Summer 1986 Vol. 6, No. 3 $3.75

The Shocking Truth About Faith-Healing

How Peter Popoff uses secret radio transmissions to receive "messages from heaven." by James Randi and Paul Kurtz, Steven Schafersman, Robert Steiner, William McMahon and James Griffis on PETER POPOFF, W. V. GRANT, DAVID PAUL, AND ERNEST ANGLEY Also: Gerard T. Straub: An Inside View of Pat Robertson's Organization Belief and Unbelief Worldwide Plus: B. F. Skinner on Pope John Paul II SUMMER 1986, VOL. 6, NO. 3 ISSN 0272-0701 Contents 3 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR 26 EDITORIALS 61 IN THE NAME OF GOD 24 ON THE BARRICADES 28 BIBLICAL SCORECARD SPECIAL FEATURE: THE SHOCKING TRUTH ABOUT FAITH-HEALING 5 Deceit in the Name of God: What Can Be Done? Paul Kurtz 6 Peter Popoff Reaches Heaven Via 39.17 Megahertz James Randi 8 Peter Popoff: Miracle Worker or Scam Artist7 Steven Schafersman 10 Behind the Scenes with Peter Popoff Robert A. Steiner 12 W. V. Grant's Faith-Healing Act Revisited Paul Kurtz 15 Further Reflections on Ernest Angley William E. McMahon and James B. Griffis 18 Salvation for Sale: An Inside View of Pat Robertson's Organization Gerard T. Straub BELIEF AND UNBELIEF WORLDWIDE 30 Religipus Skepticism in Latin America Jorge J. E. Gracia 36 Science, Technology and Ideology in the Hispanic World Mario Bunge 41 Religious Belief in Contemporary Indian Society M. P. Rege 49 Humanism in Modern India: An Interview with V. M. Tarkunde Tariq Ismail 54 The Revolt Against the Lightning Rod Al Seckel and John Edwards VIEWPOINTS 56 Vatican Eyes Tighter Control of Catholic Colleges Thomas Flynn 56 A Dangerous Precedent Marjorie Reiley Maguire 57 Sleeping in Peace B. F. Skinner BOOKS 59 Defending Humanist Ethics Konstantin Kolenda 59 A Mormon University Vern L. Bullough 62 CLASSIFIED

Editor: Paul Kurtz

Associate Editors: Doris Doyle, Steven L. Mitchell, Lee Nisbet, Gordon Stein Managing Editor: Andrea Szalanski Contributing Editors: Lionel Abel, author, critic; Robert S. Alley, professor of humanities, University of Richmond; Paul Beattie, president, Fellowship of Religious Humanists; Jo-Ann Boydston, director, Dewey Center; Laurence Briskman, lecturer, Edinburgh University, Scotland; Vern Bullough, historian, State University of New York College at Buffalo; Paul Edwards, professor of philosophy, Brooklyn College; Albert Ellis, director, Institute for Rational Living; Roy P. Fairfield, social scientist, Union Graduate School; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, University of Virginia Medical School; Antony Flew, philosopher, Reading University, England; R. Joseph Hoffmann, associate professor of biblical studies, University of Michigan; Sidney Hook, professor emeritus of philosophy, NYU; Marvin Kohl, philosopher, State University of New York College at Fredonia; Jean Kotkin, executive director, American Ethical Union; Gerald Larue, professor emeritus of archaeology and biblical history, USC; Ronald A. Lindsay, attorney, Washington, D.C.; Howard Radest, director, Ethical Culture Schools; Ralph Raico, associate professor of history, State University of New York College at Buffalo; Robert Rimmer, author; William Ryan, free-lance reporter, novelist; Svetozar Stojanovic, professor of philosophy, University of Belgrade; Thomas Szasz, psychiatrist, Upstate Medical Center, Syracuse; V. M. Tarkunde, Supreme Court Judge, India; Richard Taylor, professor of philosophy, Union College; Sherwin Wine, founder, Society for Humanistic Judaism

Editorial Associates: H. James Birx, James Martin-Diaz, Thomas Flynn, Thomas Franczyk, Lewis M. Spunt, Marvin Zimmerman

Executive Director of CODESH, Inc.: Jean Millholland Book Reviews: Victor Gulotta Promotion: Barry L. Karr Cartoonist: Tom Toles Systems Manager: Richard Seymour Typesetting: Paul E. Loynes Layout: Alain Kugel Audio Technician: Vance Vigrass Staff. Stephanie Doyle, Jacqueline Livingston, Valerie Marvin, Alfreda Pidgeon

FREE INQUIRY (ISSN 0272-0701) is published quarterly by the Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (CODESH, Inc.), a nonprofit corporation, 3151 Bailey Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14215. Phone (716) 834-2921. Copyright 01986 by CODESH, Inc. Second-class postage paid at Buffalo, New York, and at additional mailing offices. National distribution by International Periodicals Distributors, San Diego, California. Subscription rates: $18.00 for one year, $32.00 for two years, $42.00 for three years, $3.75 for single copies. Address subscription orders, changes of address, and advertising to: FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Buffalo, NY 14215-0005. Manuscripts, letters and editorial inquiries should be addressed to: The Editor, FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Buffalo, N.Y. 14215-0005. All manuscripts should be accompanied by two additional copies and a stamped, addressed envelope. Opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors or publisher. I told them I did not believe every word of the Bible. My brother-in-law has informed me that all my problems are due to the fact LETTERS TO THE EDITOR that I do not believe the Christ story. When I told a pastor of a Presbyterian church that I had Unitarian leanings, he advised me not to tell the other church ladies. To my sur- Faith-Healing a great deal of controversy in the Christian prise, the next Sunday this pastor announced community, since it apparently does not have from the pulpit that Unitarians were My aunt, a victim of cancer while in her the guts to do this kind of detective work in possessed by the devil! 30s, halted radiation treatment in favor of exposing their "brothers and sisters of Now I am reluctant to tell anybody my "treatment" from Kathryn Kuhlman. She Christ." religious beliefs. Do we really have freedom died, of course, but that wasn't the worst of religion in America? part. She died in deep guilt and despair, Timothy W. Grogan because she was told that if she wasn't cured Cleveland, Ohio Ruth Gnesin it would be because of her "lack of faith." Madison, Wis. Although I'm wary of tampering with the My mother died of a stroke after seeking First Amendment rights of these witch "treatment," over a period of three or four doctors, I'm grateful that organizations like Christian Science yours choose to exercise their First Amend- years, from five different More on Homer Duncan ment rights by exposing the physical and practitioners, all of whom she paid to pray for her. She knew she had high blood pres- emotional wreckage these shamans cause. I have been astonished to see considerable sure, yet nothing medical was ever tried to space in FREE INQUIRY devoted to so totally Dan Hagen, Editor bring it down. obscure a person as Homer Duncan Times-Courier One night she died. Her teen-aged son— ("Homer Duncan's Crusade Against Secular Mattoon, Ill. me—who found her on the living-room floor Humanism," FI, Winter 1985/86). Like the the next morning, had been kept so ignorant other participants in the Darwin conference of medicine and health by his careful, of a few years ago, I began getting letters I attended a W. V. Grant service on Monday, Christian Science upbringing that he thought from him that I promptly filed in the nearest April 7, 1986. As an Anglican pre-seminarian his mother was asleep (never having even wastebasket after reading the first paragraph, student and a religious humanist, I found heard the word "stroke") and did not even which was usually to the effect that 1 risked Grant's claims of miracles absurd. Miracles try to arouse her for several hours. the loss of eternal life if I did not embrace do not occur regularly. The theological and the views set forth in his letter. Surely the philosophical definition of what constitutes Glen Rice wastebasket is where such rantings belong, a miracle in the Roman Catholic, Anglican, Davis, Calif. and the appropriate response to them would and other main-line Christian denominations be laughter, not rejoinder. There are millions is that miracles are supernatural in origin of people like Homer Duncan, who think and transcend the laws of nature. If an event that merely reading in some old or venerable occurs regularly, it is not a miracle, but a book is reason enough for believing it. On natural event. To be considered a miracle, it that basis they assert that at some time in The Spring FREE INQUIRY is a dandy! We history a man was swallowed by a fish, that must be demonstrated that the event has need more exposés of these church hucksters not occurred previously in human history. another built a ship capable of housing every who lie to the viewers on TV all the time. I Thus Grant's claims of constant miracles is species of animal on the earth, that still just got a satellite receiver and am amazed contradictory to the phenomena's true another was able to make the sun stop at the amount of lies and absurdities that essence. merely by command, that another was born infest the channels, voiced by preachers who I am a diabetic. I was called out to be of a virgin and rose from the dead, and so cater to ignorance, gullibility, and supersti- healed, but when I visited my physician two on, to numberless idiocies. If they are tion. Keep up the good work and publish weeks later, he found no evidence that I Mormons they believe that the American more about these legalized robbers. had been cured. Indians came to this continent in boats from I was just debating last month about Israel, since that, too, is written. If they are renewing my membership and I finally did, Richard Allwood Muslims they believe things no less absurd, and am 1 glad. St. John Fisher College because they are written somewhere. These Rochester, N.Y. people have no conception of evidence or Jean Bertolette even of ordinary intelligence—something Yucca Valley, Calif. which Homer Duncan admits, in his own As a former "born-again Christian" I saw case, when he writes that he sees no dif- many examples of faith-healing during my ference between ascribing an opinion to tenure with the charismatic movement. It is George Bernard Shaw and to a character in amazing to me that Christian groups like Religious Freedom one of Shaw's plays! the Moral Majority will not expose the fraudulent nature of much of the faith- I hold Unitarian views, but I am afraid to Richard Taylor healing that goes on in the United States. I tell anybody. In one group I joined, a Union College am certain that your magazine will provoke writer's club, they reacted with horror when Schenectady, N.Y.

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Intelligence and Religious Faith to be able to make use of studies resulting England is less religious than Scotland and in at least moderately strong correlation Wales. Nor may you conclude that we are Your exposé of faith-healing televangelists coefficients and studies with good control less religious because we suffer compulsory is worth the entire year's subscription price. of as many significant factors as possible, religious education. Studies show that reli- But I want to comment on Burnham Beck- and, finally, should indicate consistent giosity depends not on the influence of the with's "The Effect of Intelligence on Reli- definitions and measures of "native intelli- school but on that of the home (particularly gious Faith" (FI, Spring 1986). I belonged gence" and "religiosity." Until then, Mr. in church-going). Consequently, given a to Mensa during its early years in this coun- Beckwith's claim that "overwhelming evi- secular education system, religiosity will try and was interested to discover that there dence" shows "that, among American stu- decline if parental ties are loosened. Perhaps seemed just as diverse religious views within dents and adults, the amount of religious Americans, more than other peoples, are it as outside. The members ranged from faith tends to vary inversely and appreciably entangled in apron strings. atheists to Roman Catholics, and there was with intelligence" must remain unproven. one fundamentalist Protestant (as well as a Steuart Campbell believer in graphology). I was, and remain, Robert Dorenfeld Edinburgh, Scotland an Episcopalian. Hence I concluded that Minneapolis, Minn. there is no real correlation between intelli- gence and religious belief or lack of it. On Freud Your knowledge of Britain is not as good as Freud's Oedipus complex bears no relation- Edward V. Lofstrom you think ("On the Barricades," FI, Fall ship in fact to child rearing in the central Minneapolis, Minn. 1985). While the Princeton Research Center Europe of his era. 1 grew up in that Europe. carefully distinguished between "Northern Down through the lowest middle class, fami- Ireland" and "Great Britain" (which together lies had maids. If you were wealthier, you I must take exception to the article by Burn- comprise The United Kingdom) you write had a nanny. Child rearing was the responsi- ham P. Beckwith, in which he attempts to of "England" when obviously you meant bility of the maid or nanny. The majority of demonstrate a firm statistical foundation Great Britain (which consists of England, young children saw their mothers for only showing the negative correlation between Scotland, and Wales). Then, when quoting minutes on most days. intelligence and religious faith. I am afraid from the survey results you refer to "the A theory of child development that does that he fails in this regard, particularly be- British" when you must have meant the not even mention these most important indi- cause there is no honest discussion of any people of Great Britain. Protestants in viduals has little relationship to reality. of the other influences on a person's reli- Northern Ireland regard themselves as Further, if little boys do have sexual fanta- giosity besides intelligence, in addition to a "British." sies, they would most likely be directed lack of consistency in definitions of critical It is not true that "Britain has an estab- toward the maid or nanny, and if this were terms such as "religiosity." lished Church—the Church of England"; true, then they would have little to fear from That intelligence may have something to that Church is established only in England their father. do with certain religious beliefs in America and Wales. In Scotland the established is certainly a worthy hypothesis to investi- Church is the Church of Scotland, although Hans Huerry gate. However, I suspect that such an in- the monarch is not its head. Consequently Dept. of Psychiatry vestigation will require more critical judg- your explanation for the lower religiosity in University of Vermont ment and perspicacity than has been demon- Britain (England, Scotland, and Wales any- Burlington, Vermont strated here. A convincing argument ought way) is flawed, although it is true that (Continued on p. 62)

4 FREE INQUIRY addresses of a minimum of five patients they each claimed to have healed and, if possible, their doctors' names as well. We propose to Deceit in the Name of God: do follow-up studies conducted by impartial scientific investigators focusing primarily on organic disorders. None of them has What Can be Done? responded. As far as we are aware, ours is the first major large-scale systematic effort to study the phenomenon. Some evangelists, such as editor Paul Kurtz, Peter Popoff, have called for testimonials from their flocks. But these are insufficient. n this issue of FREE INQUIRY, we con- Grant used crib sheets and a mentalist's Unless these claimed healings are supported I tinue our exposé of the so-called faith- memory act. He had obtained prior knowl- by careful diagnosis before and after by healers. A team of researchers, sponsored edge about the person who came to be competent and independent medical investi- by the Committee for the Scientific Exami- healed: either from letters written to him or gators, one should be skeptical. nation of Religion and led by special investi- from information gleaned earlier in the A further question that needs to be raised gator James Randi, has uncovered a shock- evening by Grant or his confederates. is whether there is any legal recourse for ing tale of trickery and deceit on the part of We now have new and incontrovertible people who have been misled and/or some faith-healers who have used their reli- evidence that Peter Popoff receives secret harmed. The First Amendment provides for gious authority to mislead millions of people. radio transmissions from backstage. We have the free exercise of religion. This means the Our inquiry, which began seven months ago, confirmed the fact that Popoff—perhaps the protection of freedom of thought, con- has now involved over sixty volunteers and most flamboyant of the TV evangelists— science, and speech. We would defend this has sent teams of investigators into faith- has a small receiver inserted in his ear. The right. But does this freedom apply to any healing meetings in such far-flung cities as so-called messages from God are really and all forms of action, even those inimical Rochester, Brooklyn, Houston, Stockton, messages from Mrs. Popoff backstage. This to the health and welfare of innocent and Anaheim, Sacramento, San Francisco, cruel hoax is being perpetrated on helpless unsuspecting people? Surely it should not Philadelphia, Detroit, St. Louis, and Ft. and innocent people who are waiting for be used to protect outright deception and Lauderdale. divine deliverance. The details of these fraud. When people have been harmed they What we have uncovered is the clever messages and how they were obtained are should be able to sue the faith-healer. More- use of deception by some TV evangelists in the following articles by James Randi, )ver, in our judgment, where conscious fraud who claim that they are receiving messages Steven Schafersman, and Robert Steiner. We s being used, the relevant governmental from God. The faith-healer walks up and have skillfully planted "healees" in the audi- authorities should be willing to intervene. • down the aisles of an auditorium that is ence at services given by Popoff, Grant, jam-packed with sick, crippled, and even David Paul, and others in order to determine dying people. He calls out a person's name, how the evangelists derive their information. makes his way to that person, and identifies Moreover, we have documentation of the his or her affliction, often giving the subject's charges made in this issue, including taped address, and in many cases he gives the name recordings and videotapes of the pro- To Our Readers of the doctor. The evangelist then, amidst ceedings. prayerful thanks to Jesus, proclaims the We need your help. May we invite you to healing process. Those in the audience are "We now have new and incontrovertible monitor the claims of cures by faith-healers so impressed by this word of knowledge that evidence that Peter Popoff receives in your area. We are particularly interested they break into applause. The subjects are secret radio transmissions from back- in any follow-up studies of alleged healings so overwhelmed that they often break into stage." that you are able to conduct and other tears. No illness is considered too serious by reports of these activities. If you contact the evangelist to be cured: Broken bones, us, we can tell you where and when various cancer, heart disease, epilepsy, emphysema, he Committee for the Scientific Exami- healers are holding services so that you diabetes, pneumonia, deafness, and blind- Tnation of Religion believes that faith- can arrange to attend. Please keep us ad- ness are healed. Spinal columns are recon- healing has reached epidemic proportions. vised of your activities. Contact Barry Karr structed and blood transfusions are admin- We have called for careful studies of patients at FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Buffalo, NY istered instantaneously. Moreover, the before and after being treated by faith- 14215-0005. Tel.: (716) 834-2921. faith-healer implores the people in the audi- healers. We are not necessarily criticizing all With very little financial support, our ence to throw away their canes, crutches, faith-healing, only the most abusive kind. volunteers—now numbering more than and wheelchairs—and in some cases even Some forms of faith-healing may even be sixty people—have gladly devoted many their medications. salutary: A form of hypnosis may be at work hours and even days to this project and How does the evangelist obtain his "word and what the faith-healer says or does may have used their own funds to pay for travel of knowledge"? Does he receive it directly have a placebo effect. and accommodations and expensive moni- from God? Is he psychic? Does he have We believe that there should be further toring equipment. We deeply appreciate the special mental powers? In the Spring issue research. With this in mind, we sent letters heroic efforts and personal sacrifices that of FREE INQUIRY, James Randi reported to W. V. Grant, Peter Popoff, Ernest Ang- have gone into this inquiry.— The Editors that W. V. Grant claimed he received divine- ley, David Paul, and Pat Robertson, re- ly inspired messages, yet we discovered that questing that they send us the names and

Summer 1986 5 Peter Popoff Reaches Heaven via 39.17 Megahertz James Randi ooner or later, it had to come. The flim-flam artists today for a special message God has for me." He was blissfully were bound to discover the advantages of high tech- unaware that thousands of persons in the Bay area received nology and step up into the Computer Age. In my identical letters—identical, that is, except for the personalized investigation of the faith-healing business, I almost immediately effect generated by Popoffs computer. came upon some modern twists that rather startled me. Seeing the elegant laser-printed mailings and the expensive Evangelist/ healer Peter Popoff is headquartered in Upland, props used by Popoff, I knew that he was using computer California, whence he sends out highly fanciful fund-raising technology prosperously. But I was unprepared for witnessing literature that is computer-generated to appear as if it were a spectacular show-biz technique when I attended his crusade personally typed and signed. Some of the slickly designed in Houston, Texas. Members of H-STOP, the Houston Society mailings are quite clever, but others are extremely juvenile, to Oppose Pseudoscience, were also in attendance. appealing only to the least sophisticated of those on Popoffs With me was Steve Shaw, a young man who was half of vast mailing list. the team in the Alpha Project. (See Skeptical Inquirer, Summer Little is known about Popoff except from what he pub- and Fall issues, 1983.) Steve is very active as a "psychic" enter- lishes—in great quantity—in a series of booklets about his life tainer, and he proved invaluable in this investigation. According to Peter, it all began when he went to Heaven on a We arrived two hours before the show began in order to visit and received Nine Gifts of the Spirit along with a command observe any "pumping" of the victims—such as that done by to preach to the multitudes. And, apparently, he was told at the Reverend and Mrs. W. V. Grant (see FI, Spring 1986). the same time that a little cheating couldn't hurt. Each H-STOP member was instructed to fill out any "healing Being on the mailing lists of more than a dozen evange- cards" that might be given to them and to put down only false lists—under several different names on each list—I receive an information, except for the address. This was so that they enormous amount of mail from these highly organized busi- could get on the mailing list but might be "called out" by nesses. From Popoff, I've received Russian currency, handker- Popoff under the false name and ailment. chiefs, and red felt hearts—to be carried or worn, then each to Indeed, that is just what happened. Steve Schafersman, be sent back with a check attached. Special envelopes and chairman of H-STOP, was approached by Mrs. Elizabeth endless appeals for the emergency needs of his ministry arrive Popoff and interviewed extensively. Curiously enough, as he every week. Each is personalized at the computer, dropping my gave her each detail, she repeated it out loud, slowly and clearly. first name into the text occasionally and using "Brother Randi" Others reported the same procedure. Steve Shaw had volun- as the salutation. Most of us are familiar with these gimmicks, teered as an usher and was observing everything from a dif- but the effectiveness of such methods can only be judged by ferent and more auspicious vantage point, but he came back those in the field. with the same report. A man preparing to enter the Popoff crusade in San Fran- At exactly 2:30 P.M., the time set for the beginning of the cisco in February was approached by a TV interviewer. "Why service, Mrs. Popoff left the floor of the Coliseum and retired are you coming to see Reverend Popoff?" he was asked. "Peter behind the curtain. wrote to me," replied the man, "and wanted me to come here Finally following a spirited address and pep-talk by his front man, the Reverend Reeford Shirrell, Popoff himself came screeching onstage amid Hallelujahs aplenty. He stormed about and screamed warnings of Hell and Damnation for thirty Magician and lecturer minutes. Then he began a remarkable demonstration that made James Randi has been in- W. V. Grant's show look pretty thin. He "called out" people vestigating psychic claims from the audience fast and accurately. He named them, gave for thirty years. He is a con- their ailments, named relatives, and even threw in an occasional sultant to the Committee for street address for good measure. the Scientific Examination But, after Popoff had dealt with twenty or so people, it of Religion and is at work became obvious that he was not using W. V. Grant's mnemonic on a new book, The Faith- methods, unless he was very good at that art. Steve and I Healers, to be published by looked at each other as the same idea came to both of us. Prometheus Books. "He's got something else going for him," said Steve, "and I think I know what I have to do."

6 FREE INQUIRY "You're going to get up close to Reverend Popoff and get a Bernice Manicofft Both Steve Schafersman and Don Henvick look—" were used in the next Popoff TV broadcast. "In his ear," Steve finished for me. And off he went to How could God, speaking directly to Peter Popoff through "usher" next to the Man of God. one of the Nine Gifts of the Spirit—the Gift of Knowledge— Moments later, having practically knocked Popoff down to have made such errors? get close to him, Steve Shaw was back, grinning like a Cheshire cat. "He's wearing a hearing aid!" chortled Steve. "You can see opoff, at one point in the Houston meeting, asked his the shiny plastic in there, clear as can be!" Paudience to "break free of the Devil" by throwing their medications up onto the stage. What followed surprised even ow what, you may ask, might Peter Popoff be doing with him. Dozens of people came forward and tossed bottles onto Na hearing aid? We concluded that he had to be getting the platform. Popoff was ecstatic. But when Steve and I this wealth of information via some such device. Though we examined the debris after the audience had departed, we were were unprepared to investigate that angle during the Houston shocked. Prescriptions for digitalis, nitroglycerine tablets, oral meeting, in San Francisco we enlisted Bob Steiner, a magician diabetes medication, and many unidentified pills had been and former chairman of the Bay Area Skeptics, who supplied discarded by people who might well have needed such sub- us with technician and security consultant Alec Jason. This stances to stay alive! Steve Shaw, who has had experience enthusiastic chap was equipped with highly sophisticated elec- working in hospitals, was familiar with these emergency tronic "scanners" that would prove the undoing of Peter Popoff. medications. As with the Houston group, the Bay Area Skeptics were It was even more amazing that Popoff actually included the instructed to attend the San Francisco meeting prepared to pill-throwing episode in Houston in his television broadcast! give false data to any interviewer and/or write in the same One would think that he would have recognized the seriousness fictitious data on the healing cards. True to form, supremely of this stunt and that he would de-emphasize it, but he broad- confident that her gimmick was impossible to detect, Elizabeth cast it for all to see. Popoff waltzed around the audience asking questions—and The old days of the tent-show healers are gone, but their carefully repeating all the details given to her by the unsuspec- replacements are among us, filling coliseums with many times ting victims. Hanging from her arm was a huge handbag— the people the tents used to hold. They are louder, slicker, and from which every word was being transmitted upstairs to Peter richer by far, assisted as they are by technology that their Popoff. Then, as in Houston, at 2:30 sharp, Mrs. Popoff left predecessors would not have imagined. Now, reaching millions the floor to join her husband in the announcer's booth over- via television and radio, they flourish under the protection of looking the arena. There they discussed details about the the Constitution. members of the congregation below—leaving the transmitter It would be well for you to know about one more aspect of switched on! the Popoff ministry. The callous atmosphere that exists back- High in the back area of the Coliseum, using an electronic stage at this pathological Mystery Play is amply demonstrated scanner receiver, Bob Steiner and Alec Jason had quickly by the following transmission to Peter Popoff as he ministered located the frequency used by the Popoffs-39.17 Megahertz. to his adoring flock. It was recorded in Anaheim, following an A tape recorder was attached to the receiver, and every word obvious interruption of the radio broadcast from the trailer: was heard. When Popoff made his entrance, we heard Mrs. (Elizabeth Popoff speaks.) "Reeford's got a hot one!" Popoff testing the communications channel: "Hello, Petey. I (Laughter.) "Reeford's so excited! He came running in back love you! I'm talking to you. Can your hear me? If you can't, here and scared us half to death! You ready for a hot one? you're in trouble.... I'm looking up names, right now." Okay! Want a hot one? Hot one! Hot off the press! Ruby Lee Transcribing the tape later on, we heard such commentary Harris. Ruby Lee. She is standing in the far back where there's as: "I have a hot one for you. Robert Kaywood. He's got a no chairs." (Long pause.) "Reeford got a hot one. Hot one! chest condition that needs surgery. Robert Kaywood. Kaywood. Reeford's got a hot one, Ruby Lee Harris. She's against the Kaywood. He needs surgery. His veins aren't formed. He prays back wall. Ruby Lee Harris. She's against the back wall. She's that God will heal him today." got lumps in her breast. You might want to whisper it—Have Later on, we heard: "Dean. She ... no, she should be there her walk down— Have her run up there. Run. Oh! Look at on your right side. Right side. No, that's not her! No, that's her run!" (Loud laughter.) "She's got knots in her breast." not her! In the blue.... Oh! That—that might be her. Okay. (Laughter and giggles.) "A home run! A home run!" She lives at 4267 Masterson, and she's praying for her daughter (Then, later on, giggles are heard, and Pam speaks.) "At Joy, who's allergic to food." This was followed by laughter any rate, she should kick him in the face!" (Laughter.) from Elizabeth and Pam, the wife of Reeford Shirrell. (Elizabeth speaks.) "Pam says to make her— Pam thinks But the one that really pleased us was: "Tom Hendry. He's that you should have her kick him in the face!" (Giggles.) praying for restoration of his family, but he's got a drinking I suggest that the heartless exploitation of the elderly, the problem that's gotten out of control." ailing, and the emotionally unstable citizens of this country will "Tom Hendry" was one of the Bay Area Skeptics, Don continue until someone in government decides that these Henvick, who was also called out by Peter Popoff two weeks "faith-healers" have abused, deceived, and milked enough peo- later in Anaheim, under a different name and with a different ple. Perhaps a St. George, rather than a Don Quixote, is waiting disease, and later on in Detroit, dressed as a woman named in the wings. Let us hope so. •

Summer 1986 7 Peter Popoff: Miracle Worker or Scam Artist?

Steven Schafersman

any people think that a life devoted to science and chosen for healing by Popoff from among the hundreds of reason must be uneventful and unexciting. Of people present, although the chance of this happening was Mcourse this is not true, but my existence was quickly slight. made more eventful and exciting by an unexpected phone call I arrived early in the company of Dr. Gae Kovalick, a from James Randi. Randi was planning a visit to Houston to research fellow at the Baylor College of Medicine. The ground investigate the claims of faith-healer Peter Popoff, and he had floor of the Coliseum was starting to fill up, but the huge been given my name by Paul Kurtz, head of the operation. bleachers were still empty. Since I wanted to be "healed," I Randi asked me to enlist the aid of members of the Houston chose seats for us on the aisle at a strategic spot in relation to Skeptics to Oppose Pseudoscience (H-STOP), a group inspired the television cameras. Gae and I filled out "Prayer Requests" by the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of with fake ailments and used false names. Since these forms the Paranormal (CSICOP) that I founded in 1983 and until were to be collected at the offering in the middle of the service this year served as president. I agreed to arrange radio and and could not be used to obtain information for healings before television appearances and also helped to schedule a talk by that, I watched Popoffs assistants closely. Except for one, I Randi on "Science and the Paranormal" at Rice University. did not see them openly interviewing anyone, but I later learned These events were planned to publicize and promote the phi- from members of the audience that considerable interviewing losophy of skepticism and common sense. Our main purpose, had already taken place and that some of the prayer requests however, was to assist Randi in the investigation of Popoff had been personally collected by assistants before the program initiated by FREE INQUIRY. started. I contacted eight of H-STOP's most active members and As hundreds of people began to fill the Coliseum, I took arranged a meeting with Randi in his downtown Houston hotel. note of some of them. I saw many individuals with canes and That afternoon in the Houston Coliseum, the Reverend Peter others walking with the help of friends. Near us was a Hispanic Popoff was to conduct his healing service, and Randi wanted couple with a daughter suffering from Down's syndrome. The to prepare his novice investigators. father was counting a large stack of twenty-dollar bills, appar- He briefed us on what to expect. Like the faith-healer ently hoping to buy a miracle. There was definitely an air of W. V. Grant, Popoff allows his audience to believe that he has expectation in the audience, as people with obvious physical the ability to receive "secret knowledge" from the Holy Spirit. ailments arrived. Would they be healed, or would their hopes Popoff calls out the names of members of the audience and be cruelly dashed? I went to the front of the Coliseum to identifies their illnesses before he speaks to them and proclaims observe the many people in wheelchairs and made my way that they are healed. Randi explained the mnemonic methods along the sides to watch Popoffs assistants mingling with the used by Grant and warned us that Popoff might use the same audience. Upon returning to my seat, I found Gae talking with system. He said that "Prayer Request" cards would be dis- a blonde woman about Gae's alleged medical problem. She tributed among the audience at the service, and he suggested then introduced herself to me as Elizabeth Popoff, the Reverend that we fill out ours with false information so that if these Popoffs wife. She wanted to know why I was present. I looked cards were used to help Popoff obtain "secret knowledge" and directly into her eyes and lied. I introduced myself as Travis he chose one of us to be healed, he would call out the wrong Lamar, a name taken from two downtown Houston streets name and ailment. Randi advised us to enter the Coliseum named after heroes of the Texas revolution, and made up a early so that we could observe Popoffs assistants privately story about a disability. She expressed sympathy and then trying to elicit information from those in attendance, which turned to talk to others. Most of these people were subsequently they could then give to Popoff before the service. We might called to be healed. even be interviewed ourselves. Our goal, of course, was to be t 2:30 P.M., the program began. We sang hymns and Steven Schafersman, a geologist, is a scientific consultant of Aprayed to Jesus. (Gae and I participated so that we would the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of not arouse suspicion.) We waved our hands in the air in a the Paranormal and founder of the Houston Skeptics. "wave offering," and spoke in tongues just like most of the others. When the excitement had built to a climax, Peter Popoff

8 FREE INQUIRY appeared. Dressed in a dark tailored suit, he spoke clearly and articulately. I found it difficult to take my eyes from him as he moved back and forth across the stage claiming that, through him, Jesus would heal persons in the auditorium. He said that he would go among the audience "as the Spirit moves me," and that "all who wish to be healed will be healed today." These words increased the anticipation in the audience to a fever pitch. Popoff left the stage and walked directly to a man in the audience. He called out the man's name and described his problem. Popoff struck the man's forehead with his hand, and the man fell back into the arms of an attendant. This was repeated with a dozen other people. Each time, Popoff moved deliberately from the stage and called out the person's name and ailment. Although I knew a gimmick was involved, the audience was clearly impressed for each healing was greeted with applause and cheers. The effect of striking the forehead of the person being healed had a variety of results. Most fell back and collapsed to the floor. One florid gentleman, who said he had just undergone quadruple bypass surgery and needed still another operation, danced a jig after Popoff's ministration. I thought he might have another heart attack right there in the auditorium. After the service I interviewed this man and another who had been "healed"; they both denied having spoken to anyone about their problems, and they said that they believed Popoff was truly inspired by the Holy Spirit. pairs of eyes on me. I would describe my feeling as one of After the first brief round of healing an offering was made. expectation, and I was distinctly annoyed that, when Popoff I saw people place the prayer-request cards and large amounts struck my forehead, I didn't discern heat, light, or anything of money in the buckets that were passed around. People also else. I fell back anyway, but I didn't stay on the floor long took envelopes to use to send in monthly offerings. Following enough to please Popoff. When I stood up, he gave me a this, Popoff gave a sermon. He talked about his experiences "double dose of the Holy Spirit" and struck me again. This behind the Iron Curtain and his need for money to send Bibles time I remained on the floor a longer time. When I got up I to the U.S.S.R. spoke into the microphone, "I don't feel the pain anymore!" The second round of healings was much longer than the The audience cheered and applauded. Popoff smiled and moved first. The procedure was different this time. From anywhere in away. Later I learned that I was the first "healing miracle" to the auditorium, Popoff would call out the name of a person, be shown in the taped version of Popoff's Houston performance wait for the person's response, and then either go to him or her when it was broadcast from California nationwide. or wait until that person could reach him. Some of these people were in the bleachers and had to come to the ground floor. o one was really healed that day, but some people were Besides the name and ailment, Popoff now gave the person's Ncruelly hoaxed and paid for the privilege. Popoff con- address and other significant facts. I realized that he could be vinced some of them to throw their medications onto the stage receiving his "secret knowledge" through a radio transmitter. I because they wouldn't need them anymore. The family with the later learned that Randi got the same idea at the same time. Down's syndrome daughter left early; they experienced no When Popoff got near me, I noticed that he appeared to be miracle that day. Gae and I later received letters from Popoff, wearing a molded hearing-aid insert. It appears that the Holy which were identical except where the computer had inserted Spirit uses the quite unsupernatural means of electromagnetic our respective pseudonyms. The Reverend Popoff was request- radiation to inspire this faith-healer. ing that we give fifty dollars to God by way of his ministry, After well over twenty individuals had been "healed," we because "faith without works is dead." He also shared with us were delighted to hear Popoff call out Gae's fictitious name the information that, after his assistants had loaded the tele- and medical problem. She bravely marched forward, took a vision lights and cameras onto the trucks in Houston, he sat blow to her forehead, and collapsed into the waiting arms of alone in his room, holding our prayer cards and talking to the an attendant. A short time later, it was my turn. Inspired, Lord. But Randi learned from an informant that, after the Popoff called out, "Travis? Travis Lamar?" and I walked for- performance, Popoff and his crew left the Coliseum immedi- ward. He described my false ailment and I clutched my body ately. Even Popoff fund-raising letters apparently contain and grimaced. It was quite apparent to Gae, Randi, and myself deceptions. that the Holy Spirit had made a mistake—not a very good In our society, hoaxes and lies perpetrated in the name of performance for a member of the Godhead. As Popoff prepared religion are difficult to attack. Our only recourse is to educate to heal me, I was nervous but oblivious to the two thousand the public and those whose responsibility it is to protect it. •

Summer 1986 9

Behind the Scenes with Peter Popoff

Robert A. Steiner

oward the end of this past February, James "The and the others wondered whether we had been able to set up Amazing" Randi visited me in San Francisco. A visit our equipment after all. I was tempted to enter the auditorium Tfrom Randi is always interesting and exciting, and on to inform Randi that all systems were operating. However, the this occasion it was no less so. He had come to our city to risk to our enterprise outweighed the benefits. We had to let investigate faith-healer Peter Popoff for FREE INQUIRY and him wonder where we were. the Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion Alec is an electronics expert. He brought with him $20,000 (CSER). On February 23, 1986, we were to be part of the worth of equipment and a priceless amount of knowledge and congregation at the Peter Popoff Crusade in San Francisco. experience. He and I set up a table in the hall of the Civic Randi explained what he believed to be Popoffs methods. Center on the second floor behind the balcony. Passers-by saw He already knew how Popoff obtained the information he Alec wearing headphones, while I listened intently through an needed to "call out" the names, illnesses, and other facts about earphone. We tried to keep the scanners, tape recorders, aerials, the people who were to be "healed," but he had no proof He and other equipment under cover. requested that I round up a few people I trusted implicitly. We There we sat, listening, scanning, searching, adjusting, and would go to Popoffs presentation in the hope of gaining further hoping. While Alec used the headphones, I was essentially information, obtaining proof of his methods, and having one riding shotgun, keeping an eye out for anyone who might of our people chosen for a healing. To obtain proof beyond a interfere with our venture. The time was hanging heavy. The reasonable doubt would be a monumental job. With that official service inside was about to start; we had searched for assignment, I got to work. more than an hour, and we still had nothing. On the morning of the twenty-third, twenty-five volunteers Then Alec got excited. He literally jumped out of his seat assembled at my home for a briefing. They were either active and signaled me with a thumbs-up sign. What he had tuned in members of the Bay Area Skeptics (an organization dedicated to, and what we got on tape to present as evidence, was the to investigation of and dissemination of information about behind-the-scenes broadcast from Elizabeth Popoff to her paranormal and pseudoscientific claims) or members of the husband. It begins: "Hello Petey. I love you. I'm talking to Society of American Magicians. These were twenty-five trusted, you. Can you hear me? If you can't, you're in trouble." dedicated individuals. As Randi had observed, Popoff wears what looks like a We were soon on our way to the Civic Auditorium in San hearing aid inside his ear. Randi had enough circumstantial Francisco, where the Reverend Peter Popoff would present his evidence to deduce that someone was broadcasting the informa- "crusade" to the assembly. We arrived early in order to observe tion for the "healings" to Popoff. Our assignment was to obtain what was going on, to set up our operation, and to present absolute documentation, the hard evidence, the proof. And ourselves as good candidates for healings. here it was: the secret method by which Popoff obtains the Elsewhere in this issue, Randi describes what occurred with information that he disseminates to the audience during the all but two of the volunteers, Alexander Jason and myself. We "healings." were not in the auditorium. So well hidden were we that Randi We next heard Mrs. Popoff say, "I'm looking up the names right now." Information for the so-called healings, which was claimed to come from God, was secretly transmitted by Eliza- beth to Peter Popoff. She obtained the information from the Robert A. Steiner is a certi- prayer cards filled out by the attendees, as well as from her fied public accountant and many conversations with those present before the start of the a professional magician. He formal proceedings. is a member of the National Here are some examples of Popoffs "healings": Popoff says, Council Against Health "Who's Josephine Parino?" After a woman in the audience Fraud, a Consultant to the acknowledges that she is that person, Popoff continues: "You've Committee for the Scientific got cancer of the stomach." Investigation of Religion, Now let's step behind the scenes. With the benefit of elec- and the founder of the Bay tronics we hear the entire conversation. Elizabeth Popoff in- Area Skeptics. tones: "Way over to the other side on the other balcony is Josephine Parino. Run all the way over to the right side now.

10 FREE INQUIRY Josephine Parino. Josephine Parino." his chest." Popoff asks the assembled worshippers: "Who's Josephine?" There are many more such examples on our tapes. Two of Elizabeth: "Parino." the people selected for healings that day were particularly Peter: "Parino." interesting. Tom Hendry was called out and healed. And so Josephine Parino identifies herself. was Marty Post. "Tom Hendry" is in reality Don Henvick. Elizabeth: "She's got cancer of the stomach." "Marty Post" is Ivars Lauersons. They both came to the Popoff Peter: "You've got cancer of the stomach." Crusade with us. They gave fictitious names and symptoms of Here is another example: diseases. Elizabeth: "Rosa Camir. Rosa Camir. She's on the right side, too." eter Popoff claims that these "healings" are done by God Peter: "Rosa." Pand Jesus. And yet we know for an absolute fact—provable Elizabeth: "Camir." beyond a reasonable doubt—that they are made to appear as Peter: "Is it Camir?" such with the help of his wife backstage. Furthermore, he called Elizabeth: "Got hives." out some persons using false names, identified disease symptoms Peter: "Rosa, you've got hives." that did not exist, and "healed" these nonexistent diseases. Elizabeth: "She takes a lot of medication." Clearly such false information could not have come from God Peter: "You've been taking a lot of medication." or Jesus. Neither of them would make such mistakes. Elizabeth: "She's there with her son, Clipper, and he has a Popoffs representations to the public are false. He has lump in his chest." knowledge that they are false. He is lying to people and receives Peter, referring to Rosa Camir's son: "He's got a lump in money from them under false pretenses. •

David Paul, Extraordinary Showman

«T ake that, Devil!" So said the I was, and there were the goosebumps. wide variety of ways. 1 Reverend David Paul as he acted A person was called forth from the The key point is that the information out the part of a righteous person grinding audience for a "healing." He shuffled up is obtained from the spectators. It does the Devil into the ground with his foot. to the Reverend. "Tom" (Don Henvick) not come from God or Jesus. Again in His statement and his act were greeted with was his name. Tom clutched one of David Paul's case, some of the information is cheers, hallelujahs, amens, and cries of Paul's hands in both of his own. And Tom false, and thus could not come from God "Praised be Jesus!" began to shiver. As Paul got louder and or Jesus. James Randi's recent trip to California more emotional about the upcoming im- David Paul is misrepresenting what he included a visit to a service by faith-healer provements and cures in Tom's life, Tom is doing. He is an extraordinary showman. David Paul in Stockton on February 26 began to shake wildly. More and more he But he misleads people and receives money and 1 went with him. Eight persons, in- shook. Then he collapsed on the floor, from them for the fake "miracles" he cluding one reporter, accompanied us. making a few random movements. Then produces. We arrived at the Scottish Rite Audi- he lay motionless for several minutes. The con artist who sells you glass, torium in Stockton well before the begin- David Paul called out the information telling you it is diamonds, is guilty of ning of the formal festivities. This allowed that Tom and the others had written on chicanery, and will be appropriately pun- us time to set up our monitoring equip- their prayer cards, and which they had ished by the law. The fact that a man calls ment. Our associate Alec Jason had re- relayed personally either to Mrs. Paul or himself a reverend, invokes the names of ceived the Reverend Paul's permission to to one of the other assistants. David Paul, God and Jesus, and deals with the sick tape the event, and he sported a video like Peter Popoff, obtains his information does not excuse him. Rather, it makes him camera on his shoulder. by methods of trickery that have been more guilty. If you had asked me just a few months known for centuries. Popoffs refined To the rest of us: Beware anyone prom- ago, it would never have occurred to me method, using electronic equipment, is ising you something too good to be true. that 1 would be attending a prayer meeting. simply a twentieth-century update. How- In the final analysis, it is your own rational Furthermore, if I hypothesized that I would ever, the methods of obtaining the infor- thinking that will prevent your being taken attend, surely I would have guaranteed that mation are basically unchanged. Once ob- in by miraculous but false claims. it would not move me enough to actually tained, the data can be transmitted from —Robert A. Steiner produce chills all over my body. But there the wife/ assistant to the faith-healer in a

Summer 1986 11 W. V. Grant's Faith-Healing Act Revisited

Paul Kurtz, editor

ate in March of this year, I was surprised to receive a forth with their special offering envelopes. I hobbled up with form letter from the Reverend W. V. Grant, addressed Mary Beth. Grant took my envelope but barely looked at me, Jto "Dear Brother Kurtz." He informed me that he would or anyone else. About four hundred people brought up similar be holding a healing service in Rochester, New York, at 7:00 envelopes in the next half-hour in response to repeated calls. If P.M. on April 8 and invited me to attend. The letter read: each envelope contained $20.00, that meant at least $8,000 "Please accept this letter as your personal invitation, and come from only one appeal. Meanwhile, Grant retired backstage and expecting many miracles from God." A special colored envelope his associate minister, David Pitts, held forth. graced with Grant's picture was included, and a P.S. had been When Grant returned to conduct the service, he moved added to the letter urging me to "enclose a $20.00 `prove me' directly into the audience. He would go up to a person and call offering, and hand it to me personally when I call for it. You out his or her first name only. This was a departure from his will receive a special gift. If you have any special requests, usual practice of using the full name, and we thought he might enclose them as well." be purposely doing this to avoid the possibility of investigators' Some well-meaning religious believer had undoubtedly sent making a follow-up study. He would then give their doctors' my name and the names of practically everyone on FREE names and describe their illnesses. He would disclaim that he INQUIRY's masthead to a wide range of evangelists, and we had any prior knowledge, often asking, "Did you speak to me have been swamped with almost daily appeals from Jerry before?" and the person would say no. The messages allegedly Falwell, Ernest Angley, Peter Popoff, Jimmy Swaggart, and came from God. "Kathleen," he called out, walking up to one other divines. Grant's letter intrigued me because FI had woman. He said her doctor was "Dr. Beecham" and that she devoted extensive space to Grant's ministry in the Spring 1986 had a "tumor" that would be healed. "Bless Jesus," she intoned. issue. 1 now had the opportunity to observe him first-hand. A man, "Henry," was in very bad shape and could hardly Since Rochester is only sixty-five miles from the FREE INQUIRY stand up. He said that he was suffering from a severe heart offices in Buffalo, five staff members and I joined two students condition and was not even well enough to undergo bypass from the Rochester area to attend the healing session. Inasmuch surgery. After Grant touched him, he fell back and lay on the as I had strongly criticized Grant in the media, I thought it floor for several minutes, until his wife and others came to pick advisable to wear a disguise. Adorned with a flowery mustache, him up. Although Grant pronounced him healed, the man dark glasses, and a cane, I would claim to be blind in one eye could hardly catch his breath as he made his way back to his to see what Grant could do. The colored Grant envelope, now chair. containing $20.00, was in my pocket. "Karen" was on a portable oxygen tank. Grant asked her Since the young staffers were hungry, we stopped at a to remove the tubes inserted in her nose and said that her heart Burger King on the way for some refreshments and didn't and lungs were diseased. He "healed" her and told her to run, arrive at the Dome Arena until 5:45. I had hoped we would be which she did, praising Jesus all the way. Five minutes later, as earlier. By this time the entire first section was filled with attention moved elsewhere, she was back again on her oxygen people, most of them elderly, some in wheelchairs, many others and experiencing great difficulty in breathing. Grant had several with crutches and canes, and one woman was hooked up to an people get out of their wheelchairs and push him about, pro- oxygen tank. claiming them healed. Mary Beth Gehrman, a charming young woman from our At the beginning, Grant said that the entire service was free staff, led me by the arm as we took two seats in the center and that no admission would be charged, though at least half section. Other members of our team had spread out around of the three-and-a-half hour service was devoted to raising the auditorium and in the bleachers. When we arrived, we money. Two booklets for $3.00 (which were sold earlier in the noticed Grant moving about among the congregation. He came lobby for 50 cents each) was his first appeal. He then tried to to the altar shortly before six-thirty and asked people to come get people to register for a Bible course—absolutely free, but

12 FREE INQUIRY $64 for the reading material. The main fund-drive appeal was for people to donate the largest bill in their wallet or to write the largest check they had written all month. "God will give Does W. V. Grant Heal? you back one hundred times your money," he said. "Your best Grant's followers declare that he is responsible for numer- offering is the biggest bill you have. God knows about that $50 ous miracles. The mortician proves that he is not: "At a bill in back of grandma's photo." We saw many $20 and $50 Sunday service last month Sequill Frago came to Rev. bills offered by the people around us. We estimate that at least W. V. Grant in a wheelchair. Grant declared that 'Dr. half of the 2,000 or more people present stood up to contribute. Jesus' was treating the 78-year-old man's cancer. Within The last request was for 140 special envelopes that had been 10 days, Frago was dead." (From a syndicated story in distributed. Grant asked that everyone put $140 in this envelope. the March 24, 1986, Dallas Morning News.) "If you take the envelope and don't give the $140, you will be sinning," he admonished. "It is an oath you are making to God. There is absolutely no pressure to give anything—but we After Grant had moved away, I asked the man about his don't want to cheat you out of a blessing, either." ailment. He said he had injured his right leg in an automobile accident, but that it had been getting better. n analyzing the evening's proceedings, we found that the "How does it feel now?" I asked him. only people Grant called out and healed—about twenty— "Much better," he said. were those who came to the auditorium early and sat in the "If that is the case," I said, "then you don't have to go up to front sections. We discovered that he had personally come into get the crutch." He responded that he would retrieve it just to the audience to collect their envelopes and talk to them. Did he be safe. At that point I told the man that I considered the gain knowledge of their names, their doctors' names, and their entire proceedings to be a sham, and I explained how I thought illnesses by supernatural means, or had he and his confederates Grant got his information. The man appeared shaken. I said, carefully worked out a system of remembering this information? "Use your common sense, don't be taken in." We observed at least three different people who appeared to be After several minutes he looked at me and said, "Wait a giving him hand signals as they followed him about. minute, why shouldn't I accept what Grant said? After all, he An amusing part of the healing session was near the end, cured you. You came in limping with a cane, and now you're when Grant said he would heal everyone in the auditorium. He able to walk around perfectly well without it. You even look said that 114 people in the audience had sugar diabetes, and he younger." It must have been the lack of my mustache. asked them to stand up. We counted about 65, but he insisted At that point, Mary Beth and I had to laugh. Later, when I that there were exactly 114 and that they would all be cured. told Randi on the phone about my problem, his advice was: (See the letter on page 3.) He then said 888 people had arthri- "Kurtz, please, please never eat mayonnaise with a false tis; now several hundred stood up, though not 888, and he mustache. Any magician knows that elementary principle!" pronounced them all healed. He then asked everyone to come forth for a personal blessing, and practically everyone lined up ur CSER teams made two further investigations of Grant to receive it. In the hustle and bustle of the closing minutes, Oto confirm his method of receiving information. On April members of our team attempted to contact as many of those 15 Randi and I, with eight companions—including a TV film who had been "healed" as they could, and they got the names crew from a Rochester station—descended on the Brooklyn and addresses of many of them for a follow-up study. What we Academy of Music. Although Grant's team spotted several of found confirmed what Randi had earlier discovered. All those us and actually had the TV crew ejected halfway through the who were asked to leave their wheelchairs had been able to do evening, we were again able to confirm his method of operation, so on their own power before Grant's ministrations; although which was similar to that used in Rochester. Willie Rodriguez, they had arthritis or a limp, they were capable of locomotion. a young magician working with us, reported that Grant per- Mary Beth and other members of my staff had gone to the sonally met and talked with "Andrew," an elderly black gentle- restrooms on several occasions and through the auditorium to man who said he had fallen off a ladder ten years ago and had scout out information. difficulty walking. Grant seated him in a wheelchair, and At first I used my cane, but as Grant's sham became more Rodriguez volunteered to bring it up front if the man was evident, I knew that he would not call me out and gave up the called out. Later Andrew was called to the front by Grant, and limp. As we returned to our seats, Mary Beth looked at me in the information he had volunteered earlier was repeated to the horror and said "Your mustache is coming off." Evidently the audience. Yet the thousands present were led to believe that he mayonnaise from Burger King had done the damage. I couldn't was healed as he rose from the wheelchair. get the mustache to stick, so I yanked it off. Shortly thereafter, Similarly, Don Henvick had gone incognito to a Grant Grant came up to an elderly man with a crutch who was sitting healing session in Philadelphia on April 19. He reported that right next to me. Mary Beth again gasped, because she thought Grant had indeed questioned him about his fictitious illness I would be recognized without my disguise. Grant took the and his doctors, and that Grant called him out and later man's crutch and hurled it onto the stage. He apparently repeated this information to the entire audience as if it were a assumed that the man was lame. He told Grant that he was a revelation from God. Henvick also confirmed that most of the devoted follower and watched him on television every week. information Grant spewed forth that evening came from those Grant pronounced the man completely healed. who had come earlier with their offering letters. •

Summer 1986 13 Don Henvick: Healed Five Times!

on Henvick, a member of the Bay Area Skeptics, Dproved to be a valuable part of the faith-healing research team. Volunteering his services for the Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion, Don dressed in various disguises, even going so far as to shave his beard and head. He was able to present a convincing and temp- ting target for the faith-healers. In Stockton, California, he was called out of the audience as "Tom Hendry," a fictitious name, by the Reverend David Paul and was healed of a "broken home and alcoholism." In San Fran- cisco, the Reverend Peter Popoff succumbed as well, call- ing out our man as "Tom Hendry" and curing him of the same problems. In Anaheim, Don scored again when Popoff fell for another of his aliases, this time calling him out as "Vergil Jorgenson," and attempted to heal a bogus "serious arthritic condition." Subsequently, Popoff broad- cast both of these healings on his shows, apparently so enthralled by Henvick's acting abilities that he even fea- tured Don's Anaheim healings on three successive pro- grams. Popoff again fell for Henvick's charms in Detroit, ploy in the course of its investigation was to show that where Don was dressed in drag as "Bernice Manicoff," there were only two conclusions to be drawn: Either suffering from "uterine cancer and edema" and confined God was informing Grant and Popoff through the "gifts to a wheelchair. Her doctor was Dr. Kurtz. Don provided of the spirit" and giving them wrong information or the Reverends Grant and Popoff were obtaining the fictitious information before the service began and were feeding it back by deceitful means. Either God was lying to the faith healers or the faith-healers were lying to everybody. —James Randi

CO J

Q

this information to Popoff before the healing session and Popoff again called him out—this time as "Bernice"— and healed him. Don Henvick also went to Philadelphia on April 19, where the Reverend W. V. Grant approached him before the performance and questioned him about personal details. Later that evening he called him out during the service as "Abel McMinn," cured him of a "prostate con- dition and arthritis" and identified Dr. Lambert as his physician, whom Don had invented for the occasion. As detailed elsewhere in this issue, other "healees" planted by the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Religion were Ivars Lauersons, Marty Post, and Steven Schafersman. The reason that CSER used this Don Henvick as "Bernice Manicoff."

14 FREE INQUIRY Further Reflections on Ernest Angley

William E. McMahon and James B. Griffis

rnest Angley was born in 1922 in Gastonia, North muttering inaudibly. In the latter the Reverend Angley points Carolina.' He credits his parents with giving him a strict to a section of the auditorium and says something like: "There Ereligious upbringing, which kept him from "sowing his are five people in this section suffering from high blood pres- wild oats" too much. He attended Lee College, a Church of sure. Receive the miracle." Presumably those five people are God institution in Cleveland, Tennessee, where he met his wife, then relieved of their hypertension. The service concludes with Esther Lee, nicknamed "Angel." He was never ordained, but a Pentecostal ritual in which the same verses are sung over and received a license to preach in 1943. After several years as a over for about thirty minutes. This has a hypnotic effect on traveling evangelist preaching in tents, Angley came to Akron, many people, who begin shaking and "speaking in tongues." A Ohio, in 1954. For three years he continued to preach in a tent notable resemblance between the Reverend Angley and the and sometimes in the old Liberty Theatre; then, in 1957, he old-time revivalists is that the healer, in this case Angley, is the built the Temple of Healing Stripes, renamed Grace Cathedral, sole attraction. Except for a brief introduction by the choir, in the Ellet area of Akron. Angley is the only performer, either sermonizing, healing, or Every Friday evening Angley holds a lengthy service at leading the congregation in speaking in tongues. Grace Cathedral; material from this service is condensed into a A typical production of his "award winning" television pro- one-hour weekly television program, the "Ernest Angley Hour." gram deletes the last part of the service and compresses the rest The Friday service begins with a musical prelude of about half into a one-hour format that includes a few minutes of singing, an hour. A zippy gospel style is employed to warm up the a twenty-five to thirty-minute condensation of the sermon, and audience. Angley then comes out and delivers a sermon that perhaps a half-dozen cases of healing, presumably the most usually runs about two hours, rambling rather aimlessly on striking examples. Angley periodically breaks in with appeals about such nebulous topics as "Trouble" and "The Way Unto for funds. God." Scripture is interpreted quite freely, and there is little In looking into the career of Ernest Angley and his impact substantive theology in the sermon. A key theme is the standard on the Akron area, we conferred with several people, notably revivalist one of the war between God and the devil, with Dr. Margaret Poloma, sociologist of religion at the University salvation coming from giving oneself wholly over to the Holy of Akron; the Reverend Bob Denton of the Furnace Street Spirit. A mildly puritanical view of morality is put forth as the Mission, whose father preceded Angley and Rex Humbard in audience is enjoined to avoid profanity and the sins of the the evangelical field in this area; and Laura Haferd, religion flesh. editor of the Akron Beacon Journal. We found that Angley The sermon is followed by a healing session of an hour or was regarded in a different light from the other televangelists, so, during which a number of alleged miracles occur. Alcoholics for several reasons: are cured; backs are healed; the lame move freely again. These 1. He keeps a low profile, and it is difficult to get informa- "miracles" occur either by the "slaying of the spirit," in which tion about him. We could find references to him in only two Angley lays his hand on the ailing person, or from a distance. recent books, Poloma's The Charismatic Movement' and Prime In the former the individual falls backward (usually with Time Preachers by Jeffrey Hadden and Charles Swann.' Except assistance) to the floor and many lie there quivering and for a recent article in Time,4 the mass media have generally ignored Angley. 2. Perhaps the main reason for his relative lack of notoriety William E. McMahon and James B. Griffis are both professors is that Angley is apolitical. He keeps his distance from the of philosophy at the University of Akron. They assisted the Religious Right. In 1984 he registered to vote for the first time Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Religion in its in many years, but gave no indication of his political prefer- investigation of Ernest Angley this past winter (see the Spring ences. He has not taken public stands on any issues of note, 1986 issue of FREE INQUIRY) and have conducted follow-up not even abortion. Whereas the claim by theologian Meredith studies in Akron. Sprunger that "religious and political fundamentalists ... draw within their own comfortable belief beds and pull the covers

Summer 1986 15 over their heads pretending the rest of the world does not exist, or exists only as an aberration"' seems applicable to Angley, one cannot see him as fomenting hatred or bigotry. The congre- gation is racially mixed, and his message is relatively mild, i.e., hatred for sin but not any individual or group. 3. There is no evidence of mismanagement of the money taken in, or of its appropriation for personal use. What happens to it is not clear, but presumably much of it is plowed back into the television operation. The Reverend Denton told us that he had friends in the business world who admired the acumen of Angley and his associates; by contrast, Rex Hum- bard seemed incapable of avoiding financial difficulties, which led to his selling his television studio to Angley. Lately, how- ever, Angley has been requesting funding for an "outreach" effort to alleviate starvation in Africa. This operation is likely to face greater scrutiny, as do most relief projects that solicit public donations. 4. There is no obvious trickery at Angley's religious services, such as "curing" people who are known not to be ill, and no mind-reading fakery that we could detect. In short, religious sources in the Akron area appeared to regard Angley's presence as benign, and people who disagree with his style nevertheless believe him to be sincere. The If Angley were only in the entertainment business, the matter Reverend Denton, a more conventional clergyman than his could be left there. But the remaining possibility is of a more father, whose work with victims of crime is highly regarded in serious nature—that he is taking money under false pretenses the social services field, disbelieves in Angley's healing abilities by claiming to do something that he doesn't do and cannot but nevertheless thinks his religious services provide "valuable do—heal the sick. If that is the case, it does not suffice to say therapy" for needy people. (While we were at Grace Cathedral, that it's all right because at least he gives comfort to many Randi commented, "What we are seeing here is a sort of people. Nor does it constitute a justification to say that the morality play.") All of our sources agreed that Angley does not "healer" genuinely believes in the efficacy of his powers, or that advocate a social gospel, but Laura Haferd considers this irrele- most people believe in faith-healing. A recent survey of 560 vant, since this form of religion is aimed mainly at human people conducted by Dr. Poloma in the Akron area indicated desire for personal fulfillment. Dr. Poloma also distinguishes that 73 percent believe in faith-healing of one sort or another between personalistic and social forms of religion, the former and that 12 percent say they actually have been cured thereby placing emphasis on the affective component of experience, the of a "life threatening" ailment. Information of this sort is latter tending toward institutionalization and "creedalism."6 revealing with regard to attitudes, but has little cash value. Angley's irrationalist approach to Christianity is manifested At first glance the question of whether one has the capacity not only in his eschewing of theology but also in his contention to heal (or to be a vehicle for healing) appears to be a simple that the main way the devil corrupts us is through the mind. empirical one, but upon inspection the issue readily becomes Poloma thinks that healing plays a secondary role in this form murky. On the one hand, Dr. Poloma suggested to us that this of religion; what is primary is giving witness and experiencing formulation is a distortion, an attempt to dissociate the phe- conversion,' and as a charismatic Catholic, she sees merit in nomenon from its essential dependence on a context of religious this. experience, which evidently is construed as self-validating. On the other, assuming the existence of truly astounding recoveries "Angley (as do other television healers) claims to following upon faith-healing, one may be inclined to glibly have virtually a one-hundred-percent success write them off as due to psychosomatic causes. Thus on either side of the issue there is an opportunity for question begging, rate." and so we would like to try to clarify the matter somewhat, with special reference to Ernest Angley. iven these considerations, there remain two lines of possi- There is of course a twofold problem here: first with regard Gble criticism of Angley: The first is aesthetic, and as such to the data as such; and, second, regarding its interpretation. it can be dismissed on de gustibus grounds. The consensus is We can start with some simple statistical considerations. Angley that Angley wears a hairpiece; and sophisticated people, even (as do other television healers) claims to have virtually a one- those who are religiously orthodox, find his style either offensive hundred-percent success rate; and, as Poloma notes,8 this is or ludicrous. But this type of objection is akin to a distaste for, clearly gratuitous. Even a disinterested visitor to Grace Cathe- say, Liberace or Tiny Tim. So what if they are garish? People dral will note any number of people, including those "slain in obviously have a right to support a type of entertainment that the spirit," on whom faith-healing has had no noticeable effect. I regard as in bad taste. For example, one of us has a hernia and arthritis in the knees,

16 FREE INQUIRY and, although Angley addressed these ailments specifically, no Occam's razor, there is no need to posit supernatural causes. cure . ensued. Similarly, a former student of ours, Patrick Perhaps the following comments of Rawcliffe's express the Nicolino (now a Catholic priest), visited Grace Cathedral on a bottom line on faith-healing: research project. Being nearly blind, he would have been delighted to have his condition alleviated, but of course it In all types of disease, injury and ill-health there can be traced wasn't. Among Angley's failures are two documented cases of mental factors which exert a definite and often vital influence, death at his services.' One could even add the death of his wife, for good or evil, upon the patient's condition. Sometimes the except that he has provided an "explanation" of that.10 The patient's physical disorders are purely psychological in origin obvious "out" for the healer is to claim that those who aren't and are directly amenable to cure by suggestion. In other types of disease, psychological factors play an important though healed didn't have enough faith. The Reverend Denton ex- secondary role, and here again psychotherapeutic suggestion pressed to us his concern that Pentecostals could do consider- may vitally influence the course of the disease. In the case of able psychological damage to someone by taking that ap- incurable diseases suggestion may give rise to illusions of proach," but added that he has not found Angley relying on it. healing by the banishment or alleviation of pain, the removal Poloma has suggested that success in even a few cases could be of overt symptoms, by inducing compensative reactions or evidence of healing powers, and she cites a personal ac- simply by inducing a fixed belief in the patient's mind that he quaintance who was so healed, although not by Angley.12 is cured! All these cures and alleviations of suffering-both As has been shown, there is ample reason for skepticism real and illusory-are open to supernatural interpretation by regarding Angley, although as yet his "cures" have not been ignorant or uninformed people.16 studied sufficiently. Laura Haferd conducted preliminary inquiries into three cases of reported healings by Angley, but was unable to corroborate these stories with medical evidence. Rawcliffe concludes by saying that despite the many stories Assuming that only the most favorable cases are shown on of instantaneous cures of broken bones and incurable disease, television, even they are not very convincing. In a recent pro- none of these have been scientifically validated. Such proof gram seven were presented, three dealing with deafness and would require "irrefutable evidence of a competent diagnosis four with "back conditions." The actual nature and extent of before the `cure,' together with a doctor's certificate stating that the maladies from a clinical standpoint was of course not made the patient no longer exhibits the disease or injury in question." clear, and some of the "cures" themselves appeared to be inter- In addition, "It must . . . be established that the patient's preted in a most gratuitous manner. For example, the allegedly recovery took place within a time limit which renders all possi- deaf people claimed to be deaf in only one ear. When Angley bility of a cure through the natural processes of healing out of ask them to confirm that they had been healed, they replied, the question."" Ernest Angley claims to be able to regenerate "I can hear," but this could well have been mere prompting, limbs and heal terminal illnesses, and expects us to accept such with the hearing occurring via the good ear. Angley claimed to claims on face value. One should be very reluctant to do so have reconstructed one person's defective ear, and, regarding without substantial evidence. one person with back trouble, he said its sources was the right kidney. These cases illustrate that belief in faith-healing is Notes generally based on hearsay evidence and unverifiable claims. 1. We are especially grateful to Laura Haferd and the Akron Beach Until we obtain data of a more reliable nature, we shall continue Journal for the use of their files on Angley. See also Margaret Poloma, The to be skeptical of Angley. Charismatic Movement: Is There a New Pentecost? (Boston: Twayne Pub- Even accepting the claims of Dr. Poloma and others that lishers, 1982), pp. 89-91. incredible examples of faith-healing occur, there is still the 2. Poloma, op. cit., 87-91,99-100,175. 3. Jeffrey K. Hadden and Charles E. Swann, Prime Time Preachers problem of interpretation, of finding the genuine cause of the (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1981), pp. 44-45,49,53,92-93. unusual event. Among the most important considerations is 4. Richard N. Ostling, "Power, Glory-And Politics," Time, February the nature of the illness. In an older but still quite valuable 17, 1986, pp. 68-69. study, D. H. Rawcliffe distinguishes between functional and 5. Meredith J. Sprunger, "The Urantia Book and Religious Studies." organic disorders." A functional disorder is one in which the Paper presented at the American Academy of Religion Meeting, Anaheim, Calif., November 25, 1985, p. 3. function of an organ is affected without there being an ostensi- 6. Poloma, op. cit., pp. 86, 107-108, 111-114. ble organic cause. Functional disorders include some types of 7. Ibid., pp. 87, 96. paralysis, blindness, and loss of speech or hearing. Rawcliffe 8. Ibid., p. 110. maintains that these maladies can be cured through the power 9. The first death during one of Angley's healing services occurred on of suggestion, and such suggestion is especially potent in an January I, 1978, in Charlotte, North Carolina, and the second on July 8, 1984, in Zurich, Switzerland. emotional setting, like that at Grace Cathedral.14 Even organic 10. See Poloma, op. cit., 99-100. disorders have their mental aspects, and hence suggestion can l I. Ibid., pp. 98-100. alleviate a symptom like pain as well as speed up recovery 12. Ibid., p. 91. from injury.' This "psychosomatic" approach to the problem 13. D. H. Rawcliffe, Illusions and Delusions of the Supernatural and the of faith-healing avoids question-begging by pointing out that Occult (New York: Dover, 1959), pp. 198ff. See also Poloma, pp. 92-95. 14. Rawcliffe, pp. 207-211. the same effects seen in a faith-healing session can be achieved 15. Ibid., pp. 216-230. through psychiatry, hypnosis, and other methods that do not 16. Ibid., pp. 23I-232. invoke mysterious agencies. So if one chooses to employ 17. Ibid., pp. 232-233. •

Summer 1986 17 Salvation for Sale An Inside View of Pat Robertson's Organization

Gerard Straub held a top position at CBS, and produced "General Hospi- tal" and special programs. Brought up as a Roman Catholic, he became a born-again fundamentalist and was invited to head production of Pat Robertson's "70O Club." In time, Straub broke with Robertson. In the following article he shares with us his views on Robertson and what is in store for America if Robertson is elected president.

Gerard T. Straub

fter ten years of involvement with fundamentalist indicated that God wanted Ronald Reagan to run His favorite Christianity I can feel and hear the battle between the country. But influencing voters was not enough for Robertson; Aflesh and the spirit. As a recently born-again Christian, his real desire was to be president of the United States. Even I began to feel the winds of this spiritual war in 1978 when I back in 1979, during private moments in his dressing room joined the staff of the Christian Broadcast Network (CBN). I before the taping of the "700 Club," Pat shared with me his remember confiding to a friend that I believed someday Pat presidential fantasy and his firm belief that he was the one Robertson would run for president and that, if he didn't, he person uniquely qualified to lead this nation. In light-hearted would at least play a crucial role in electing a president who moments, we actually matched up CBN officials with cabinet- would share his political view of the world. level positions. The staff bully would become the secretary of Prior to the 1980 presidential election, Robertson frequently defense and the head accountant would be running the Treasury questioned President Carter's competence, and during the 1984 Department in the Robertson administration. Back then the campaign he fed his faithful followers a constant diet of pro- daydreaming was fun; now the possible reality is frightening. Reagan rhetoric. Many of Robertson's viewers considered him The September 2, 1985, issue of Time magazine, which to be a messenger of God, and the message they were getting featured a picture of Jerry Falwell on the cover under the words "Thunder on the Right: The Growth of Fundamen- talism," contained the news that Pat Robertson, whose ministry Gerard Straub's full account received $233 million in 1984 from tuitions, receipts, and dona- of his experience will be tions, was "praying about" whether to run for the Republican published in his book, Sal- presidential nomination in 1988. vation for Sale: An Inside Knowing Pat, I have no doubt that he will be seriously View of Pat Robertson's praying for God's guidance in his choice to run or not to run; Ministry, by Prometheus however, his running or not running will have nothing to do Books later this year. Straub with answered prayers or the will of God. If Pat's shrewdness now works in television in and gut instincts indicate that the odds are against him, then California. he will not run—he'll wait. If he runs, it will be because of his ego, his self-righteousness, and his lust for political power. Let

18 FREE INQUIRY there be no mistake about it—Pat Robertson is an educated include individuals within particular countries and, in some man of great ability, whose brilliance has helped him create a cases, entire countries. The government of the fundamentalists spiritual and political gospel that he can preach with power would function mainly as God's swift sword of retribution and and effectiveness. More important, every fiber of his existence not as a godly instrument for feeding the hungry, clothing the believes totally in his message. needy, or educating the public, because he thinks those kinds of loving acts of service tend to lead toward the demonic obertson's early ministry saw him living in a small par- systems of socialism, communism, and humanism. Pat Robert- Rsonage in a gutted slum-section of Brooklyn; and despite son's goal is to crush evil—and to get a greater share of the the fact that he now lives in regal splendor in a home valued at evangelical TV market in order to broaden his political base. more than $350,000, he still likes to project the image of himself as a humble servant of God whose life is based on prayer and fasting. In reality, Pat is a pompous pope of the video vatican of Christian broadcasting and he rules his empire with absolute authority and does not tolerate debate, discussion, or dissent, because these are considered stepping-stones to doubt. His tele- vision followers never get to see the tough-minded, hard-driving, cut-throat leader. There is no room in Pat's mind for any social perspective or political system that differs from his inspired views. While he is a staunch capitalist, Pat's private empire more closely resembles a totalitarian dictatorship. Above all else, Pat Robertson is a master communicator who is blessed with on-camera charm, grace, and wit and people are buying his message. W. C. Fields once said, "You can't cheat an honest man." Maybe he realized that an honest person doesn't look for short- cuts or for someone else to carry his or her load. The swindler's biggest ally is the eagerness of so many to believe the unbe- lievable, to accept dubious shortcuts to love, riches, status, or Pat Robertson and Gerard Straub during a tour of Lebanon. whatever else they seek. Find a person who can pander to that kind of dream cleverly and shamelessly and you have a success- efore joining "The 700 Club," I had been working for CBS Bfor fourteen years. Within three years of my spiritual "[Pat] is a threat to all free-thinking, freedom- rebirth I became unhappy with my job there. I really wanted to loving Americans who respect the dignity of work full-time for the Lord. One day while sitting in my office, humanity and who desire to live in peace and I had the television tuned to a local station when "The 700 Club" came on the air. I had never seen the show before, and harmony with one another and with the world." the Christian message coming from the tube caught my atten- tion. My first impression was that the show was a poorly ful con artist. Pat Robertson's pentecostal approach to life produced program but that it said some good things. As I sat more than panders to an elusive dream; he convinces people there watching I thought, "Gee, wouldn't it be neat to work at with devastating effectiveness that his understanding of God a Christian television station." So I immediately wrote a letter contains the one and only answer to all of their problems. to CBN. I outlined my background, both professional and The gas that runs the Robertson holiness machine is a spiritual, and mailed the letter that day. Within two months I blend of literal interpretation of the Bible, a born-again faith, was working full-time for the Lord, just as I had wanted. and the in-dwelling presence of the Holy Spirit. The mixture Setting sail for the foreign shores of fundamentalist television creates a high-octane fuel that can carry Pat Robertson a long was supposed to make my life complete. It made it completely way—perhaps even to the White House. He is quietly and different. deliberately establishing a kingdom of believers whose goal is to make the whole world see the way God intended His universe n a typical "700 Club" broadcast, after the interviews Pat and His society to function. The first step is the removal of evil Olooks into the camera and asks if you, too, would like to by waging a holy war against the moral sins that threaten know Jesus as your personal savior. He lets you know that you America. Like so many other fundamentalist TV preachers, are not alone and that thousands of people are responding and Pat believes that God brought this country into existence to reaching out to God. To back up his claim that Jesus is touch- fight evil and for that reason he is fervent in his patriotism— ing and changing lives, he may tell about how a viewer just like but it is a patriotism with a purpose. Robertson wants his you was recently and dramatically healed of some serious ail- brand of Christianity to gain control of the nation so that the ment while watching "The 700 Club," and his words serve as government can be put back into God's hands and then pro- an introduction to a prerecorded and edited videotape clip that perly exercise its responsibility to punish evil-doers—these the producer has ready to roll on Pat's prearranged cue. Up on

Summer 1986 19 your screen will then pop a three- or four-minute reenactment be yours. Call and catch the excitement; we'll even send you a of a miracle that has been taped on location at the home where little booklet that answers the question, What now? the miracle occurred. The scripted and staged report will I used to muse that if these healings were really happening, describe the person's physical problems and present some why were they relegated to the last few minutes of the show? If medical evidence of its existence. Then the "healed" will describe God was in the middle of working such wonders, then how with great emotion the healing miracle that God had wrought. could He be cut off by a music cue? If God knew who was A dumfounded doctor may testify that somehow the illness watching, either live or on a tape delay, wouldn't He also know disappeared. The combination of a doctor and a reporter (who how long the show was? Beyond that, if this activity was legiti- happens to be a born-again CBN staffer not concerned with mate, I would think Pat would want to fill the entire show with testing for the truth but only in presenting a strong case for the it, but instead he chatters about politics, the economy, or the acceptance of miracles) helps make this unlikely event seem Supreme Court for most of the show and lets God do His very believable. healing thing during the last few minutes. Although, as the The clip ends and then we cut back to the studio, and a producer, I did write this miraculous exchange into every beaming Pat Robertson gets you to nod in agreement that format, I never really understood this aspect of production. what you just witnessed is wonderful. He lets his audience But not a soul at CBN ever questioned what was happening. I know that this healing is not an isolated miracle but just one of just assumed that someday I would understand. thousands of dramatic answers to prayer. He might then hold up a testimonial letter, like the one he displayed on the broad- cast of February 4, 1985, which told how a fifty-one-year-old Hispanic woman from New York City was cured of a case of insatiable lust. She was now a new woman, freed from the evil powers that held her captive. The studio guest, the videotape of the miracle, and the testimonial build a powerful case for God not only as a personal savior but also as a wonder-worker who can help you without your having to leave your living-room. Pat would join hands with Ben Kinchlow, the co-host, close his eyes tightly, and begin to pray. He then might indicate that God was healing someone of cancer of the womb, doing away with the need for a scheduled operation, curing a problem with a jawbone that caused severe headaches, freeing a young man from a lifelong fear, or clearing up an eye infection or a kidney problem. Pat's awareness that God was healing specific medical problems afflicting particular chosen people was known as a "word of knowledge." God was giving Pat Robertson a message containing important information that He wanted Pat to relay to a particular viewer. God told Pat about the people He was healing so the people would acknowledge it and proclaim the miracle. God knew whether the person being healed was watch- ate one afternoon at CBN, I received a phone call from ing the show live via satellite or on a two-week tape delay in LPat. He told me that the next morning he was going to be some small city. To doubt the authenticity of a word of knowl- a guest on the "Today" show in New York. Apologizing for edge was unthinkable. calling me at the last minute, he asked if I would fly to New As the show builds to this miraculous climax and as Pat York with him that night. I think this request grew out of Pat's Robertson receives the messages of healing from God and relays nervousness, because all that week Tom Brokaw had been them to the people being healed, he still is able to hear when doing a series of reports on the electronic church and most of the musical theme of the show begins to play, which is the the evangelists didn't fare too well under Brokaw's tough ques- producer's way of telling Pat and God that time has run out. tioning. Pat just wanted some moral support. So we took off Pat opens his eyes and tells those who have been healed to call for New York City that night. a counselor and let CBN know what God has done. Who The next morning I got to the "Today" show studios at knows—in a couple of weeks a camera crew might come to NBC at about five o'clock—a full hour before Pat was due to their houses to videotape their miraculous cures. arrive. I just wandered around the studio observing the frantic These instant conversions and miracles supposedly happen efforts of the staff and the crew to get ready for the 7:00 A.M. constantly, daily, year after year. The supernatural becomes start of the show. Around 6:15 the technical crew was given a the natural. God is no longer a mystery. He has given us an five-minute break. I walked into the empty control room and answer to all our questions and a solution to all our problems. my eyes zoomed in on some papers on the production team's It's easy—close your eyes and pray with Pat, and Jesus will table. There before me was the format sheet, which gave a become your buddy. He'll be as real to you as He is to the detailed rundown of the show along with all the questions people you see on your television screen. Real peace will soon Brokaw was going to ask Robertson. My heart pounded in

20 FREE INQUIRY anticipation. With these questions in hand, Pat would breeze through the interview. There would be no surprises. Should I scoop up the papers before anyone could spot me? "Go for it!" was my reaction, and I quickly stuffed the papers into my jacket pocket and swiftly scurried away from the scene of the crime. I was as proud as the NBC peacock as I strutted up and down the corridor by the elevator waiting to share my booty with Pat. At exactly 7:00 A.M. he walked off the elevator. In contrast to his solemn and apprehensive look, I was beaming from ear to ear. "What are you so happy about? Don't you realize I'm about to walk through the valley of death?" was his gloomy greeting. "No sweat, Boss. You're going to skip through the valley and come out triumphant," was my upbeat response. He wanted to know why I was so confident, and I just smugly patted my bulging breast pocket. "What are you doing?" he snapped. Pat Robertson being interviewed on the "Today" show by Tom I whispered, "You have nothing to worry about. I managed Brokaw. to procure some papers that contain all the questions Brokaw is going to ask you." Pat knew what he wanted and had a good sense of what Pat's face lit up like the Christmas tree at Rockefeller would work, but the production team could rarely meet his Center. We hurriedly stepped into an empty room provided for high expectations. The producer felt the full force of his frustra- the show's guests. Huddled in the corner, we read each of the tions as a performer. No one wanted the job of being alone questions, and Pat took notes of how best to answer them. I with Pat in his dressing room before the show to explain the could see his confidence grow. He knew he had nothing to day's program. He was never happy with the material presented fear. He would indeed be well prepared, and his answers pre- to him and at the last minute tried to change things around, cluded ad-libbed follow-up questions from Brokaw. leaving the producer with the headache of trying to restructure We panicked when one of the producers burst into the the show to Pat's mood that day. Producing "The 700 Club" room to greet Pat. We both thought we were caught, but we was considered a thankless and almost impossible job, but I hurriedly stuffed the papers under the chair. Our clumsy loved it! coverup worked, and no one suspected a thing. Pat is a complex man whose dedication, determination, During the actual on-air interview, I managed to slip past ambition, creativity, endurance, and persistence seem to be the stage manager and stood next to the camera that focused without limits. This dominating father-figure is held in awe by on Pat. He delivered his well-thought-out answers to my smiling members of the staff. They ignore his faults because they believe and supportive face. He was a hit! We had walked through the that God has chosen him to lead them. I admired him. In fact, valley of death! He was so thrilled that after the show he I grew to love him. I hung on his every word. I never tired of treated me to a hearty and expensive breakfast. watching or listening to him. The way he handled difficult During the next day's prayer meeting at CBN, he proudly people and tough situations never ceased to fascinate me. He told the assembled staff how Brother Gerry boldly invaded the challenged me to reach far greater levels of creativity than I enemy camp and copped the questions. He was still excited. ever had before. No one questioned the ethics or morality of my actions. I guess I could write a book about my eventual forced resignation all is fair in love and war. from CBN—in fact, I have—but, as the years passed after my In those days, I didn't ask many probing questions. 1 didn't ouster, I still respected Pat, even though I was beginning to see have time. My job kept me so busy that I was ordered to take that his views and beliefs were not the gospel truth. I resent a vacation because they feared I might work myself to death. what he does in the name of God and regret that I helped him The challenge of working one-on-one with Pat as the producer to do it. Pat has made many mistakes over the years and has of "The 700 Club" left little time for debates with my doubts. damaged a number of people. He is not simply a bright, intelli- gent, and articulate star of fundamentalist television and a at was extremely tough on a producer. His demands often possible candidate for the presidency; he is also a threat to all Pwere unreasonable and, worse, unpredictable. He had no free-thinking, freedom-loving Americans who respect the dignity interest in hearing why a sudden idea he had, just before going of humanity and who desire to live in peace and harmony with on the air, couldn't work; he just wanted it to happen. He had one another and with the world. no patience with technical limitations or human imperfections. To his growing audience, Pat offers salvation for sale; and, I came to believe that his own shyness and pre-show nerves if you buy it, you'll pay a high price for nothing. You'll mort- contributed to his daily explosions and rantings. He literally gage your mind, your emotions, your family, your friends, and feasted on producers for breakfast, and I became his corn your very soul. He'll be the richer; you'll be the poorer. Caveat flakes. emptor! For me, what began as a dream come true turned into

Summer 1986 21 a true-life nightmare. After I escaped this religious loony-bin, it TV: Be able to both oversimplify and exaggerate. Pat Robertson took me more than five years to recover. It could happen to could walk up to a blank blackboard, which he frequently does anybody. on his show, and within minutes chalk out a quick plan for The God Squad of television preaches a gospel of guilt that salvation. "Keep it simple, keep it moving, and keep it enter- is based on the principle that we are all basically evil taining" was the threefold key to success that I used while sinners bound for eternal damnation in Hell. It's that simple; producing "The 700 Club." and it needs to be, because the TV preachers must tailor their TV preachers offer the bare fundamentals of faith and gospel to the video reality of providing easy answers for hard ignore the complex theological issues that will either bore the questions. The complexities of television production and the audience or provide them with opportunities for disagreement. nature of the medium do not permit in-depth analysis of any Pat Robertson is successful because of his tremendous ability problem, and the TV preachers understand the importance of to communicate the impression of absolute certainty. Pat is a the thirty-second solution. refuge of certainty in an uncertain world that is overwhelmed CBN produced a series of slick, short film-spots that were by the complexity of the choices it faces. According to Pat, commercials for the notion that the secrets of finding happiness, God has a message and a plan that leaves no room for ambigu- health, and wealth can be found in the Bible. Maybe President ity in spiritual, ethical, and moral matters. The gospel of Pat Reagan took note of those commercials. In proclaiming Robertson coupled with the power of television is a marriage 1983 as the Year of the Bible, he said: "Can we resolve to read, made in "heaven" and effectively procreates a message that the learn and try to heed the greatest message ever written—God's world is going to hell unless it turns from its evil ways. I word in the Holy Bible? Inside its pages lie all the answers to believe that Pat's mission is to legislatively remove evil from all the problems that man has ever known." That last presi- our government and society by seeking political control. He dential sentence contains the key to being a hit on Christian wants to be God's policy maker in America. Holy Terror

uring my post-CBN search for daughter. The child was not sick, but she rifying. Some of the articles confirm my Dunderstanding, every day as I read died of starvation because the father be- suspicion that some TV ministers are sav- the newspaper—usually two of them—a lieved that "spiritual food" was more ing more money than souls. For example, pair of scissors sat next to my cup of cof- important than a balanced diet. During in the fall of 1984 it was reported that Jim fee. I clipped out any article that had to his trial he refused to answer any ques- Bakker, who once worked for Pat Robert- do with God or what people thought God tions and, claiming that Jesus was his son and was the original host of "The 700 wanted done. 1 placed these "religion" lawyer, he spent most of the three days of Club," and who now heads his own Chris- articles in a folder that I marked "Holy his trial silently reading the Bible. tian television network and host's the Terror," so named because I was terrified In Albion, Indiana, a faith-healer and popular "PTL Club," bought a $449,000 by things that people did in the name of his wife were sentenced to ten years in vacation home in Palm Springs, a 1984 holiness. A few examples follow. prison after they refused to renounce the Mercedes-Benz for $45,000, and a 1953 A man from Glen Haven, Colorado, practice of praying to cure illness and were Rolls Royce for $55,000. Several weeks was charged with child abuse in the death charged with reckless homicide and child before his big spending spree, Bakker told of his five-week-old daughter because he neglect in the death of their nine-month- his loyal viewers that he had given virtually failed to provide her with medical attention old daughter. The judge asked the father everything he had to his religious broad- when she was suffering from pneumonia; if he would seek medical help for his other casting efforts, that the ministry was facing the father claimed he was a fundamentalist children if they became ill, and he replied, its biggest financial crisis, and that he Christian who treated his child with prayer "I still can't sin against the Lord." needed immediate help to pay the bills in because he believed "God is my doctor." The judge asked the same question of order to continue to do the Lord's work At his trial he stated, "The Lord is my the wife and her response was, "I have to and spread His word. defense." stand by my husband. Jesus bore it all on Before long, my "Holy Terror" folder In Ensburg, Pennsylvania, a fundamen- the cross." gave way to a small carton, and in the talist Christian couple who denied medical In Onalaska, Wisconsin, a man who space of six months I had a large file box treatment to their two-year-old son—who identified himself as "Elijah" believed he stuffed with clippings. As my collection was dying of a five-pound abdominal was a biblical prophet whose mission was grew thicker, I could not help but notice tumor because the Bible precludes medical to crush the worship of idol Gods. He that the vast majority of the articles were treatment—were found guilty of involun- stormed into a Catholic church and opened extremely political. During the 1984 elec- tary manslaughter and endangering the fire with a shotgun, killing a priest and tions it seemed that God had become a welfare of a child. The couple believed that two male parishioners during a mass for political football. With a gentle push from seeking medical help would have been a children. Elijah, this "prophet" of God, had their pastors, people were taking their reli- sign of a loss of faith in God, who they spoken to the priest prior to the service gious beliefs to the ballot box as a way of believed healed through prayer alone. and expressed his concern over the priest's oppressing other people in the name of In Elyria, Ohio, a thirty-two-year-old allowing young girls to read from the Bible God. The Republican party even pleaded man was found guilty of involuntary man- during the liturgy. with the pastors to help get out the "God" slaughter in the death of his three-year-old Not all of my clippings are that ter- vote.—Gerard T. Straub

22 FREE INQUIRY What is this "evil" that the militant believers in God's army the state becomes a partner in a deplorable crime against the under the command of Pat Robertson are determined to defeat? creative powers of God; even though they do support the death I believe, for the most part, that it exists primarily in the minds penalty and war as justifiable homicide. The Religious Right of those who wish to eliminate it. (Psychologists call this believes that the secular humanist has created a demythologized "projection.") They are engaged in a never-ending effort to religion that breeds moral decay. Militant Christians are not maintain the appearance of goodness and moral purity by content to be Christians within a secular nation; they want the denying their own shortcomings, while projecting their own United States to be a Christian nation. "evil" onto others. Evil is seen everywhere but within them- Pat Robertson wants to change our society by bringing it selves. back to biblical principles. Not only has he expounded that Pat constantly preaches that the secular humanist is a vile goal on "The 700 Club," but he has also established a fully enemy—a serpent in sheepskin out to devour weak Christians. accredited university for that purpose. The school has more By gaining control of the uncommitted middle, Robertson and than five hundred students from nine countries and offers his fellow prophets believe they can legislate their brand of master's degrees in Communications, Law, and Public Policy. Christianity into the law of the land. For the Religious Right, On the February 25, 1985, edition of "The 700 Club," the head voting is no longer just a constitutional right; it is a new of the university said that the purpose of the graduate school commandment from God. And God's prophets tell His people was to "change the way America thinks." According to Pat's how to vote. "The 700 Club" is not just a religious television plan, the graduates will take their degrees and their militant show; it is a political power base. Christianity into the marketplace in order to change the system from within. Those on the radical Christian right are entitled to their "To his growing audience, Pat offers salvation views on all the issues of the day, and they have every right to for sale; and if you buy it, you'll pay a high price strive to influence public opinion. However, they violate the for nothing. You'll mortgage your mind, your bounds of reasonable democratic discourse when they say that those who oppose them are not simply misguided or wrong, emotions, your family, your friends, and your but sinful, intolerant of religion, and unpatriotic. Policy debates very soul." should not be transformed into theological disputes, and poli- tical dissent from fundamentalist belief should not be twisted into an un-Christian act. The first victim of a political battle While I was at CBN, I never took its political power fought with self-righteous arrogance is tolerance. seriously and thought that Pat's banter was harmless day- As a doubter, I reject the external expressions of all religious dreaming. I could not understand Pat's devotion to Ronald faiths, yet I am cognizant of the importance of religion in Reagan. I thought that the evangelical legislative goal was personal human experience. Sidney Hook once wrote: impossible to achieve; however, closer examination of American history clearly shows that Christian-sponsored legislation was It may be hard to separate the existence of organized religion once rampant, and history could repeat itself. During the nine- from personal religious experience, but it is possible to distin- teenth and early twentieth centuries, the church's moral and guish them. It is only the first with which 1 have been polem- ically involved. In a statement made long ago, which still religious authority was pushed to the brink of extinction by the expresses my considered view, I wrote: "So long as religion is growth of science and the insights of Charles Darwin; and, in a freed from authoritarian institutional forms, and conceived in frantic attempt at keeping their private moral codes alive, personal terms, so long as overbeliefs are a source of innocent Christians managed to incorporate them into public law. The joy, a way of overcoming cosmic loneliness, a discipline of state enforced the will of God by passing laws governing sexual living with pain or evil, otherwise unendurable or irremediable, conduct, such as those requiring marriage licenses and pro- so long as what functions as a vital illusion or poetic myth is hibiting adultery, sodomy, fornication, lewd behavior, por- not represented as a public truth to whose existence the once nography, and prostitution. Blue laws grew out of the Christian born are blind, so long as religion does not paralyze the desire observance of the Sabbath and hand-cuffed Jews and atheists and the will to struggle against unnecessary cruelties of experi- alike. The virtue of sobriety became the law of Prohibition. ence, it seems to me to fall in an area of choice, in which The sin of gambling was restricted by state law, and some rational criticism may be suspended. In this sense, a man's communities even banned dancing because the Baptists believed personal religion justifies itself to him in a way his love does. Why should he want to make a public cult out of it? And why it was evil. Of course these laws were impossible to enforce, should we demand that he prove that the object of his love is, and during the past thirty years most of them have been as he believes, the most beautiful creature in the world? None- repealed. The church's effort to enlist the state as an agent of theless, it still remains true that as a set of cognitive beliefs moral authority failed. about the existence of God in any recognizable sense continu- Once again militant Christians want to legislate their ous with the great systems of the past, religious doctrines con- divinely inspired morality into the law of the land. The modern stitute a speculative hypothesis of an extremely low order of secular world has become unbearable to the Christian because probability." [Courage and Conviction, ed. by Philip Berman] of its blatant disregard for the Bible and the laws of God. It is impossible for them to accept liberal abortion laws when they As Pat Robertson says on "The 700 Club," "Amen and firmly believe abortion is murder; they cannot idly stand by as amen." •

Summer 1986 23

But that was hardly a disaster. The in- ON THE BARRICADES vestigators had several other photographers there. Who would suspect a little old lady with a Kodak disc camera? The event was recorded in detail, and the story will be told by James Randi in his future book, The Faith-Healers.

New CSER Faith-Healing Scientific Examination of Religion's investi- Investigation Subcommittee Formed gation into faith-healing has sparked con- New Court Battles Over Secular siderable media coverage, including UPI Humanism in Schools Because of the need for continuous investi- stories nationwide and features in the Dallas Morning News, the Los Angeles Times, the gation of claims of faith-healers, CSER has Tennessee and Alabama are the battle- Buffalo News, the Miami Herald, and the established a special group to conduct the grounds for the latest, and biggest, fight over Chicago Tribune. There was also widespread inquiry. At a press conference in Los An- secular humanism in the public schools. television and radio coverage. geles, CSER chairman Gerald Larue an- Eleven families in Church Hill, Tennes- James Randi's appearance on the Cable nounced the initial composition of the sub- see, are suing in Federal District Court for committee. News Network and the Johnny Carson damages for violation of their civil rights "Tonight Show" alerted the faith-healers to Chairman Larue warned that faith- and injunctive relief for the treatment their healing is growing throughout the nation, be wary and elicited a predictable reaction. children have received in school for refusing that the claims of faith-healers are largely They have systematically attempted to eject to read certain textbooks and for the arrest unsubstantiated and based on uncorro- members of our committee from their of one mother who protested. In Mobile, borated testimony of the healer or the meetings—usually without success—in Alabama, 624 parents, teachers, and students patient, and that unfortunately no distinction Philadelphia, Brooklyn, Detroit, and other (the original defendants in the school prayer is made between organically based and psy- cities. case heard by Federal District Judge Brevard chosomatic illnesses. The task of this investi- Hand in 1983), are also protesting the gation is to monitor these claims and the Efforts Are Made to Eject materials used in public schools. Both groups healing sessions themselves. Professor Larue Randi and Others from object to what they view as the teaching of called on the general public, scientists, the Faith-Healing Session secular humanism in their schools, which medical profession, and the clergy to assist they charge is unconstitutional. in this important effort. Coordinating the At a Peter Popoff service in Detroit on April A consent decree that has been proposed subcommittee are Paul Kurtz, Gerald Larue, 20, 1986, James Randi was discovered sitting to settle the Mobile case reads, in part: and James Randi, who is the principal in- in the auditorium one hour before the per- "Humanism is a religion for both the Estab- vestigator. Among the consultants are Nobel formance. By the time the alarm was raised, lishment Clause and Free Exercise Clause Prize winner Luis W. Alvarez (Berkeley), Randi had disappeared, changed his costume of the First Amendment.... The Advance- Stephen Barrett, M.D. (Allentown, Pa.), and the color of his beard, and reappeared ment of Humanism in public school text- William Jarvis (Loma Linda University, carrying a radio receiver and recording books violates the first amendment." Calif.), Dr. Vern Bullough, R.N. (SUNY machine. Meanwhile the local police had Meanwhile Ishmael Jaffree, a Mobile College, Buffalo), Dr. Bonnie Bullough, been called by Popoff, and they ejected a attorney who successfully challenged Ala- R.N. (Dean, School of Nursing, SUNY at photographer working for Science 86, but bama's school-prayer laws, filed a $2.5 Buffalo), Professor Robert Alley (University without citing any legal grounds for doing million countersuit against Governor George of Richmond), Dr. Joseph Fletcher (Pro- so. However, although they did not find C. Wallace and education officials. Jaffree fessor Emeritus, University of Virginia Randi, they informed Popoff that they asked the court to "prevent the censoring of Medical School), Robert Steiner (Chairman, would not eject him because he had a right public school textbooks for the secular Occult Committee, Society of American to attend the meeting. humanism content." Magicians), Dr. Rita Swan (President, The scanning receiver and recorder James J. Kilpatrick, in a widely syndi- Children's Health Care, Sioux City, Iowa), picked up Mrs. Popoff on 39.17 Megahertz cated column, supported the Mobile, Ala- Richard H. Lange, M.D. (Chief of Nuclear as expected, and also, as expected, Bay Area bama, parents' suit: "All this is deeply Medicine, Schenectady, N.Y.), Al Seckel Skeptics' Don Henvick was again called out, troublesome," he wrote. "1 hold no brief for (Executive Director, Southern California this time as "Bernice." Bernicé s "son," in the kind of rabid fundamentalist who would Skeptics), David Alexander (Southern Cali- reality Omni and Penthouse writer Scot ban the reading of Romeo and Juliet because fornia Skeptics), and Wallace I. Sampson, Morris, who was covering the story, wheeled it promotes illicit sex.... The idea of federal M.D. (Stanford University). The project has Bernice around in her wheelchair. He was judges functioning as textbook committees called for volunteers nationwide to assist it also taking pictures. Popoff's front man, is a melancholy idea." But he concluded that in its efforts. Reeford Shirrell, decided to use some "the Mobile plaintiffs have made their case." strong-arm tactics. He took the camera from Other conservative columnists, such as Faith-Healing Investigation Morris, placed it behind his back, and Phyllis Schlafly and John Lofton, have sup- Stimulates National Controversy stripped the exposed film from it. He then ported the plaintiffs, insisting that "secular sprinted for the stage, where Morris was humanism is a religion" and should be FREE INQUIRY and the Committee for the unable to go. banned from the public schools.

24 FREE INQUIRY Ontario Court Asked to Rule on pamphlet that encourages its readers to make program at the Library of Congress. Papers the Bible a part of their life, was reprinted were read by Professor Ralph Ketcham of Teaching of Religion in Schools in the April issue of the Reader's Digest. Syracuse University and Gail E. Makinen Sponsored by the Arthur S. DeMoss of the Library of Congress. The meeting was The practice of setting aside mandatory class Foundation, a well-known ultraconservative chaired by Robert S. Alley, a contributing time in Ontario's public schools for religious organization, the pamphlet is an abstract of editor of FREE INQUIRY. instruction and prayer may end if the a book that has been promoted recently on Supreme Court of Ontario rules such prac- television by several public figures, including tice violates the Canadian Charter of Rights Fundamentalists Win Ban Pat Boone, Janet Lynn, and Tom Landry. and Freedoms. The Canadian Civil Liberties on Adult Magazine Sales By means of numerous simplistic analo- Association, which has been fighting the gies the author, Jamie Buckingham, explains practice since the 1960s, says the provincial A boycott by fundamentalists of 7-Eleven that the "power" for living comes from Jesus. regulation mandating religious instruction stores in Dallas, Texas, protesting the sale "Without batteries toy cars won't run," he infringes on the freedom of conscience, reli- of adult magazines, has prompted the chain writes. "You are made in the image of God, gion, and equality rights guaranteed by the to discontinue sales of Playboy, Penthouse, but because of sin your batteries never did charter. and Forum magazines. The owner of the work. When Christ came into your life He The latest round in the battle stems from chain, the Southland Corporation, citing a brought His power with Him." course guidelines issued by the Elgin County report from the Attorney General's Commis- In an extraordinary display of specious Board of Education for religious studies, sion on Pornography, said that it was re- logic Mr. Buckingham implies that because which state that "each student may per- sponding to a growing public concern about the president declared the year 1983 as "The sonally look to Jesus to save him from the "the connection between adult magazines Year of the Bible," he has therefore "pro- power of sin and punishment for sin." and crime." Critics of the Commission have claim[ed] the Bible as mankind's greatest Alan Borovoy, the lawyer who leads the pointed out that it is top-heavy with con- source of knowledge." The Bible is the association, says a new fundamentalism is servative law-enforcement individuals who "fundamental Instruction Manual ... which creeping into the schools, which begin and are insensitive to civil liberties issues and has the principles by which we live and die." end each day with a prayer and include daily that the so-called connection between Unlike the condensed versions of other bible readings. "The program is not teaching pornography and crime has not been em- books in Reader's Digest, "Power for Living" knowledge, it is promoting belief," he said. pirically demonstrated. is contained in a detachable tear-out form "We are opposed to attempts to promote for the convenience of the reader. Such religious beliefs in the context of the public preferential treatment clearly indicates that Ominous New Attack on schools. We are not opposed in principle to it is actually an unpaid advertisement for Secular Humanism the public school promoting knowledge the book and for the fundamentalist views about various religions. What we object to it espouses. Until now the lion's share of criticism of is the public school promoting a belief in a secular humanism has come from funda- particular ideology." Annual Madison Meeting Held mentalist Protestant churches. Although some Catholic lay people, such as Phyllis Reader's Digest Promotes The James Madison Memorial Committee Schlafly, Richard Viguerie, and others, have Fundamentalist Views celebrated the 235th anniversary of the lambasted secular humanism, the Roman birthday of the fourth president of the Catholic hierarchy until now has been re- "Power for Living," a forty-seven page United States on March 16, 1986, with a strained in its criticism. Arch-conservative ,/ . Cardinal Krol issued a blast at secular humanism on April 6, 1986, on the occasion pioN'T WAD of his twenty-fifth anniversary as head of THIS I ...MY the Philadelphia diocese. DAD SAYS IT Cardinal Krol singled out Humanist UNOeRMINES Manifestos 1 and I1 for special criticism, as AMeRIcA AND well as Paul Kurtz (editor of FREE INQUIRY). CH ISTIANITY AND "The basic error of secular humanists," he P110MeTeS WAR said, "is the failure to recognize man as a IluMANISM creature and child of God standing under God's iudgment." Krol also attacked humanists for their support of "the humanization and liberation of Catholicism" after the Second Vatican Council. Religious liberals, he complained, favor the democratization of the church. "They exalted human judgment to the point where the exercise of free personal inquiry became more important than the truth." Humanism, he said, "opens the door to every human being to claim a degree of 'freedom' which is incompatible with teachings of reli- gion and morality."

Summer 1986 25 Editorials Under the First Amendment the govern- ment cannot discriminate between different Court Rules on FREE INQUIRY beliefs. Nontheists could deliver opening statements that, although not in the form of a prayer, would have the solemnity appro- Lawsuits priate to a session of the legislature. A second claim has alleged that the Senate chaplain used his tax-supported pul- pit to disparage the beliefs of nontheists during his opening remarks. In the recent ruling, the court again decided that Kurtz had standing to pursue these claims. However, the court concluded he U.S. District Court for the District priety of the practice. Mathias's statement on the basis of a 1983 Supreme Court deci- Tof Columbia has made tentative rulings was printed in the Congressional Record and sion in Marsh v. Chambers that the in the two lawsuits brought by FREE submitted to the court when it became ap- chaplains could restrict the opening cere- INQUIRY editor Paul Kurtz regarding certain parent that Kurtz would probably prevail monies of Congress to individuals who practices of the chaplains of the United on the merits. The court decision allows would deliver a prayer. An appeal of this States Congress. Kurtz to reinstate his challenge if he is aspect of the case is being considered. In Kurtz v. Kennickell, which challenges unsatisfied with the Senate's response to this Regarding the second claim, the court the use of public funds to print collections issue. indicated that it was very troubled by some of the prayers of Senate chaplains, the court In another lawsuit, Kurtz v. Baker, the of Senate Chaplain Halverson's assertions found that Kurtz had standing to challenge court had to address two different claims. during the opening remarks, such as his the practice, but declined to issue a final First, Kurtz contended that because the statement that the "Godless ... would deny ruling on the merits because of a statement Senate and the House chaplains allow and destroy human rights" and that "liberties by Senate Rules Committee Chairman "guests" from all over the country to partici- of a nation cannot be secure when belief in Charles Matthias of Maryland that he would pate in the opening ceremonies, no matter God is abandoned." The court requested oppose any future use of public funds for what their particular beliefs, they had an further argument and submissions to help it the printing of prayers and would take action obligation to allow nontheists to participate decide what relief might be appropriate. An to assure Senate consideration of the pro- in the opening ceremonies, even if the non- exchange of letters between Dr. Kurtz and theists would not offer a prayer as the the Reverend Halverson on this issue has chaplains and their "guests" have always been submitted to the court. • done.

This decline has led some non-believers to God and Secular Humanism predict the eventual demise of religion. Believers, however, need not be pessi- mistic. There will always be enough mystery Ron Yezzi 2. Religious claims are as clear and in the universe and in human life to justify certain as the conviction that you are reading many persons in building a life on the oes God exist? And, if so, what is or hearing words right now. foundation of religious faith. DGod like? 3. To be a good person, you need to be The decline also has the beneficial effect I've never seen any arguments or evidence Christian. of freeing religious persons from the burden that can finally settle these questions one of trying to claim God-inspired expertise on way or another. Therein lies the wisdom of he authors of the Constitution, even every aspect of human knowledge and allowing individuals the freedom to form Twhen they may have held strong per- existence. their beliefs about God and religion for sonal religious beliefs, had the wisdom and themselves. foresight to establish a clear separation of n the light of some current events, we Society, however, has to protect itself church and state to protect citizens from I can describe the situation a bit dif- from those who want to impose their reli- these naive religious prejudices. They proba- ferently. gious views on others. In particular, that bly did not envisage, however, the degree of In the free market of ideas and actions, means protection from at least three naive secularization of life and pluralism that the market share of religion has been de- religious prejudices: would evolve over two centuries. clining. Accordingly, some believers demand 1. There is one true religion that every- In 1986 we have a clearer historical that government now subsidize religion; for one can and should agree on. perspective. example, they demand prayer and the teach- Actually, the influence of religion on ing of creationism in the public schools. Ron Yezzi is professor of philosophy at human affairs in Western civilization has Now I am not a slavish follower of the Mankato State University in Minnesota. been declining for about five or six centuries, free market. In this case, however, I think since its high point during the Middle Ages. that society is best served by the wisdom of

26 FREE INQUIRY the Constitution. beings can be rightfully proud of many the United States") and in the First Amend- Some fundamentalist Christians think major accomplishments created and achieved ment ("Congress shall make no law respect- that we need protection from the materi- within the secular dimension of life. ing an establishment of religion, or prohi- alistic values they associate with what they And it is simply silly to attribute materi- biting the free exercise thereof'). call the "religion of secular humanism." alistic values to the promotion of humanistic If a poll were taken in the United States, I do not see why any devoutly religious thought in the classroom, when capitalism 1 am confident that nearly all the persons person would want to label non-God- and consumer affluence have far more to being labeled "secular humanists" would centered human thought "a religion." Nor do with the spread of materialism. Indeed, support both the Constitution's prohibitions do I see why the whole of non-God-centered much of the secular humanistic thought against governmental establishment of reli- thought should be lumped together as "a turns us away from materialistic values. gion and the guaranteee of religious freedom. religion." One important document in the history 1 am not confident at all that the same can of secular humanistic thought has to be the be said of their opponents. ecular humanism seems to be the first United States Constitution, which lays out On the subject of God, religion, and Sreligion in the history of the world the fundamental political organization of the secular humanism, we should recognize the where opponents claim the right to define United States. In doing so, it makes no wisdom in the constitutional separation of its doctrines and membership. But I am not reference to God other than citing the word church and state. We should also recognize going to argue about labels. I want to ask: "Lord" in the calendar date. And it refers to that, just as you do not need to be a Chris- Is "secular humanism" all that bad? religion just twice—in Article VI ("no reli- tian to be a good person, you do not need I see nothing inherently wrong with gious test shall ever be required as a quali- to hang on to naive religious prejudices to non-God-centered human thought. Human fication to any office or public trust under be a religious person either. •

is due to "humanism." My Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary defines humanism as Humanists in the Vanguard "a devotion to the humanities ... literary culture . . . the revival of classics . . . a philosophy that asserts the dignity and worth of Civilization of human beings" And from the Columbia Encyclopedia: "Humanism ... the distinctive characteristic of the Renaissance ... a conscious return The woman responds: "Halleluia! Where to classical ideas. Contemporary meanings William Edelen is it?" of the word emphasize lasting human values The man answers: "Russia." with a cultivation of the classics." . L. Mencken, the renowned syndi- How individual members of the fanatical We were rescued from ignorance and the cated columnist for the Baltimore Sun, H right define "secular humanism" depends on Dark Ages by the Renaissance and the once wrote that he had no need ever to where they are on a scale of 1 to 10 of brain humanists. Scholars were once again recog- attend a circus. Why? Because he lived in a constipation. An example: In a pamphlet nized as the cream of society and politics. society that was a circus, with clowns every- entitled "Is Humanism Molesting Your The humanists became advisers and coun- where. Mark Twain made similar observa- Child?" a Texas parents' group described selors to senators, dukes, and popes. tions. "secular humanism" in these words: "A belief As the historian Will Durant put it in I always remember Mencken's words in the redistribution of wealth ... control his volume Renaissance: "They (the human- when I read the rantings and ravings of those of the environment, control of energy and ists) transformed the ideal of a gentleman aiming their tirades at some mirage they call its limitation . . . the removal of the free from a man with a ready sword and clanking "secular humanism." enterprise system ... working for disarm- spurs into that of the fully developed indi- There was a wonderful cartoon recently ament ... and the creation of world govern- vidual attaining to wisdom and worth by in the Washington Post. It pictures a man ment." absorbing the cultural heritage of the race. and his wife dressed in very puritan, "do- For some, attacking "secular humanism" The prestige of their learning, combined with good" clothing. She is holding a book called means taking great literature out of our their eloquence, conquered Europe. Country The Book Hit List. He's reading from a schools. That's called book burning, which after country was inoculated with the new newspaper. they did in Nazi Germany. It means not culture, and passed from medievalism to The man says: "Holy Guacamole! Here's exposing our young people to what a small modernity. It was the humanist who libera- a story about a school system that doesn't group of parents have decided is "obscene." ted man from dogma, taught him to love pervert children's minds with philosophy, By their own standards and definitions, they life rather than brood about death, and made literature, social studies, the arts, history, will have to ban the Bible from home and the European mind free." and the rest of that secular humanism bunk!" school libraries, for the Bible is full of every How proud I am to be associated with "obscenity" known to the human race—rape, humanists, humanitarians, the humanities, The Reverend William Edelen is a minister gang rape, sodomy, adultery, genocide, and all that it means to be truly human in in the Community Congregational Church incest—and all in lurid detail. the most noble sense—as one devoted to in McCall, Idaho. A book of his columns, What extremists do to magnificent words the classics and emphasizing lasting human called Toward the Mystery, can be obtained and ideas is frightening: "Humanism," for values. by writing P.O. Box 762, McCall, Idaho example, is one of the most beautiful words Humankind is still our main business. 83630. in our language. A vast majority of every- And humankind is what the humanities and thing that an enlightened citizenry cherishes humanists are all about. •

Summer 1986 27 BIBLICAL SCORECARD Was Saint Paul "Pro-Family"?

Tom Franczyk

n the Summer 1985 issue of FREE lem: to be loving wives and mothers, temperate, INQUIRY, the "Biblical Scorecard" chaste, and kind, busy at home, respecting I To the rest I say this, as my own word, the authority of their husbands. [Titus examined the question "Was Jesus `Pro- not as the Lord's: if a Christian has a 2:3-5] Family'?" In this column we will see what heathen wife, and she is willing to live "Saint" Paul (Saul of Tarsus) had to say with him, he must not divorce her; and a Marriage is honorable; let us all keep it about family life. (For this purpose we will woman who has a heathen husband willing so, and the marriage-bond inviolate; for assume that Paul wrote all of the epistles to live with her must not divorce her God's judgment will fall on fornicators and attributed to him, although modern husband.... Think of it: as a wife you adulterers. [Heb. scholarship has shown that at least some may be your husband's salvation; as a 13:4] of these letters were probably not written husband you may be your wife's salvation. No mention here of celibacy or remaining by the actual founder of Christianity.) [1 Cor. 7:12-16] unmarried. Paul did not describe many specific Do not unite yourselves with unbelievers; Other related verses include: rules for successful family life with children, they are not fit mates for you.... God's but he had much to say about husband- own words are: "I will live and move about . . . Man was not created for woman's wife and other male-female relationships. among them; I will be their God, and they sake, but woman for the sake of man... . The seventh chapter of the first letter to shall be my people." and therefore, "come [I Cor. 11:91 the Corinthians is most relevant: away and leave them, separate yourselves, says the Lord; touch nothing unclean. Wives be subject to your husbands as to It is a good thing for a man to have ..." [2 Cor. 6:14-17] the Lord; ... [Eph. 5:22] nothing to do with women; but because there is so much immorality, let each man Although the context of the two letters is A woman must be a learner, listening have his own wife and each woman her different (the first deals specifically with quietly and with due submission. 1 do not own husband.... Do not deny yourselves married Christians, whereas the second is permit a woman to be a teacher, nor must to one another, except when you agree more general), the advice seems incon- a woman domineer over man; she should upon a temporary abstinence in order to sistent. Has Paul changed his mind in the be quiet. For Adam was created first, and devote yourselves to prayer; afterwards interim between letters? Eve afterwards; and it was not Adam who you come together again; otherwise, for Children are finally but only briefly was deceived; it was the woman who, lack of self-control, you may be tempted yielding to deception, fell into sin. Yet she mentioned in a letter to the Ephesians. Was by Satan. will be saved through motherhood—if only To the unmarried and to widows I say Paul responsible for this?: women continue in faith, love, and holi- this: it is a good thing if they stay as I am ness, with a sober mind. [I Tim. 2:11-15. myself; but if they cannot control them- Children, obey your parents, for it is right See also I Cor. 13:34-35 and Eph. selves, they should marry. Better be mar- that you should. "Honor your father and 5:23-33.] ried than burn with vain desire. [ I Cor. mother" is the first commandment with 7:1-9 (NEB)] the promise attached, in the words: "That We have examined nearly everything it may be well with you and that you may that "Saint" Paul allegedly had to say live long in the land." The time we live in will not last long. about the family, or, should I say, relation- While it lasts, married men should be as You fathers, again, must not goad your if they had no wives; ... For the whole children to resentment, but give them in- ships between the sexes: The family, frame of this world is passing away... . struction, and correction, which belong to nuclear or extended, is barely mentioned. ... Thus, he who marries his partner a Christian upbringing. [Eph. 6:1-4. See The degree to which Paul's nostrums may does well, and he who does not will do also Col. 3:20-21.] be considered "pro-family" depends on the better. [I Cor. 7:29-38. See also 7:10-11 degree to which celibacy and/or absolute and 7:39-40.] The advice has changed considerably— patriarchy are accepted. It is for the reader there is no indication that the end is near. to decide if she or he considers Paul "pro- Paul tells his Corinthian followers: The end Following these verses, equal time is spent family" in any conventional or contem- is near (as Jesus allegedly does in the dealing with slaves. The advice is similar. porary sense. Gospels), remain married if you already Does the seventh chapter of First Note: The lines replaced by ellipses do are, but it is better to remain celibate and Corinthians square with later Epistles? not change the thrust of Paul's message; unmarried as he is. they have been omitted for brevity's sake The following advice concerning ties The older women . . . must set a high and to avoid redundancy. It is suggested with non-Christians poses a bit of a prob- standard, and school the younger women that the verses be read in their entirety. •

28 FREE INQUIRY FREE INQUIRY's Fifth Annual Conference Biblical Ethics and Contemporary Society October 31 and November 1, 1986 at the University of Richmond Richmond, Virginia Is the Bible a reliable guide for moral conduct, as religious proponents insist, or does it have serious limitations? Are there alternative standards of ethics, as humanists point out, and what are they?

Topics: Biblical Ethics in History and Myth • Biblical Interpretations of Morality: Abortion, Sexual Morality, Homosexuality, Euthanasia, and War and Peace • Biblical Ethics and Philosophy • Ethics and the Law Speakers: Robert S. Alley, University of Richmond R. Joseph Hoffmann, University of Michigan Joseph E. Barnhart, North Texas State University Gerald A. Larue, University of Southern California Joseph Blau, Columbia University John Priest, Florida State University Vern L. Bullough, SUNY College at Buffalo Ellis Rivkin, Hebrew Union College Joseph Fletcher, Univ. of Virginia Medical School Richard Rubinstein, Florida State University Theodore Gaster, Columbia University Morton Smith, Columbia University Richard Taylor, Union College Special Feature "Faith Healing: How It is Done" Paul Kurtz, professor of philosophy, SUNY at Buffalo, and Editor of FREE INQUIRY. James Randi, conjurer and principal investigator of FREE INQUIRY'S Faith Healing Investigation Project.

Program: The conference will begin at 9:00 P.M. on Friday, 0ctober 31, 1986, and end on Saturday evening, November 1, 1986. The fee is $55.00. A buffet luncheon ($8.50 per person) will be available on Friday afternoon, and on Saturday evening there will be a banquet ($25.00 per person) with a special session on faith-healing by Paul Kurtz and James Randi. Transportstion: Piedmont Airlines (1-800-334-8644) is offering registrants a 35 percent discount on round-trip fares to Richmond, Virginia, for the conference. Ask for the Conference Bureau. Accommodations: Special rates are available from the Hyatt Hotel (1-800-285-1234). Ask for the Richmond Hyatt.

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Summer 1986 29 Belief and Unbelief Worldwide ith this issue FREE INQUIRY begins an analysis of elite of educated persons, are oblivious to free thought. he state of belief and unbelief throughout the world. Religious missionaries continue to fan out around the world WtAmong the questions we will address are: How to recruit converts. Christianity, Islam, and other traditional widespread is religious belief in particular areas? Have skep- religions continue to grow. Yet the forces of science, education, ticism, free thought, and humanism made any inroads? If not, modernism, democracy, and secularism also have a part to why not? play. Can freethinkers hope to gain a stronger hold in various The movement toward rational, humanist thought is still parts of the world? confined to a relatively small portion of the globe—primarily We will focus here on the situation in South America and Western Europe, North America, and Australia. Here tradi- India. Future issues of FREE INQUIRY will feature articles on tional religions have been losing ground to the forces of secu- belief and unbelief in the Middle East, Great Britain, Eastern larism and humanism. Still, large areas of the world—Latin Europe, France, Australia, and Mexico.—Paul Kurtz America, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia—except for a small Religious Skepticism in Latin America Jorge J. E. Gracia

n Europe and North America, religious skepticism has a and in the United States. First, as already noted, both in the well-entrenched tradition, and, although it has come under most developed countries of Western Europe and in the United I rather fierce attack recently, particularly in the United States there is a well-established tradition of skepticism with States, it seems to be holding its ground. But Latin America respect to religious belief among the intelligentsia; and, second, has no such tradition, and in spite of some inroads it seems to science, philosophy, and art have found a place in the intellec- be losing ground. In this article, I will first characterize the tual traditions of the culture independent of religion. It is true present situation in Latin America and, second, examine the that some of the towering figures of science, art, and philosophy roots of religious skepticism in the area. Third, I will describe have often been ardent religious believers. And this not only the emergence and decline of religious skepticism in Latin was so in the Middle Ages and the early modern period but is America during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. also true today. Indeed, some religious philosophies, such as Fourth, I will try to identify some of the causes of the failure Thomism, have had a revival in this century, and many eminent of humanist ideals to take hold in Latin America. Finally, I artists and authors have been religious. One need think only of will venture some tentative predictions concerning the future. Rouault and Claudel, of Maritain and Blondel, to understand the point. Still, there is an equally large or perhaps even larger The Present number of scientists, artists, and philosophers who have ques- tioned religion and religious beliefs or whose work, if they are erhaps the best way to understand the weakness of religious believers, has nothing to do with religion. More important, Pskepticism in Latin America at present is to contrast it many believers consider their work to be independent of reli- with the better-known situation in most of Western Europe gious beliefs and commitments. In France, for example, the skeptical spirit remained with the intelligentsia after it had been established by figures like Montaigne and Voltaire. And Jorge J. E. Gracia is pro- many like-minded individuals abound throughout the intellec- fessor of philosophy and tual history of England and Germany as well. Moreover, reli- chairman of the department gious authors are part of the mainstream of religious thought at the State University of in the West and do not generally join fringe groups or cults New York at Buffalo. He is and, although not skeptical, generally respect reason, have a the author of numerous healthy suspicion about anything that reason disapproves of, books and articles. and are willing to subject their beliefs to some rational scrutiny. This is doubtless true of the two most famous Catholic philoso-

30 FREE INQUIRY phers of this century, Maritain and Gilson. fairly good public education systems, religious schools are In contrast, Latin America suffers from the lack of a tradi- generally regarded as superior. Consequently, those families tion of skepticism among its intelligentsia. True, there are a who can afford to will send their children to religious institu- few mavericks who have gone against the current, but on the tions, where religion is part of the curriculum and religious whole a large proportion of Latin American intellectuals are values and beliefs are constantly imparted. In some cases this deeply and too often dogmatically religious; and even those preference extends to post-secondary education. Some of the who are not members of an organized religion tend to think in most prestigious universities in Latin America are managed by religious terms. Most of the fathers of Latin American philoso- religious orders and clearly have an overall religious agenda. phy, called fundadores by historians, took religion seriously All of this contrasts strongly, of course, with circumstances and adopted some religious ideas in their philosophies, even if in Europe and the United States, where there are many private not all of them practiced religion. And subsequent generations institutions with religious affiliations. But both in terms of of intellectuals have continued in their footsteps. But more quality and quantity public schools hold their own. And, in the than this, even nonreligious ideologies, when they arrive in case of post-secondary education, the move in the United States Latin America, become associated and amalgamated with reli- at least in the recent past has been away from religion, even in gion, acquire some of the characteristics of a religious faith, private colleges and universities. In fact, many institutions and are frequently held with the same fervor and zeal usually formerly affiliated with a particular religion or religious accorded religious commitments. One recent example of amal- denomination have become secular. gamation is the so-called philosophy and theology of liberation, That religion is permitted in the classroom in many Latin which is a rather odd mixture of Marxism and Catholic American countries is an indication of another factor that works thought. There is, then, a deeply rooted and widespread tradi- against religious skepticism: the close ties that church and state tion of religiosity among Latin American intellectuals, a pro- have always had in the region. In some cases these ties are found preoccupation with religious issues, and an awe of reli- informal. There may be nothing in the constitution or the laws gious authority that are not found to the same degree in the of a country that gives religion an official role. Indeed, in some United States or the most developed Western European nations. countries like Mexico, the reverse is true: Religion is ignored, This religious spirit is reflected also in education. In many forbidden, or barely tolerated. But that is the letter of the law. Latin American countries, the public education system has long In practice, religion, particularly organized religion, which in been secular. But with a few exceptions, such as in Argentina, Latin America means the Catholic church, has strong ties to the public schools are not very good, and, in most cases, religion the state. Clerics are quite evident in civil ceremonies, and their is permitted to enter the classroom in some form. Also indica- advice is sought and generally respected. More important, tive of the situation is that, even in those countries that have governments are reluctant to go against organized religion for fear of being toppled. Latin American military men frequently NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN \-1 portray themselves as champions of religion and have justified

MEXICO GULF OF MEXICO overthrowing democratically elected governments on religious :'.., CUBA HAITI and moral grounds. (Many political analysts still believe that JAMAICA DOMINICAN REPUBLIC PUERTO RICO Juan Perón's real troubles in Argentina in the 1950s began ELIZE \p r' HONDURAS only when he went against the church.) CARAGUA . GUATEMALA All this is very different from what happens in the most EL SALVADOR TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO developed Western European nations and particularly in the COSTA RICA tI VENEZUELA GUYANA PANAMA SURINAME United States. True, governments pay attention to what reli- FRENCH GUIANA gious leaders have to say (elected officials are very aware that S.. ECUADOR they can influence many voters), but no more than to any other major constituency; and often the government will ignore GALAPAGOS ISLANDS their advice, pleas, and/ or threats. Finally, I should point to a rather alarming aspect of the current situation that should concern not only champions of religious skepticism but also any member of the intelligentsia, and even the leaders of traditional religions: the extraordinary growth of fringe sects, cults, and churches in Latin America in PACIFIC OCEAN recent years. These religious groups appeal primarily to the CHILE lower and uneducated classes, but even members of the edu-

URUGUAY cated classes and a few intellectuals, such as the famous novelist Jorge Amado, have succumbed to their appeal. Spiritualist

640 MILES tendencies, of course, are very prevalent in Brazil and the SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN coastal areas of the Caribbean. But there are similar and grow- ing developments in the Andean countries. Moreover, within Christianity, or related to it, a host of fundamentalist and

DP highly charismatic sects, which interpret Christianity in peculiar FALKLAND ISLANDS ways, are gaining ground rapidly. Mormons, Jehovah's Wit-

Summer 1986 31 nesses, and various kinds of Pentecostals are just a few of fields, particularly in education. Ultimately, liberals succeeded these. in secularizing the governments of most Latin American coun- Clearly the situation is alarming. The secular foundations tries, although they never managed to draw as much popular of science, philosophy, and art have never been strong in Latin support as the church had for its doctrines. America. But whatever seeds have been planted are being The liberals' contribution to the social, political, and cultural squashed by the wave of irrationalism, false religiosity, and life of Latin America was significant. Liberalism proved to be cultism represented by these new groups. the most powerful challenge to Catholic-inspired thought and institutions in the region in the first half of the nineteenth The Roots of Religious Skepticism century. It declined only in the second half of the century, after the advent of positivism. n order to understand the current situation in Latin Positivism is chronologically the second philosophy that I America, it is necessary to look at the roots of religious serves as the basis of religious skepticism in Latin America, skepticism. Its ideological foundation is to be found in three and it has been by far the most pervasive philosophical move- imported philosophies: liberalism, positivism, and Marxism. ment in the area to date. Its influence began around the middle The development of science has also contributed substantially. of the nineteenth century and extended to the first quarter of Liberalism, positivism, and Marxism are to be understood the twentieth. Positivism means something different in its Latin broadly to include what can be regarded sometimes as con- American context from what it means in the history of Euro- flicting positions but which on the whole originate within a pean and North American philosophy. It cannot be identified well-defined historical and ideological tradition, even though exclusively with the thought of Auguste Comte (1793-1857), they may not always adhere to a strict doctrinal code. In spite although Comte's ideas constitute one of its most important of the differences between these three philosophies, they share foundations. Positivism includes such diverse elements as the for the most part a basic anti-religious and anti-clerical attitude. evolutionary naturalism of Herbert Spencer (1820-I903), the This hostility is primarily directed against Catholicism and the utilitarianism of John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) and Jeremy Catholic clergy, which is to be expected given the prominence Bentham (1748-1832), and the monistic evolutionism of T. H. of the Catholic church in Latin America and its historical, Huxley (1825-1895) and E. Haeckel (1834-1919). It combined doctrinal, and political affiliations. all these perspectives in different ways and with different After the Spanish colonial regime had been overthrown in emphases. Each country and thinker developed a particular Latin America, its social and cultural structures survived brand of positivism distinct for the most part from the others, through the still powerful Catholic church. In order to counter depending on the sources available and the prevailing circum- this influence and restructure the political and social organiza- stances. Latin American positivism, then, was not a monochro- tion of the newly liberated colonies, politicians and intellectuals matic philosophy; nor was it a reflection of European posi- embraced models of political organization that they believed tivism. Rather, it was a general attitude that emphasized science could effectively restrict religious interference in national affairs. to the detriment of metaphysics and theology; indeed, it may The first and most important of these adopted models was be called a "scientism" rather than a philosophy. It maintained liberalism. that all knowledge should be based on empirical evidence, never Latin American followers of liberal ideas adopted the basic on theoretical speculation. Positivists also held fast to the philosophical principle of the doctrine: namely, freedom of the principle that society was evolving toward a humanistic stage individual and a critical attitude toward religion both in its in which all social evils were to be eradicated. Comte had cultural and social manifestations. They understood liberalism identified the three stages through which society passes: theo- eclectically and chose to emphasize different aspects according logical, metaphysical, and scientific or positive. The theological to the circumstances. In particular, followers of liberal ideas in stage is dominated by prejudice and superstition, the meta- Latin America embraced those aspects that most closely served physical by speculation, and the positive by knowledge based their purposes in building national states. Because such an on experience. This evolution was to be achieved through edu- endeavor entailed encounters with the powerful Catholic church, cation, which is one of the reasons that Latin American posi- Latin American liberals found themselves, at one point or tivists did so much to reform the educational system of the another, in open conflict with this religious institution. Major continent. This is also the root of positivistic anti-religiosity battles followed in education, land and property rights, and and anti-clericalism. The church and its doctrine, with its tradi- other economic, political, cultural, and social areas where the tional monopoly on education and what the positivists perceived colonial church had enjoyed privileges. Liberals sought to as an anti-scientific spirit, was a colossal obstacle to the positiv- undermine the economic power of the church by challenging ists' plans for Latin America. Consequently, Latin American and attempting to abolish its franchises and claims to landed positivists, following the liberals' earlier attempts, tried to property. Politically, they sought to reduce the influence of the separate church and state and to develop secular systems of church on the state and established constitutions that empha- education based on scientific principles. sized secular principles and institutions. Culturally, they pre- Marxism is the third major ideological foundation of reli- ferred rationalism to faith and sought to create a national ethos gious skepticism in Latin America. It shares with positivism based on the former. They were successful to the extent that the interpretation of religion as superstition and as an obstacle subsequent ideological movements inherited these concerns and to social advancement, the emphasis on science, a deterministic continued the struggle with the church for dominance in various and materialist view of reality, and the goal of social progress.

32 FREE INQUIRY Both positivism and Marxism attempt to develop a science of society while rejecting, at least on the surface, metaphysical "The deplorable economic situation of the masses speculation; they hold that the basis of all knowledge is experi- ence. But there are differences. For example, Marxism singles in Latin America works against religious skep- out economics as the fundamental science and holds that eco- ticism. [Religious] faith provides hope of a better nomic realities determine the course of history. Moreover, life and an escape from deprivation and pain. It while positivism adheres to the basic principle of evolutionary also provides hope for economic justice in socie- change, that is, progress with order, Marxism believes change is possible only through the revolutionary upheaval and class ties in which the power of the rich is virtually struggle that follow a well-established dialectical process. unlimited and the suffering of the poor seemingly The ground for the eventual growth of Marxism in Latin permanent." America was prepared throughout the nineteenth century by the influence of various European socialists who were widely read by Latin American intellectuals. Their ideas, however, on for a few more years in scattered places. Only Marxism were often mixed with liberal and positivist principles. It was remains, but at the cost of becoming tolerant of religion (as it not until the twentieth century that Marxist thought acquired has in Cuba) and of actually becoming amalgamated with it (as sufficient purity and importance to be regarded as a respectable it has with liberation theologies), and of becoming itself a ideological and political force. Marxist thought has played a quasi-religion, developing into a dogmatic and intolerant ide- decisive role in several political movements in Latin America: ology that requires unquestioning allegiance and devotion from the Mexican revolution, the APRA movement in Peru, the those who adhere to it. What has been the reason for this Cuban revolution, and the so-called liberation movements in change and, in particular, for the dramatic disappearance of several countries in Central and South America. positivism and the accompanying weakening of the basis of In short, in liberalism, positivism, and Marxism, religion is religious skepticism in Latin America? represented as an instrument of foreign domination, an obstacle Two answers suggest themselves. One is historical and to progress, and a means of preserving the privileges of certain chronicles the change of ideological mode that swept Latin groups in society. It is therefore not surprising that liberals, America in the early part of the twentieth century. The other is positivists, and Marxists have spent considerable energy op- an attempt to understand the more profound cultural reasons posing it. that lie behind the favor accorded to religious-oriented ideolo- The fourth factor to which reference was made earlier has gies in Latin America. also contributed substantially to the development of religious skepticism and secular humanism in Latin America. The grow- The Revolt Against Positivism ing prestige and increasing dissemination of scientific knowl- edge, particularly that related to the biological sciences, has he demise of positivism in Latin America was initiated in tended to emphasize and support materialistic views of reality the first decade of the twentieth century with the introduc- and to undermine religion. Indeed, Darwin's theory of evolu- tion of French vitalism, and it was completed by the importa- tion, although not a philosophy, played an important role in tion of German, spiritually oriented philosophies a decade later. the disenchantment of Latin American intellectuals with reli- Bergson and Boutroux, in particular, inspired the first genera- gious ideas. Moreover, the traditional and open opposition of tion of anti-positivists, who also read more traditional philoso- the church to well-established scientific views undermined the phers like Schopenhauer, Kant, and Plato, but it was vitalism credibility of the clergy and contributed to the growth of an that dominated their thought. This was particularly true in anti-clerical attitude in particular and a skeptical attitude toward Mexico, where the intellectuals Antonio Caso (1883-1946), José religion in general. The role of science in this process, however, Vasconcelos (1882-1959), and others founded in 1909 the was not direct. It found expression in and became a part of Ateneo de la Juventud, a society that was to become the basis liberalism, positivism, and Marxism. On the other hand, a of the anti-positivist revolt in that country. In Argentina, the large proportion of the ammunition that these three ideologies leaders of the movement were Alejandro Korn (1860-1936) use against religious ideas and the organized church in Latin and Coriolano Alberini (1886-1960). But there were participants America is taken from science. all over Latin America: Raimundo de Farias Brito (1862-1917) Having examined the ideological foundations of religious in Brazil, Alejandro Deústua (1849-1945) in Peru, and Carlos skepticism, the question we have to ask ourselves is this: With Vaz Ferreira (1872-1958) in Uruguay, to mention just a few. these solid foundations, why is it that the secular and skeptical In the second decade of the century, Ortega y Gasset visited seeds they planted have not grown substantially and fructified? Latin America and brought with him the ideas of the German Why is religious skepticism on the decline, or, at the least, why philosophies of the spirit. This Germanizing and spiritualizing hasn't it progressed as in Europe and the United States? For process continued, aided by Ortega's Revista de Occidente, the fact is that two of these ideologies have completely disap- which not only contained translations of and articles about peared, and the third has been substantially modified to accom- German philosophers but also explicitly advocated a spiritual modate religion. Liberalism survived only in the ideas that it anti-scientist philosophy. Through Ortega and his journal, Latin was able to pass on to positivism. And positivism effectively Americans became acquainted with the thought of Dilthey, disappeared after 1925, except for minor remnants that lingered Husserl, Scheler, Hartmann, and others.

Summer 1986 33 Finally, the impact of neo-Thomism must be taken into and both the native Americans who preceded them and the account. Both liberalism and positivism had overshadowed Africans and Europeans who came in later years adapted to scholastic philosophy in Latin America for more than a century. those parameters. With the language, the government, and the But the revival of Thomism in Europe gave new force to religion also came attitudes, ideas, and patterns of behavior Catholic thought in Latin America. The specific impetus came that had been developed in the Iberian Peninsula. Government from Jacques Maritain, who was widely read and admired. in the peninsula had been monarchical and absolutist. The In spite of the differences among these philosophies, they long struggle against the Moors for the political unification of all held some basic attitudes and principles in common. They the peninsula had required intolerance, the repression of dissent, had a fundamental orientation toward so-called spiritual values, and the imposition of harsh, uncontested authority. The church, which they considered superior to economic and pragmatic of course, had to become an instrument of political unity and ones, and they maintained a strong interest in religion and the stability and so it became extremely conservative, dogmatic, foundations of morality. and closely associated with the government in order to prevent The result was that by 1930 the character of Latin American dissent and political chaos. Freedom and diversity were sacri- thought had radically changed. While a few decades earlier it ficed on the altar of unity. Whence the expulsion of the Jews, had been intellectually respectable, indeed fashionable in some for example. groups, to denounce religion, to ridicule religious values, and These attitudes and ideas came with the Spaniards and to insist on the unquestionable superiority of science, now the Portuguese to the New World. Control was exercised to degrees correct approach was to ignore science, adopt spiritual values, that seem absurd, considering the scale of the enterprise of and integrate religion into one's thought. Most Latin American conquest and colonization. Even minor decisions and appoint- philosophies of this time had a religious element, and many ments had to be cleared with the king himself. And on the philosophers, such as José Vasconcelos, actually converted to more ideological side, the crown and the church also aimed to Christianity. Others, like Amoroso Lima in Brazil, became control what their subjects read and thought. This resulted in, champions of religion. among other things, a very tight control on the type and number of books that were allowed to be sent to the colonies and, of Underlying Forces Against Religious Skepticism course, in very strict guidelines for the education of the cc..,- nists. Spain, thanks to its government and its church, missed hat has been said concerning the rise of vitalism and the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Enlightenment, and the Wspiritually oriented philosophy and the rebirth of Industrial Revolution, and its colonies did as well. All of this Thomism in Latin America chronicles the process that brought was justified in terms of the need for political unity and religious down positivism's ideological hegemony, but it does not really salvation. It should be noted, however, that this pattern of explain why Latin American thinkers abandoned it in favor of thought and behavior was not just imposed by the crown and the new ideas. To say that the tide in Europe had changed and the church; it was in fact accepted by the people and in many that Latin America simply imitated what was happening there ways reflected their own attitudes and beliefs. It must also be is not enough. For in Europe there were strong forces in favor remembered that the colonists generally were not well-educated of scientific philosophies (e.g., logical positivism), and the skep- individuals, so there was no one who could and/or wished to tical spirit toward religion was not obliterated; while Latin challenge these ideas. Americans ignored scientific philosophies and embraced those When the conquistadors came there was a large native with a more spiritual tenor. Nor is it satisfactory to point to population. Estimates on its size vary, but it is generally ac- the philosophical weaknesses of positivism. For, after all, what cepted that in certain places the natives numbered several made Latin Americans notice those weaknesses? The pertinent millions. These natives had thriving and sometimes advanced question, then, is not why positivism was discarded but, rather, cultures; and, although they were forced to accept Iberian cul- why Latin Americans are attracted to religious-oriented ture, their own ideas did not die completely. They functioned thought. The reasons go deep, and I suggest they are to be like substrata and were modified and molded by the European found in the very people and culture of Latin America. Let us cultural superstratum imposed on them, but in some cases the look then at the people, education, politics, and economy to natives were able to influence those ideas and patterns. The see if we can uncover the keys to the strong appeal of religion interesting thing is that, just like the Iberian culture, government in the area. and religion in most of these native cultures were closely related There are four important ethnic groups that have con- and were highly dogmatic and intolerant of dissent. The native tributed to the formation of Latin American culture: the cultural heritage, then, reinforced rather than weakened the Spanish and Portuguese conquistadors, the native Americans, authoritarian and religious tenor of Iberian culture. It was a the Africans brought as slaves to areas where the native good marriage and worked against religious skepticism. American labor force was insufficient, and the European immi- The Africans came much later, when there was already a grants of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Of well-established pattern of religious authority in the colonies. these groups the most important is the first. The Spanish and They had to adapt to survive. After all, they came as slaves, Portuguese conquistadors were able to establish the parameters and, although they enjoyed some legal rights, these did not according to which the culture of the continent was to develop. extend to dissent. Not that it would have made any difference They brought the language, the government, and the religion, if it had been otherwise. The Africans who came to Latin

34 FREE INQUIRY America had no tradition of skepticism either, and they lacked America works against religious skepticism and for religion in the educational tools to develop it. Their background actually general in another way as well. The hopelessness of the situation helped to strengthen the oppressive patterns already established leads people to seek refuge in religion. Faith provides hope of by the conquistadors, and their labor as slaves tended to sup- a better life and an escape from deprivation and pain. It also port the perpetuation of a closed society. provides hope for economic justice in societies in which the Finally, the European immigration of the late nineteenth power of the rich is virtually unlimited and the suffering of the and early twentieth century was too late to affect the basic poor seemingly permanent. tenor of Latin American culture. Besides, most of the immi- grants were Spanish and Portuguese and were uneducated, as The Future were those who came from elsewhere. Like the Africans, they had little opportunity and/or desire to change the attitudes of hat is the future, then, of religious skepticism in Latin the countries in which they settled. WAmerica? I am afraid that it is not bright. At any rate, Undoubtedly, the main force in determining the attitude of the odds are stacked against any substantial gains in the near Latin American culture toward religion has been the people. future. The changes necessary to turn the situation around Most other elements are derived from it. But still there are would have to be substantial, and nothing of the kind is fore- some that play independent roles, and there are others that, seeable. The people and their ingrained cultural patterns cannot because of their importance, require separate attention. be changed overnight. Nor can the economy and political The religious and anti-secular tenor of Latin American climate be quickly modified. There have been some recent society has been emphasized by its educational systems, in liberalizing changes in the political structures of some countries. which the church has had disproportionate influence. During The situation in Argentina, for example, is encouraging. But the colonial period, education was exclusively the province of given the track record of most of the countries in the region, the church, so much so that most educated people were clerics. one should not count on the permanence or spread of these Indeed, a large proportion of the revolutionary ideas that gave changes. Moreover, the economies of most Latin American rise to the revolts against Spain were voiced by priests or those countries have not progressed much in the past few years. who had begun training for the religious life and many intellec- Those that have are currently plagued by setbacks. The only tual fathers of Latin American independence movements were area in which advances seem to be possible is education. But priests and friars, or at least were associated with the church in even in this case, since education in Latin America has always some way. The names of Morelos in Mexico, Luis Beltrán in been determined by cultural and ideological principles, it will Argentina, Félix Varela in Cuba, and many others figure be difficult for changes to occur that would promote the growth prominently on the lists of those who prepared the ground for of religious skepticism. Indeed, the ingrained cultural forces and/or cooperated in the struggles for independence. against religious skepticism in Latin America are so strong that But it is not only the quality or type of education imparted even deeply rooted revolutions do not seem to change this state in Latin America that has undermined the development of of affairs. Two good examples of this, half a century apart, are religious skepticism. It is also a matter of quantity, for the the Mexican and Cuban revolutions. Both tried to do away number of educated people in these countries is in many cases with religion, but neither has really succeeded. The failure of small. Here, of course, there are important regional differences. the Mexican revolution is evident in the number of functioning Some countries have a high literacy rate while others have churches in Mexico and the continued devotion of the people. poor records. But no major Latin American country, except And the Cuban revolution has not only had to become tolerant perhaps for Argentina and Chile, can boast a large proportion of religion, but in many ways has substituted Marxist ideology of individuals who have had access to post-secondary education. for Catholic doctrine, turning it into a state religion of sorts. A fourth factor that works against religious skepticism is The kind of religious skepticism that flourishes in the most political. The colonies were always tightly controlled by the developed nations of Western Europe and in the United States European powers, and the dictatorial regimes that followed does not seem to be possible in Latin America. As I see it, their independence continued this pattern. Corrupt govern- there is only one way that religious skepticism could have a ments, frequently supported by an accommodating religious fighting chance of establishing itself: namely, by becoming reli- hierarchy, did what they could to keep their people insulated gious or at least quasi-religious itself. That is, it must adopt from ideas of any kind, let alone skepticism and humanism. some of the traits traditionally associated with religion in Finally, reference must be made to the economic situation. general and particularly with religion as it has existed in Latin Most countries in Latin America, even today, operate under a America: dogmatism, intolerance, absolute commitment and primarily agricultural and in some cases feudal economy. True, devotion on the part of its adherents, and an eschatological there are places like Argentina and Brazil in which great inroads vision of a future better life. Still, even then there would be no have been made in industrialization. But in those countries also guarantee of success. True, Marxism can trace part of its success there are large segments of the population who still depend on to its new tolerance of religion and in some cases amalgamation agriculture for their livelihoods and often live under conditions with its doctrines. But positivism also tried to become in its that can be characterized as nothing less than feudal. Mobility, later stages a religion and nevertheless failed to endure. In the both physical and ideological, is virtually impossible under these end, it seems that only religion can win in Latin America, conditions. either by requiring anti-religious movements to become in some The deplorable economic situation of the masses in Latin way religious or by ensuring their demise. •

Summer 1986 35 Science, Technology, and Ideology in the Hispanic World

Mario Bunge

t is well known that science and technology have not no parallel recognition in mathematics or physics, in chemistry fared well in the Hispanic world, i.e., Spain and its former or the earth sciences, in psychology or sociology, in economics colonial empire. They came late, roughly one century ago, or history, let alone in technology. These Nobel prizes show and they developed slowly. Moreover, in most Hispanic coun- that it is possible to do excellent scientific research in com- tries, science and technology have declined over the past two paratively backward countries, far from scientists and resources decades, particularly under military dictatorships. Thus it has in the leading nations and in the midst of general indifference been estimated that, in the area of natural science, the produc- or worse. Scientific genius can flourish even in less-advanced tion of those countries has declined from 0.4 to 0.2 percent of nations, though of course at far greater effort than in developed the world production over the past twenty years. Clearly, unless countries. this trend is quickly reversed, there will be little science left Why do scientists and technologists have it so hard in the with which to start the twenty-first century. For the third world, Hispanic countries? It will not do to reply that the lack of it is no longer a question of catching up with the first or with scientific and technological development in those nations is due the second, but of not sliding down to the fourth. For, as a to their general backwardness, for the latter is partly due to the Lewis Carroll character pointed out, nowadays it takes a lot of former. Is it perhaps because science and technology do not get running to stay in the same place. enough financial support in those places? Surely; but why do It is true that Spain has produced one Nobel prize-winner, those countries devote roughly only one-tenth of what the more Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1906), and Argentina two, Bernardo advanced nations devote to research and development, particu- A. Houssay (1947) and Luis F. Leloir (1970). We might also larly given that they have so far to go to catch up? Besides, the count the Spaniard Severo Ochoa (1959) and the Argentinian sad and scandalous fact is that the scarce available resources César Milstein (1984), but both were forced, by political cir- are often ill-distributed. For example, most of the budget for cumstances, to go abroad to do the work that earned them research and development in Argentina has gone for three distinction. Furthermore, Cajal's greatness was recognized north decades to the National Atomic Energy Commission and its of the Pyrenees before it was acknowledged in his native megalomaniac nuclear program—in a nation rich with hydro- country. And both Houssay and Leloir had to conduct much electric power, oil, and coal. There has been little left over for of their research outside the state university system, which had other scientific or technological institutions. No wonder that been nearly destroyed by a dictatorial government. All of the the other sciences, as well as the technologies, have languished. above-mentioned scientists had great difficulty in starting their In other Hispanic countries, far too great a proportion of the careers and received no encouragement from either their science and technology budget goes to people who lack the governments or society. They were ignored or, at best, tolerated. proper training: Although often hard-working and enthusiastic, (The news that Houssay had been awarded the Nobel prize they have rarely gone beyond attaining a master's degree in was censored by Perón's government.) science. The few individuals holding doctorates more often go Three, or even five, Nobel prizes in science are far too little into administration than to the laboratory or the bench. The for such a huge community of nations. Moreover, the awards scarce resources are not well administered, because they are have been confined to the biological sciences: There has been controlled by the bureaucrats and the military rather than by the scientific and technological communities. Comparatively Mario Bunge is Frothing- meager though they are, the available resources would be able ham Professor of Founda- to support modest but effective research and development tions and Philosophy of efforts if they were managed intelligently. Science at McGill University However, the funding of research and development and its and a member of the Acad- administration is only part of the problem. Many scientists and emy of Humanism. He was technologists have left the Hispanic world for greener pastures born and educated in not so much because of poor pay or lack of equipment as for Argentina. His latest book the lack of a stable environment due to political unrest and is Philosophy of Science and even persecution. Most of them might have stayed if they had Technology. been given effective tenure. In fact, some distinguished scientists

36 FREE INQUIRY have remained because they had such assurances and, at the The Spanish empire bypassed the scientific revolution as same time, were not overly concerned with the atrocities that well. In 1700, when the Newtonian revolution was in full swing, happened daily around them. the Spanish Inquisition, whether in Madrid, Mexico, Lima, or So far we have identified two main causes of the backward- Buenos Aires, prosecuted people suspected of being amigos de ness of science in the Hispanic nations: insufficient and ill- novedades (friends of novelty). Novelty, one of the values administered funding and political instability. However, the exalted in scientific research and in technological design, was backwardness of technology is a different matter: Here the officially abhorred throughout the Spanish empire in the name main causes are economic underdevelopment and dependence. of allegedly perennial and superior theological, philosophical, An industrially underdeveloped country has hardly any use for and legal tenets. What held for novelty held also for usefulness. engineers. And a country that imports technology has no use Craftsmen and tradesmen were looked down upon. Making for creative technologists. This explains why most engineers in war, doing paper work for the government, and praying were the Hispanic world work in maintenance or in administration honored. Even idleness, gambling, and womanizing were held rather than in design. For example, the atomic energy agency in higher esteem than useful work. In no other region of the in Argentina has not designed any of the nuclear plants operat- world has the alliance of the cross and the sword been so ing in the country. The agency has supplied the fuel, the main- effective in preventing progress. No wonder that the Middle tenance personnel, and the management, but the designers were Ages lasted in the Hispanic world nearly until the 1850s. German and Canadian. True, there were a few enlightened individuals in those vast Why all this waste and frustration? Why the poor support domains. However, they were not very original, and they were of science and technology in the Hispanic world? I submit that isolated. The Spanish imperial government did not set up or the root cause is ideological, namely, that the region has been encourage any professional bodies like the Royal Society of living for centuries in the shadow of the cross and the sword. London or the scientific academies of France, Germany, and Wherever the church and the military rule, a medieval mentality Russia. There were a few professional corporations, but the prevails that also restricts the development of the economy, the first genuine scientific and technological communities did not polity, and the culture. The economy does not develop because come into being until the twentieth century. manual work, industry, commerce, and technology are looked upon with contempt. The polity does not develop because political development is synonymous with increasing democracy "Why all this waste and frustration? Why the (freedom cum public participation), and the latter does not poor support of science and technology in the have a chance under military rule. And the culture does not Hispanic world? I submit that the root cause is evolve because of an obsolete cultural policy (according to ideological, namely, that the region has been which only the arts and the classical humanities count as cul- living for centuries in the shadow of the cross tural fields), and because of ecclesiastical and military censor- ship. and the sword." Scientists and technologists cannot be on top where soldiers and priests are in power. Inquiry and invention are the enemies It is also true that there was one progressive Spanish of obedience and dogma, and need some degree of academic government during the colonial period, namely, that of Carlos freedom. True, the military is interested in military technology, III and his ministers Aranda and Jovellanos. However, the but this kind is not socially valuable. Moreover, when the reforms it introduced were mild and mainly of an administrative military is in power, it usually prefers to import armaments nature, and they did not survive the French Revolution. In rather than wait to develop the technology necessary for three centuries, the empire produced a single scientific achieve- domestic production; this method works faster and often to ment: the great Botanical Expedition (1783-1810). This remark- personal advantage. It also stifles the formation of a profes- able voyage of scientific discovery was planned and initially led sional community of scientists and technologists, since such a by a self-taught botanist, the Spanish physician José Celestino group usually starts at a university, which the military fears as Mutis, who lived most of his life in Colombia and was admired a natural hotbed of ideological dissent. by the great Swedish botanist Carl von Linné. The fruits of A bit of history may help bring the point home. Spain Mutis's expedition were comparable to those of the expeditions missed, on the whole, the three revolutions that gave birth to led by Friedrich Humboldt and by Aimé Bonpland. But it is sad the modern world: the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the to reflect that Mutis had to plead for more than two decades scientific revolution. When these great movements took place, before he could mount the expedition and that its results made the Spaniards were busy either fighting the Moors, expelling hardly any impression on either the Spanish or their colonial the Jews, persecuting the heretics, burning books, or conquering societies. It brought glory to neither the bureaucracy, the armed and colonizing the New World—which they failed to develop forces, nor the church, so what value could it be? because they exported their own medieval institutions. Certainly cience started timidly in the Hispanic world in the last a Spanish renaissance occurred—namely, the Siglo de Oro Squarter of the nineteenth century, under the wing of the (Golden Century)—but it came two centuries late, and it em- new, enlightened lay and liberal ideology. In some cases the braced only literature and the fine arts. There was no religious first scientists were imported. The first modern scientists born reformation; on the contrary, Spain joined Italy in the counter- and trained (or self-taught) in the Hispanic world were perhaps reformation. Cajal in Spain and the Ameghino brothers in Argentina. All

Summer 1986 37 "Scientists and technologists cannot be on top At about the same time, the strongest and most enduring wherever soldiers and priests are in power. In- scientific group in Argentina emerged under the leadership of a young pharmacist turned physiologist, Bernardo Houssay, who quiry and invention are the enemies of obedience worked at the Buenos Aires University School of Medicine and dogma, and need some degree of academic until 1943. Houssay not only did original research that earned freedom." him the Nobel prize but also trained a number of outstanding disciples, such as Braun Menéndez, Luis Federico Leloir, and three were essentially self-taught, and they made memorable De Robertis, and was the first to sketch a suitable science contributions, even though they faced enormous difficulties. policy for the country. After Perón was ousted, Houssay headed Florentino Ameghino was expelled from the University of La the National Research Council. He stressed the importance of Plata because of his evolutionary credo; he and his brother ran basic science and its continuity with applied science. He also a stationery store for a living. Cajal had to buy his first micro- emphasized the need to adapt research to existing resources, scope with his own money. which demands concentration on labor-intensive rather than The case of science in Argentina is particularly interesting, instrument-intensive projects. And he advised young scientists because it shows that the lot of science depends strongly on the not to go abroad until after they earned a doctorate and under- dominant ideology. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, a school- stood their country's possibilities. Houssay taught that the teacher, writer, freedom fighter, and admirer of the United researcher comes first and the facilities second and that it was States, was president from 1868 to 1874 and was the most pro- lunacy to let monetary power alone determine which labora- gressive leader the country has had. (At the same time, he tories will be built and how they will be equipped. preached genocidal military expeditions against Indians, and By 1930, Argentinian science was launched on a modest even gauchos, in the name of civilization.) Sarmiento inspired but promising path. Its budget was humble, but there was little the bill guaranteeing universal, free, and lay primary education; need for much more, since there were still few researchers and he hired the American astronomer Benjamin Gould to establish the era of Big Science and of the mass university was two the first observatory in the Southern Hemisphere; and, when decades away. But about this time, a new ideology began to Charles Darwin died in 1882, President Sarmiento gave a public gather strength. It started as a spiritualist revolt against what speech before a gathering of three thousand people that praised passed for positivism but had actually been a mixture of scien- the scientist as well as his theory of evolution. Fifteen years tism, evolutionism, and materialism. The luminaries of the new later, the University of La Plata was established on the basis ideology were the philosophers Henri Bergson, Benedetto not of professional faculties but of three scientific bodies: the Croce, Giovanni Gentile, and later on Max Scheler, Edmund museum of natural history (which holds one of the most Husserl, and Martin Heidegger. Their main followers were José important paleontological collections in the world), the astro- Ortega y Gasset in Spain and Alejandro Korn in Argentina. nomical observatory, and the institute of physics. Training in The importation of the new spiritualistic, anti-scientific, and the liberal professions came later, on a solid scientific basis. largely irrational philosophy coincided with the emergence of For example, the university commonly required students to philosophy as a profession in the Hispanic world; until then study engineering and physics during their first three years. most philosophers combined their university chairs with extra- Around 1910, a scientistic, evolutionary, agnostic, and academic professional activities. The new professors of philoso- liberal ideology became firmly established in the country. It phy quickly displaced the so-called positivists; they wrote and was shared, by and large, by conservatives like Joaquin V. spoke in obscure terms that sounded profound, they ridiculed Gonzalez (founder of the University of La Plata), liberals like the scientists' claim that the world can be accounted for in an Carlos Octavio Bunge (who is credited with having introduced objective fashion, and they denounced social science as impossi- positivism, i.e., scientism, into the country), and socialists like ble and proclaimed the sovereignty of spirit over matter as well José Ingenieros, a biologically oriented psychologist and psychi- as the superiority of feeling and intuition over reason and atrist, a prolific writer, and the founder of the Revista de experiment. flosofía (1915-1929). In 1930, a political event occurred in Argentina that sounded Original research in physics started about 1925 at La Plata the death knell for liberal ideology and inaugurated half a under the German physicist Richard Gans. The same university century of official obscurantism and popular pseudoscience. sent a few of its graduates abroad, mainly to Germany, to On September 6 of that year the army, helped by a handful of study physics. One of them, Enrique Gaviola, became the first politicians, toppled the constitutional government and set up a optics expert and astrophysicist in Latin America. But most of dictatorship complete with martial law. At the same time, the the graduates devoted themselves to teaching. (In fact, most Catholic church mobilized its lay troops in support of the new who get scientific training in the Hispanic world today become, regime, and the first paramilitary "nationalist" (later Nazi) at best, good teachers or administrators. After a few years, organizations sprung up. These groups, as well as some of the their knowledge becomes outdated, and some of them come to military leaders, led by the new president, loudly proclaimed oppose all new ideas and block the advancement of science. their allegiance to both Catholicism and fascism. The press and This will happen wherever there is no well-entrenched scientific the mails were censored, the universities suffered a few casual- tradition, no strong scientific community, and no enlightened ties, the labor unions were held in check, and nearly everyone cultural policy.) was intimidated. It was the first successful fascist coup d'état in

38 FREE INQUIRY

America. It took twenty-eight years for political democracy to that encouraged an irrationalist ideology. Under such circum- be reinstated in Argentina, and even then it was limited and stances, pseudoscience and pseudotechnology will prevail any- lasted only for a short time. In 1966, another military coup where. toppled the constitutional government, and political democracy The Argentinian nuclear venture left a long-lasting moral was not restored until 1983. scar on the scientific community. In fact, a number of scientists The reader may wonder what all this has to do with science became used to eating from the hands of the military and and technology. A lot. For one thing, the military governments enjoying their protection—no small thing at a time when anti- in Argentina and other Latin American countries did nothing Perónists had a hard time getting driver's licenses, not to speak to encourage, and much to prevent, the immigration of scientists of passports. When Perón made his triumphal comeback in and technologists fleeing from European fascist regimes. Their 1973, all was ready for a further step down the ideological and leaders were openly anti-Semitic and more or less openly pro- moral ladder. The dean of the Faculty of Science of the Uni- fascist themselves. Only one prominent anti-fascist scientist was versity of Buenos Aires talked about "national physics" and admitted into the country: Pío del Rio Ortega, an eminent denigrated basic research, while a professor of logic extolled Spanish neuroscientist who established an important research "national logic." No wonder the culture became infected with group. On the other hand, Mexico received most of the refugees astrology, psychoanalysis, parapsychology, and other pseudo- from Franco's Spain, among them Cajal's student Hernández sciences. The seeds of irrationalism, imported and sown between Peón. Thus Cajal's country lost one of the most advanced 1925 and 1935, had germinated and the bad weed was covering schools of neuroscience in the world. the country. Tell me the dominant ideology in a country, and I Second, the anti-democratic regimes in Argentina fostered will tell you the quality of its scientific culture. anti-scientific ideologies in various ways. In particular, a num- ber of existentialist and Catholic philosophers were given chairs, ut enough complaining. Given that science and technology deanships, and rectorships. The end of World War II did Bare in a bad way in the Hispanic world, the pressing ques- nothing to change the ideology of the power elite. On the other tion is: What can be done about it? There is likely to be an hand, it gave science a new image because the nuclear bomb avalanche of replies, one from every sector of society. Thus was mistaken for a product of science rather than that of a new socially minded people are likely to recommend that priority industry created by a new technology based on science. Hence, be given to such fields as medicine and education. Economically despite official irrationalism, many young people were attracted minded folks are bound to say that technology must be favored to science during the post-war period. and, since technology flourishes elsewhere, that technology Scientific research, from mathematics to sociology, experi- transfer is mandatory. And high-minded individuals will say enced an unprecedented growth between the fall of Perón in 1955 and the military coup in 1966. In particular, the Faculty of Science at the University of Buenos Aires included many of RENEW NOW! the best researchers, and it trained a good number of young scientists, some of whom were sent abroad to complete their Subscription Rates education. For example, at the time of the 1966 coup, the One Year $18.00 Department of Physics had about fifty full-time researchers Two Years who published regularly in international journals. Only one of $32.00 them stayed after the so-called Night of the Long Sticks, when Three Years $42.00 the police stormed the school and beat a number of professors who had been forced to line up against a wall. Scientific research was literally stopped overnight by a military action inspired by a fascist ideology. Argentina lost hundreds of Affix mailing label here. researchers, and the country has still to recover. Nor was this (Include identification number in upper right-hand corner.) the only disaster that befell Argentinian science under the military. In 1953, General Perón gave an unknown person, Ronald Richter, full power to build a nuclear reactor at any cost. An Outside U.S.A. add $4.00 for surface mail, $8.00 for airmail. (U.S. funds on U.S. bank) atomic energy commission was established under the control of the navy. Apparently the government hoped to eventually build ❑ Check or money order enclosed atomic bombs, presumably to intimidate Brazil and Chile and ❑ Visa ❑ Master Card to implement Perón's dream of a southern-tip empire. Richter Acct. # Exp. Date was eventually exposed as a charlatan, and the atomic energy commission as the worst investment of the century. None of this might have happened if the physicists had been given a say FREE INQUIRY in scientific matters and if the technologists and economists had been consulted on the advisability of building nuclear plants Box 5 • Buffalo, New York 14215-0005 in a country so rich in energy resources. But such open discus- Tele.: 716-834-2921 sion was unthinkable under a dictatorship, particularly one

Summer 1986 39 that we should think first of the humanities and basic science. To put it into other words: Any plan for the development All three answers contain a grain of truth. Their shortcoming of science and technology in a given society must be a com- is that they are sectorial rather than systemic. Let me explain. ponent of a plan for the society's total development. It makes The sciences, technologies, humanities, arts, and the domi- little sense to vote a special bill to foster the scientific or the nant ideology in any given society constitute its cultural sub- technological development in a region while neglecting all its system. What keeps this subsystem together, what makes it a other deficiencies. Likewise, the universities cannot be upgraded system, are the interactions among its components. If one of unless the high schools are. Teaching cannot be good if it is them is weak or if it inhibits the growth of the others, the obsolete, and it will be unless it is closely tied to research— entire cultural system will be weak or stagnant. For example, if which will be hard to start without good teaching. the sciences are underdeveloped, so will be the technologies Unfortunately, this is not the way the problem is being and the humanities, for the former feed the latter. If the tech- handled in the Hispanic world: Sectorial thinking prevails. In nologies are underdeveloped, they will not stimulate the sci- other words, special interests prevail over the public good. This ences, which are likely to follow imported research lines. If the is why almost nothing works well in Hispanic countries and humanities are weak, so will be the social sciences and the almost nothing worth preserving lasts long. dominant ideology. If the latter is anti-scientific or anti- However, let us stop the wailing. Instead, let us ask ourselves technological, nothing in the culture will prosper easily. The this: Supposing that one were asked to collaborate on the ideology has the upper hand in a culture because it molds design of a plan for the integral development of a Hispanic attitudes and guides or misguides the cultural, political, and country. What would you propose be done in matters of science economic leaders. The practical morals are obvious. First, and technology? I would propose that the following measures monitor the ideology: Keep it in step with the advancement of be taken in conjunction with others affecting the humanities the sciences, the technologies, and the humanities. Second, do and the arts as well as the polity and the economy. not neglect any component of culture: Plan for the development 1. Do not plan in isolation. Encourage the scientific and of all components. technological communities to participate in the planning. However, the culture of a society is only one of its man- 2. In basic science, give priority to existing talent and to made components, the others being its economy and its polity. the weakest branches of science. A sound culture goes together with a strong economy and a 3. In applied science and technology, give priority to the mature (i.e., democratic) polity. Consequently, if we aim for a basic needs of the population and to the most promising lines sound culture, we must develop it along with the economy and of economic development. the polity. (There is no absolute first motor of society. Any 4. Inject some experienced researchers, importing them, if subsystem may take the initiative at one time or another.) In necessary, into the centers that have been conducting genuine other words, genuine and long-lasting development is integral basic research or design work on a modest level or scale. or systemic, not sectorial. Hence it makes no sense to plan for 5. Close down all the centers that, while purporting to be the development of science and technology separate from scientific or technological, have been doing neither original economic and political development. We must not wait for one research nor useful design. of the components to evolve before we turn our attention to 6. Strengthen the infrastructure of the promising labora- the others: We must push all the components at the same time. tories: Endow them with workshops and craftsmen capable of Society is more like a tricycle than a bicycle, let alone a mono- keeping the equipment in good repair, instead of allowing it to cycle. If one of the wheels fails, the entire vehicle stops. deteriorate. 7. Redesign the educational system on all levels. Encourage the learning of manual skills and the study of science and Moving? technology at an early age. 8. Set up a few high-grade schools on each level to serve Make sure FREE INQUIRY as models. 9. Increase cultural exchanges with other Hispanic coun- follows you! tries. For example, exchange Argentine physicists for Colom- bian psychologists, Chilean biologists for Mexican social scien- Please attach old mailing label here tists, and Peruvian historians for Spanish philologists.

(Include number in upper right-hand corner.) 10. Do not tolerate any further impostures in state universi- ties. Ban pseudoscience and pseudotechnology from them. New Address I believe such a plan is feasible and capable of resulting in the construction—or reconstruction, as the case may be of a

Name vigorous scientific and technological community, provided that it is part of a suitable plan of integrated development. Whether Address anything resembling it will ever be designed and implemented is another matter. This will depend on whether the government City State Zip in question has enough popular support to keep in check the FREE INQUIRY P.O. Box 5 • Buffalo, NY 14215-0005 traditional sectors inspired by obscurantist ideologies. • Tele.: 716-834-2921

40 FREE INQUIRY Religious Belief in Contemporary Indian Society

M. P. Rege

ince the eleventh century, by which time a sizable portion matha is restricted to its own sect and, in fact, is rarely used or of the population had converted to Islam, Indian society invoked. Further, these doctrinal sects are confined to the Shas been multireligious. This fact is mentioned constantly Brahmanic castes and have nothing to do with the non-Brahmin by Indian political leaders with considerable pride and gratifica- population, which is the vast majority. (Brahmins, it may be tion. However, the concept of a common Indian citizenship noted, do not constitute a single, homogeneous caste. They irrespective of creed, like the sentiment of nationalism that also are a group of regional subcastes.) demanded for its fulfillment a sovereign Indian state, was a gift In ordinary circumstances, every householder, whether he of Western political thought and culture that was introduced in belongs to a Brahmanic or non-Brahmanic caste, scrupulously India by the British. As one would expect, it is the social and follows the rituals and modes of worship of the family deities cultural tradition of the majority religious community, the that have been handed down from generation to generation. Hindus, that dominates the Indian social scene. It has never He also observes the ceremonies that are prescribed for aspired to create a sovereign state. weddings, funerals, and other occasions by the caste custom The basic Hindu social institutions were the largely autono- and joins in religious festivals honoring the village deities, which mous village community and the autonomous caste system. A are also rigidly regulated by custom. The only difference caste is an endogamous group that by custom, sanctioned by between Brahmanic rites and rituals and those observed by religion, practices a particular trade or profession. The village non-Brahmanic castes is that, while the former are prescribed community is a cluster of castes that collectively sustains the by the higher Hindu scriptures, the Vedas and the Smrutis, the village economy. These small, autonomous communities are latter are merely sanctioned by religious custom that has been characterized by the strong and tenacious unity of their partly codified in the Puranas, works that traditionally enjoy members, which engages their deep loyalty and cuts across only a semi-scriptural status. The doctrines that Brahmanic caste barriers. Hindu society as a whole, on the other hand, is sects profess and the rituals they practice thus belong to the spread over the whole country and, lacking a central authority, "great" Hindu tradition over which the mathas preside. The is merely a conglomeration of castes, each of which, by tradi- various absolutist or theistic Vedantic doctrines (i.e., doctrines tion, lives within the confines of a small region of the village based on the Upanishads, the final portions of the Vedas) community. It does not have even that degree of cohesion belong to this tradition. The vast mass of the non-Brahmin resulting from interrelations of its units with one another and population belongs to the "low" or folk tradition, and their of the units and the whole, on the strength of which it could be religion largely consists of practicing the customary rituals of called a federation of castes. their respective castes. There is, for example, no Hindu church to make authorita- However, the two traditions, or rather the two strata of the tive pronouncements on points of religious doctrine, protecting Hindu tradition, have not developed in complete isolation. Reli- the purity of orthodoxy and regulating the beliefs and conduct gious and philosophical notions like Brahman (the universal of its followers in matters of faith and morals. From the point all-pervading spirit) and God (the cause of the universe and the of view of doctrine, Hindu society is divided into a number of Lord of all creatures) developed in the Brahmanic tradition sects (sampradayas), each of which recognizes the authority of a and were popularized through Puranic works. So also were matha (an organization of sanyasins or monks), which is pre- moral and spiritual disciplines and practices like the observance sided over by a swami or master. However, the authority of a of non-violence, celibacy, meditation (dhyana), asceticism, and so on, which percolated from the high to the low tradition. Thus there evolved a specific Hindu spiritual and moral sensi- Professor M. P. Rege, bility, a Hindu world-view, and the notion of a spiritual dis- vice-president of the Indian cipline (sadhana). These were held throughout Hindu society, Secular Society, is former cutting across caste distinctions. principal of Kirti College The basic beliefs of Hindu spirituality may be summarized and has taught philosophy as follows: Every man, indeed, every living thing, animal or at Bombay University. plant, has an immortal soul that retains its identity and passes through a succession of lives until it is freed from this cycle of

Summer 1986 41 birth and death. The pleasure and pain an individual soul (meditation) or Juana (spiritual knowledge), he cannot proceed experiences (in whatever form of life it temporarily finds without a guru to start him on that path and guide his progress. itself—human, animal, or plant) are determined by the moral The plane of spirituality is sundered from the plane of worldly qualities of its actions (karmas). Morally good actions are life. An individual cannot by his own determination and efforts rewarded by pleasant experiences, and evil actions are punished alone rise from the worldly plane to the spiritual plane and by unpleasant ones, according to the inexorable Law of Karma. securely dwell in it. He requires for this purpose the guidance Past karmas determine an individual's sex, personal abilities, of a guru, who has already transversed the spiritual path. and entire lot in each life. However, Hinduism holds that the The yoga doctrine describes God as the supreme guru. The cycle of life is intrinsically sorrowful and that the supreme goal human guru an individual adopts as his spiritual preceptor is of the soul is to attain liberation (moksha) from it. This goal for him an incarnation of God. The guru is not self-made. He can be achieved by withdrawing from the world of experience has his guru, and the chain of gurus, the first member of which and action and practicing spiritual discipline. There are many is God himself, extends indefinitely into the past. Adopting a forms of this spiritual discipline, and one who aspires to libera- guru, therefore, demands total surrender to him as to God. tion may choose any one of them. Thus asceticism and medita- Divine grace flows through the channel of the guru. It is need- tion may be practiced—the way of yoga (yoga-marga). Or God less to add that the mark of the spiritual authority of a guru is may be worshiped with a single-minded devotion that subordi- his possession of supernatural powers. nates all else to it—the way of bhakti (bhakti marga). Or an individual may purge his mind of all worldly desires to attain intuitive knowledge of Brahman, which is necessarily accom- "However, in some respects the modernization panied by the total identification of the soul with the supreme of attitudes and values in India is superficial and spirit. insecure. One reason for this is that Hindu society This high spirituality, however, merely supervened and did not demand rejection of the caste customs and rituals binding has no deeply rooted tradition of secular activities on the individual. The aspirant to liberation continued to wor- that are judged to be worthwhile for their own ship familiy deities, as did his more worldly caste fellows, and sake as a source of deep personal fulfillment." participate in caste and village rituals, even barbaric ones like animal sacrifice. Saints who propounded and exemplified in their personal life the philosophy of the bhakti cult taught that he spread of Islam and, later, of Christianity in India devotees of the Lord are raised above all caste distinctions, Tresulted in the formation of sizable communities of fol- that all living creatures are incarnations of God, that member- lowers of each faith. These faiths developed outside the native ship in a high caste does not confer any spiritual privilege, and religious and spiritual tradition and in this sense were alien. that persons are admitted to divine grace on the strength of the However, given the caste structure that recognized each caste's purity of their devotion, irrespective of their caste or sex. And autonomy in internal matters, Hindu society could, without yet, in ordinary life, caste customs and taboos continued to be much difficulty, come to terms with this novel social reality. It faithfully observed. It is a notable feature of the religious and treated these religious communities as castes that were slightly social history of the Hindu community that development of different from those that were traditional segments of traditional more elevated ideas of spirituality and more humane, egalitarian Hindu society. moral notions did not, generally speaking, lead to radical criti- Further, as an overwhelming majority of Indian Muslims cism and reform of established social practices. and Christians were converts from Hinduism, they carried with Two other features of the traditional idea of spirituality them in their new religion the caste-system mind-set, which deserve mention. First, there is a firm belief that as a person was deeply entrenched. It is well known that in India Muslims advances on the path of spirituality he acquires more and more and Christians are divided into castes and subcastes and that, supernatural powers. The spiritual authority that a person in spite of the universalistic faith they profess, they follow the possesses is, therefore, measured in terms not only of the moral customs of their castes in daily life, as naturally and with the virtues he exemplifies, like temperance or compassion, but also same inner drive as Hindus do. Thus, in villages, Muslims and of the magical powers he wields. Indeed, since even some Christians very swiftly came to be assimilated as constituent worldly men display moral virtues of a high order in everyday castes of the village community, distinguished from Hindu life, it is the possession of magical powers that is taken as the castes only through their religious doctrine and rituals. In urban decisive criterion for grading spiritual authority. For a spiritu- centers, however, aristocratic and middle-class Muslims were ally minded Hindu, the age of miracles can never be over. aware of and cherished their distinct religious identity; an The second feature is the institution of the guru, the spiritual essential part of this identity was their relationship with the teacher and guide. A guru is distinguished from a priest, who is world community of Islam. This sense of a separate identity merely a person who, by virtue of his caste and the training he was expressed in the Muslims' zealous efforts to maintain the has received, is authorized to perform the prescribed rituals. A purity of their faith in matters of doctrine and practice in a guru, on the other hand, is a person who has attained the predominantly Hindu religious and cultural environment that highest spiritual perfection and therefore personally wields spiri- they had at least partially internalized. For Indian Christians tual authority. Whatever path an individual chooses for spiritual this same goal was pursued by the churches, each of which advancement, be it the path of bhakti (devotion) or yoga looked after the spiritual health and well-being of its own flock.

42 FREE INQUIRY The Muslim elite thought of themselves as followers of the their own society as stagnant and splintered, lacking in social true faith and erstwhile conquerors of the Hindus, whom they cohesion and steeped in superstitious and irrational customs regarded both as idolatrous heathens and a subjugated people. that stifled the spirit of innovation and all worthwhile human Indian Christians also, generally speaking, felt raised above activity. In addition, the society was based on a social order their Hindu countrymen by the faith they shared with their that was unjust to the point of inhumanity. They realized with British rulers (or the Portuguese rulers of Goa). a sense of shock the full horror of such gruesome practices as By the middle of the nineteenth century, British rule had suttee (self-immolation by a widow on the funeral pyre of her expanded over the whole of the Indian subcontinent (except husband) and untouchability. But they could also see that these for the native states, where Indian princes were permitted to were acute symptoms of a chronic social disease, the root of continue to rule under British "paramountcy"). With this poli- which lay deep in false religious and moral ideas. Since it was tical stabilization and the introduction by the British authorities the Hindu faith and scriptures that sanctioned the oppressive of Western education through the medium of the English and barren social system that stultified men, crushed women, language, a new age began in the history of India. The Hindu and denied full human status to the lowest castes, they could intellectual and professional castes, both the Brahmanic and not escape the conviction that any meaningful attempt at social reform had to begin with religious reform. Thus there appeared in the early nineteenth century a series of great Hindu religious and social reformers who reformulated the Hindu doctrine so that it would support a humane, liberal, and rational morality, a morality that recognized the secular interests of men and the principles of equality and justice. Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833) derived from the Upanishads (the final sections of the Vedas, the most authoritative Hindu scrip- tures) a severely monotheistic doctrine and rejected the tradi- tional Hindu polytheism and idol-worship. By implication, he denied scriptural authority to a vast mass of the traditionally recognized Hindu scriptures, for example, the smrutis, which sanctified the caste system and the customs and taboos that regulated Hindu social practices. Swami Dayananda Sarasvati also restricted scriptural status ANFSWAfi to the Vedas, which he interpreted to sanction monotheism, and rejected idol-worship and the caste system. The successors of Raja Rammohan Roy in the Brahma Samaja—a universal, A Y 0F monotheistic church that he founded—denied scriptural author- ANDAMAN ity to any known work in any religious tradition, whether it S ISLANDS 71 (INDIA} was Hindu or any other, and taught that God and the funda- ENGAL ANDAMA mental principles of morality were revealed by an inner light, SEA with which every human being was endowed. Jotiba Phule __.. NICOBAR (1827-1890), in western India, condemned the Vedas and other SRI I ANA A ISLANDS 0.044804 Yr uN (INDIA) Hindu scriptures as fabrications by Brahmins to prevail upon non-Brahmins and women to accept a lower social status and to deny them education so as to perpetuate their social bondage. He totally rejected the Hindu religious and social tradition as the higher of the non-Brahmanic castes (e.g., the Kayasthas), unjust and oppressive and appealed to non-Brahmins to revolt became acquainted with the empirical sciences, the scientific against it and establish a new faith, which he called the "Uni- method and critical thinking, and modern social and political versal Religion of Truth," that proclaimed the unity of God thought and its stands on the values of freedom and dignity of and the brotherhood of man. Others, like G. G. Agarkar the individual, egalitarian justice, democratic procedures, and (1856-1895), who was influenced by John Stuart Mill and the autonomy of secular interests. Even the man or woman in Herbert Spencer, embraced agnosticism and argued for a com- the street, through the medium of the administrative and legal plete replacement of the irrational, custom-based morality with system imposed by the British, was exposed to such ideas and a rational, utilitarian morality. These radical trends in religious practices as the rule of law and equality before the law, which and social thought inspired a large body of social reformers to had an almost revolutionary impact on the Indian mind. work for the eradication of pernicious customs like child- Western education, as well as the preaching and conduct marriage and for providing education for women to help them of Christian missionaries, who suffered all kinds of discomforts achieve social emancipation. and privations in propagating the "true" faith, revealed to the Mahatma Gandhi was the last of the great Hindu religious educated Hindu a new world of intellectual, moral, and spiritual and social reformers. He was no modernist. Science as a form values. By the yardstick of these values, they came to perceive of validated knowledge of the universe that we inhabit had

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Back Issues (A 20% discount will be given on orders of 5 or more copies of the same issue; 40% on orders of 10 or more.) FREE INQUIRY Summary of Major Articles Winter 1980/81, Vol. I, no. 1 — Secular Humanist Declaration. Democratic Summer 1982 Vol. 2, no. 3 (special issue) — A Symposium on Science, the Humanism, Sidney Hook. Humanism: Secular or Religious? Paul Beattie. Bible, and Darwin: The Bible Re-examined, Robert S. Alley, Gerald Larue, Free Thought, Gordon Stein. The Fundamentalist Right, William Ryan. John Priest, Randel Helms. Darwin, Evolution, and Creationism, Philip The Moral Majority, Sol Gordon. The Creation/ Evolution Controversy, Appleman, William V. Mayer, Charles Cazeau, H. James Birx, Garrett H. James Birx. Moral Education, Robert Hall. Morality Without Religion, Hardin, Sol Tax, Antony Flew. Ethics and Religion, Joseph Fletcher, Marvin Kohl, Joseph Fletcher. Freedom Is Frightening, Roy P Fairfield. Richard Taylor, Kai Nielsen, Paul Beattie. Science and Religion, Michael The Road to Freedom, Mihajlo Mihajlov. $3.50 Novak, Joseph L. Blau. $5.00

Spring 1981, Vol. 1, no. 2 — The Secular Humanist Declaration: Pro and Fall 1982, Vol. 2, no. 4 — An Interview with Sidney Hook at Eighty, Paul Con, John Roche, Sidney Hook, Phyllis Schley, Gina Allen, Roscoe Kurtz. Sidney Hook: A Personal Portrait, Nicholas Capaldi. The Religion Drummond, Lee Nisbet, Patrick Buchanan, Paul Kurtz. New England and Biblical Criticism Research Project, Gerald Larue. Biblical Criticism Puritans and the Moral Majority, George Marshall. The Pope on Sex, Vern and Its Discontents, R. Joseph Hoffmann. Boswell Confronts Hume:. An Bullough. On the Way to Mecca, Thomas Szasz. The Blasphemy Laws, Encounter with the Great Infidel, Joy Frieman. Humanism and Politics, Gordon Stein. The Meaning of Life, Marvin Kohl. Does God Exist? Kai James R. Simpson, Larry Briskman. Humanism and the Politics of Nostal- Nielsen. Prophets of the Procrustean Collective, Antony Flew. The Madrid gia, Paul Kurtz. Abortion and Morality, Richard Taylor. $3.50 Conference, Stephen Fenichell. Natural Aristocracy, Lee Nisbet. $3.50

Summer 1981, Vol. 1, no. 3 — Sex Education, Peter Scales Thomas Szasz. Winter 1982/83, Vol. 3, no. 1 — 1983—The Year of the Bible. Academic Moral Education, Howard Radest. Teen-age Pregnancy, Vern Bullough. Freedom Under Assault in California, Barry Singer, Nicholas P. Hardeman, The New Book-Burners, William Ryan. The Moral Majority, Gerald Larue. Vern Bullough. The Play Ethic, Robert Rimmer. Interview with Corliss Liberalism, Edward Ericson. Scientific Creationism, Delos McKown. New Lamont. Was Jesus a Magician? Morton Smith. Astronomy and the "Star Evidence on the Shroud of Turin, Joe Nickell. Agnosticism, H. J. Blackham. of Bethlehem," Gerald Larue. Living with Deep Truths in a Divided World, Science and Religion, George Tomashevich. Secular Humanism in Israel, Sidney Hook. Anti-Science: The Strange Case of Paul Feyerabend, Martin Gardner. Isaac Hasson. $3.50 $3.50

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Winter 1981 / 82, Vol. 2, no. 1 — The Importance of Critical Discussion, Summer 1983, Vol. 3, no. 3 (special issue) — Religion in American Politics Karl Popper. Freedom and Civilization, Ernest Nagel. Humanism: The Con- Symposium: Is America a Judeo-Christian Republic? Paul Kurtz. The First science of Humanity, Konstantin Kolenda. Secularism in Islam, Nazih Amendment and Religious Liberty, Sen. Lowell P. Weicker, Jr., Sam J. N. M. Ayubi. Humanism in the 1980s, Paul Beattie. The Effect of Education Ervin, Jr., Leo Pfeffer. Secular Roots of the American Political System, on Religious Faith, Burnham P Beckwith. $3.50 Henry Steele Commager, Daniel J. Boorstin, Robert Rutland, Richard B. Morris, Michael Novak. The Bible in Politics, Gerald Larue, Robert S. Spring 1982, Vol. 2, no. 2 — A Call for the Critical Examination of the Alley, James M. Robinson. Bibliography for Biblical Study. $5.00 Bible and Religion. Interview with Isaac Asimov on Science and the Bible, Paul Kurtz. The Continuing Monkey War, L. Sprague de Camp. The Erosion of Evolution, Antony Flew. The Religion of Secular Humanism: A Fall 1983, Vol. 3, no. 4 — The Academy of Humanism. The Future of Paul Kurtz. Brand Blanshard, Barbara Judicial Myth, Leo Pfeffer. Humanism as an American Heritage, Nicholas Humanism, Humanist Self-Portraits, Wootton, Joseph Fletcher, Sir Raymond Firth, Jean-Claude Pecker. E Gier. The Nativity Legends, Randel Helms. Norman Podhoretz's Neo- Inter- Vern Bul- Puritanism, Lee Nisbet. $3.50 view with Paul MacCready. A Personal Humanist Manifesto, FREE INQUIRY Back Issues Can't.

lough. The Enduring Humanist Legacy of Greece, Marvin Perry. The Age The Watchtower, Laura Lage. Sentiment, Guilt, and Reason in the Manage- of Unreason, Thomas Vernon. Apocalypse Soon, Daniel Cohen. On the ment of Wild Herds, Garrett Hardin. Animal Rights Re-evaluated, James Sesquicentennial of Robert G. Ingersoll, Frank Smith. The Historicity of Simpson. Elmina Slenker: Infidel and Atheist, Edward D. Jervey. Sym- Jesus, John Priest, D. R. Oppenheimer, G. A. Wells. $3.50 posium: Humanism Is a Religion, Archie J. Bahm; Humanism Is a Philoso- phy, Thomas S. Vernon; Humanism: An Affirmation of Life, Andre Bacard. Winter 1983/84, Vol. 4, no. 1 — Interview with B. F. Skinner. Was George $3.75 Orwell a Humanist? Antony Flew. Population Control vs. Freedom in China, Vern and Bonnie Bullough. Academic Freedom at Liberty Baptist Spring 1985, Vol. 5, no. 2 — Update on the Shroud of Turin, Joe Nickell. College, Lynn Ridenhour. The Mormon Church: Joseph Smith and the The Vatican's View of Sex, Robert T. Francoeur. An Interview with E. O. Book of Mormon, George D. Smith; The History of Mormonism and Wilson, Jeffrey Saver. Religion and Parapsychology: Parapsychology: The Church Authorities: Interview with Sterling M. McMurrin. Anti-Science: "Spiritual" Science, James E. Alcock; Science, Religion and the Paranormal, The Irrationalist Vogue of the 1970s, Lewis Feuer. The End of the Galilean John Beloff. The Legacy of Voltaire (Part I), Paul Edwards. The 0rigins of Cease-Fire? James Hansen. Who Really Killed Goliath? Gerald A. Larue. Christianity, R. Joseph Hoffmann. $3.75 Humanism in Norway: Strategies for Growth, Levi Fragell. $3.50 Summer 1985, Vol. 5, no. 3 — Finding Common Ground Between Believers Spring 1984, Vol. 4, no. 2 — Christian Science Practitioners and Legal and Unbelievers, Paul Kurtz. Render Unto Jesus the Things That Are Protection for Children. Rita Swan; Child Abuse and Neglect in Ultrafunda- Jesus', Robert S. Alley. Jesus in Time and Space, Gerald A. Larue. Interview mentalist Cults and Sects, Lowell Streiker. The Foundations of Religious with Sidney Hook on China, Marxism, and Human Freedom. Evangelical Liberty and Democracy: A Symposium, Carl Henry, Paul Kurtz, Father Agnosticism, William Henry Young. To Refuse to Be a God, Khoren Ernest Fortin, Lee Nisbet. Joseph Fletcher, Richard Taylor. Biblical Views Arisian. The Legacy of Voltaire (Part II), Paul Edwards. $3.75 of Sex: Blessing or Handicap? Jeffrey J. W. Baker. Moral Absolutes and Foreign Policy, Nicholas Capaldi. The Vatican Ambassador, Edd Doerr, A Fall 1985, Vol. 5, no. 4 — Two Forms of Humanistic Psychology, Albert Naturalistic Basis for Morality, John Kekes. Humanist Self Portraits, Ellis. Psychoanalysis: Science or Pseudoscience? Grünbaum on Freud, Frank Matthew les Specter, Floyd Matson, Richard Kostelanetz. $3.50 J. 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John Dart. $5.00 gion, Joseph Fletcher; Pluralistic Humanism, Sidney Hook; On the Misuse of Language, Paul Kunz. The Habit of Reason, Brand Blanshard. An Fall 1984, Vol. 4, no. 4 Humanist Author Attacked, Phyllis Schlally, Sol Interview with Adolf Grünbaum. Homer Duncan's Crusade Against Secular Gordon. Humanists vs. Christians in Milledgeville, Georgia, Kenneth S. Humanism, Paul Kurtz. Should a Humanist Celebrate Christmas? Thomas Saladin. Suppression and Censorship in the Seventh-Day Adventist Church: Flynn. On Being a Pedestrian, Robert Wisne. $3.75 Ellen White's Habit, Douglas Hackleman; Who Profits from the Prophet? Walter Rea. Keeping the Secrets of the Dead Sea Scrolls, John M. Allegro. Spring 1986, Vol. 6, no. 2 (special issue) Faith-Healing: Miracle or Health Superstition, Rodger Pirnie Doyle. Humanism in Africa: Paradox Fraud? The Need for Investigation, Paul Kurtz; "Be Healed in the Name of and Illusion, Paul Kunz. Humanism in South Africa, Don Sergeant. $3.75 God!" 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February 1985, Vol., no. I — With articles on the new Secular Humanist Pornography; Right to Die; Anticlerical Persecution in West Germany; Bulletin; the Hatch Amendment; Helms and CBS; Pastoral Malpractice; E Gorbachev; St. Jude; the Christian Nation Debate; and Battles over Atheism Pluribus Unum; and Is Morality Inevitable? in Virginia. January 1986, Vol. 2, no. l — Prayer Printing and the U.S. Senate; Hatch's May 1985, Vol. I, no. 2 — FREE INQUIRY'S "Jesus in History and Myth" Anti-Humanism Law; Helms's Anti-Witchcraft Law; Falwell Slipping; conference and its new Committee for the Scientific Examination of Reli- Student Spies; Pat Robertson for President?; and Postal Service Issues gion; the Attack on Public Education; Wisconsin Freethinkers; Lincoln and Religious Stamp. Reagan on the Bible; and the Age of Unreason. May 1986, Vol. 2, no. 2 — FREE INQUIRY's Faith-Healing Probe; Alabama August 1985, Vol. I, no. 3 — The Supreme Court and Religious Freedom; Parents Sue Over Secular Humanism in Schools; Media Hype and the More on Public Education; the Legal Status of Priests; Christian Rock; and Brookings 'Church-State Book; Education Department Hits Religious Christian and Muslim Fundamentalists. Neutrality of Textbooks; Canadian Catholic School Battle; Exorcism; List November 1985, Vol. I no. 4 — "Parochiaid" Ruling; Hurricane Elena; of the "Damned." Issues of the Secular Humanist Bulletin also contain "The Secular Humorist, ""Biblical Scorecard, "and "Education Update." FREE INQUIRY • Buffalo, NY 14215-0005 • Tel.: 716-834-2921 practically no place in his scheme of things. It was intuition that for him was the source of higher truth. And God, he asserted, is the principle of truth. He proclaimed ahimsa (non- "Formal Western education on all levels has also violence) as the fundamental moral value, which he interpreted vastly expanded in recent years in rural areas. as concern for the dignity and well-being of every person. He denied the authority of the Hindu scriptures when their teaching But it is generally of a poor quality. It has failed was contrary to ahimsa, strove valiantly for the eradication of to promote critical thinking or to inculcate in the untouchability and the hierarchical caste system, and promoted vast student population the basic liberal values the equality of women in all spheres of life. enshrined in the Indian constitution." This "enlightenment" was largely confined to the urbanized professional Hindu middle-class--the Brahmanic and other higher castes. The leadership of the non-Brahmanic castes, was equally undoubtedly the result of the liberal values that the which were gradually drawn into the struggle for political inde- Hindu middle-class had by that time made their own. It is pendence as it gathered strength, mainly concentrated on over- remarkable, in this context, that the late B. R. Ambedkar, the throwing the traditional hegemony and privileges of the Brah- supreme leader of the untouchables, was one of the main archi- mins. This was a legitimate goal but, in the absence of a larger tects of the Indian constitution. ideological movement to liberate the people from the hold of However, the movement for religious and social reform irrational customs rooted in religious belief and to restructure died after independence was achieved. The dominant political society on the basis of equality, justice, and a rational code of thought at the time of independence was socialist and was to morality, the non-Brahmin movement gradually degenerated some extent influenced by Marxism. It was generally believed into a struggle for political power. The radical social purpose that the power of the state could be used effectively for planning that had inspired Jotiba Phule was forgotten. and promoting economic development and for rapidly expand- Somehow, the Muslim community in India did not respond ing the educational system so as to cover all social strata. in the way the Hindu community did to the challenge posed by There was a strong hope that the age-old evils that plagued modern civilization in the form of British rule and the Western Indian society, such as mass poverty and illiteracy, superstitious education it introduced. Muslim intellectuals did not undertake customs, an attitude of passive acceptance in the face of remedi- fundamental criticism of the Muslim faith and traditional social able ills, and so on, would be speedily eliminated by the state's practices. In the beginning, the Muslim aristocracy and gentry, vigorous pursuit of a strategy for social change that gave for understandable reasons, avoided the British rulers and the priority to economic development. Events have sadly belied modern education they were trying to promote. They were this hope. hostile to the British because they had overthrown their rule and For the predominantly Hindu Indian middle-class, the new deposed them from all positions of power and authority. How- political order opened up an unprecedented era of prosperity. ever, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1898) brought about a Education, particularly scientific and technological education, reconciliation between the old and the new ruling communities, was enormously expanded, and opportunities for advancement and Muslims gradually took to modern education. But, while in government, industry, commerce, academia, and so on, by this gave them access to positions of power in the British and large kept pace with this expansion. Garnering the fruits administrative system and modern professions, it did not stimu- of the labors of the earlier generation of religious and social late any attempt at criticism and evaluation of Muslim religious reformers, the Hindu middle-class, i.e., the higher castes, now and social traditions. This lack of moral and intellectual enjoys considerable freedom from traditional customs and response to modern knowledge and thought is generally at- taboos. It has for the most part adopted a rational moral code, tributed to the Muslim anxiety and insecurity that resulted and, if it does not find a full and consistent expression in social from a minority position in a society that was advancing arrangements, the obstacle is social conservatism and not reli- steadily, under British aegis, toward a fully democratic polity, gious orthodoxy. in which the rule of the majority community would prevail. Religion, in short, has ceased to regulate morality in its But this is, at best, only a partial explanation. There are deeply social aspects. Middle-class women are more or less emanci- rooted factors in the Muslim tradition and in the outlook it pated and feel free to pursue careers in most of the professions fosters that hinder a full moral and rational response to on equal terms with men, and the freedom available to them in modernity. their personal and social life is steadily increasing. However, in some respects the modernization of attitudes fter achieving political independence in 1947 (which was and values in India is superficial and insecure. One reason for Aaccompanied by the partitioning of the country and the this is that Hindu society has no deeply rooted tradition of .setting up of the separate Muslim state of Pakistan), India secular activities that are judged to be worthwhile for their own adopted a republican constitution that guaranteed fundamental sake as a source of deep personal fulfillment. The norms and rights and civil freedoms to all citizens, irrespective of caste values that govern such activities as the pursuit of knowledge and creed, and special protection to religious minorities. This and the practice of the professions, industry, commerce, etc., was undoubtedly due to political pressures resulting from the have not yet been internalized to the point where they have need to reassure religious minorities of their security and status. become part of individual consciences; or, to put it in another But the egalitarian and libertarian character of the constitution way, they do not yet enjoy firm social sanction. As a conse-

46 FREE INQUIRY quence, success in such activities very often is measured in transforming the caste-based Hindu society into one that recog- terms of monetary gain or social advancement, and they are nizes the equal status of every individual is greatly hampered not regarded as a source of professional pride or "self- by this religious conservatism that indirectly sanctions oppres- realization" for the individual. sive social practices. Men and women, then, turn to traditional beliefs and values in search of the meaning of life. There is also nostalgia for the "Movements for carrying science to the people emotional security that traditional values afford. The form of a are gathering momentum in many parts of the social or personal morality in which the values of freedom and country, and the findings of science are being equality are coherently embodied remains largely uncharted. Individuals committed to these principles must accept the used to expose the weaknesses and fallacies in responsibility of exemplifying them in their personal lives. This the reasoning that is traditionally advanced to is an onerous responsibility. It is natural for people in these support religious dogmas and customary prac- circumstances to crave the emotional support that familiar tices." patterns of life afford. Further, the very vagueness of the Hindu doctrine makes it vulnerable to evidence and logic; in the end, it is just a form of transcendentalism that can be comfortably he vast number of Hindus who lived in villages were largely added on to and blended with scientific knowledge. As a result left untouched by the Hindu enlightenment of the nine- of all these factors, the cult of the gurus flourishes. These are, teenth century. The caste system and the traditional religious however, gurus with a difference. They are adept at concocting and moral beliefs and practices continue to hold sway there. all kinds of amalgams of modern science, psychology, and Indeed, caste has acquired a new potency in the democratic sociology with traditional spirituality that are both soothing politics of the post-independence era; it has been largely reduced and exhilarating, making it possible for their followers to have to the politics of vote-getting. Candidates for legislatures and the best of two incompatible worlds. Modern gurus are also other public offices are selected on the basis of caste, and much not above performing miracles to establish their credentials. of the voting is also conducted according to considerations of That a guru like Rajneesh could have been elevated in the caste. It is true that industrialization is gradually making in- course of a few years from the status of Acharya (teacher) to roads into the placid countryside and that villages are becoming that of Bhagwan (the Lord) shows that the traditional ways of part of the network of establishments that use scientific tech- thinking and feeling die hard. nology and modern methods of administration. But this does The rapid industrialization of India has resulted in the not have much impact on the personal beliefs and attitudes of urbanization of the lower middle-classes on a large scale. They the majority of the rural population. Formal Western education have welcomed and benefited from the opportunities that life on all levels has also vastly expanded in recent years in rural in the cities has afforded them. At the same time, the anony- areas. But it is generally of a poor quality. It has failed to mity of urban life and the anxiety and insecurity generated by promote critical thinking or to inculcate in the vast student fierce competition make them crave the emotional security of a population the basic liberal values enshrined in the Indian small community. Most of them, therefore, cling to traditional constitution. beliefs and practices and try to adapt the modes of worship This generally dark situation has some relieving features. In and rituals to which they were accustomed in their villages to 1956, the Mahars, who make up the largest of the untouchable urban living. Externally, they live in an industrialized environ- castes in the state of Maharashtra, renounced Hinduism and ment, participate in daily processes and activities that are based embraced Buddhism under the leadership of the late B. R. on scientific techniques, work in establishments that are ad- Ambedkar. Ambedkar, who was the only national leader to ministered in accordance with impersonal, rational norms, and work for religious and social reform after independence, had so on. Internally, they live under the surveillance of their family carefully prepared the intellectual and moral ground for this or village gods and under their protection, which they secure mass conversion. Buddhism, according to the version that he by rendering homage to them in the customary ways—to the offered his followers, was not a religion in the ordinary sense, extent that this is possible in an urban environment. They also based on revealed scriptures and the teaching of an inspired live in two worlds. prophet. It was merely a rational world-view formulated by It is incorrect to describe this state of affairs as the rise or Buddha in the light of his experience and reflection, which he persistence of Hindu fundamentalism. In the absence of any urged his followers to consider critically before adopting it. It hard core of doctrine that a practicing Hindu is required to did not prescribe other-worldly ends like liberation or salvation, profess or even any practices that he must rigidly follow, one but preached only a morality based on the values of rationality, cannot speak of Hindu fundamentalism in the sense in which human equality, and brotherhood. In renouncing Hinduism in one can speak of, say, Muslim fundamentalism. But the per- favor of Buddhism, not only did Ambedkar's followers re- sistence of traditional beliefs and modes of worship makes for nounce the status of untouchability that Hinduism had foisted a conservatism that has social implications. For instance, the on them; they also deliberately renounced irrational dogmas traditional worship of family gods will reinforce notions of like the law of karma, which provided a rationale for oppressive ritualistic purity and pollution, and these are connected with social practices, and mentally prepared themselves to adopt a the caste system and the practice of untouchability. The task of rational concept of morality. There is every hope that the

Summer 1986 47 example set by Ambedkar's followers will inspire many other But again the picture is not one of unrelieved gloom. The lower castes, if not actually to embrace Buddhism, at least to Muslim Satyashodhak Mandal—the Muslim Society for Search take a conscious, rational, and moral stand against the patently for Truth—founded in 1970 by the late Hamid Dalwai, perhaps irrational part of the traditional Hindu religious and moral the first Indian Muslim intellectual with the moral and intel- doctrine. lectual courage to submit the Muslim doctrine to rational Thus the situation is not totally dark. A most welcome criticism, has been valiantly working to propagate a secular feature of the past decade is the rise of many voluntary organi- outlook and a rational moral code. Although Dalwai's followers zations and groups dedicating themselves to raising the con- have had to suffer social ostracism and calumny at the hands sciousness of people living in villages, particularly the most of their coreligionists, they have stood their ground, and their oppressed. This phenomenon is primarily the result of the ideas are steadily receiving increasing acceptance in the Muslim realization by young men and women that the state has dismally community. failed to eradicate the poverty and the virtual bondage in which The Indian Christian community, which is a tiny minority India's poorest people live. Political parties, including the of not more than 2.5 percent of the entire Indian population, radicals, have also clearly failed. In a democracy, all political does not oppose modernization. When Christian doctrine and parties are forced to make compromises with various vested the Christian moral code came to India, they had already been interests. The radical parties, when they gain power, find that molded by modern knowledge and thought. Indeed in the nine- they are unable to use it for radical purposes. Thus the convic- teenth century, Christianity played a modernizing role in Indian tion has spread that the only recourse is to appeal directly to society. Unlike Hindu theological and metaphysical doctrines, the people and organize them. Voluntary groups, in pursuing Christian theology had been forced to come to terms with this course, have learned that the power held over people's science and rationalism since these cultural phenomena de- minds by traditional religious ideas is perhaps the greatest veloped within a Christian community. hindrance to their asserting their rights as Indian citizens and Some reference to the Sikh problem is perhaps called for. as human beings. Religious beliefs and the moral and social The Sikhs' grievances and demands and the separatist move- practices they sanction are therefore being directly attacked to ment have nothing to do with religion. It would be perfectly strengthen the people's struggle for a more just social order. possible for a linguistic community in India to adopt a separatist Movements for carrying science to the people are gathering stand on the basis of its distinct identity and its claims of momentum in many parts of the country, and the findings of disrespect and denial of expression in the Indian polity. How- science are being used to expose the weaknesses and fallacies in ever, the Sikh phenomenon ought to bring home to thinking the reasoning that is traditionally advanced to support religious Indians two unpalatable truths about the present state of their dogmas and customary practices. Organizations like the Indian society. First, the various religious and linguistic communities Secular Society, the Radical Humanist Association, and the that have merged into the Indian state still exhibit strong incli- Indian Rationalist Association are addressing themselves to the nations to revert to their separate identities, and there is a same task at a more sophisticated intellectual level. All this is constant danger that any one of them may seek a split. At least really a continuation of the unfinished work of the religious one factor that accounts for this situation is that secular activi- and social reformers of the nineteenth century after a sad break ties and interests, such as scientific research and technological of about three decades. development, industry and commerce, literature and the arts, By and large, the Muslim community has kept aloof from have not developed to the level where a very large number of movements aiming at a transformation in beliefs and values. persons from all the subgroups are required to participate in Muslim leaders, including academics, have consistently refrained them. Only such massive and broad-based participation in from submitting the Muslim faith to rational criticism. Recently, meaningful and rewarding secular activities will generate the when the Supreme Court of India upheld the right of a divorced feeling of having a stake in the continuation of the political Muslim woman to financial support on the basis of a section and social framework that sustains them and a loyalty to it on of the Indian Criminal Procedure Code (which is a part of the which a sense of Indian identity can be based. Second, this secular law of the land), there was an uproar against the judg- heightened sense of identity is bound to stimulate religious ment as an unwarranted interference with Muslim law. Ordinary fundamentalism in the climate of thinking and feeling that Muslim men and women still believe firmly that the traditional continues to prevail in India. Muslim law, Shariat, is sacrosanct, inviolable, and beyond the Modernization is brought about by taking seriously (1) the pale of criticism by the judiciary and not subject to amendment, cognitive claims of scientific knowledge and the scientific even by a democratically elected legislature. They still cling to method, and (2) the moral claims of secular life and its quality. the belief that the Koran and the Prophet of Islam were divinely It is because traditional religions are often inimical to these inspired. And Muslim intellectuals do not teach them any claims that they need to be combated and their authority cir- better. The result is that the Muslim community has developed cumscribed or rejected. There are reassuring signs that this a ghetto mentality (which the Hindu caste system at least negative and critical work that is essential for preparing the indirectly reinforces) and continues to live in a medieval atmos- minds of men for genuine modernization will be pursued in the phere untouched by science and critical thinking. It has rendered future with the vigor and dedication it demands. This is a duty itself incapable of responding positively to the challenges and that no Indian who is concerned with the quality of human life opportunities held forth by a democratic polity and human can neglect. And there is every hope that it will not be progress in knowledge and moral sensibility. neglected. •

48 FREE INQUIRY

Humanism in Modern India An Interview with V. M. Tarkunde

Tariq Ismail

he place and relevance of radical humanism in India economic decentralization. today must be seen against the historical background And yet, from the point of view of humanism, Gandhi's Tof the development of the Indian nationalist movement influence was not all positive. "Gandhi disliked modern science, and its vehicle, the Indian National Congress (hereafter referred modern civilization, modern industry, modern medicine," wrote to as the "INC," or simply "the Congress"). The INC was V. M. Tarkunde in Radical Humanism.' Gandhi brought reli- founded in 1885 by Western-educated liberals like G. K. gion into politics and was not a secularist; nor was he a ration- Gokhale, who were great admirers of British institutions, British alist in that he never questioned religious orthodoxy and most ways, and British liberal political thinkers. They were much Hindu traditions—his actions being dictated by an inner voice impressed by Western achievements in science and technology. that he considered to be the voice of God. Politically, they were moderate and hence were tolerated and Under Gandhi, the nationalist movement remained a nega- even encouraged by the British. Being rationalists, they fought tive, anti-British movement with little or no democratic content. against religious superstition, tried to abolish suttee, establish "Given the prevailing tradition of blind faith and lack of self- widow remarriage, and championed many other liberal causes. reliance, what the Gandhi-led masses aspired for was Ramraj The partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon in 1907 was seen [benevolent absolute rule] rather than Swaraj [self-rule]," wrote as a slap in the face by many Bengalis, who then flocked to Tarkunde.2 He continued: join the Congress. This led to the formation of a radical wing within the INC. With the death of the moderate G. K. Gokhale The Indian nationalist movement did little at the last stage to in 1915, the leadership passed to extremists like B. G. Tilak, achieve India's independence. What it achieved was that the who advocated a more militant attitude toward the British power voluntarily surrendered by the British rulers after the government. Tilak (1856-1920), a Maharashtrian Brahmin from Second World War came into the hands of the INC, and that Pune, brought a religious element into the Indian nationalist too after the partition of the country and after a fratricidal movement (often organizing religious festivals), which he greatly Communal Carnage in which hundreds of thousands of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs killed each other.' expanded. At about the same time, Gandhi returned to India from South Africa and was soon organizing mass civil disobedience Despite real progress in education and industry under Jawaharlal Nehru, Gandhi's successor, India's democracy against the British government. He received the immediate sup- port of thousands in many states, and soon the Congress remained unstable and weak. People continued to be ruled by blind faith rather than reason and looked to political saviors leadership passed from Tilak to Gandhi. Between them, they rather than themselves for the solution of modern ills. transformed the Congress into a party of the people. Gandhi appealed to the masses because he spoke to them in The shakiness of Indian democracy was illustrated in 1975 by the ease with which Indira Gandhi put opposition leaders in a language they understood—the traditional language of Hin- duism. He championed their causes, was genuine in his desire prison, imposed severe press censorship, and proclaimed a national state of emergency. Although Indira Gandhi was to eradicate poverty, and strove all his life for cooperation and defeated in the 1977 general election, she was reelected in 1980, harmony between workers and landlords and between Muslims and Hindus. He was opposed to the custom of untouchability and once again the country drifted toward authoritarianism. Indian democracy has done little to improve the lives of the and later to the entire caste system. Gandhi lived simply and truthfully and, of course, introduced nonviolence as a moral majority of the people, who continue to live in extreme poverty. principle into the nationalist movement. His other great con- Corruption is rife in Indian political life. The caste system tribution to Indian politics was his insistence on political and remains as strong as ever and is shamelessly exploited for poli- tical reasons. The majority remain untouched by the improve- ments in higher education. Under such conditions, the possi- Tariq Ismail teaches English at the University of Toulouse in bility of a dictatorship coming to power in India is real. If a France. He was born in India to a Muslim family and was real democracy is to be established then we need to spread educated in England, where he studied European art history, humanist values among the people and, as Tarkunde said, to Islamic culture, and philosophy. He is a secular humanist. develop their "initiative for the formation of suitable organisa-

Summer 1986 49 tions and the adoption of appropriate action for a radical credited flag of Communism and that we should work for a transformation of the existing political, economic and social higher ideal, the ideal of achieving human freedom." institutions."0 At the All India Conference of the RDP in Bombay in December 1946, Roy prepared what came to be known as the adical humanism in India was founded by the brilliant twenty-two theses of radical humanism. These principles in- Rthinker and activist M. N. Roy (1887-1954). Roy was cluded the ideas of individual freedom—which was not to be born in 1887 to a Brahmin family in Bengal. The early part of sacrificed in the name of a collective ego—rationalism, democ- his life was spent in the Indian nationalist cause. In 1916, Roy racy organized from the lower rungs of society, and the impor- left India in search of arms for the nationalist cause and did tance of education in eliminating exploitation of the masses not return until 1930. It was during his years abroad, in the and poverty. At his colleagues' request, Roy prepared a mani- United States, Mexico, Germany, the U.S.S.R., and France, festo that was published in May 1947 under the title "New that Roy became a full-fledged communist. He became a well- Humanism—A Manifesto." The manifesto dealt with the inade- known figure in international communist circles and by 1926 quacy of contemporary ideologies and the degeneration of com- was elected a member of all four official policy-making bodies munist theory and practice, and presented the outline of the of the Communist International—the Praesidium, the Political philosophy of a new humanism. Secretariat, the Executive Committee, and the World Congress. Roy finally came to the conclusion that political parties Soon afterward, Roy clashed with Stalin and was expelled were inconsistent with the ideal of democracy and that they from the party. As Roy himself said, his main offense was his encouraged power struggles. He was of the opinion that political "claim to the right of independent thinking." power in a democracy should reside in organizations of the Roy returned to India in December 1930. He was arrested people and should not be usurped by any political party. These in Bombay in July 1931 and remained in jail until 1936. After ideas inevitably led to the dissolution of the Radical Democratic his release, Roy campaigned on behalf of the INC. At the same Party in December 1948. Roy's followers then launched the time, he sought to strengthen the movement with democratiza- Indian Radical Humanist Movement, which later became the tion and radicalization, working from the bottom up in the Radical Humanist Association. organization. To this end, he initiated a program that was based on the radical demands of the peasants and workers. It ithal Mahadev Tarkunde was born on July 3, 1909, at was not liked by the majority of the Congress leaders. Roy's Saswad, a village in the Pune district. Following his studies reaction was to organize an alternative revolutionary leader- at Bombay University, the Agricultural College at Pune, and ship, for which purpose the League of Radical Congressmen the London School of Economics, Tarkunde began his career was founded. as a barrister. Like many politically active and educated lawyers, The outbreak of World War II led Roy to part company he joined the INC. In 1935, Tarkunde joined the Congress with the INC. Unlike the INC, Roy was totally opposed to Socialist Party and was a secretary of the Maharashtra branch. fascism. "If fascism succeeds in establishing its domination over He met M. N. Roy in 1936, and, in 1942, decided to devote all the whole of Europe," he wrote, "then goodbye to revolution his energies to working for the Radical Democratic Party, of and goodbye to Indian freedom as well." Moreover, Roy which he was general secretary from 1944 to 1948. correctly predicted that the "defeat of Fascism will weaken Tarkunde resumed his legal practice in 1948 and became a imperialism," and would bring India nearer to the goal of judge in the Bombay High Court in 1957. He retired from the democratic freedom. bench in 1969 and began work as a senior advocate of the The Indian people, being anti-British and unaware of the Supreme Court in Delhi. Since that time Tarkunde has increas- dangers of international fascism, welcomed the prospect of a ingly devoted himself to the cause of maintaining and preserving Nazi victory. Roy, being a man of principles and courage, was civil liberties. The Radical Humanist Association was formed undeterred and advocated a program of support for the British. in the same year, and Tarkunde served as its president until However, Congress leaders were unwilling to unconditionally 1980. Since 1970 he has been editor of the Radical Humanist, a support the British government and insisted that it first agree monthly journal published in New Delhi. to set up an Indian national government with full autonomy In April 1974, along with Jayaprakash Narayan, Tarkunde over defense and foreign affairs. But Roy argued that, if the founded Citizens for Democracy, expressly to defend and defeat of fascism was necessary for Indian democracy, it was strengthen democracy in India. In September 1976, the People's wrong to put conditions on the offer of help. Nevertheless, Union for Civil Liberties and Democratic Rights (PUCL) was Congress leaders banned the anti-fascist meetings of the League formed with Narayan as president and Tarkunde as acting of Radical Congressmen. This led Roy and his followers to president. To quote his friend Nani Palkhivala: "During the leave the Congress in December 1940 and to found the Radical dark days of the Emergency Tarkunde was in the forefront of Democratic Party (RDP). the movement to prevent India from being rolled up into An RDP study camp in May 1946 marked the beginning of authoritarianism and from sliding into conformist darkness."' Roy's radical humanism and his complete rejection of com- Tarkunde is also chairman of the Indian Renaissance Insti- munism. At this camp, Roy pointed out that "Communism tute, a research society founded by M. N. Roy that produced a was no longer an unrealized utopia, that its clay feet were plan of economic development called "People's Plan II." visible in what was happening in Soviet Russia, and that a Tarkunde was also chairman of several committees investigating liberating revolution could no longer take place under the dis- alleged killings and the convenor of two committees appointed

50 FREE INQUIRY by the Citizens for Democracy to foster electoral reforms. Ismail: Do you consider yourself a religious humanist? In recognition of his contribution to the defense of human Tarkunde: No, I am a thorough atheist. I have written a rights, Tarkunde was given the 1978 International Humanist book on radical humanism in which I explain my position. Award by the International Humanist and Ethical Union. The Ismail: When did your association with American and Academy of Humanism in the United States elected Tarkunde European humanists begin? as a Humanist Laureate in 1984 in recognition of his outstand- Tarkunde: Relatively recently. M. N. Roy was one of the ing contribution to the principles of humanism, rationalism, vice presidents of the inaugural conference of the International and free inquiry. Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU), which he could not The following interview was conducted in New Delhi in attend because of an accident. The radical humanist movement September 1985. has been associated with the IHEU since then. But my personal contacts did not come until 1974, when I attended the IHEU smail: Where did you grow up? conference in Amsterdam. I met most of the leaders in the I Tarkunde: Initially I lived in a village and then at Pune international humanist movement, including Jaap van Praag, [Poona]. I moved from my village when I was about eleven Howard Radest, and Paul Kurtz. Soon after I was chosen as years old. I was in Pune for quite some time. At the age of an associate of the Rationalist Association in England. In 1978, twenty, I went to England. I was there for three years as a they granted me the International Humanist Award. A little student, and studied law at the London School of Economics. later I was elected a member of the American Academy of I returned to India in 1932 at the age of twenty-three. Humanism. Ismail: Did you grow up in a religious atmosphere? Ismail: Popularly in the West, India represents spirituality Tarkunde: Well, it was a reformist religious atmosphere. and mysticism. Indian humanism seems a contradiction. My father was inclined to be very sympathetic toward the Tarkunde: Most Indians are not mystics. They are materially lowest caste—the Harijan, the untouchables. In fact, he was oriented. It's true that a majority of Indians are religious- excommunicated from the Brahmin community because he had minded and that religion does occupy an important place in started a small-scale industry to give some additional income their lives. Nonetheless, for quite a few others, religion plays a to the untouchables. He always associated with non-Brah- minor role. Among Hindus, although most of them are com- mins—in that way he was a very progressive person. But he mitted to their particular religious tenets, there is a degree of was a religious person in the sense that he believed in God and tolerance for persons who do not share their beliefs. believed in several tenets of Hinduism, but not in an orthodox In India, there are a large number of actual and potential way. humanists. The humanist movement is not very strong, but it is Ismail: Was there any particular writer or thinker who was not particularly weak either. Humanists are found in many influential in your intellectual development? different organizations, not in just one. The largest and perhaps Tarkunde: In my early years, there was a strong reformist the most vocal organization is the Radical Humanist Associa- school. Its members were rationalists, and they could be called tion, of which I am one of the founders. Then there is a smaller the early Indian humanists. They wanted Indian society to body, the Indian Humanist Association. There is also the shed many of its negative customs. They were strongly influ- Rationalist Association of India, which is quite active. Many enced by British liberal thought. Then there was a very impor- radical humanists are also members of this association. Then tant writer, G. K. Agarkar, who was a well-known reformist in there is the Secular Forum, which is based in Bombay. The Maharashtra. Raja Rammohan Roy and his activities in Bengal leading member of that forum was a radical humanist. He also influenced me.6 There was a similar movement in Maha- passed away a few years ago. The Secular Forum issues a rashtra. It was represented by people like Jotiba Phule, who bimonthly magazine called the Secularist. The Radical Human- was very forward looking. He disliked Brahmins and Banias ist Association publishes the Radical Humanist, a weekly that [merchants]. But I was mainly influenced by Agarkar and to became a monthly in 1970. I am editor of that journal. The some extent by M. G. Ranade, who was in fact a high court circulation is about two thousand. The subscribers are from all judge. over India—many of them are charter members of the Radical I became a rationalist very early in life, from the age of Democratic Party. Between fifty and one hundred copies of the twelve, at least. I wanted to know the answer to everything. In journal are sent abroad. fact, I wrote a letter to Mahatma Gandhi asking why one Ismail: What do you see as the role of humanists in India? should pray and how God could answer prayers if God is just? Tarkunde: The Radical Humanist Association is concerned How could God not help those who deserved help but did not with political, economic, and cultural issues. It is not a political pray and yet help those who prayed but did not deserve that party at all. In fact, it doesn't believe in political parties. It help? envisions a renaissance in India and strives to spread the spirit Ismail: Did he reply? of freedom and secular morality, on the basis of which a Tarkunde: Yes. Gandhi personally wrote a postcard, saying genuine democracy can be established. These are the principles that prayer is good for you because it gives peace of mind. I of radical humanism. That is why we were very active in wrote him a second letter saying that you can't have peace of opposing the state of emergency declared by then Prime mind unless you believe in the efficacy of prayer; and, since I Minister Indira Gandhi in 1975. I was given the Humanist do not believe in the efficacy of prayer, what can I do? He did Award in 1978 for my work during the emergency, defending not reply to that. I was twelve years old at that time. those who had been jailed or were in so-called preventive deten-

Summer 1986 51 tion and fighting for their rights. We were also fighting for the that. First, uncertainty about the future has increased—unem- right of free expression. ployment and poverty are up, and there is an increase in popu- Our numbers are small but the movement is well known. lation. Thus there is a greater dependence on supernatural We associate with organizations like the People's Union for support. If you can't face life with your own strength you may Civil Liberties and Democratic Rights (PUCL)—the most effec- need the strength derived from religion. The second reason for tive and best-organized body for the protection of civil liberties. the growth of religious fundamentalism is that political parties I was its president for several years, until 1984. We are also take advantage of the caste sentiments inherent in society and associated with the Citizens for Democracy (CFD), of which I thereby strengthen them. That's one of the reasons commun- am still president. This organization is mainly concerned with alism and the caste system have not disappeared, as was grass-roots democracy. We are trying to develop democratic expected, with the growth of education. groups among the people on the basis of the values of liberty, Ismail: What about fundamentalism among the Muslims? equality, and fraternity. Our objective is social transformation. Tarkunde: Muslims in India are generally more orthodox; It is not possible to be a genuine humanist in India and not be they are a community in which a reformist movement has not concerned with poverty. That's why radical humanists are so grown. Muslim reformism is very limited. We, as members of politically involved—not in parties, but in efforts to educate the Radical Humanist Association and Citizens for Democracy, the people in democratic values, self-reliance, and self-discipline. have been trying to stimulate some reform among the Muslims. Ismail: Are there any well-known Indian personalities who We investigated the oppression that the reformist section of a support you? community within the Shia sect called the Bohras has been Tarkunde: Yes, although some of them have recently passed subjected to by the high priest (Syedna)." We prepared a report away. But radical humanists in India are quite well known in supporting these reformist groups. There is also the Muslim various fields, such as literature, trade unionism, and law. Satyashodak Samaj, which means "search for truth." It was Ismail: Which figures from Indian history would you con- really the work of my friend A. B. Shah, who died recently, sider to be humanists? and Hamid Dalwai, a Muslim. We and the Secular Forum Tarkunde: If you go by religious humanism, of course, people are connected with this movement. We have also formed there are many. Akbar, for instance, was not a humanist, but a committee to investigate Muslim law and suggest reforms to he was a broad-minded religious man and did not believe in protect the interests of Muslim women in divorce cases. Muslim religious fanaticism.' people deserve much better than what they have. They are kept Humanism places prime importance on human beings, and under the religious domination of the mullahs. a humanist holds the view that man is mainly responsible for Ismail: What about the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh his own future. For that reason, I would not call these religious (RSS)? leaders of the past humanists, even though some like Akbar Tarkunde: The RSS is an organization of Hindu funda- were very tolerant and open-minded. Kabir, the fifteenth- mentalists. They deny this, but it's true. The members of the century poet, was even more so.' RSS are persons who have a great admiration for the Hindu In India, the true humanists were those who were connected past, but they admire the wrong things. They don't support the with the reformist movements already mentioned—figures such caste system, but to a large extent they support Hindu chau- as Agarkar, Ranade, and Rammohan Roy. Then came Gandhi. vinism. They are usually directly or indirectly connected with Gandhi was a religious humanist par excellence. He was not a riots between Hindus and Muslims. I am not saying that they religious reformer, and in some ways his influence was harmful generate the riots. Many of them are good people and are my because he was in many ways very orthodox. But he was also a friends. But they are very conscious of their Hinduism and genuine democrat: He treated people as equals and was gen- strongly believe in its superiority over other religions. They uinely concerned about poverty and other social ills. may not start the Hindu-Muslim riots, but once the riots start Nehru was a liberal-minded person, but he was a politician.° they are at the head of the Hindu militants. He believed in secularism to a large extent, but he compromised Ismail: Are there fanatical elements in the Sikh political with his principles. He was basicially a man of democratic party, the Akali Dal? Do you think there is a solution to the impulses. The same was true of Jinnah, but he compromised present Sikh problem without secession? even more.10 Jinnah became the leader of the Muslims. But I Tarkunde: There is certainly a fanatical wing in the Akali am sure that he had little faith in religion—no deep faith at all. Dal. In my view, the growth of Sikh fanaticism and its culmina- He became their leader because he was a shrewd person and tion in terrorism is a result of the power struggle between the had leadership qualities. Akali Dal on the one hand and the ruling Congress party on Ismail: Are there at present significant forces of religious the other. The Akali Dal mixed religion with politics by giving fundamentalism in India? a religious color to the secular demands on which the movement Tarkunde: I am afraid that they are growing—it's a sur- was founded. On the other hand, the ruling Congress party prising fact. It's a world phenomenon. One finds it difficult to refused to come to an understanding with the Akali Dal in understand, what with the increase of industry on the one hand regard to their demands, even though such an understanding and the advance of science on the other. could have been easily reached. The ruling Congress party did In India, it's disappointing that, although industry has not want such a compromise because it would have resulted in grown—and so has education, to a certain extent—religious increasing the popularity of the Akali Dal in Punjab. In the orthodoxy has not decreased. I think there are two reasons for absence of any accord between the two groups, the Akali move-

52 FREE INQUIRY ment fell into the hands of extremists. If an accord between the often defying the ban imposed on such meetings on the ground two parties had been reached in 1982, Sikh extremism and that the ban was not legally justified. Quite a few radical terrorism would never have occurred. The subsequent accord humanists were arrested during the emergency but, for reasons between Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and the Akali Dal leader, not known to me, I was left free. Sant Harchand Singh Longowal, has now eased the situation. The secession of Punjab is simply out of the question. Sikhs Notes in Punjab are 52 percent of the population, while Hindus con- stitute 48 percent. In view of the opposition to secession by 1. V. M. Tarkunde, Radical Humanism (New Delhi: Ajanta Publica- nearly half the Punjab's population, in addition to the opposi- tions, 1983), p. 34. tion in the rest of the country, the formation of a separate Sikh 2. Ibid., p. 12. 3. Ibid., p. 13. state in Punjab is hardly possible. The remedy lies in effecting 4. Ibid., pp. 15-16. cordial relations between the Sikh and Hindu communities in 5. N. Palkhivala, "A Personal Tribute," in V. M. Tarkunde, For Free- Punjab and isolating the extremists and terrorists. dom (New Delhi: Sunil Bhattacharya, 1984), p. xi. Ismail: Was the partitioning of India in 1947 a disaster 6. Raja Rammohan Roy (c. 1772-1833), a Brahmin and the founder of from the point of view of humanism? Brahmo Samaj, or the Divine Society, was a remarkable man who, like Akbar and Kabir, worked for interreligious cooperation and radical social Tarkunde: The partitioning of India could have been reform. He advocated the abolition of suttee and fought for civic and political avoided if the Indian National Congress, which, in effect, repre- rights. He firmly believed in reason and the rights of the individual—two sented the Hindu majority, had adopted a broad-minded and principles that he thought were basic to Hindu and Western thought and liberal attitude toward the natural fear of the Muslim minority present, in his view, in the Upanishads. of being dominated by the Hindu majority in an independent 7. The Muslim emperor Akbar (1542-1605) was a tolerant, open-minded monarch who showed a profound respect for and interest in all religions. He India. INC did not find it possible to adopt such an attitude attempted to forge a synthesis between Hinduism and Islam. He made par- toward the Muslim minority, with the result that the partition ticular efforts to mollify the Hindus, even at great expense to the treasury; of the country became inevitable when the British government for instance, he abolished two much-hated taxes—the pilgrim tax at the holy decided to leave India. Partitioning was certainly a disaster, as Hindu city of Mathura, in 1563, and the "jizya," a tax levied on non- it resulted in the death of hundreds of thousands of human Muslims as required by the Koran, in 1564. He also introduced Hindu festivals at Court, and he himself adopted various Hindu customs. He even beings and left a legacy of antipathy and suspicion between married Hindu Rajput princesses. Eventually, Akbar developed an eclectic India and Pakistan. What humanism requires is to bring about cult that was much influenced by Zoroastrianism. cordial relations between the peoples and, eventually, the 8. Kabir (1435-1518), a Muslim by birth, combined the tenets of Brah- governments of the two countries. manism, Vaisnavism, and Sufism. In his poems he referred to God inter- Ismail: Could you comment on the political background of changeably as Rama, Hari, and Allah. Kabir believed that the external details of the various religions had unnecessarily divided mankind. the emergency and your work during that time? 9. Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) was the first prime minister of inde- Tarkunde: There was no legal justification for the emergency pendent India. Nehru, who was educated at Harrow and Cambridge universi- proclaimed by Mrs. Indira Gandhi on June 25, 1975. The ties, was a man of wide culture. He returned from England a rationalist and proclamation would have been justified in accordance with the an admirer of Western science and technology. He was an avowed agnostic Constitution if the security of the country had been threatened with a horror of mystics, astrologers, and all religious mumbo jumbo. A by internal dissent. Such a condition did not exist at that time. committed democratic socialist and secularist, Nehru's great desire was to rid India of superstition and poverty. What had happened was that, in an election petition filed in 10. Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876-1948) was the leader of the Muslims the Allahabad High Court, the election of Mrs. Gandhi to the and the "father" of Muslim Pakistan. Ironically, Jinnah began as a liberal Indian Parliament was declared invalid. Mrs. Gandhi had filed and was not in any way religious. Indeed, he had returned from England an appeal against the decision in the Supreme Court, but she with decidedly un-Muslim tastes: He delighted in champagne, brandy, whis- key, and claret, and, on occasion, ate pork. He did not go to the mosque did not think it safe to resign her prime ministership in favor every Friday, nor did the Koran play any part in his life. of some other member of her party. There was, on the other I I. The Bohras are an Ismaili-Shia sect. The report prepared by the hand, a demand by the opposition parties for her resignation. Citizens for Democracy concluded: "There is a large-scale infringement of She resolved the problem by proclaiming an emergency in the civil liberties and human rights of reformist Bohras at the hands of the country, and by arresting all the opposition leaders as well as priestly class and those who fail to obey the orders of the Syedna and his Amils, even in purely secular matters, are subjected to Baraat resulting in individuals like Jayaprakash Narayan, who did not belong to complete social boycott, mental torture and frequent physical assaults. The any political party, and by enforcing very severe censorship on Misaq (the oath of unquestioning obedience to the Head Priest), which every the press. Bohra is required to give before he or she attains the age of majority, is used My friends and I in the radical humanist movement were as the main instrument for keeping the entire community under subjugation very busy during the emergency. We filed a series of habeas of the Syedna and his nominees. 0n the threat of Baraat [social boycott] corpus petitions for the release of those who had been detained and the resulting grave disabilities, Bohras are prevented from reading periodicals which are censored by the Syedna (such as the Bombay Samachar, under the law of preventive detention and also for securing the Blitz and the Bohra Bulletin); from establishing charitable institutions certain rights for them, such as having visitors and correspond- like orphanages, dispensaries, libraries, etc. without the prior permission of ing with their relatives and friends. We were also engaged in the Syedna except by submitting to such conditions as he may impose; from challenging censorship orders issued against various newspapers contesting elections to municipal and legislative bodies without securing and periodicals. This work was carried on almost daily beforehand the blessings of the Syedna; and above all, from having any social contact with a person subjected to Baraat, even if the person is one's throughout the emergency period. We also held conferences husband, wife, brother, sister, father or son" (The Nathwani Commission and meetings in defense of civil liberties wherever possible, Report [Ahmedabad, 1973], p. 133). •

Summer 1986 53 Thunder and Lightning (1745), accordingly advised his readers to seek refuge from storms anywhere except in or around a church. Had not lightning struck only the The Revolt Against the churches ringing bells during the terrific storm in lower Brittany on Good Friday, Lightning Rod 1718? The first major blow against these bib- lical superstitions about storms and lightning was struck in 1752, when Benjamin Franklin made his famous electrical experiments with a kite. The second and fatal blow was struck later in the same year when he invented the Al Seckel and John Edwards lightning rod. "One would think," wrote Franklin, "it was now time to try some other trick [to protect churches and homes];—and review of early opposition to the light- powers of the air."2 ours is recommended."6 With Franklin's ning rod is of interest because we may A sixteenth-century account of a bell A scientific explanations of lightning, the ques- see how religious prejudice tends to prevent consecration relates how the Bishop "sayde tion that had so long taxed the minds of the beneficial departures from customary be- certen Psalmes, [and together, wherwith he world's leading theologians, namely, "Why havior, even when there is evidence that the washet the belle diligently both within and should the Almighty strike his own conse- without, after wypeth it drie, and with holy tradition-bound practices are useless or even crated temples, or suffer Satan to strike oyle draweth in it the signe dangerous. of the crosse, them?" could finally be answered. Another and prayeth God, that whan they shall rynge For centuries Protestant and Catholic question could also be answered in any churches, basing their teachings on various or sounde that bell, all the disceiptes of the reasonable discussion about the objects of texts in the Bible, taught that the air was devyll may vanyshe away, hayle, thondryng, the divine wrath "Why would God's punish- filled with devils, demons, and witches. The lightening, wyndes, and tempestes, and all ment be directed so much at large trees, untemperate weathers may be aswaged." great Christian scholar Saint Augustine held 3 which no reasonable person could accuse of this belief to be beyond controversy. Saint (The idea of ringing church bells to dissipate sin." Thomas Aquinas stated in his authoritative tempests probably had its origins in "sym- Since thunder and lightning were con- Summa Theologica: "Rain and winds, and pathetic magic" in that storms, which are sidered tokens of God's displeasure, it was whatsoever occurs by local impulse alone, noisy disturbances in the atmosphere (pro- considered impious to prevent their doing can be caused by demons. It is a dogma of duced by demons or the "powers of the air") full damage. John Adams noted in his diary faith that the demons can produce winds, are supposed to be counteracted by creating a conversation with a Bostonian physician storms, and rain of fire from heaven."' similar noisy disturbances in the air.) who began to "prate upon the presumption Martin Luther asserted that the winds them- Unfortunately, all these efforts were to of philosophy in erecting iron rods to draw selves are only good or evil spirits and de- no avail. The priests ought to have prayed the lightning from the clouds. He railed and clared that a stone thrown into a certain for the bell-ringers who were frequently elec- foamed against the points and the presump- pond in his native city would cause a dread- trocuted while ringing the blessed bells. The tion that erected them. He talked of presum- ful storm because of the devils kept prisoner church tower, usually the highest structure ing upon God, as Peter had attempted to there. Even as recently as 1984, when the in the village or town, was the building most walk upon the water, and of attempting to beautiful York Minster Cathedral was de- often hit, while the brothels and gambling control the artillery of heaven."7 This was stroyed by lightning, conservative ministers houses next door were left untouched. In despite the fact that in Germany, within a claimed that God did it in anger over the 1786 the Parliament of Paris even went so span of thirty-three years, nearly 400 towers recent appointment of a liberal bishop. far as to issue an edict "to the many deaths were damaged and 120 bell-ringers killed. Christian churches tried to ward off the it caused to those pulling the ropes."4 Several In Switzerland, France, and Italy popular damaging effects of storms and lightning by cities in Europe followed suit and declared prejudice against the lightning rod was ig- saying prayers, consecrating church bells, the practice of ringing church bells illegal nited and fueled by the churches and resulted sprinkling holy water, and burning witches. during storms, not so much to save lives, it in the tearing down of lightning rods from Lengthy rites were held for the consecration must be admitted, but to abate noise. many homes, including one from the Insti- of bells, and priests prayed that their sound One eyewitness to the damaging effects tute of Bologna, the leading scientific institu- might "temper the destruction of hail and of lightning recorded: "Little by little we tion in Italy. The Swiss philosopher Horace cyclones and the force of tempests and light- took in what happened. A bolt of lightning de Saussure had erected a rod on his house ning; check hostile thunders and great winds; had struck the tower, partly melting the bell in Geneva in 1771, which had caused so and cast down the spirits of storms and the and electrocuting the priest; afterwards, con- much anxiety to his neighbors that he feared tinuing, [it had shattered] a great part of a riot. A lightning rod erected on June 15, Al Seckel has contributed articles to Free- the ceiling, had passed behind the mistress, 1754, on the house of Procopius Divis lasted thought Today and various publications of whom it deprived of sensibility, and, after untouched for six years, until the villagers Atheists United. He is also the editor of destroying a picture of the Savior hanging tore it down in 1760. Apparently the initial Bertrand Russell on God and Religion upon the wall, had disappeared through the cause of the hostility was a great drought (Prometheus Books). John Edwards is an floor..... that was attributed to the malign influence environmental scientist with the Air Force Peter Ahlwardts, the author of Reason- of the rod. and a freethinker. able and Theological Considerations about A 1780-1784 lawsuit over lightning rods

54 FREE INQUIRY gave M. de Vissery the right to have a light- church below, and the processions in the ning rod on top of his house in St. Orner adjacent square, the tower was frequently despite the religious objections of his neigh- damaged and even destroyed by lightning. bors; this victory established the fame of the It was not until 1766, fourteen years after 1986 lawyer in the case, young Robespierre. The Franklin's discovery, that a lightning rod trial was also significant in that the leading was placed upon it; and the tower has not scientists of France were drawn into the fray been struck since. to defend the use of rods. Had the ecclesiastics at the Church of San In America, the Reverend Thomas Prince, Nazaro in Brecia given into repeated urgings HUMANIST pastor of the Old South Church, blamed to install a lightning rod, they might have Franklin and his invention of the lightning averted a terrible catastrophe. The Republic rod for causing the Massachusetts earth- of Venice had stored in the vaults of this quake of 1755. In Prince's sermon on the church several thousand pounds of gun- topic he expressed the opinion that the fre- powder. In 1767, fifteen years after Frank- W>> ~ RLD quency of earthquakes might be due to the lin's discovery, no rod having been placed erection of "iron points invented by the upon the church, it was struck by lightning sagacious Mr. Franklin." He goes on to and the gunpowder exploded. One-sixth of argue that "in Boston more are erected than the city was destroyed, and there were esti- anywhere else in New England, and Boston mates that more than three thousand lives seems to be more dreadfully shaken. Oh! CONGRESS were unnecessarily lost because the priests there is no getting out of the mighty hand had refused to install the "heretical rod." of God. For I cannot believe, that in the Such incidents as these, in all parts of whole town of Boston, where so many iron Europe, had their effect. The ecclesiastical points are erected, there is so much as one formulas for preventing storms and for con- HUMANISTS SAY "YES TO LIFE" person, who is so weak, so ignorant, so secrating bells to protect against lightning The adventure of your life? Come next foolish, or, to say all in one word, so athe- and tempests were still allowed to be prac- summer to Norway, where 17 percent istical, as ever to have entertained a single ticed in the churches; but the lightning rod of the population are Humanists, in thought, that it is possible, by the help of a carried the day. There is no way of telling spite of the State Church and a few yards of wire, to 'get out of the mighty when church bells were last rung for the Christian-based constitution. hand of God.' "s purpose of abating storms. There are proba- The International Humanist and Ethi- To quiet the Charleston populace who bly still some isolated communities where cal Union is holding its 9th World were alarmed at the possibility of incurring the practice is still conducted. Christian Congress at the University of Oslo, divine wrath as a result of erecting lightning August 3-7, 1986. Lecturers of churches were finally obliged to confess the rods, the South Carolina and American worldwide reputation. Discussions. practical supremacy of the lightning rod and General Gazette suggested "raising lightning Post-congress tours. Write: the few theologians who stuck to the old rods to the glory of God."9 theories and fumed against the rods and • Human Ethical Association It took many years for scientists to con- Franklin's attempts to "control the artillery of Norway vince the priests to attach a lightning rod to of heaven" were finally silenced, like the P.O. Box 2870 TOyen the spire of St. Bride's Church in London, N-0608 Oslo 6, Norway lightning, by the supremacy of the scientific even though it had been destroyed by light- method. ning several times. The priests' refusals prompted the following comment in a letter from Professor John Winthrop of Harvard Notes JOIN THE IHEU University to Franklin: "How astonishing is the force of prejudice even in an age of so I. Andrew D. White, A History of the War- Individual Membership fare of Science with Theology in Christendom much knowledge and free inquiry. It is $25.00 per year (New York: George Braziller, 1955), p. 337. amazing to me, that after the full demon- 2. John Heilbron, Electricity in the Seven- Lifetime Membership stration you have given . . . they should teenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Los Angeles: $300.00 or more even think of repairing that steeple without University of California Press, 1979), p. 341. such conductors." '9 3. Bernard 1. Cohen, "Prejudice Against the NAME In Austria, the Church of Rosenburg was Introduction of Lightning Rods," in Journal of struck so frequently, and with such loss of the Franklin Institute, 253. no. 5 (May 1952), p. STREET life, that the peasants feared to attend 395. services. Several times the spire had to be 4. Ibid., p. 421. CITY rebuilt. It was not until 1778, twenty-six 5. Ibid., p. 400. 6. Bernard I. Cohen, Benjamin Franklin's STATE ZIP years after Franklin's discovery, that the Experiments (Cambridge: Harvard University Send check or money order payable to church authorities finally gave in and per- Press, 1941), p. 395. "CODESH-IHEU" (U.S. funds) to CODESH, Box 5, Buffalo, NY 14215-0005. mitted a rod to be attached. Then all the 7. Andrew D. White, op. cit., p. 366. trouble ceased. 8. Bernard I. Cohen, "Prejudice Against the A typical case was the tower of St. Mark's Introduction of Lightning Rods," op. cit., p. 433. IHEU members receive International Humanism magazine with news of over thirty humanist in Venice. In spite of the angel at its summit, 9. Ibid., p. 425. groups worldwide. If you are only interested in the bells consecrated to ward off the devils 10. Bernard I. Cohen, Benjamin Franklin's receiving the magazine, a one-year subscrip- and witches in the air, the holy relics in the Experiments, op. cit., p. 393. • tion is $8.50.

Summer 1986 55 across the face of optimism. There, the Viewpoints Reverend Charles E. Curran, a popular theologian, has been ordered by the Vatican Vatican Eyes Tighter Control of to retract his liberal teachings on sexual ethics or be stripped of the right to teach theology. Catholic Colleges Fired in 1967 for his radical views and reinstated only after a campus-wide strike, Tom Flynn, editor, Secular Humanist Bulletin Curran made the news again a year later when he collected the signatures of six hun- he Roman Catholic church's Congrega- university must protect academic freedom dred prominent Catholic educators and Ttion for Catholic Education (CCE) has and judicial due process for faculty, have churchmen for an open letter that criticized adopted a proposal that would give local non-discriminatory policies toward students the papal birth-control encyclical, Humanae bishops broad power over the teaching and and faculty, and recognize the legal Vitae. Since then, he has taught that operations of Catholic colleges and universi- autonomy ... of boards of trustees. A col- divorced Catholics should be allowed to ties in order to ensure their "doctrinal in- lege or university cannot relinquish such remarry within the church, that abortion and tegrity." The Association of Catholic Col- basic characteristics without losing its status sterilization may be justified in certain cases, leges and Universities (ACCU) has con- in American civil and constitutional law." that premarital sex may sometimes be moral, demned the proposal and termed it unwork- Specifically, the presidents noted that the and that even homosexual acts may be de- able. 235 Catholic colleges and universities in the fensible if the partners share a permanent The proposed changes, which CCE en- United States are almost all chartered by commitment. dorsed last year, are designed to preserve the the states in which they are located, governed Some Catholic educators are alarmed orthodoxy of Catholic colleges and universi- by independent boards of trustees, and ac- that the Vatican has only now chosen to ties by placing them under the "external credited by secular organizations. Further, censure Curran although he has espoused ecclesiastical control" of local bishops. Insti- most of them receive state and federal funds controversial views for many years. Other tutions would be required to teach and in the form of direct grants and student prominent and radical contemporary theolo- defend accepted church doctrine. Instructors loans. The signers further warned that gians have been silenced, from West Ger- who did not exhibit "rightness of life" would ecclesiastical control over faculty hirings, many's Hans Küng and Holland's Edward be discharged. Bishops would control the curriculum content, and policies governing Schillebeeckx to Brazil's Leonardo Boff. But hiring and firing of teachers in such fields as non-Catholic students would violate Curran is the first American in recent years theology, philosophy, and canon law. church-state separation and equal-opportun- to face an ultimatum from the Vatican's American cleric William Cardinal Baum, ity laws, forcing government to curtail an Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. who heads the CCE, requested reactions estimated $500 million in aid and perhaps Many American Catholics are more from Catholic bishops and educators around costing some institutions critically important comfortable with the teachings of Curran the globe; almost unanimously, American accreditation. "Few, if any" Catholic learning than with those of church hardliners like Catholic educators have reacted negatively. centers "could long survive under such cir- Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger. That is why ACCU has become the principal channel cumstances," they wrote. Chicago-based Joseph Cardinal Bernardin of dissent. Its statement pointed to the Brother Patrick Ellis, who heads both has implored both Ratzinger and the pope unusual position that United States Catholic ACCU and Philadelphia's La Salle College, to seek an accommodation with Curran— colleges and universities occupy and warned has told the press that he is "optimistic" which the hierarchs have so far refused to that ecclesiastical control would undermine that the Vatican will either shelve, or dras- do. The fear is that actions like the at- secular requirements for academic freedom tically alter, the CCE proposal in the face tempted repression of Curran—or the insti- and the equal treatment of students and of American opposition. However, a related tution of ecclesiastical control over Catholic faculty that are required in this country. The development at Washington, D.C.'s Catholic higher education—will further alienate signers, 110 presidents of Catholic higher University, which has always been under American Catholics, who have already educational institutions, observed that "the ecclesiastical control, casts stark shadows learned that the Vatican can be disobeyed. •

department "is apparently lower than num- A Dangerous Precedent bers found in the theology departments of comparable institutions," Judge John Rey- nolds, in February 1986, dismissed the law- Marjorie Reiley Maguire, Catholic feminist and theologian suit on First Amendment grounds, arguing that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of hould a Catholic university be exempt department of the defendant institution. 1964 does not give courts jurisdiction over Sfrom judicial review of its hiring prac- Humanists, civil libertarians, and jurists hiring decisions made by religious institu- tices? That is the key question in a sex- may be tempted to answer the question in tions. He claimed that it would "impermissi- discrimination lawsuit against Marquette the affirmative. That was also the conclusion bly entangle government with religion" if University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The of the federal judge who heard the case. the court determined that discrimination had question becomes even more complicated in Without even considering the merits of the occurred and ordered a theology department this particular case because the alleged discrimination charges and while admitting at a Catholic university to hire a plaintiff. discrimination occurred in the theology that the number of women employed by the In his decision the judge ignored the

56 FREE INQUIRY fact that the government was already "en- that it was "an institution which, in the Catholic hierarchy's position on abortion. tangled" with Marquette University because Jesuit tradition, provides a Catholic setting The court agreed, ruling that the exemption this partially publicly supported university for liberal education." The university argued to Title VII applied to Marquette Univer- relies on federal and state monies for a sub- that this character, heritage, and tradition sity's theology department, even though the stantial portion of its operating budget. constituted certain "promises" that legiti- judge also stated that the determination of Moreover, the government is already "en- mated its practice of "Jesuit preference" in who is a member of a particular religion "is tangled" with the university's theology de- hiring, a practice articulated in Marquette's for religious authorities and not for the partment because it requires every under- government-approved affirmative-action government to decide." graduate student (except majors in dental plan. Since six of the sixteen hirings being This case establishes dangerous legal hygiene) to take six to nine hours of theology contested by the plaintiff concerned the precedents that should alarm all humanists, courses prior to graduation. The judge also preferential hiring of Jesuits, Marquette civil libertarians, and jurists. It permits an ignored Marquette's legal status, which sought the court's dismissal of that portion institution to receive public funds and yet changed its statutes in 1970 and became a of the lawsuit and a limitation of the lawsuit be exempt from judicial review. It allows a private, independent institution no longer to only a few of the remaining ten instances university theology department to practice owned by the Catholic church or the Jesuits. involving the hiring of non-Jesuit, white, indoctrination rather than education, since It is now operated by a board of twenty- male, Catholic laymen. The court looked it removes all sanctions for failing to meet nine trustees, eight of whom are Jesuits. The at Marquette's "character" and "promises" acceptable academic standards. Thus it im- university made this legal change, as did rather than its legal status and dismissed the plicitly supports subsidizing religious indoc- most other Catholic colleges and universities, entire lawsuit. trination with government funds. The deci- so that it would be eligible for public The case was further complicated since sion allows the courts to decide whether a funding. Marquette argued that, because it was an person is a member of a particular religion, Marquette University had publicly stated institution with a religious "character" and even though that person has not been ejected that it was not a religiously owned institution "tradition," it had the right to claim as a by his or her own religious group. Moreover, and that its theology department follows legal defense for discrimination the exemp- it denies people "free exercise of religion" accepted standards of academic freedom. It tion to Title VII allowed to religious groups by refusing to judge disputes of a civil nature was willing to go to trial on the question of in the case of hiring employees "of a particu- in cases in which the defendant and plaintiff discrimination. lar religion." Although 1, the plaintiff, am a are both of the same religion and one party However, Marquette did request partial Catholic theologian in good standing in the claims a religious exemption from the law. summary judgment. It claimed that, while it Catholic church and share the "heritage" and Finally, the decision reinforces the claim that was not legally tied to the Catholic church, "tradition" of the defendant institution, discrimination is not a grave enough threat it had a "religious, Catholic character," a Marquette claimed that the exemption per- to the common good to permit the govern- "heritage and destiny as a Christian and mitted it not to consider me for a faculty ment to prohibit a religious institution from Catholic witness in higher education," and position because I dissented from the practicing it. • Sleeping in Peace B. F. Skinner

he Holy Father was finding it hard to do? Recant? Unthinkable! 1f the church weather was fine. Thousands of the curious Tto sleep. Memories of his trip to were to admit error in a doctrine that it and faithful filled a great city square. The Africa were troubling him. There seemed had so stoutly defended, many real truths pope blessed them and asked them to pray to be no defense against the visions of would be swept away. for those who were now starving, and to walking skeletons with their arms reaching The Holy Father slipped out of bed pray especially for the untold millions who out in an appeal for help, or the visions of and knelt as he had as a child. "Tell me, O would be born to die in the same way. children with broomstick arms and legs Lord," he prayed, "tell me what I should Then, like a boy reciting a bit of the cate- who were too weak to reach out. Surely do. Have mercy on the millions who will chism he did not understand, he said: something was wrong. The good Lord had be born to starve, as I have seen so many "Contraception is wrong. Abortion is not filled a country with millions of starv- starve, unless something is done." Tears wrong." He was silent for a moment. Then ing people just so the Roman Catholic wet his cheeks as he waited for the answer. he blessed the people again, turned, and church could bring a few of them to Him. Suddenly it came, with a brilliance that quickly left. A loving God would never do that. Surely illuminated the room. That night he knelt again by his bed. the Holy Father—the church—had misun- The next morning he called his aides: "Forgive me, O Lord," he prayed, "for I derstood. It could not be right to be fruit- They were to arrange another trip to Africa have sinned. I have borne false witness. I ful and multiply under all circumstances. as soon as possible. He would go to a have told a lie. But I have told it at such a As insistently as the vision came so did country in which the population would time and in such a place that the world a name. It was the name of another man double in, say, a quarter of a century. He will know the truth. Thy will be done." He of God, but one who had fallen away from would speak to the people. The media were crept into bed and folded his hands on his the true faith. The name was Malthus. to be alerted. It would be an especially breast. The peace of God fell gently upon Could he have heard the Lord correctly? important statement. him. The Holy Father slept. • And, if he had, what was the Holy Father God smiled on the occasion and the

Summer 1986 57 Books (p. 67). The highest kind of life goes beyond conventional values and seeks what is the Defending Humanistic Ethics natural human good by exercising to the fullest the rational faculty. Taylor also defends Aristotle's account Konstantin Kolenda of a proud man, often ridiculed by philoso- Ethics, Faith, and Reason, by Richard right and wrong, thus transforming the phers (Bertrand Russell, for instance, in his Taylor (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice- original customary ethics into an ethics of History of Western Philosophy). Pride is not Hall, 1985), 128 pp., paper $9.95. duty to God. to be identified with arrogance, conceit, What Taylor finds regrettable is that vanity, egoism, or egotism but rather with a n Ethics, Faith, and Reason, Professor this shift has eclipsed or pushed aside the sober, realistic self-approbation and self- I Taylor eloquently defends humanistic admirable ethics of aspiration. "The modern respect, based on a correct opinion of one's ethics and returns to the great moralists of age, more or less repudiating the idea of a real worth. In a sense, the virtue of pride is classical antiquity. He credits them with pro- divine lawgiver, has nevertheless tried to a summation of all virtues, and a specimen viding us with the ethics of aspiration, in retain the ideas of moral right and wrong, of aspiration. which the virtues of personal excellence, of not noticing that, in casting God aside, they One may wonder whether Taylor is right legitimate pride, and of rational fulfillment have also abolished the conditions of in accusing modern philosophers who treat are defended and celebrated as worthy of meaningfulness for moral right and wrong the sense of duty as an essential ingredient governing human behavior. Taylor contrasts as well," he writes (p. 3). "Extolling reason, of morality of basing it on religious con- this set of ideals with the ethics of duty, philosophers nevertheless cling to basic ideas siderations. Kant's moral theory, for in- according to which not the natural human derived from religion, at the same time stance, may not deserve Taylor's criticism. needs but the alleged will of a supreme divine repudiating the religious framework that The source of the Categorical Imperative is lawgiver is supposed to guide human actions. gives those ideas meaning" (p. 27). an explicitly human capacity to be rational, The distinction between right and wrong is The heart of Taylor's book is his spirited to be governed by rules of which oneself is perfectly at home in our discourse and plays defense of the ethics of aspiration, laying a colegislator. From a theological point of an important role in articulating the conven- out in simple and vivid language particular view Kant was doing something distinctly tions by means of which a society regulates contributions to the articulation of the class- heretical when he concluded that morality the behavior of its members and forbids ical ideal. Among those contributions, that is not dependent on religion. Rather, he harmful or dangerous actions. But, by of Aristotle stands out. Taylor takes a clear believed, the sense of religiousness depends attributing the origination of these regula- stand on one controversial point regarding on taking seriously the autonomy of tions not to concrete human communities the relation of intellectual to moral virtues. morality. but to a transcendent divine source, religion In contrast to other commentators, he does Aside from such admittedly controver- has introduced an abstract notion of moral not see the advocacy of rational and con- sial points of interpretation regarding the templative life "as a kind of afterthought or theories of great moralists, the contents of this clear and perspicuous defense of Konstantin Kolenda is McManis Professor postscript, something superfluous added to of Philosophy at Rice University. the main themes of the book [Nichomachean humanistic ethics are likely to inspire in- Ethics]" but as "the culmination of the work" terested readers. •

A Mormon University matters, he was dispatched on an overseas assignment; but this tack usually only de- layed a real solution. As a result, Brigham Vern L. Bullough Young University faculty members in the clearly unauthorized history, Gary James past few decades have found themselves Brigham Young University: A House of Bergera and Ronald Priddis focus on the unable to discuss such topics as evolution, Faith, by Gary James Bergera and Ronald interference of individuals who claimed masturbation, communism, civil rights, Priddis (Salt Lake City: Signature Books, divine authority in order to fire professors, feminism, and any number of other subjects, 1985), 513 pp. censor classes, forbid outside speakers who except in a condemnatory way, inside or do not conform to certain molds, and en- often even outside the classroom. s it possible for a university whose pri- courage faculty and students to spy on their Although one of the principles of Mor- mary mission is to preserve the faith to I nonconforming fellows. monism is that the "Glory of God is intelli- also serve as a major intellectual institution Interestingly, the Mormon Church itself gence," the university has often demonstrated whose role is to challenge students to think? has officially taken a hands-off attitude a real fear of thinking. Probably the height If Brigham Young University, the third- toward the university, at least in recent times. of this was reached in the fifties and sixties largest private university in the country, is Still, many of the more conservative mem- under the presidency of Ernest L. Wilkinson, any example, the answer is no. In Brigham bers of the Mormon hierarchy felt it was a former lawyer who regarded his right-wing Young University: A House of Faith, a their divine right to interfere, to issue edicts reactionary views as sanctioned by divine Vern L. Bullough is dean of natural and on subjects about which they knew nothing, authority. He knew little or nothing about social sciences at the State University of and to use their authority to imply they had running an academic institution and appar- New York College at Buffalo. official sanction. Sometimes, when a Mor- ently never acquired any appreciation for mon went too far in his criticism of academic the academies of learning while he was head

58 FREE INQUIRY

of the university. He set professor to spy upon professor, manipulated the curriculum, established an organization of student spies FREE INQUIRY Conferences (which he officially denied doing), hired faculty members without the approval of the on Audio Tape Now Available! appropriate departments, inspected faculty Religion in American Politics tithing records, and refused to entertain any National Press Club, Washington, D.C. — March 16, 1983 "new" ideas, such as academic tenure or Session #1—S8.95—"The Secular Roots of the American Political System"; Paul Kurtz, faculty organizations. Instead, he concen- Robert Rutland, Henry Steele Commager, Daniel J. Boorstin, Richard Morris, Michael trated on building up the athletic pro- Novak. grams—even to the extent of hiring non- Luncheon—S6.95—"The Bible or the Constitution": Senator Lowell P. Weicker, Jr. Mormon coaches and players—and imple- Session #2—S8.95—"The Bible and Politics": Gerald Larue, Sam J. Ervin, Leo Pfeffer, menting much new construction on the Robert Alley, James Robinson, A. E. Dick Howard. campus. Complete set 526.50 (10% savings). However, professors with grievances Armageddon and Biblical Apocalyptic : Are We Living in the Last Days? often won their cases if they were able to University of Southern California, Los Angeles Campus appeal to the president of the Mormon February 27, 1984 Church or attract national publicity for their Session #1—S8.95—"Doomsday Prophecies," Paul Kurtz; "The Nature of Apocalyptic cases. Wilkinson's worst abuses were finally Thinking," Randel Helms; "Apocalypse Macabre: Evangelism's Ultimate Obscenity," brought to a halt by national accrediting Joseph E. Barnhart. teams who imposed at least some conditions Session #2—S8.95—"Dimensions of Apocalyptic Thinking," Gerald A. Larue; "The to protect academic freedom. Bible as an Engine of American Foreign Policy," Robert Alley; "Isaiah and Christian- Since Wilkinson left, Brigham Young ity," Michael Arnheim; "The Gospel Time-Bomb," Lowell D. Streiker. University has had far more academically Complete set 519.00 (10% savings). qualified administrators, but other changes Jesus in History and Myth have come slowly. The university's strongest University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Campus — April 19 and 20, 1985 departments academically are physical sci- Session #1—S8.95—"Introduction," Paul Kurtz. "Jesus in History," R. Joseph Hoff- ences and engineering, perhaps because the mann, G. A. Wells, Morton Smith, George Mendenhall, Paul Beattie, Robert Alley. pursuit of these disciplines is unlikely to raise Session #2—S8.95—"Historical Problems," Vern Bullough, John Allegro, David Noel issues that would trouble the Mormon Freedman, John Dart, Ellis Rivkin, Tikva Frymer-Kensky. Church. There are a number of well-trained Session #3—S8.95—"The Apocryphal Jesus, the Gospel Tradition, and the Develop- scholars in other subjects—a few with ment of Christology," Gerald Larue, Randel Helms, Robert M. Grant, R. Joseph national reputations—but success often goes Hoffmann, Rowan Greer. to those who can obfuscate, obscure, and Session #4—S8.95—"Theological and Philosophical Implications," Delos B. McKown, Antony Flew, Van Harvey, John Hick. ignore those ideas it is not permissible to Banquet—S6.95—Gerald Larue and Paul Kurtz. think about. Many of the best teachers soon leave the university, although a few dedicated Complete set 539.00 (10% savings). ones remain. Many of the out-of-state stu- dents who go to the university to find a FREE INQUIRY Conference Tapes Order Form Mormon spouse leave after they have done so, to be educated elsewhere. Please send me the following: If this unauthorized history has any Religion & Politics Biblical Apocalyptic message for those Mormons who would like Session #1 $8.95 D Session #1 $8.95 to change Brigham Young University, it is o Luncheon $6.95 o Session #2 $8.95 to make the school's problems public. By o Session #2 S8.95 o Complete Set S19.00 o Complete Set S26.50 exposing some of the university's dirty linen (along with offering some praise), Bergera Jesus in History and Myth and Priddis probably have done more to D Session #1 $8.95 D Session #4 $8.95 effect change, providing their message D Session #2 $8.95 Banquet $6.95 reaches a wide audience, than other such D Session #3 S8.95 o Complete Set $39.00 books ever do. And there is enough Mormon Add S1.50 per tape for postage and handling. Save 10% by ordering complete sets. pride in excellence for Brigham Young University to become a major intellectual Total S o Check enclosed center if Mormon authorities only under- o Visa o MasterCard stood that a university's real purpose is not Exp to indoctrinate, but to educate; not to con- NAME fine, but to broaden horizons; not to con- (print clearly) demn certain topics as untouchable, but to STREET discuss them; not to put limits on intelli- gence, but to encourage it to grow. A uni- CITY STATE ZIP versity's greatness is not determined either FREE INQUIRY • Box 5 • Buffalo, NY 14215 by its physical size or by the record of its Tele.: 716-834-2921 football team. •

Summer 1986 59

IF YOU DON'T FEEL AT HOME WITH THE RIGHT OR THE LEFT THESE DAYS...

Most magazines like to fit their ■ Question the US role in readers into little boxes. Either NATO—and publish one you're a New Deal liberal who of the few readable arti- worships high taxes or you're cles ever written about a New Right conservative who President Reagan's Star wants to outlaw rock and roll. Wars proposal

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Name Address City State Zip 2023 IN THE NAME OF GOD Fundamentalism in Iran

[An] Iranian court [recently] held that a Muslim driver found guilty of manslaughter Secular Religions Christian "Reconstructionism" in a traffic death did not have to compensate the dead man's survivors because "the victim Too many people who hold to more tradi- Vallecito, Calif.—The predominant philoso- was a member of the misguided and mis- tional religious beliefs, involving recognition phy of the Religious Right is that secular leading Bahai community and is considered of a transcendent moral order and deity, humanism and government bureaucracy an unprotected infidel." fail to recognize that atheism, secular firmly control the nation. But a network of In another case, a court held that a humanism, and everything from Nazism to conservative intellectuals at an influential widow could not collect her husband's life communism are simply secular forms of reli- Christian think tank here believes just the insurance benefits because the family was gious belief. They are repugnant barbarism opposite. not Islamic. A contract with heretics, the to most of us—but they are religions. Leaders of the so-called Christian court said, is not valid and enforceable. Twentieth century realities have forced Reconstruction Movement assert that These are but two recent instances of us into an awareness of the grim holy war humanism is on its last legs. And they say the religious persecution blazing in the Aya- of our time: the effort by the Soviet govern- the popular notion that the state can solve tollah Khomeini's Iran. In both cases, the ment to force the world to convert to its basic human problems is an idea whose time victims were Bahai's, members of an Islamic religion. Communist missionaries, mercifully, has gone. off-shoot which orthodox Muslims regard have made scant inroads into our own "We are in the last days of humanistic as heretical... . society. The same was true with com- statism," declared Rousas John Rushdoony, No religious minority is expected to fare munism's denominational cousin, Nazism. the chief architect of the Reconstructionists well in the country as the drive by funda- But the religion of secular humanism has and president of the Chalcedon Foundation. mentalist Moslems toward "Islamicization" made significant progress in our society. In "Now people regard politicians, the state, achieves its goals.... (Church & State) no small measure, it has bested traditional lawyers—everyone associated with the state denominations by becoming the state reli- apparatus—with the same cynicism that gion, in direct violation of the First Amend- people in 1500 regarded the Catholic ment. And ironically, the members of this Church" (before the Protestant Reforma- Scottish Sabbath faith have exploited a perverted interpreta- tion). tion of the First Amendment to advance The Reconstructionist Movement The Outer Hebrides [are] an austere chain their own religious denomination. Thus, [claims] tens of thousands of active of islands 50 miles off Scotland's rugged while still a minority sect in America, they adherents—many of them leaders in high coast... . have imposed in the public classrooms their positions... . Most [inhabitants] are members of the own religious tenets on the majority of Their unabashed aim is to transform the Free Presbyterian Church, a group which parents and children. (Congressman Philip mainstream of American culture from with- broke from the Calvinist Church of Scotland M. Crane, in Insight, published by the Unifi- in. This can be done, they say, by applying in the 18th Century because of its alleged cation Church) a rigorous system of biblical philosophy to liberalism. The church demands strict ob- "take captive every thought to make it servance of its sabbath and all activity, ex- obedient to Christ" (II Corinthians 10:5). cept church attendance, is banned on Sunday (Los Angeles Times) by law. Demons and Devils That policy, however, finally has come Serving Time in Church under challenge. After a great number of Some super-Christian parents [at Greenway islanders skidded on icy roads in January, High School] want the school's athletic Church attendance is up in west Florida's protests to the Sunday work ban began to mascot, the Green Demon, exorcised. These Holmes County, but the increase isn't due mount. Residents demanded a change in the misguided sorts seem to think inanimate to a rise in religious fervor. In fact, it's due law which forbids government-owned trucks objects possess magical powers, that they to an increase in crime. A judge in that com- to spread salt and sand on the roads from give Satan's minions entry to the school via munity has established a policy of requiring midnight Saturday until Monday morning. the artful representations of a baby faced church attendance for parolees convicted of A hearing by the 30-member All-Island demon hanging about the gym, hallways and crimes related to alcohol, drugs, or family Council produced mixed results... . offices. . abuse. The council, for the time being, is taking Belief in demons is also a psychologically The unusual policy has come under fire a middle route. Road crews will be allowed satisfying way of avoiding personal respons- from civil libertarians... . to operate on Sunday if called by the police ibility. If "the devil made me do it, " then I Judge Brown, a deacon in the First Bap- officials or medical personnel "in an emer- can't be held responsible for my actions; or tist Church of Bonifay, said he orders pro- gency." those of my child, or spouse, or society. bationers to attend the church of their choice Even that limited concession was too What a tyranny it must be to go through at least once a week. He said the practice much for one church elder. "It will prove life feeling besieged by green demons and gives participants needed spiritual help, alco- the thin edge of the wedge that ushers in a red devils. (Richard Lessner, in the Arizona hol counseling and sometimes direct aid such godless Sabbath," he said.... (Church & Republic) as food and clothing.... (Church & State) State)

Summer 1986 61 (Letters, Continued from p. 4) experience the supernatural in the way they taire, Paley, and many others. The starting The Legacy of Voltaire experience the phenomenal, ways that are point of the argument is a statement about freely testable and verifiable. God/gods are the relations between the watch and the Enjoyable as Paul Edwards's article "The fabrications of human imaginings, and these watchmaker or, more generally, between Legacy of Voltaire, Part II" (FI, Fall 1985) imaginings have been attempts to design machines and their human producers. From was as a whole, one section of a priori argu- complex concepts to answer questions about this premise we can never advance to a ment seems to overlook a fundamental what have seemed to be metaphysical prob- superhuman being without a body who cre- metaphysical distinction. Edwards argues as lems: ultimate origins, ultimate destiny, ates biological structures out of nothing. We to what a God could/could not do in various wonder-inspiring inexplicables of could do this only if human machine-makers fashioning anything like a blueprint in everyday living, etc. had no bodies and if they made their "making eyes and ears and whole animals" Edwards overlooks the fact that, once machines out of nothing. and thus overlooks the philosophico-logical you posit such an imaginary entity as God, Mr. Hubbell suggests that we would be principle: Rules applying to behavior in the with the defined/described characteristics entitled to infer a supernatural "co-cause" phenomenal world cannot legitimately be and attributes, you have gone beyond the of biological entities if "natural causes" had extended to a wholly different universe of way things have to happen in the human been shown to be insufficient. This calls for discourse, the supposed world of the super- phenomenal universe—You're in the realm two comments. First, we could never be sure natural. Extending such concepts as cause/ of "magic," where anything is possible. God that natural causes are insufficient. The most effect balanced-equation (mathematical or can do anything without means or even we could know is that they have not been quasi-mathematical) as regulative of what without considering phenomenal constraints discovered. However, even if we could know can and cannot occur in. the realm of the or existential conditions. God is the Cosmic that natural causes are insufficient, it would supernatural is a categorical mistake. All that Magician personified. not follow that there is a supernatural co- humans have learned has been the result of The elements and modes of action of the cause. There is the third alternative that the human experience in the universe of phe- process are natural things. But the con- phenomena in question are uncaused or nomena, of the humanly experienceable. The tinuing of this process, the continuity of inexplicable. I do not find this alternative entire realm of the supernatural is a creation existence itself, is supposedly caused and particularly appealing, but it has several of the human imagination—which is not to controlled by the divine will. Even the modes advantages over bringing God into the pic- say that it is all fallacious. Much of the of action are controlled by this will. All this ture. Since there is no reason to suppose finest work in science and art is the result of follows from the complex concept of God that natural causes are insufficient, we are imagination: Einstein certainly imagined as created by human imagination, at least fortunately not faced with a choice between relativity theory before he precisely worked in the philosophico-religious ideologies we these two views. it out. But the point is that humans do not are here concerned with. Question: If the situation is as though there is a God who some of the time— Steadfast Activist at 84 indeed, most of the time—produces effects CLASSIFIED by CORLISS LAMONT according to a putative ideal pattern (this is RATES A New Basic Pamphlet, No. 24 itself a most problematic concept), but some of the time defectively deviates from such Per word (single insertion) Dr. Lamont, author, educator, philosopher, pattern, how does one differentiate what 10-word minimum 70 cents and staunch fighter for civil liberties, human- happens from what it would be like if just 10% discount for placement in 3 con- ism, and peace, reviews his long life. 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Special prices on bulk orders: 10 copies $3.50; 20 copies $6.50; 50 copies or more, 40% discount. C. L. Hubbell Enclosed Is my check for $ Chicago, Ill. ASSOCIATIONS Please send copy (copies) of Basic Learn about Atheist freethought and activism Pamphlet, No. 24 in the Midwest. FREE Information. Write INDEPENDENT ATHEISTS, Box 4123, Oak Paul Edwards replies: Park, IL 60303-4123. Name C. L. Hubbell's criticism is based on a mis- BERTRAND RUSSELL SOCIETY. Informa- Address understanding. I do not dispute that an infi- tion: FI, RD1, Box 409, Coopersburg, PA 18036. nite God could do "anything whatever with- City out means or even without considering phe- "EVANGELICAL AGNOSTICISM!" nomenal constraints." My point was that Free information and logo. SEA, Box 515fi, Auberry, CA 93602. e State Zip such a God could not be extracted from the design argument as it is formulated by Vol- JOHN ALLEGR0 S0CIETY. $10 "Introduc-

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Summer 1986 63 The Academy of Humanism The Academy of Humanism was established to recognize distinguished humanists and disseminate humanistic ideals and beliefs. The members of the Academy, listed below, are nontheists who are (1) devoted to free inquiry in all fields of human endeavor, (2) committed to a scientific outlook and the use of the scientific method in acquiring knowledge, and (3) upholders of humanist ethical values and principles. The Academy's goals include furthering respect for human rights and freedom and the dignity of the individual, tolerance of various viewpoints and willingness to compromise, commitment to social justice, a universalistic perspective that transcends national, ethnic, religious, sexual, and racial barriers, and belief in a free and open pluralistic and democratic society.

Humanist Laureates: Isaac Asimov, author; Sir Alfred J. Ayer, fellow of Wolfson College, 0xford University; Brand Blanshard, Sterling Professor Emeritus of Philosophy, Yale University; Sir Hermann Bondi, professor of applied mathematics, King's College, University of London; Mario Bunge, Frothingham Professor of Foundations and Philosophy of Science, McGill University; Bernard Crick, professor of politics, Birkbeck College, University of London; Francis Crick, Nobel Laureate in Physiology, Salk Institute; Joseph Delgado, professor and chairperson in the Department of Neuropsychiatry, University of Madrid; Milovan Djilas, author, former vice-president of Yugoslavia; Sir Raymond Firth, professor emeritus of anthropology, University of London; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, professor emeritus of medical ethics, University of Virginia Medical School; Yves Galifret, professor of physiology at the Sorbonne and director of l'Union Rationaliste; John Galtung, professor of sociology, University of Oslo; Stephen Jay Gould, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University; Adolf Grünbaum, professor of philosophy, University of Pittsburgh; Alberto Hidalgo, president of the Sociedad Asturiana de Filosofia, 0viedo, Spain; Donald Johanson, Institute of Human 0rigins; Franco Lombardi, professor of philosophy, University of Rome; Jolé Lombardi, organizer of the New University (laic) for the Third Age; André Lwolff, Nobel Laureate in Physiology and professor of science, College de France; Paul MacCready, Kremer Prize winner for aeronautical achievements; Jean-Claude Pecker, professor of astrophysics, College de France, Academie des Sciences; Sir Karl Popper, professor emeritus of logic and scientific method, University of London; W. V. Quine, professor of philosophy, Harvard University; Max Rood, professor of law and former Minister of Justice in Holland; Carl Sagan, astronomer, Cornell University; Andrei Sakharov, physicist, Nobel Peace Prize winner; Thomas Szasz, professor of psychiatry, State University of New York Medical School (Syracuse); V. M. Tarkunde, chairman, Indian Radical Humanist Association; Richard Taylor, professor of philosophy, Union College; G. A. Wells, professor of German, Birkbeck College, University of London; Edward O. Wilson, professor of sociobiology, Harvard University; Lady Barbara Wootton, former Deputy Speaker, House of Lords. Deceased: George 0. Abell, Ernest Nagel, George 0lincy, Chaim Perelman.

Secretariat: Vern Bullough, dean of natural and social sciences, State University of New York College at Buffalo; Antony Flew, professor of philosophy, Reading University, (England); Sidney Hook, professor emeritus of philosophy, New York University; Paul Kurtz, professor of philosophy, State University of New York at Buffalo, editor of FREE INQUIRY; Gerald Larue, professor emeritus of archaeology and biblical studies, University of Southern California at Los Angeles. Executive Director: Steven L. Mitchell. Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion (CSER) The Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion was developed to examine the claims of Eastern and Western religions and of well- established and newer sects and denominations in the light of scientific inquiry. The Committee is interdisciplinary, including specialists in biblical scholarship, archaeology, linguistics, anthropology, the social sciences, and philosophy who represent differing secular and religious traditions. The only criterion for membership on the Committee is commitment to impartial scholarship and the use of objective methods of inquiry. Gerald Larue (Chairman), professor emeritus of archaeology and biblical studies, University of Southern California at Los Angeles; John Allegro, former lecturer in Near Eastern and 0ld Testament Studies, University of Manchester (England); Robert S. Alley, professor of humanities, University of Richmond; Michael Arnheim, professor of ancient history, University of Witwatersrand (South Africa); Joseph Barnhart, professor of philosophy, North Texas State University; Paul Beattie, president, Fellowship of Religious Humanists; H. James Birx, chairman of Anthropology/ Sociology Department, Canisius College; Vern Bullough, dean of natural and social sciences, State University of New York College at Buffalo; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, professor emeritus of medical ethics, University of Virginia Medical School; Antony Flew, professor of philosophy, Reading University (England); Van Harvey, professor of religion, Stanford University; Sidney Hook, professor emeritus of philosophy, New York University; Paul Kurtz, professor of philosophy, State University of New York at Buffalo; William V. Mayer, director, Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, University of Colorado; Delos McKown, professor of philosophy, Auburn University; Lee Nisbet, associate professor of philosophy, Medaille College; George Smith, president, Signature Books; A. T. Steegman, professor of anthropology, State University of New York at Buffalo; G. A. Wells, professor of German, Birkbeck College, University of London (England); Steven L. Mitchell (ex officio), executive director, Academy of Humanism.

Biblical Criticism Research Project (CSER Subcommittee) The Biblical Criticism Research Project (Subcommittee) was founded to help disseminate the results of biblical scholarship—studies in comparative religion, folklore, scientific archaeology, and literary analysis. It investigates the claim that the Bible is divinely inspired; the historical evidence for Jesus and other Bible personalities; the role of religious myth, symbol, and ritual; and the possibility of basing morality upon reason and experience instead of biblical doctrine. The Research Project's goals include compiling bibliographies of the best sources of information about the Bible, publishing articles and monographs about different facets of biblical research, and convening seminars and conferences. R. Joseph Hoffmann (Chairman), associate professor of biblical studies, University of Michigan; David Noel Freedman, professor of 0ld Testament, University of Michigan; Randel Helms, professor of English, Arizona State University; Robert Joly, professor of philosophy, Centre Interdisciplinaire d'Etudes Philosophiques de l'Universite de Mons (Belgium); Carol Meyers, professor of religion, Duke University; James Robinson, director, Institute for Antiquity and Christianity, Claremont College; John F. Priest, professor and chairman, Department of Religion, Florida State University; Morton Smith, professor of history, Columbia University; Steven L. Mitchell (ex officio), executive director, Academy of Humanism.

Faith-Healing Investigation Project (CSER Subcommittee) David Alexander, Southern California Skeptics; Robert S. Alley, professor of humanities, University of Richmond; Luis W. Alvarez, professor emeritus of physics, University of California ; Stephen Barrett, M.D., consumer health advocate; Dr. Bonnie Bullough, R.N. (dean, School of Nursing, SUNY at Buffalo); Dr. Joseph Fletcher, professor emeritus of medical ethics, Univerity of Virginia Medical School; William Jarvis, chairman, Department of Public Health Science, School of Allied Health Professionals, Loma Linda University, California; Richard H. Lange, M.D., chief of nuclear medicine, Schenectady, N.Y.; Wallace I. Sampson, M.D., Stanford University; Al Seckel, Executive Director, Southern California Skeptics; Robert Steiner, Chairman, Occult Committee, Society of American Magicians; Dr. Rita Swan, President, Childrens' Health Care Is a Legal Duty, Sioux City, Iowa. Coordinating Council: Dr. Paul Kurtz, Gerald Larue, and James Randi, conjurer and principal investigator of the Project.