoff-dutyofficer, known generallytohave emotionalproblems, wounded testing procedurechological resulted in the award of $300,000 in compensation and $125,000 in theofficer(1999).supervise InBonsignorev. CityofNewYork, toadoptameaningfulpsy- thefailure officer if it could be shown that the municipality had been negligent in its duty to select, train, and of Bradenton, Beach heldthatthecitycouldbeliable by forany thecourt intentionaltort theirpolice of anofficerdeemedunfit bylater review ofhisbackground (1999). Inasimilarcase, Geidelv. City officer inflicted. InHardy v. TownofHayneville, acitywas heldresponsible forthenegligenthiring former president of the International Associationof ChiefsofPolicehassaid: with theuniform. president oftheInternational A former under highly emotionally charged circumstances. They must wear a social mask that they put on to “react” toproblems orpreparation. andtypicallydosowithoutsufficient warning not usually control entrance into most traumatic and dangerous situations that they face; they have ofboredom andcalm. withperiods natureexacerbated by interspersed can- itsintermittent Officers events,stress ofviewing many horrific violence, andtraumacanbesubstantialinpolice work, itis human beingandcreate acynicism, isolation, peoplein general. anddifficultytrusting Althoughthe the media, andthejudiciary. Thismay skew theofficer’s opinionsonthecharacterof average In addition, are officers always from citizens, inthespotlight andopentocomplaintscriticism They puttheirlives therest ofuscan’t andhorrors onthelineandconfront miseries even imagine. Police officers regularlydealwiththemostviolent, impulsive, ofsociety. members andpredatory

While personality assessmentinlawWhile personality enforcement settingscameofageinthe1970sand1980s, In Millerv. (1998), CityofSpringfield testingof psychological upheldperiodic aNew Jerseycourt Officers areOfficers also required toalways beinemotionalcontrol and must show extreme restraint even [officers’] personal personal reputations.”[officers’] The screening causes “humiliation, embarrassment, emotionaldistress, to anguishandharm The process violatesofficers’rights ofdueprocess. andtheirfitnessfordutyaspoliceofficers. work performance Officers were forced to reveal which was unrelated and private information to the personal tion or the human characteristics that result fromtion orthehumancharacteristics adrenalin. any confrontation, nomatterthepotentialforviolence, we’re notsupposedtodisplay emo - What oursocietyexpectsfrom isaperfect blend of policeofficers robot andperson. In Police Stress, Psychological Dysfunction, and Posttraumatic StressDisorder and Posttraumatic Jack Kitaeff 28 . . . Peoplerealize are officers Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 breaking work TheHeavyBadge. Init, they express: has beenprovided by DanielA. policepsychologists S. andGary Goldfarb Aumillerintheirground- superiors, excessive traffic, andgunfights. Ingeneralterms, stress isthenonspecific “responseofthe stimuli causing stress arethe external referred to as macy andrelationship problems, overall increased stress, andeven suicide. ofthepublic canleadtoincreasedbers alcoholuse, attitudinal problems, behavioral problems, inti- One of the most poignant descriptions oftheways areOne ofthemostpoignantdescriptions policeofficers different from the rest ofus What isstress? Inavery broad sense, stimuli. andexternal stressisareaction tobothinternal Often andAumiller,According toGoldfarb these “differences” between andothermem- policeofficers and treat themdifferently, even whenthey are notworking. Law figures. enforcement are officers seenasauthority Peopledealwiththemdifferently cal andmentalbalanceinlife. An officerdoingshift work never getsachancetostay onaschedule. Thisupsetshisphysi- ies are adjustedonwhatiscalled “circadian schedules” whichisarepetitive dailycycle. good ofsociety. The “rotating shift” scheduleisvery taxingonanofficer’s life. [Their]bod- theindividual forthe suchassacrificing] [often associatedwithmentalhealthconcerns ofabadge,wearing andgunmakes alaw uniform officerseparatefrom society. can happeninseconds. before it gets “out of control.” This is not the case for the officer, because “out of control” work force consistsofastress building process thatcanbeeitherreduced oradaptedto activity andpressure inone “burst.” stress situationformostoftherest ofthe Thenormal low stress toahighstress state. Inotherwords, gofrom officers completecalm, tohigh means there isnotalways asteadystressor, but attimes, there isanimmediate “burst” from every humanemotion. human, but they don’t thatwe understand can’t trainthemtoapointwhere we override in disciplineandmore careful withprivilege. can even show upintheway children are raised, aspoliceparents may tendtobestricter the way level, theofficerdealswithpeopleonapersonal withneighbors, withaspouse. It eachother.spent withpeoplewhoare intending tohurt canshow Thislackoftrust upin are nottrustworthy. Itishard tobelieve inpositive intentionsofpeople, whentheday is a fellowadjust to trusting human being when so much of the day is spent with people who the average humanbeing. Itcreates acynicism, view oftheworld. a critical Itishard to criminal, theabuser oftherules. Thismay skew theofficer’s opinionsonthecharacterof social burnout. life. insocialorfamily to participate Thisenergydraincanalsocreate asenseofjoband it may make theofficermore prone toexhaustionoutsideof work, suchasnot wanting much more . energythanexpressing true Whentheenergydrainisvery strong, the world inarole. Theemotionalconstraintoftherole takes tremendous mentalenergy, to beincharge. They are taughttobestoicwhenemotional. They are tointeractwith extremely excited, they have toactcalm. They are toldwhenthey are nervous, they have extreme restraint underhighlyemotionalcircumstances. They are toldwhenthey are . Law enforcement officers work inaquasi-military, institution. structured Theseare The “at work” world oftheofficeris negative.very ofsociety—the Heseesthebadpart needtobeinconstantemotionalcontrol.[Officers] [They] have ajobthat requires . . have Officers adifferent kindofstress intheirjobs, called stress.” “burst stress Burst . . . Introduction andHistory Introduction 29 stressors and include events such as pressure from . . . [They are] are isolated. The (Miller, 1998) . . . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 (American Psychiatric Association, Psychiatric (American 2000)definesPTSDasfollows: screens” (1998, p. thattherest ofusview andhorrors from thesanitizeddistanceofournewspapers andTV miseries most violent, impulsive, of society, members and predatory put their lives on the line, and confront specifically as it relates to the police officer when he states, “Police officers regularly deal with the nel, andtheirown andlaw administrators enforcement agencies(Blau. T. 1994). system, politicians, opportunistic hostileattorneys, “do-gooder”- person cliniciansandsocialservice grind, and complaints are officers frequentlyby citizens, the target of criticism the media, the judicial needs, orexpectationsoftheworker (Stevens, 1999c). Forpoliceofficers, inadditiontothedaily tional responses thatoccurwhentherequirements ofthejobdonotmatchcapabilities, resources, coping withstress isinboththeirindividual bestinterest andintheinterest ofpublic safetyaswell. fear canproduce fearfulconsequencesinthebody. Especiallyamongpolice officers, finding ways of rate, sweating, trembling, (Monat &Lazarus, andfatigue 1977). Inaddition, themere perception of that create alterationsinbodilyprocesses andcan produce, amongotherthings, anincreased heart demand on the body. When an individual perceives danger, of hormones there is an outpouring or another, withorwithouttheindividual’s knowledge orconsent. Thus, justbeingalive creates a is, any demandplacedonanindividual tochangecanproduce aphysical response tosomedegree under conditionswhere may failure have dire consequences. be aperceived imbalancebetween whatisrequiredgiving, oftheofficerandwhatheiscapable of body toany demand” (Selye, 1979b, p. The result ofprolonged stress may be posttraumaticstress disorder (PTSD). TheDSM-IV-TR Miller stresses: Dr. Job stress or for police officers regular civiliansphysical and emo- can be defined as the harmful ofbeingalive.Implicit inthesedefinitionsisthenotionthatstress isafundamentalpart That close associate. death, harm, bymemberorother afamily serious experienced orthreat ofdeathorinjury ofanotherperson;threat aboutunexpectedorviolent tothephysical integrity orlearning threat toone’s physical integrity; orwitnessinganevent thatinvolves death, ora injury ofaneventexperience thatinvolves injury, actualorthreatened deathorserious orother symptoms following exposure toanextreme traumaticstressor involving direct personal The essentialfeature ofPosttraumaticStress Disorder isthedevelopment ofcharacteristic or horror. tent avoidance ofstimuli associated withthetrauma . small annoyances onandoffthejob. with coworkers, superiors, civilians, members, andfamily andbecomeshypersensitive to and thatthere isnowhere elsetovent hisdistress. Sohebottlesuphisfeelings, actssnappish career. Ineithercase, doesn’t alltoooftentheofficerfeelsthatdepartment him support cumulative weight ofanumber ofmore moderatestresses over of theofficer’s thecourse may benosinglemajortrauma, but theidentifiedmentalbreakdown underthe occurs innocent civilian,scene. accidentorcrime oranespeciallygrisly accident orhomicide, thekillingorwounding ofapartner, themistaken shootingofan For some, dramaticevent, ofaparticular itmay comeintheform suchasagruesome valor, but that some stresses are toomuch to bear, andevery officerhashisbreaking point. outtheirdutiesand responsibilities with dedication and Police generallycarry officers Larry Miller, Larry inhiscomprehensive totheSystem, andpoignantbookShocks stress describes . . 216). . . reexperiencing symptomsincludepersistent The characteristic . . . The person’s response totheevent must involve intense fear, helplessness, 3). Stress canassumeothermeanings. Forinstance, stress can Jack Kitaeff 30 . . symptomsofincreased persistent . . . Forotherofficers, there . .- persis (p. 217) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 events occur, assoonpossible aftertheappearanceofsymptomsPTSD. andcertainly to forpoliceofficers receiveunderscores theimportance treatment assoonpossible aftertraumatic irritations, orevents thatwould have causedany suchreactions nothitherto intheofficer. Allthis ofpsychosomaticphysical complaints,the form orinatendencyto “snap” atminorprovocations, for months, ifnotyears. Insomecases, delayed orprolonged stress reactions manifestthemselves in also betheresult. effectscaninterfere withapoliceofficer’s Many oftheselong-term jobfunctioning ity toconcentrate, lossofself-confidence, substancesmay andincreased useoffoodormood-altering many monthsoreven longer, andanger, hostility, irritability, problems withauthority, fatigue, inabil- • • • • (Mitchell & Bray, 1990): dent hasondifferent (FBIBulletin, officers 1996). incidentflexible tokeep becauseoftheeffectsaninci- important thedefinitionofacritical varying reaction to this event may life (Hartsough, also interfere with his family 1995; Sheehan, 1995). It is stressful situations are called into question (Mitchell, 1990; Ryan the oppositetobetrue. event,to anabnormal althoughbecauseofofficers’ training, belief, and experience, they may believe abilities tofunctioneitheratthesceneorlaterinlife. person’s Thereactions are anormal response emotional orphysical reactions. Thesereactions may have thepotentialtointerfere withtheofficer’s unusually strong bycal incidentisany situationfaced anofficerthatcauseshimtoexperience workers (NOVA, 1991, ascitedinHarris, 1995). workers. Law enforcementandfirefighters personnel arelistedasimmediate andtrauma responders undesired effectsofstress. wake oftraumaticevents, itshouldbeexpected thatthey willbeexposedtotheproblematic and gun” toappreciate theircopingabilities. traumavictimsandoperateinthe comfort Because officers hesitation. Oneonlyneedstostandbackandwatch officers responding toacallof “manwitha ofbecomingvictimstraumaticincidents.themselves atrisk Yet, they dosowillinglyandwithout themselves daily into the chaos and confusion of other people’s lives, and by doing so they put (Shusman et al., 1987). tasks despiteprovocation, ambiguity, andtheever-present threat or physical ofpsychological injury and assertiveness, andatthesametimerestraint andempathy. They must beable tocompletetheir multiple taskswithoutlosingcontrol ofphysical intheface threats. They needtoexhibitdominance Police work isstressful andunpredictable. must have Officers theemotional resources toperform Miller (1998)pointsoutthatifnotreatment isprovided forPTSD, symptomsmay for persist The following events are typicalofthosethatmay causeunusual distress foremergencypersonnel incidentcanalsobeatimewhenanofficer’sA critical expectationsabouthisabilitytohandle In law enforcement, stressful incidents. ortraumaticincidentsare oftenreferredtoascritical - criti A The NationalOrganizationforVictimAssistance(NOVA) oftrauma identifiesninecategories intheirlives,Although mostpeopledonotseekcrises policeofficers respond toandimmerse Suicide ofafellow officer. multiple-casualty incident/accident. Serious toa fellow injury officer.Serious Death ofafellow officer. occupational, areas offunctioning. orother important arousal . . . insocial, thedisturbancemust causeclinicallysignificantdistress orimpairment Psychological Debriefing Introduction andHistory Introduction 31 & Brewster, 1994). The officer’s (pp. 463–464) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 come totheirattention(Artwohl & Christensen, 1977). Neitheragency nortactical/operational totheinvolvedbe harmful wheninaccuraciesandspeculations abouttheirperformance personnel were notdirectly impactedbut may stillhave concerns. tocirculate may thatbegin Rumors also the detailsofevent anddoesnothingtoallay who theanxietyofpersonnel canfuelrumors involvinghas occurred itsofficers. AsBestet al. inthis volume pointout, lackofknowledge about “traumatic” intheDiagnosticandStatisticalManual (DSMIV-TR, 2000). eliciting anintenseemotionalreaction intheexposedindividual inorder forittobeconsidered Association’s ofaneventmake. anincident critical Psychiatric theAmerican criteria Thismirrors incidents.considered critical maintainthatitistheindividual officer’s Someexperts reactions that activity”normal (Patton & Violanti, 1996, p. vary, thatline-of-dutyevents, itisgenerallyunderstood are whichforofficers “outsidetherangeof responses toduty-related events (Bohl, 1995; FBIBulletin, 1996). Therefore, althoughdefinitions ofmaintainingaflexibleinofficer stressed definitionbecauseofthewide theimportance variation rather thaninsistingonauniversally uponmeaning, agreed law have enforcement experts actually 1990s (Best, Artwohl, thing as reality without considering thehumanperspective”thing asreality withoutconsidering (p. (1994a) provided anotherperspective whenhestated, “Practically speaking, there issimplynosuch toanevent hisorherbehaviorattributes andreactions thatdetermines aftertheevent. GeorgeEverly beliefanofficerhasaboutthestructed “correct” way to respond. Itisthemeaningthatanofficer event (FBIBulletin, 1996). Thatmeaningcomesfrom thesocially, andsometimespersonally, con- standings abouttheworld andoneselfintheworld (Everly, 1995b). at the root of psychopathology. Trauma challenges previously held assumptions, beliefs, and under- emotions (Horowitz & Kaltreider, 1995). the subsequentadjustmentcanbedifficultwithsymptomssuchasintrusive ideasand numbing of be someadjustmentinorder togoonliving. Theinterval between therecognition ofthelossand orderly world. aloss, faces Whenaperson asinthelossoffeelinginvulnerability, there must invulnerability,in personal theview ofoneselfinapositive light, andthebeliefinameaningful victimized, three basicassumptionsorbeliefsabouttheselfandworld are challenged:thebelief how evaluates aperson toself-doubt(Everly, hiscompetencyandgives rise 1995a). is Whenaperson shatter aperson’s assumptionsregarding theworld asasafeandorderly place. Itmay alsochallenge recovers (Everly, from theexperience 1995a). son thinksabout and reacts toatraumaticevent how quickly theperson thatultimately determines officer’s andfunctioning. performance Janetwrote Pierre Psychotraumatologist thatitishow aper- it hasontheindividual. canstillhave Anevent (subcritical) animpacton thatisless-than-critical of the event of the impact incident should not be defined in terms but rather in terms that a critical circumstances crisis. theincidentcancauseapsychological surrounding toremember Itisimportant • • • • • • Police are well departments whenastressful, advisedtoeducatetheirpersonnel high-profile event hasbeendefinedina incident number of critical waysThe term sinceit usedintheearly was first In a critical incident,In acritical how anofficer responds inonemomentmightserve todefinetheentire tofindmeaningandasenseof Frankl (1959)feltthatthefailure responsibility inone’s lifelies hasabouttheworld. violateorcontradictthebeliefsaperson crises Psychological may A crisis How reacts a person to these events, to his performance, the he orshe attributes and the Any event thathasanunusually powerful impactontheofficer. Being thesubjectofalawsuit. Exposure toinfectiousdiseases. An event involving victimsknown totheofficer. Events thatattract “excessive” mediainterest andpublic scrutiny. Traumatic deathsinvolving children. & Kirschman, Chapter 27, thisvolume). Aswillbeseenlaterinthisvolume, 183) orinvolve threat or loss(Gentz, serious 1990), are Jack Kitaeff 32 178). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 (Miller, 1998, p. management (CISM), inadditiontoCISD” intervention strategies whichincludesarangeofcrisis teams have incidentstress oftenbeenorganizationallysubsumedunderthebroaderofcritical category been implemented throughout the UnitedStates, Britain, of the world and otherparts as well. “Such teams todealwiththetherapeuticwork (Miller, fortraumatizedofficers 1998). Suchteamshave tional distress, (CISD) many agencieshave incidentstressdebriefing critical organizationallyformalized tions: physiological arousal andemotionaldistress (Ozeret al., 2003). to officers. targetsforon-sceneinterven- Substantial theindicationoftworesearch supports primary that can be used to provideare of models and strategies a variety and services support ing, yet intheir forothers theyrole asfirstresponders. alsoserve asprovidersofsuchdebriefing There Police officers, aswill beseenlater inthis volume,- incident stress may debrief beinneedof critical affected officers. developing amore coherent narrative oftheincidentfrom andbettersupport whichthey canlearn isshared inorder toassistagencypersonnel inwhichinformation are forums such debriefings intervention. of a psychological in first respondersettingsshouldtake the form debriefings Rather, Everly, 1996). or othertrainedmentalhealthprofessional team(Mitchell & andamemberofpeersupport tured asasinglegroup meetinglastingapproximately 2 hours. by CISD isrun apsychologist A have beenusedwithindividuals, couples, andfamilies. sible future experiences. AlthoughCISDisdesignedforuseingroups, models otherdebriefing-type matic events through ofreactions theventilation aswell andnormalization aspreparations forpos- CISDintervention as designedtopromoteMiller (1998)describe theemotionalprocessing oftrau- psychologist are also strained when a psychologist is not familiar withpoliceculture are (Benner,psychologist isnotfamiliar alsostrainedwhenapsychologist 1982). frombest andvaries agencyto(Super &Blau, 1997). Relationshipsbetween anofficer anda ogist, they donotknow whatcanbediscussedinconfidence. Theissueofconfidentialityis murkyat administrationandnottheofficers.the department psychol- Whenofficers aresenttoadepartment 1982). Further, work because thepsychologists forthepolicedepartment, is theholderofprivilege willalignthemselves whoprovidedepartment withtheadministrators themwithajob(Benner, for-duty” evaluation. that mentalhealthprofessionals are who Officers concerned work forapolice law enforcement job. Subsequentcontactsare fora attherequest ofthepolicedepartment “fitness- enemy” (Benner, 1982). Theseprofessionals areencountered first whentheyby officers applyfora (Benner, 1994). haveofficers beeninvolved inshootings, andnoneoftheinvolved officers have leftthedepartment have this time period. a CISD team in place during Since the inception of their CISD team, 122 were involved subsequentlyleftthedepartment. inshootingsand17ofthose officers SJPDdidnot events. isprovided debriefings ofpsychological below. forms A detaileddiscussionofvarious designed toalleviatereactions toabnormal symptomsofstress andeducatetheofficeraboutnormal ell & Everly, 1995b). Ingeneral, involve theseformats takinganofficerthrough a number ofstages Miller (1998) describes how inorderMiller (1998)describes toaccomplishdealingwithphysiological arousal andemo- There are a variety of CISD formats (Benner There are of CISD formats a variety Most CISDtakes place two to three days afterasuspected trauma-inducing event- and is struc Officers areOfficers by nature suspiciousofpsychology professionals, whoare oftenseen by themas “the The SanJosePoliceDepartment, forexample, thatbetween reported 1972and1987, 52officers 228). Formal Models of Police Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Police Posttraumatic Formal of Models When Become Providers Patients Introduction andHistory Introduction 33 & Quinn, 1993; Blak, 1990; Bohl, 1995; Mitch- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 professional (Everly & Mitchell, 1997; Reese, Horn, automaticallyfollowed participation place thatmakes postdebriefing toamentalhealth by referral and present thatisrevealed dangertoselforothers theprocess. during are 100%confidential.of debriefings ruleiswhere there Theonlyexceptiontothisgeneral isaclear ofanytrators given orlaw policedepartment enforcement agencyshouldmake clearthatthesekinds one anotherinthefuture?” thatcanhelpyou growof thisexperience orprofessionally?” personally Or “How canyou help ing isreinforced. Inessence, are members asked, “Is there anything positive thatcancome out canaskany finalquestions, whichparticipants during groupwrap-up ofsorts andgeneralbond- provides abasisforquestionsandanswers. Phase, ThefinalstageistheReentry whichprovides a and adverse emotionalreactions. thestress andcopingresponses Thisserves and tonormalize the incident?” aboutstress TheEducationPhaseprovides information withfactual participants points afterthescene. Inessence, are members asked, “What have since you beenexperiencing tional, andbehavioral signsandsymptomsofdistress thatappeared atthesceneandvarious participants. IntheSymptomPhase, are cognitive, asked participants todescribe physical, emo- they are trainedmentalhealthprofessionals) lookforadverse of emotionalreactions on thepart oftheincidentforyou?”the worst part (especiallyif thisphasethatgroup leaders Itisduring to relaying theevent insomany theiremotionalreactions words, during andsharing “What was lowed by theReactionPhase , move whichmembers during from providing cognitive descriptions todiscusswhatwentgroup members through theirmindsastheincidentunfolded. Thisisfol- it isbasicallyaprocess of “What didyou do?” TheThoughtPhaseiswhere theleaderasks ticipate. IntheFactPhase, theincident; hisorherrole eachmemberisasked during todescribe theCISDprocess topar- fessional orpeerdebriefer—introduces andencouragesallmembers 1998; Mitchell &Everly, 1996). IntheIntroduction, theteamleader—eitheramentalhealthpro- who otherofficers asimilarincident. have tendtotrust Officers experienced duty traumaticevent canempathizewithandvalidate anotherofficer’s reaction asbeingnormal. another officer. a line-of- The idea behind peer counseling is that an officer who has experienced from department to department (Super &Blau,from todepartment department 1997). of understanding departmental A formalized 1988). anofficer or makingitoptionalforanofficertoattendaCISD Theissueofrequiring varies theirproblemsunderstand andthat “real officers” shouldn’t have any problems (Linden &Klein, traditionally avoided seekingtherapy orhelp. tendtobelieve Officers thatother peoplecan’t really tive way tohelpofficers, toacceptthehelphasbeendifficult. gettingofficers Policeofficers have (Miller,to participants 1998). can be addressed to anyone, cannot respond but others directly; this is to provide a feeling of safety are invitedrobin in which participants to say anything on their minds, whatever it may be. Remarks and killed, forexample, isseenasridiculous. Last, undertheBohlmodel of CISD, isthefinal round from the incident. tofind Expectingofficers “growtha experience” shot afterseeingtheir partner validate feelings. UndertheBohlmodel, theleaderdoesnotaskwhetheranything positive hasarisen thecognitivereactions during phase, andtheotherway around. between the cognitive and emotional phases of the debriefing. Officers are free to express emotional program withthephasesofMitchell CISDprogram. IntheBohlmodel, there islittledistinction has beendeveloped by Bohl(1995), whoexplicitlycompares andcontraststhestepsorphasesinher To reduce thestigmatizationofindividual members, itissometimesbeneficialtohave apolicyin andreduce fearofstigmatization,It shouldbenotedthattoencourageparticipation theadminis- One ofthemostcommontypesCISDmodelsinusetoday consistsofseveral phases(Miller, Peer asaprocess whereby counselingcanbedescribed cantalkabouttheirfeelingsto officers Although peer counseling services andCISDsingeneralhaveAlthough peercounselingservices beenshown tobeavery effec- intheBohlmodel isnotthemere act ofventing,What isimportant to but rathertheopportunity One ofthemostextensive andcomprehensive adaptationsoftheCISDprocess forpoliceofficers Jack Kitaeff 34 & Dunning, 1990; McMains, 1990). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 For thisreason, ways further ofaddressing theimpactofjobstress needtobedeveloped. and thepeoplethey (Beijen, prefer totalkwithare theirself-chosencolleaguesandfriends 1995a). officers,families, their andtaxpayers. needtotalkaboutjobstress Itisclearthatofficers andtrauma, utilizing professional services. psychological Policejob-related stress andtraumacontinue toimpact have beendeveloped tomeetthespecificneedsofpoliceofficers, totry butofficersarestillwaryof (Beijen, 1995b; Gibbs, 1994; McCafferty, McCafferty, chologists, continue to commit suicide at arate twice that ofthe policeofficers generalpopulation to choosehisconfidantswisely(Beijen, 1995b). ments. Policies, rules, and political alignmentswithinanorganizationmake for anofficer it important internal, organizationallygeneratedstress environment from thesemimilitaristic - inpolicedepart easily accepttheopenexpression offeelingsandemotions. complicatingthesituationis Further ofreducing stress(Mitchell, part forofficers an important 1996). However, thepoliceculture doesn’t years (Kaufmann &Beehr, 1989). listeningto, Friends supporting, eachotherare andencouraging discussionsoftraumaticevents haveInformal amongemergencypersonnel beengoing on formany counselor. ofofficers would, Themajority ifnecessary, debriefing. foraninformal seekoutafriend woulders and fellow seek help from officer, a friend but only 35% would seek help from a peer forhelp.police officerismostlikely toturn His results showed that80%ofthe responding offic- to waiting untiltheofficeriscallingforhelp(McMains, 1990). are preferred toattendadebriefing the nature officers order ofstress requiring andadepartmental of safety, comfort, ismuch atthispoint. more andtrust important asthere willsufficienttimeforthislater ing thecrime by localorfederalauthorities. Instillingasense understanding, sympathetic, andnonjudgmental fashion. There isnoneedtopress fordetailsregard - to repeat theintroduction several times. Thevictimshouldbeheard by thefirst responder inan bystanders. thatthefirst responder may Regardless ofany be uniform wearing, itmay benecessary worker,crisis medic, ormentalhealthprofessional) introduce tothevictimaswell him-orherself as gettreated. injuries that serious thatafirst responder (police officer, Itisvitallyimportant firefighter, who must dealwiththevictimsofcrime.for first responders The responder’s istosee concern first (Young, ofthecrime in theaftermath 1991). of the crisis, (2) victim stabilization in the days following the trauma, and (3) resource mobilization thatcontains three majorcomponents:(1)emergencyresponsemodel ofvictimservices atthetime entity istheNationalOrganizationforVictimAssistance(NOVA), whichhasdeveloped a generic useful forsexualassaultvictims, domestic violencevictims, andchildren. Onesuchvictimservice place again. are helpfulinthisregard, Victimservices are available inall50states, andare particularly caused by other people and aimed directly at us robs us of our sense that the world can ever be a safe tends tothreaten thatindividual’s security. senseofontological is not consistent with the meaning of an individual’sbeing the victim of a violent crime life, as this It is a sense of order and an absence of chaos and anxiety that give meaning to a person’s life. Even mental statederived from asenseofcontinuity inregard totheevents inone’s life(Giddens, 1991). sense ofsafety, stability,. refer toasontologicalsecurity isastable andwhattheorists security Ontological traumas domuch more thaninjure usphysically andeven psychologically. They violateourvery but alsotheproviders incidentstress debriefing the recipients ofsuchdebriefing. ofcritical Certain As mentionedpreviously, ofpolicepsychology reveals thehistory are thatpoliceofficers notonly Finally, unfortunately, ofmanyand policepsy- dedicated policeofficers despitethebestefforts Fay astudyby (2000)reports Beijen(1995a), towhomaveteran whoattemptedtodetermine Miller (1998) and Clark and Friedman (1992) also offer some very commonsense suggestions Miller (1998) and Clark and Friedman More thantraumassuchashurricanes, trainaccidents, andplanecrashes, violenceintentionally Police Officers Responders asFirst Introduction andHistory Introduction 35 & McCafferty, 1992). services Psychological Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 tim’s wishes shouldbeaccommodatedasmuch asreasonably possible, if, forexample, thevictim more such as, concrete and realistic information “We’re going to take you to a safe hospital.” A responders should avoid empty statements such as, “Everything will be all right,” and instead offer is essentialtoensure thatinvestigators obtainvaluable datawhilevictimsreceive optimalcare. First aplan foraidingotherpotentialvictims.and begin Collaborative work withotherfirst responders itself crime as possible frompeople shouldobtainasmuch information thevictimaboutterrorist cal technician, firefighter,crisis counselor. ormentalhealth Miller(2002b) recommendsthatsuch should have foreseen theattackordonemore tokeep theirloved onessafe(Sprang &McNeil, 1995). fantasies of rescuing thevictim.fulfillment may becompounded grief by guiltifthey Theirfeelthey death ofavictimtheyhave have frequent horrifying known, nightmares oftheimagined orwish- heightened senseofvulnerabilityandanavoidance ofanything related tothetrauma. Survivors may mechanism but insteadendedupretraumatizing themselves. vulnerable victimsmay viatelevision have asacoping gathering attemptedtouseinformation most strongly related to theamountoftelevision coverage watched. Thissuggeststhatpotentially almost 3timesthenationalaverage. Anadditionalfinding ofPTSDdistresswas thatthedegree was 11% of all New Yorkers showed symptoms of PTSD two months following the incident, which is made disasters, riots, war, workplace violence, andschoolshootings(Miller, 2001a, 2001b, 2002c). approaches combinewhatwe know from assault, treating victimsofcriminal naturalandman- grief, assault,of a criminal a disaster, and an act of war (Hills, 2002). Accordingly, many of the treatment maintain thattheworst isyet tocome. of traumaticevents. Unfortunately, theseevents have beenincreasing infrequency, andmany experts ingly, haslaggedbehindthatofothertypes literature thebodyofclinicalpsychological onterrorism if treatment isnotreceived immediately(Shalev, 2007). behavioral therapy. forPTSDsurvivors toknow Butitisimportant thatrecovery isstillpossible even after thetraumaticevent, andcognitive andshouldconsistofsomecombination ofpharmacotherapy 2000). Mostoftheresearch onPTSDindicatesthattreatment ismosteffective whenbegunsoon in social, occupational, Association, Psychiatric areas offunctioning(American orotherimportant uli associatedwiththetrauma; emotionalnumbing; andclinicallysignificantdistress orimpairment ofthetraumaticevent offlashbacks;reexperiencing intheform increased arousal; avoidance ofstim- PTSD. PTSD symptoms include intense fear; feeling of helplessness, or horror; agitation; persistent worry, depression, anxietydisorders, abuse, alcoholanddrug suicidalthoughts(andattempts), and (Markesteyn, 1992). being “safe” more negative tendtoexperience reactions thanthoseattacked in “unsafe” locations attack. Forexample, victimswhoare attacked inanenvironment perceived they hadformerly as ofviolenceinvolved includethedegree factors or intheincidentandlocationofcrime mechanisms, self-confidenceandself-esteem, emotionalstability, and resiliency. Environmental most importantly, thepresence ofsupportive relationships. include coping factors Psychological includeethnicbackground, factors graphic beliefs, religious socioeconomic status, gender, age, and, son and seems to depend on psychological, social, demographic, and environmental factors. Demo- susceptibility todeveloping actualstress-related from toper- disorderssuchasPTSDvaries person ideation, and16%say thatthey had “a nervous breakdown” following therape. of Butthedegree et al.Kilpatrick that19%ofrapevictimsattemptsuicide, (1985)reported suicide 44%report The first responder on the scene of a terrorist attack may be a police officer,The first responder on the scene of a terrorist emergency medi- Following attack, aterror atypeof many survivors experience “pan phobia” accompaniedby a A studycitedinMiller(2002a)ofthedevastating 2001WorldTradeCenterattackfoundthat Terrorist attacks, suchasthoseonOklahomaCityandtheWorldTradeCenter, combinefeatures fact oflifeforAmericans. becomeasignificant AccordOnly inthelast20 years- hasterrorism canincludeminorsleepdisturbances, and reactionsThe psychological toviolentcrime irritability intervention of trauma counseling and psychological cannot be overstated.The importance Jack Kitaeff 36 vic- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 Ground Zero was offered by ofamissingperson. theCityofNew Yorktoeachfamily tive remains are found, symbolicremains may serve asasurrogate. Forexample, ofashesfrom anurn those whowere (Sprang &McNeil, toburial able toview thebodyprior 1995). Whennodefini - ofdenialandhighertotalrecall ofthedeceasedin death fromperiods shorter naturalcausesreport the bodyatleastmeansthatvictim’s isfinally over. suffering ofa Outcomestudiesofmourners have of the survivor’s short fallen horrors, imagined andeven if not, that the physical presence of thatthevictim’sdeceased oftenprovides confirmation ofreassuring astrangesort deathagoniesmay ones. Althoughthismay may shatterany hopethattheperson stillbealive, theactualsightof consultation (Ursano, Fullerton, can beorganized. aspectsofany disaster groupsisoneofthemostimportant Identifyinghigh-risk asenseofseverecouraging stress-related disabilitytocome. whiledis- thetraumaticstress experience sible posttraumaticsymptomsandattempttonormalize responders shouldprovideFirst basic, ofpos- educationabouttheonsetandcourse understandable allowed totalkandexpress theiremotionseven ifthey may seemsomewhat digressive orrambling. treatment orquestioning. toremain during wants memberorfriend afamily Victimsshouldbe traumatic loss. Survivors shouldbeprepared fortheemotional, financial, practical, andsociallosses tion shouldincludeempathic support, validation, ofthepatient’s andnormalization reaction tothe environment. Atthisstage, theindividual’s defensesshouldnotbechallenged. Instead, theinterven- intervention andstabilizationoftheindividual’sand focusesoncrisis emotional, social, andphysical homicide. vivors ofmurder victimsthatcanproductively beappliedtothetreatment ofsurvivors ofterrorist highly recommended. thesetimestohelppreventhealth professional during traumatizingeffectsis areplay oftheoriginal ofthesentenceaswellfor restitution aspart asavictimimpactstatement. Theassistanceofamental justicesystem,criminal itmay tofilea request besomewhat therapeuticforvictims ofviolentcrimes Kilpatrick, Dansky, victimsingeneral(Freedy,wade justicesystemthanamongcrime through thecriminal Resnick, counsel, andsoon. itscourse, justicesystemtorun of thetimeittakes forthecriminal cross-examinations by defense process from PTSDcanseemeven traumatic events. longerthanwithnoncriminal Thisisbecause of regression but bumps merely intheroad necessary torecovery (Miller, 1998). socialroles thatproblemsand reassume withtheunderstanding normal alongtheway are notsigns explored (Everstine & Everstine, 1993). to work through thepatient’s other issues”“peripheral before thetraumaticevent canbeadequately ofbehavior”longstanding patterns (p. teract maladaptive avoidance tendencies and to diminish the chance that they will congeal into event andhave himorherdiscussitinstep-by-step detail. Thegoal, according toMiller, isto “coun- patient, forexample, traumatic where must thepsychologist take thepatientbacktooriginal andimages oftraumaheadon. thememories facing There isatimeinthetreatment ofthePTSD Although itmay notalways experience, beacomfortable forPTSDofteninvolves Outreach programs inthecommunity shouldbeidentifiedaround care whichpsychological An initial evaluation and debriefing phase occurs immediatelyfollowingAn initialevaluation phaseoccurs thetraumatic event anddebriefing Sprang and McNeil (1995) have designed for sur- presented a phased treatment model originally Studies have shown, forexample, that the prevalence of PTSD ishigher among victims who whodecidetopress chargesandtestifyincourt,For victimsofviolentcrimes therecovery Therapy shouldincrease adaptive defensemechanismsandallow life apatienttoreenter normal & Tidwell, 1994). Butifthedecisionhasbeenmadetoproceed through the & Norwood, 2003). Ifpossible, helptoidentifytheremains ofloved Individual PsychotherapyIndividual 33). Millercautions, however, thatsometimesitisnecessary Introduction andHistory Introduction 37 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 Hanscom (2001), andothers. HEARTS isanacronym for: effectively. tion andtherapeuticalliancebetween thesurvivor andacounselorwhoiswillingable tolisten therapeutictechniques andproceduresless onparticular thanonthecompassionatehuman interac- oftrust,of theexperience safety, andtheabilitytohave aneffectontheworld. relies Thisrelearning In thismodel, andtraumasurvivors anessentialcondition ofhealingtorture isthereestablishment applied tovictimsofterrorism, especiallyincidentsinvolving abduction, hostagetaking, andabuse. atreatmentmodelthatemergedfrom herworkdescribed withsurvivors andthatmay oftorture be additionalnarrative working-through. andfacilitates tional channelsofinformation Hanscom(2001) inlifegenerally. andparticipation strategies cise shouldnotbecomeaprolonged obsessive preoccupation totheexclusionofother therapeutic volumes ofsuchnotesbefore they realize they have madeprogress. Theonlycaveat isthatthisexer- ornarrative therapytechnique ofjournaling . Spungenhasfoundthatsomecovictims may create several again,reads thediary itselfcanbetherapeutic; theactofwriting clinicianswillrecognize thisasthe recorder;thoughts intoaportable thesecanlaterbetranscribed, ifdesired. Even ifthesurvivor never around sopatientscanjotdown theirthoughtsasthey occur. Anothersuggestionistotape-record the murder andabouttheirdeceasedloved one. enoughtocarry Thisnotebookshouldbeportable down theirthoughtsandfeelingsabout recommends andwrite they keeporjournal adailydiary radically different from theonethey ledbefore (Spungen, 1998). Forsuchpatients, Spungen (1998) their strengths and helping them to liveporting a life as possible, as normal albeit a life that will be to continue theirownright lives (Sprang &McNeil, 1995). the slainloved one, realizing thatthere willalways but thatthesurvivors have bepainfulmemories a would you be doing?” A thefuture:by “Ifyou askingpatientstodescribe were anymore, withyour notstruggling grief what therapeutic approaches. over mastery Psychological thetraumaticbereavement canbeencouraged groups. support running patients totake backsomecontrol oftheirlives, forexampleby or helping andeducatingothers be appliedtosymptom management. should beprovided, Opportunities arranged, or plannedfor developed, relaxation training, biofeedback, desensitization, andcognitive behavioral techniquescan too quickly (Sprang much information At eachstep, thetherapistshouldmonitorpatients’ reactions toavoid overwhelming themwithtoo Victim Assistance, VictimsCompensationFund, Crime employee assistanceprograms, andsoon. aboutsuchvictimresourcesing concrete astheRedCross, information NationalOrganizationfor to dispel unrealistic expectations.and try Other aspects of this educative process include provid- ventilation ofemotionandprovide support. necessary member. killing of a family that follow the terrorist and dosed Therapists should encourage a graded E =Focusing onemotionsandreactions . Thisinvolves usingreflective listening, asking- gentleques .H =Listening tothehistory Thisincludesproviding agentleenvironment, listening withbody A HEARTS hasbeensuggestedby ofterror Miller (2002c), modeltodealwiththe aftermath By simplyaskingwhatthevictimsaw, heard, felt, touched, ortasted, theclinicianopensaddi- more productiveA far therapeuticapproach involves validating thesurvivors’ painwhilesup- The patientshouldbehelpedtoreduce self-blame through theuseofcognitive orexistential astowhattheyThen, members canexpect toeducatefamily begin therapistsshouldgradually tions, and namingtheemotions. listening. and listeningcompassionately. of active Clinicianswillrecognize thisasabasicdescription the speaker’s movements and reactions, expressions, looking at facial remaining quietly patient, language, attendingtheflow ofspeech, the voice andtoneofthespeaker, hearing observing related process involves helping the patient say goodbye a psychological to & McNeil, 1995). have and therapeutic rapport When trust Jack Kitaeff 38 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 encouraged to set an example of expressing their own grief inahealthyencouraged tosetanexample ofexpressing andmature theirown way, grief tolead and should be encouraged. are Leaders powerful symbols. should be leaders Local and regional recovery process. ofthehealingprocess disasterare part tothe victimsoftheterrorist Memorials ers, whohave andothers distinguishedthemselves components ofthecommunity are important mendations andawards toprofessional first responders, volunteer rescue workers, provid service - andincrease therapeuticand socialmorale. candotooffersupport community leaders Com- By definition, are disasters community events, mass-casualtyterrorist andthere is much that never ofanunhealthy bepart obsessive preoccupation (Spungen, 1998). about the deceased or creating a izing scrapbook,activities include writing but these activities should thatmayimagery counterbalancethegrotesquerecollections attack. oftheterror - Similarmemorial survivors. picture albums Inlookingatfamily together, uppositive therapistsandsurvivors canbring foundations asaway theirslainloved ofmemorializing ones. orsocialservice charitable orjoinedvarious homa CityandWorldTradeCentersurvivors started activities (Rynearson, antiterrorism groupsorpoliticalreligious as support 1996). Many Okla- life anddeath, aswell bothprivate meditative asencouraging andsociallycommittedactivities, such effects ofthemurder. Therapeuticmeasures may involve members’ thefamily exploring conceptsof orphilosophicalbeliefsactionscanbuffer thedestabilizinganddisintegratory sustaining spiritual ism anddespairare commonearlyresponses, torecover andhelpingpatientsfamilies ordevelop lems, conflict, marital substanceabuse,family stresses. orotherpreexisting hold whenthedeathoccurs, sotherapy must address coexistingissuessuchasschoolandjobprob- more recent traumaofthemurder. Inaddition, otheraspectsoflifecannotautomaticallybeputon with unresolved from thepast, traumaticmaterial bere-evoked whichwillalmostcertainly by the (Alarcon, 1999; Catherall, 1995). Accordingly, bereavement therapy forterrorist may have todeal into positive andhope. cyclesofsupport Accordingly, akey therapeutictaskofteninvolves anddespair viciouscyclesofrecrimination turning tocopewithtrauma. tooneanotherintheirefforts act asbothexacerbatingandmitigatingfactors casualty incidentwhere are hundreds killed, offamilies injured, ordisplaced, can members family attack, orkilledinaterrorist memberwhoishurt oramassterrorist Whether itisasinglefamily .S =Helping withself-change Thisinvolves discussingtheperson’s view worldview—the original T =Teaching relaxationandcopingskills. Thisinvolves thepatientinrelaxation skills, instructing R =Explaining thereason forsymptoms. Thisincludesshowing how thesymptomsfittogether, A =Asking aboutsymptoms. Thisinvolves usingone’s andtherapeuticstyletoinvestigate personal Pictures and other mementos of the deceased family member can serve as comforting imagesfor membercanservePictures ascomforting andothermementosof thedeceasedfamily Therapists shouldinquire members’ aboutindividual family private ofdeath. Nihil- Family therapistshave longrecognized thattheeffectsofsuccessive traumasare oftencumulative and any changes, adaptations, recognizing thepositive orsimilarities—and changesintheself. healthy strategies, andteachingnew copingskills). (e.g.,ing copingstrategies such asabdominalbreathing, meditation, prayer, imagery, visualization, andothers; anddiscuss- event.a very abnormal body andmind, peoplehave symptomsthatnormal andemphasizingthattheseareto normal how the body reactsdescribing tostress and trauma, explainingthe interaction between the physicalcurrent symptoms, symptoms, psychological current andsuicidaltendencies. recognizing how they have copedinthepast, reinforcing oldand Community Responses Introduction andHistory Introduction 39 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 building, withtwo holdinggunsonthem. kidnappers becameimpatientwith Whenthekidnappers conversation withSchreiber and Genscher while standing at the second-floor window of the besieged German, and shooting coach Kehat Shorr, the senior member of the Israeli delegation, had a brief to satisfy themselves that the Israelis were still alive. FencingcoachAndre Spitzer, who spoke fluent on theroof. Intheend, thepolicesimplyleft. prepared toattack. leaningover Footageshows theterrorists tolookatthepolicewhowere inhiding the imageslive ontelevision. Withtelevisions on, were theterrorists able towatch thepoliceasthey The policetookuppositionsandawaited ordersthatnever came. response, ofcounterterrorist untrained inany sort andwithoutspecifictactics inplaceforthe rescue. machineguns,in Olympicsweatsuits andcarrying border thesewere police, oftheGerman members to . Instead, policewas dispatched totheOlympicVillage. asmallsquadofGerman Dressed Genscher, Hans-Dietrich ter fortheInterior rejected ’s offertosendanIsraelispecialforces unit jailed in Israel. authorities, of Chancellor WillyBrandt and Minis- TheGerman under the leadership Halfin, 24; shootingcoachKehatShorr, 53; andfencingcoachAndre Spitzer, 27. Springer, 51; weightlifter Ze’ev Friedman, 28; trackcoachAmitzurShapira, 40; wrestler Eliezer weightlifter David Berger,American-born 28; wrestler , 18; weightlifting judge Yacov before beingkilled. the intruders to death. WeightlifterYossefRomano, ofthree, 31andthefather alsoattacked andwounded oneof knifebefore beingshot unconsciousandstabbedanotherwithafruit knocked oneoftheintruders toanother,apartment allowing oneofhiswrestlers, GadTsobari, toescape. Theburly Weinberg coach MosheWeinberg, age33, attacked asthehostageswere thekidnappers beingmoved from one weight tostopthePalestiniansfrom againstthedoortotry forcing theirway in. Thewrestling other side. Heshouted, “Hevretistalku!” (Guys, getoutofhere!) andthrew hisnearly300-pound apartment. Whenheinvestigated, hesaw toopenandmasked thedoorbegin menwithgunson usedbyapartments theIsraeliteam. sneaking intotheOlympicVillagecompound. ThePalestiniansthenusedstolenkeys toentertwo in duffelbagsscaledachain-linkfencewiththehelpofunsuspectingU.S. athleteswho, too, were on September 5, gunsandgrenades astheathletesslept, cladintracksuitsandcarrying eightterrorists ofFiddlerwatching ontheRoofbeforetoOlympicVillage. returning aperformance At4:30a.m. policeofficer. the deathsof11IsraeliathletesandoneGerman attack, attempts at negotiations, miserable and failed and a botched rescue attempt eventually led to organizationBlackSeptember—agroupwithinYasserArafat’sian terrorist Fatahorganization. The Munich, Germany, of theIsraeliOlympicteam were when members taken hostage by the Palestin- evision. Whatbecameknown asthe “” atthe1972SummerOlympicsin occurred Chief InspectorattheNew YorkPoliceDepartment, watched asahostagedramaunfoldedontel- developing thenation’s HostageNegotiationTeamin1972. true first One of the most notable initiatives and far-reaching taken by Harvey Schlossberg was in hispart ton, the community inrecognizing (Ursano, ofconstructive theappropriateness mourning Fuller- At one point during thecrisis, demandeddirectAt onepointduring thenegotiators contactwiththehostagesinorder In themeantime, cameracrewsandbroadcast apartments filmedthepoliceactions from German demandedtherelease andsafepassage toEgyptof234Palestiniansandnon-Arabs The terrorists wereThe kidnappers leftwithnineliving hostages:wrestling referee YossefGutfreund, age40; Israeli wrestling referee YossefGutfreund scratchingnoiseatthedooroffirst heard afaint According tonews sources, theIsraeliathleteshadenjoyed anightoutonSeptember 4, 1972, An eye-opening hostageevent tookplaceinthesummerof1972. SimonEisdorfer, Assistant & Norwood, 1995). Emergency Response Unit and Hostage Negotiations: Munich Emergency UnitandHostage Response Negotiations: Jack Kitaeff 40 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 p. pers. Allhadbeenchosensimplybecausethey “shot competitively onweekends” (Kitaeff, 2006a, atthe airport. assault onthekidnappers were ontheirway nearMunich, toRiem, airport plannedan but theinternational theauthorities airbase,Fürstenfeldbruck where aBoeing727aircraft was waiting. believed Thekidnappers they and at 10:10 p.m., and their hostages to nearby both the kidnappers two transported helicopters television camerasandpulledawayof international from thewindow. Spitzer’s prolonged answers tothenegotiators’ questions, thecoachwas pistol-whippedinfullview ment: “Ourworst have fears beenrealized tonight. They’ve now saidthatthere were 11hostages; 2 fed themintohisearpiece. Afterthebotchedrescue attempt, hecameontheairwiththis state- the Olympicsthatyear forABC, hadtaken theevents onthejobofreporting asRooneArledge Gutfreund, Shorr, Slavin, Spitzer, gunfire. and Shapira—with fatal Jim McKay, who was covering theremaining fivea third kidnapperstoodatthedoorofhelicopterandriddled hostages— Cooley,writes kept kidnappers thesurviving atbay fire trucks by shootingatthem. nade andtosseditbackintothecockpit, where itdetonated. helicopter Whilethefirst was burning, Halfin, andFriedman, and wounding Bergerintheleg.gre - Thekidnapperthenpulledthepinona of thehelicopters. andsprayed Heturned thehelicopterandhostageswithgunfire, killingSpringer, of hisown men. woundedin turn by oneofhisfellow policeofficers, who was unaware thathe was shootingatone Khalid Jawad attemptedtoescapeonfoot, thissnipershotandkilledthe fleeingkidnapper, and was fire,directly inthelineoffriendly withoutany protective gear. Laterinthebattle, whenkidnapper scopes. Later, itwas discovered never thatoneofthesnipers fired ashotbecausehe was positioned lackofpreparation.egregious were Noneoftherifles equippedwithtelescopicsightsornightvision nate theirfire. Noneofthe snipers were equippedwithsteelhelmetsor bulletproof vests, proving an mination, were foundonsomeoftheropes afterthegunfire hadended. the hostagessecretly worked onlooseningtheirbonds. Teethmarks, evidence ofthehostages’ deter- tied upinsidethecraft, couldnot. A stalematedeveloped. thegunbattle, During wrote Groussard, Anton Fliegerbauer, was killedby thegunfire. Thehelicopterpilotsfled, butthehostages, who were behind thehelicopters, outofthesnipers’ lineofsight. policeofficerinthecontrol tower, A German scrambled tosafety, lightsasthey could from fire andbegantoreturn andshootoutasmany airport and athird was wounded mortally ashefledthescene. Thethree remaining exposedkidnappers safety inalldirections. Intheensuingfrenzy, two standingnearthepilotswere kidnappers killed, positionednearbythe policesnipers toopenfire. toward thehelicopters, andatapproximately 11:00p.m., gave authorities theorder theGerman to to inspectthejet, onlytofinditempty. Knowing they hadbeenduped, they jogged hastily back heldthepilotsatgunpoint,While fouroftheBlackSeptembermembers IssaandTony walked over then abandonedtheirmission, withoutcontacttoorfrom any centralcommand. onthetarmac, were votedas thehelicopters policeaboard theairplane onand arriving theGerman they were whohadnotbeentrainedforsuchamission. policeofficers ordinary Atthelastminute, plane, remaining atthehelicopters. achancetokilltheterrorists snipers andgive But theGerman the flightcrew. Theplan was forthemto overpower withthepretense ofinspecting the theterrorists policeinside, German withfive orsixarmed the tarmac who volunteered todothejob, dressed as

87). No tanks or armored personnel carriers were87). at the scene. carriers personnel No tanks or armored A Five snipers, German noneofwhomhadany specialtraining, were chosentoshootthekidnap- to Cairo. demanded transportation The kidnappers feigned agreement authorities The German What happenedtotheremaining hostagesisstillamatterofdispute. However, itislikely that At 4minutes pastmidnight, by now into , jumpedoutofone oneofthekidnappers didnothave snipers The five German radiocontactwitheachotherand were unable tocoordi - There was instantchaos. for ofthechoppercrews members begansprinting ThefourGerman landedjustafter10:30p.m.,The helicopters emerged. andthefourpilotssixofkidnappers Introduction andHistory Introduction 41 Boeing 727 jet was positioned on Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 when thepoliceneedhelpthey calltheESU. Theunitprovides specializedequipment, expertise, and Unit (ESU). withintheEmergency Service andisincorporated fixture ofthepolicedepartment permanent alloverdepartments theworld (Kitaeff, 2006b). A specialhostagenegotiationteam isnow a relaxed andthey fellforthehostages’ ruse. expressed thatby basically “doing nothing” andwaiting outthesituation, thegunmen’s alertness and exited to the roof through a hidden stairway. In his book, go totherear ofthestore inanticipationofashoot-out. Instead, they broke a plasterboard wall with staying alive thanwithsuicide. Hesentinapoliceradioandinitiateddialogue. requested medicalaidandfood. ThismadeSchlossbergbelieve thatthesemenwere more concerned 2006). The gunmen had recently sent out a note stating that one of their comrades was injured. They by Israeliagents. natural causesandtheothertwo were assassinated, but itisnotknown forsure ifthey were killed massacre. Eightofthe11mentargetedfordeathwere killed. Oftheremaining three, onediedof Israeli assassination squad tracked along withthoseresponsible down forplanning the the terrorists bereleased.that theMunichkillers were capitulatedandtheterrorists letgo, TheGermans but an cancelingorpostponingtheOlympics. tomerit considered sufficientlyserious (Kitaeff, 2006a, p. were killedintheirrooms yesterday morning, tonight. 9were killedattheairport They’re allgone” the place; I to calmthingsdown. Heordered thecops tostopshootingandwait itout. “I didn’t want to storm pinned down by policefire. onthescenearriving was thingsSchlossbergdidwhen Oneofthefirst 1,February 2006). like afinalexamforourhostagenegotiationstraining” (H. Schlossberg, communication, personal involving men. 11 hostages and four armed “In a way,” Schlossberg recalled, “the Brooklyn siege was consultation neededinallaspectsofthenewchological team. Whatresulted was a48-hoursiege things quicklyashadunfortunately, andtragically, beendoneinthepast. andmore likelybecome tired tosurrender. andhungry Hisemphasiswas saving lives, notending in theirfavor. couldchangeshifts but thesuspectscouldnot, Policeofficers andthelatter would takers. asiegeintowaiting gamethatplayed Herealizedcouldsubtlyturn thatnegotiators out goods store andonepoliceofficer was killed. seized adozen hostagesat a Brooklyn profilerobbers sporting inwhicharmed standoff in January Hostage NegotiationTeam. of1973, Theteambecamereality inthespring monthsafterahigh- was notprepared todealwithit. Accordingly, hedeveloped theoperationalplansfornation’s first such anevent couldactuallyhappen inNew YorkCity. Healsoknew thatthepolicedepartment terrorism. and launchedanew eraofinternational attacks of nificant terror recent times, onethatsetthetonefordecadesofconflict intheMiddleEast have experts thattheMunichmassacre was theorized oneofthemostsig- Many counterterrorism The ESUisconsidered very elite. Itissaid thatwhensomeoneneedshelpthey callthepolice, Eisdorfer andSchlossberg’s techniques worked andwould bestudiedandemulated by police In theend, thehostagesescapedby toletthem aclever Theytheircaptors hadpersuaded trick: A littleover amonthlater, onOctober 29, aLufthansajetwas hijackeddemanding by terrorists The gunmen had barricaded themselves withthehostagesinsidestore,The gunmenhadbarricaded where they were andapolicedetective,As both a psychologist Harvey Schlossbergprovided mostof the psy- Eisdorfer knew that by puttingfresh copsintoahostagesituation, hecouldwear down hostage As thecommandingofficerofNYPD’s SpecialOperationsdivision, Eisdorfer realized that wanted to talk to them,” he recalls (H. Schlossberg, communication, personal February 89). Butalmostbeyond comprehension, themassacre of11Israeliathleteswas not The Aftereffects of Munich: The Birth of theESU of Munich:The Aftereffects The Birth of Jack Kitaeff 42 Psychologist With a Gun,Psychologist Schlossberg 1, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 surprised everyone thistime(Kitaeff, bysurprised endingahostagesituationduring 2006b). details alone. usesurveillance devices totellwheneveryone Authorities asleepandhave falls attimes orasolosuspectwhohashandledallthe especially whenthere are asmallnumber ofperpetrators ers, weapons present, routine, andchainofcommand). Sleepmay occur, andthisisnotuncommon, and thesereleased hostageswillbeinterviewed forwhatthey observed (i.e., ofhostagetak- numbers and telleveryone togetsomerest. Hostagesmay betradedforfood, drink, and/ortoiletfacilities, ence of some chemical stimulant, they are likely to calm down after a while, appear to be exhausted, way, orwere justpicked atrandomtomake apoint. Unlessthehostagetakers are undertheinflu- tobeahero,either becausethey tried madesomeremark orsuggestion, stoodoutinsomesymbolic tage takers are still going through a panic reaction. This iswhen most hostagesgetinjured orkilled, liaison (whomaintainscommunications withcommand). organizes incoming information), (whoserves a psychologist as aconsultantor advisor), and a tactical negotiationsandmakestiator (whomonitors suggestions), anintelligenceofficer (whoseeksand negotiator(whodoesmostoftheactive negotiations),These includetheprimary nego- asecondary attempting tocommit “suicide by cop.” becausesomehostagetakers may important beoutoftouchwithrealityThis isparticularly oreven taker mightbe. mightbementallyill(about50%ofthemare) andwhattheextentoftheirlifecrisis chances forsurvival. A trainedhostagenegotiatorwillbeable toadvisepoliceonwhetherahostage spend equaltimeanalyzingwhichhostagesmightengageinbehaviors thatdiminishorenhancetheir gerousness; tacticsthatwould orpsychological suggestdialogue strategies defusethesituation; and profiletrained policenegotiators hostagetakers; theirmotivation, determine vulnerabilities, anddan- cial WeaponsandTacticsteam(SWAT). Forpossible hostagesituation, and on-scenepsychologists situations, theESUiscalledinwhensituationrequires advanced equipmentandexpertise. units within the NYPD. to the various support From auto accidents to building collapses to hostage 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. members, whovoted CommitteeonOctober 25, toestablish Services thePolicePsychological 1984. presentationan outlineofinterests toIACP andresponsibilities andmadeaformal Executive Board IACP Annual Conference inSaltLake Cityasanadhoccommittee. Theadhoccommitteedeveloped anIACP committee. services policepsychological forming Thisgroup metagainattheOctober 1984 emy discussedhow couldserve policepsychologists IACP towork andagreed membership toward fromgressed 1984tothepresent time(seeFischler, 2001, 2010; IACP, 2006, 2009). AssociationofChiefsPolice(IACP) Section haspro Services - The International Psychological

The first 15to45minutes ofahostagesituationareThe first themostdangerous. Thisisbecausethehos- In contrast to Eisdorfer’s time, teams now usually consist of at least five crisis/hostage people. Also includedwithintheESUiswhatcommonlyreferred toinotheragenciesastheSpe- Initial objectives ofthecommitteewere to: August 1984,During attendingaconference ofpolicepsychologists attheFBI Acad- agathering upgrade skills inthelawupgrade enforcement mentalhealth area. Provide andtrainingtomentalhealthprofessionals sothey information mightdevelop and Make trainingavailable policepsychology toIACP andrelated fields. concerning membership ment mentalhealthprofessionals. Identify policepsychology resources, including thedevelopment oflaw ofadirectory enforce- ingeneral. Advance services policepsychological mental healthfieldstolaw enforcement ingeneral, andtotheIACP inparticular. Provide animmediateandknowledgeable source onpolicepsychology andrelated information The International Association of Chiefs of Police, of Chiefs Psychological of Association The International Services Section andRelevant Section Police Organizations Services Introduction andHistory Introduction 43 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 4. 3. 2. 1. developed, amongotherthings, guidelinesforissuesrelating to: work withpublic aspsychologists law enforcement agencies. Section has Services ThePsychological other traumaticincidents, fitnessforduty, anduseofpeersupport. to policepsychology andhasdeveloped standards forpre-employment, duty-related shootingsand annual conference. inthedevelopment Thesectionhasalsobeeninstrumental ofstandards relating attheannual conferences,grams ateach trainingforpolicepsychologists andschedulingin-service toPoliceChiefmagazine, Committeeby Services contributing Psychological presenting trainingpro- to over 80policepsychologists. objectives Thesection continues toadhere ofthe totheoriginal the Annual Conference inNashville. Sincethattime, Section hasgrown Services thePsychological shops forthe1986Annual Conference. Thecommitteewas elevated tofullsectionstatusin1986at needs. metagainonDecember 17, Committeemembers 1985, attheFBIAcademy tofinalize work- Police Chiefmagazine. role was toserve Thecommitteeconsentedthatitsprimary IACP member how toadvance thesegoalsthrough presentations atIACP annual conferences andpublications in Annual Conference inHouston, Texas, develop tofurther initialgoals. Itimmediatelybegantoplan subscription is included with membership intheSPCP. isincludedwithmembership subscription justice.academicians inthefieldofcriminal base, hasa Thejournal worldwide subscription anda tions. ispublished twice peryear The journal andfocusesonissuesrelevant and topractitioners justicesystem. the criminal police officers, personnel, corrections social workers, andprofessionals involved inthestudyof at theconference. TheSPCPwelcomes presentations from psychologists, psychiatrists, lawyers, who are by encouragedtoshare theirexpertise makingapresentation orconductingaworkshop welcomed regarding research, theory, and applications that may be of interest to the members, ogy, justice system. including topics relating to mental health andthe criminal Proposals are fromexpertise every relevant discipline, topresent psychol- theirwork onpoliceandcriminal justicesystem.those inthecriminal The SPCPinvites individuals from allover theworld, with litigation issues, inmate populations, issues in probation and parole, and other issues affecting niques, justiceagencies, decision-makingissuesincriminal personnel justice, thelaw andcriminal perspectivespresentations oninternational inpolicing, specializedpoliceprocedures andtech- justiceandthebehavioral betweenference sciences. focusesontheinterface criminal Itincludes justicesystem(SPCP, withthecriminal professionals concerned 2010). psychologists, socialworkers, psychiatrists, lawyers, policeofficers, personnel, corrections andother within theframework justicesystem. ofthecriminal Consequently, theSPCPencouragesinputfrom systems. oftheSPCPstudyfullrangehumanbehaviors, Members motivations, andactions knowledge toproblemsjustice. incriminal Itfocusesonlaw enforcement, judicial, andcorrections psychology andtheapplicationofscientific encourages thescientificstudyofpoliceandcriminal Psychology (SPCP)isaneclecticprofessionalThe SocietyforPoliceandCriminal organizationthat

Membership in the section is open to licensed psychologists whoareofIACP inthesectionisopentolicensedpsychologists members Membership andwho metonOctober 13, Committeefirst The new Services PolicePsychological 1985, attheIACP through Springer Publica Psychologythrough- ofPoliceandCriminal Springer The SPCPalsopublishes theJournal atvaryinglocations. thefall anannual conferenceThe SPCPsponsors heldduring Thecon- Fitness-for-duty evaluations. Pre-employment evaluations. psychological Officer-involved shootings. Peer support. Society of Police and Police of andCriminal Society Jack Kitaeff 44 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 individuals) (SPCP, 2010). the Diplomatetoonly60people(theauthorofthischapter [andeditorbook]isonethese ate educationalexperiences. Initsmore than30 years asaprofessional association, SPCPhasawarded training. SPCPprovides anadvanced venue- continue inwhich policepsychologists theirpostgradu dictions oftheirrespective states, andpostgraduate experience years ofsupervised typicallyrequiring in professional psychology andhave- credentials appropriate topracticepsychology withinthe juris training andstatelicensure requirements. Asaminimum, holdadoctoraldegree policepsychologists ascapable andaccomplishedinpolicepsychology.peers Diplomatestatusisalevel above graduate practices, techniques, andethicsofpolicepsychology. Thosewhoqualifyare recognized by their in the history,the holder has demonstrated to a board his or her expertise of peers theory, principles, active Diplomatesinpolicepsychology. Attainment ofthishighandrare distinctionsignifiesthat of allcandidatesfortheDiplomate. Theseexaminationsare designedandadministered by currently incident stress debriefing. evaluations, organizationdevelopment, training, hostagenegotiationteamconsultation, andcritical psychologists, suchaspre-employment testing, psychological specialtyassignmentandfitness-forduty Police psychology provided encompassesmany specializedservices tolaw enforcement agenciesby psychology. inpolicepsychology. are fortheDiplomatecertification Onlypsychologists eligible diploma awarded by theSPCP isthepremier inthisspecialtyarea board ofapplied certification made by whowork psychologists withlaw enforcement, aseithercliniciansoracademics. The of employees, fitness-for-duty evaluations, mentalhealthprograms, investigative criminal analysis cies, emergency medicalservices, andotherpublic safety entities. They are involved intheselection ofthissectionworkMembers withlaw enforcement, fire departments, agen - nuclear regulatory United States. Division 18hasthepotentialto directly orindirectly touchthelives ofmostpeopleliving inthe and outpatientsettings, aswell systems. ascommunity support Through thework ofitsmembers, developbers andimplement mental healthtreatment programs ininpatient for millionsofpersons programs.United Statesby theinternship providing sitesandadministering Itsmem - theinternship serve andtheplacesthey work. tures, and academicinstitutions. Ingeneral, they provide theservices they are asthepersons asvaried systems, VAmedicalcenters, justice systems, criminal policeandpublic safetysettings,- statelegisla the public. They work ofsettings, inavariety includingstatehospitals, community mentalhealth ofmentalhealthservices,consumers managers, administrators, policymakers, electedofficials, and developers,gram clinicalcoordinators, managers, administrators, andmore. Theirclientsinclude advocate withmentalillness, forpersons andpromote qualitycare. Among itsgoals, Division 18works toprotect andadvance theprofession, fosterethicalpractice, areas practice, as , training, program development, and outcome evaluation. in 1946asafoundingdivision ofAPA. Itwas created inresponse totheneedsofpublic insuch According totheAPA, theDivision(Division inPublic ofPsychologists 18)was Service established In order toassesstheseareas ofknowledge, are andoralexaminationsinperson required written The “Diplomate” designatorisdesignedtorecognize andcontributions thespecialexpertise Members ofDivisionMembers 18helptrainmore in the thanhalftheclinicalandcounselingpsychologists are psychologists Public practitioners, service researchers, university professors, legislators, pro- Division 18 of the American Psychological Association: Association: Psychological theAmerican 18of Division of Division 18 Police Division of Section and Public Safety Psychologists inPublic Service Psychologists Introduction andHistory Introduction 45 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 tion’s Board ofProfessional American Psychology (ABPP). ABPPwas Butunfortunately notthe Board Associa- by Psychological of Forensic Psychology the American (ABFP) and the American In 1986,granted Diplomatestatus tobe full-timepracticingpolicepsychologist shebecamethefirst psychology thatwould addcredibility inthecourtroom forthosewhoconductedpolice evaluations. were unfair). RobinInwald searched foracredential beyond thePh.D. andstate license topractice (whencandidateswerecharges ofdiscrimination nothired andbelieved assessments thepsychological hired whoinitiallyhad “passed” evaluations thepsychological andthendid somethingwrong) or havecases(whenofficers practicing policepsychologists were abouteithernegligenthiring worried Now aware casesandthegrowing ofrecent court potentialfor publicity andlawsuits inthisarea, treatment, andethicaltrainingissuesinvolved lineofwork. inthischallenging theadministration, concerning tooneanotherthroughport anexchangeofinformation assessment, anddetentioncenters. facilities operate stateorfederalcorrectional They provide professional sup- withincarceratedwho peopleandwithadministrators ofthissectionworkMembers primarily implementation ofeffective mentalhealthprograms, incidentstress debriefing. includingcritical (profiling), andhostagenegotiations. inthedevelopment They participate oftraining, research, and announcements onaregular basis. tional , andPeopleofColorCrime, newsletters, whichalsodistribute journals, and divisions andSentencing, suchasCorrections Criminology, Critical WomenandCrime,- Interna nology & Public andCriminology Policy, andanewsletter,. TheCriminologist TheASChasspecialized sional employment ontheWeb. andposition-listingservice receive- Members Crimi thejournals anemploymentASC alsosponsors exchangeattheannual meetingsandmaintainsanactive profes- justiceandcriminology.many fieldsofcriminal knowledge.of criminological includestudents, Members practitioners, andacademiciansfrom the scholarship,and practicesoastofostercriminological forthedissemination andtoserve asaforum to encouragetheexchange, setting, inamultidisciplinary ofthoseengagedinresearch, teaching, sequences, prevention, control, anddelinquency. andtreatment of crime TheASC’s objectives are scholarly,pursue scientific, andprofessional knowledgethemeasurement, concerning etiology, con- organizationwhosemembers (ASC)isaninternational SocietyofCriminology The American Psychology-LawSocietyNewsletterthree times peryear.American sessions.paper andplenary receive Members LawandHumanBehaviorthe thebimonthlyjournal in thelegalsystem. TheDivision holdsabiennialtwo-and-one-half-day meetingthatincludes spring andlaw matters, inpsychological inlegalmatters personnel gists andtheapplicationofpsychology butions ofpsychology oflaw totheunderstanding andlegalinstitutions, theeducationofpsycholo- According totheAPA, Psychology-Law Division- 41—theAmerican Society—promotes thecontri The ASCconductsanannual meetingdevoted todiscussionsoftopicsgeneralinterest. The Division 41 of the American Psychological Association Association Psychological theAmerican 41of Division (The American Psychology-Law Association) Psychology-Law American (The of Division 18 Division of Section Justice Criminal The American Society of Criminology of Society American The Certification Jack Kitaeff 46 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 apply forcandidacy. requirements, believeschologist andABPPSPeligibility heorshemeetsthegeneric heorshemay police andpublic safetypsychology orABPPSP), inthenextsectionbelow. described Whenapsy- lated by theABPP, aswell asthespecific Boardrequirements of ofthespecialtyboard (American trained andwhopracticeoutsidetheU.S., orCanada. itsterritories, criteria. The ABPPdoesnotacceptapplicationsfrom individualsABPP generic whoare foreign- through theAssociation ofStateandProvincial Psychology Boards (ASPPB)ashaving metthe of ProfessionalThe ABPPrecognizes oftheCertificate Qualifications(CPQ) holders available 4. 3. 2. 1. each ofthespecialtyboards. ABPPrequirements consistof: Generic andexaminationprocedures established byand onlythenare applicantssubjecttoadditionalcriteria anyrequirements of the specialtyboards applicable meet generic must toall ABPPapplicants, first thattherereports SpecialistsinPoliceandPublic are70Board SafetyPsychology. currently Certified Board ofPoliceandPublicPresident-Elect (ABPPSP). SafetyPsychologists oftheAmerican She Cuttler, and others. Asofthiswriting, and JeniMcCutcheon is theNationalChairofExaminers andtireless workneering suchasPhilipTrompetter, ofpolicepsychologists David Corey, Michael ing the specialty diploma to police and public safety psychologists. This was to the pio- due in part activities ofthepolicepsychologist. Psychology. Butnoneofthesecovered thematerial, academicsubjectmatter, oreveryday practice arechologists Forensic Psychology, OrganizationalBusinessandConsultingPsychology, andClinical for themthere. Theclosestareas withintheorganizationthathadany relevance forpolicepsy- didn’tgists even DiplomatestatuswithinABPPasthere botherpursuing was simplynota “home” post-Ph.D. credentialing sodesperatelyneeded. bodythatpolicepsychologists Mostpolicepsycholo- lowing requirements: specific tothespecializationinPolice &Public SafetyPsychology includethefol- criteria Eligibility

To for board be eligible certification, requirements the applicant stipu- must satisfy the generic Board ofProfessionalAccording totheAmerican Psychology, applicantsforABPPcandidacyin All thischangedasof2011, Board ofProfessional whentheAmerican Psychology beganaward - of thathistory, aswell asevidence ofacceptable resolution, toreview prior oftheapplication.] ethical violations (e.g., who are licensedbut have actionby orof thegoverning ofdisciplinary ahistory jurisdiction reason isnotacceptable foradmissiontocandidacyABPPboard certification. [Individuals for independentpractice; forsome orisrestricted licensure thatisdependentonsupervision oftheUnitedStates, by ajurisdiction be granted orCanada. itsterritories, Thelicensemust be Licensed atthedoctoral level fortheindependent practice of psychology. Suchlicensure must program. [Note:Specialtyboard requirements are inadditiontothisminimum requirement.] training, oraminimum training oftwo otherthaninaformal years ifobtainedundersupervision A minimum of one year of postdoctoral experience, postdoctoral completed through formal the equivalent ofAPA orCPA requirements. APA-Completion ofanappropriate orCPA-accredited internship, thatoffered oraninternship equivalent ofAPA orCPA requirements. Association (CPA) was atthetimedegree granted, thatwas the orthatoffered acurriculum Association(APA)accredited Psychological by theAmerican or theCanadianPsychological fromA doctoraldegree aprogram inprofessional psychology fromprogram thatwas agraduate

such as may be determined bysuch as may the APA) be determined are required to provide details Specialty-Specific Requirements Specialty-Specific Introduction andHistory Introduction 47 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 graduate course directly course related topoliceandpublicgraduate safetypsychology, uptoamaximum of30 hours. approved. ofcredit Fifteenhours willbeawarded forsuccessfulcompletionofa3-credit advanced based credits, accredited onlinecourses, DVDs)related tothespecialtymay beappliedifAPA- police andpublic safetypsychology. ofindependentstudy(e.g., Upto8 hours Section, Services logical Annual Conference. Orlando, Florida, .5hrs. October 23, 2010). Psychology: AnUpdate, M. Bruce Cappo, Ph.D., AssociationofChiefsPolice, International Psycho- from theNCE(e.g., specialties. Anotherwisegeneralworkshop may berelevant inwriting toPPSPbut must beauthorized Law Enforcementandnotsimplygeneralcontinuing educationequallyapplicable Personnel) toother Selection, Responders, Sleep Deprivation and its Effects on First Cognitive Behavioral Therapy with safety psychology (e.g., preceding applicationforboard certification. must bedistinctive These50 hours to policeandpublic specific continuing educationhours, thatwere witha minimum of 25 hours gathered in the three years of policeandpublic safetypsychology (PPSP). must A minimum derive of50 hours from specialty- must beidentifiable asdirectly relevant fulfillment ofthiscriterion dence offullorpartial tothepractice educationand/orcontinuing educationworkshopsThe subjectmatterofgraduate presented asevi- inanotherABPPspecialtyboard Psychology. or certification by theSocietyforPoliceandCriminal continuing education, or peerconsultation, supervision formal peer-reviewed publications, andboard graduate courseworktion ofthefollowing tothespecialty: or fourmethodsifspecificallypertinent is required forspecialtyboard canbesatisfied tobeeligible certification. byacombina- Thiscriterion No fewer than 100 tributions, thefollowing willbetaken intoaccount: and/or editedtexts, ofpublication uptoamaximum credits. of30 hours thesecon- In considering Ten ofcredit hours isawarded foreachpublication ofscholarlyresearch in peer-reviewed journals peerconsultation. and/orformal be claimedfordirect supervision inthepracticeofpoliceandpublic safetypsychology.experience credit A maximum of30 hours can withatleastfive orpeershouldbealicensed psychologist supervisor offull-time postdoctoral years consultation, provided and the services or reviewed under supervision in peer consultation. The orconsultation (monthsandyears), ofsupervision ending period or thenature ofthesupervision or peerconsultation, thespecialty-specific qualificationsofthepsychologist(s), and thebeginning public safetypsychology must providing submit thenameofpsychologist(s) supervision formal peerconsultationinpoliceand Applicants claimingcredit and/orformal for direct supervision creditsawardednumber orCEUcontacthours ofgraduate (e.g., subject matter,faculty, identificationofthepresenter(s) or thedateandlocationoftraining, andthe extent possible, applicantsare required oftheeducationthatincludestitleor togive adescription Domestic Violence). taken Applicantsmust submitalistofcourses thatmeetthiscriterion. Tothe The focus and substantial content of these curriculum-based courses must bedirectly courses relevantThe focusandsubstantialcontentofthesecurriculum-based to hours of formal education and supervision in police and public safety psychology education and supervision of formal hours

Threat AssessmentandtheADA, WorkFitnessExaminations, IssuesSurrounding Hostage Negotiations, UseoftheCPIinpoliceandpublicsafetypsychology DIRECT SUPERVISION/FORMAL PEERCONSULTATION & Training Education A. Specialty CONTINUING ORGRADUATE EDUCATION PUBLICATIONS Jack Kitaeff 48

Technology inthePracticeofPolice book-based, examination-

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 c. b. a. to possess. Public Safety Psychology” by theABPP, credential itisavery forpolicepsychologists important Psychology” thesameweight asbeing by theSPCCdoesnotcarry inPoliceand“Board Certified review, examination, arigorous andanoralinterview. Althoughbeinga “Diplomate inPolice aDiplomateinPolicePsychology who complete anacademicoffers forpolicepsychologists services. withanApplicant’s familiar and/or agencyadministrators work, anddocuments showing contracted in supervision. Shouldadditionalevidence berequested, from thisshallconsistofletters colleagues provisionwill bespentindirect service inpoliceandpublic safety psychology andtheremainder licensure (i.e., postdoctoralexperience), supervised itisexpectedthatatleast1,000ofthesehours per year.2,000 hours toobtainingindependent prior Whenoneormore oftheseyears isperformed considered infulfillmentofthis requirement. Note:Full-timeemployment isdefinedasnolessthan to policeandpublic safetypsychology. 1,500 oftherequired through maysubstantively hours theteaching ofcourses beearned pertinent employment, university employment). If employed full timeas a college or university faculty, up to employment inapublic asapsychologist safetyagency(e.g., years, at least two of which are postdoctoral, were if the services provided outside of full-time full-time, postdoctoralemployment in apoliceorpublic asapsychologist safetyagencyor(b) three oractivities ofdirect inthespecialty,3,000 hours services over accrued nolessthan(a)two years of inpoliceandpublic forspecialtyboard safetypsychology certification Eligibility requires atleast Psychology (SPCP). as well DiplomatesinPolicePsychology asforcurrent withtheSocietyforPoliceandCriminal of credit hours is awardedThirty Specialistsin anotherspecialty, ABPP Board forcurrent Certified safety psychology domainsandactivities. and findings must besubstantively and specifically related toone ormore ofthe policeand public ited by APA oritsequivalent by theABPP. asdetermined Thesubjectmatter, literature review, theses, requirements inpsychology foradoctoraldegree (Ph.D., Ed.D., Psy.D.) from aninstitutionaccred- Ten ofcredit hours isawarded submitted in fulfillment of for successful completion ofadissertation

As indicatedearlierinthischapter, Psychology (SPCC) theSocietyofPoliceandCriminal tobe ofpostdoctoralemploymentApplicants must and/orotherexperience submitadescription psychology may beconsidered forcredit onacase-by-case basis. policies includecontentreview by professional inpoliceorpublic safety subjectmatterexperts for credit. However, publications inbonafidelaw whoseeditorial enforcement periodicals Publications inpopular, trade, self-published, and/oruneditedvolumes willnotbeconsidered discretion, award credit for10orfewer hours. (i.e., third orabove) may submitanexplanationoftheircontributions. TheABPPSPmay, atits authors. authors authororoneoftwo primary Tertiary The Applicantmust betheprimary petencies ofpoliceandpublic safetypsychology. The subjectofthework must bedirectly relevant tothefunctionaland/orfoundationalcom- B. Specialty Experience B. Specialty Introduction andHistory Introduction BOARD CERTIFICATION DISSERTATION 49 private practice, agency part-time Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:54 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780429264108, chapter1, 10.4324/9780429264108-1 unique andvaluable profession psychological withunlimitedpotential. Board ofProfessionalthe American Psychology, established policepsychology itselfasa hastruly 57 areas of core competencies, gaining APA recognition, and obtaining the specialty designation by tion, andissuanceoftheABPPdiplomainpolicepublic safetypsychology. Byestablishing these programs inpolicepsychology,graduate traininginpolice psychology, postgraduate APA accredita- rence, like thatforforensic psychology notlong ago, hasdramaticimplications, suchascoming psychology (inclusive specialty. psychological ofallthelisted57competencies)asatrue Thisoccur- Associationhasnow Psychological recognized isthattheAmerican what ismostimportant police intervention-related consultation(Aumiller &Corey, 2007). dent intervention; incidentcounseling; critical substanceabuse treatment; wellness programs; and tance counseling, individual therapy and counseling; group, couple, therapy; and family inci- critical assessments; promotional assessments; autopsies; psychological testdevelopment; employee assis- evaluationspsychological ofpolicecandidates; fitness-for-duty psychological evaluations; threat 2007). Thesecore domainsofpracticesincludeproficiencies suchasjobanalyses; pre-employment tion services, operational support, and organizational/management consultation (Aumiller & Corey, clustered ororganizedintofourdistinctdomainsofpractice:assessment-related activities, interven- ogy. TheJointCommitteeonPolicePsychology Competenciesidentified57separatecompetencies and Public SafetySection), outacomprehensive recently survey carried ofthefieldpolicepsychol- Association(Division Psychological 18, Psychology andtheAmerican Police andCriminal Police The IACP Section, Services PolicePsychological oftheSocietyfor inconjunctionwithmembers chology” specialty. psychological asatrue On August 10, 2008, atitsannual convention inBoston, APA officiallyacknowledged “police psy- Abshire, J., Abelson, R. P. Abel, G. G., .ABAnet Litigation. Retrieved August 8, 2007from http://abanet.org/litigation/tips/ Aamodt, M. G. (2004). inlawenforcementselection. Research BocaRaton, FL:Brown Walker. 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