Videogames, Persuasion & Deceit

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Videogames, Persuasion & Deceit UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA FACULDADE DE CIE NCIAS DEPARTAMENTO DE INFORMA TICA VIDEOGAMES, PERSUASION & DECEIT LUI S MIGUEL SANTOS DUARTE Doutoramento em Informática Especialidade Engenharia Informática 2014 UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA FACULDADE DE CIE NCIAS DEPARTAMENTO DE INFORMA TICA VIDEOGAMES, PERSUASION & DECEIT LUI S MIGUEL SANTOS DUARTE Tese orientada pelo Prof. Doutor Luís Manuel Pinto da Rocha Afonso Carriço, especialmente elaborada para obtenção do grau de DOUTOR em INFORMÁTICA, especialidade ENGENHARIA INFORMÁTICA 2014 DECLARATION This dissertation is the result of my own work and includes nothing, which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except where specifically indicated in the text. It has not been previously submitted, in part or whole, to any university of institution for any degree, diploma, or other qualification. Signed:______________________________________________________________ Date:_____________________15th of July, 2014________________________ ABSTRACT Videogames have grown to be one of the most important forms of entertainment. Designers and developers constantly strive to innovate and include mechanics which provide the best experiences to consumers. Games typically integrate a diversity of instruments and mechanisms (among these, persuasive technology) which attempt to offer players the best experience possible, leading them to a state of optimal experience. The relation between these instruments and their effects on player experience suffer from scarce documentation and empirical sustainment, resulting in a lack of insight regarding how players are affected by them. This thesis documents how we addressed these research opportunities, tied videogames, persuasive technology and players as well as driven existing knowledge about persuasion forward. This research’s goal concerns the gathering of empirical evidence showing that different types of persuasive instruments can be employed in videogames to steer players towards a state of optimal experience. Our analysis focuses exclusively on how these mechanisms impact on the player’s performance and emotional state. In addition to this goal, we explored alternative persuasion strategies which are often disregarded due to existing and preconceived negative coverage – deceit. This effort lead us to cover how deceitful persuasive interventions are designed, in what circumstances they are employed and the relation between them and the videogames domain. Treading throughout these research goals resulted in a set of theoretical and empirical contributions tying both persuasive technology and videogames. We present player experience data supporting the role of persuasive technology in attaining an optimal experience state, addressing both performance and physiological evidence. We also a model, created with the intent of supporting designers and developers in establishing deceitful persuasive interventions. This model is put into practice, allowing us to test and show that deceitful and real persuasive instruments can have equivalent effects on player experience. Keywords: Videogames, Flow, Persuasion, Deceit, Placebo, User Experience, Performance, Physiology i RESUMO Nas últimas décadas, o domínio dos videojogos assumiu um lugar de relevo na indústria do entretenimento. O seu rápido crescimento e expansão muito para além dos dispositivos que eram, tradicionalmente, usados para usufruir deste tipo de entretenimento fizeram deste segmento uma área de negócio extremamente apetecível do ponto de vista do investimento e lucros associados. Para além do factor financeiro, esta área serviu de percussor de tecnologias que hoje em dia encontramos nos mais diversos dispositivos e que melhoraram alguns aspectos do nosso quotidiano. Tal como em muitos outros domínios e, em particular no âmbito de aplicações e sistemas informáticos, o objectivo de um videojogo passa por proporcionar a melhor experiência possível aos jogadores. O conceito de experiência óptima, quer no mundo dos videojogos, quer noutros domínios, está intimamente ligado a um estado psicológico denominado de flow. Baptizado na década de 70, trata-se de um conceito que muitas vezes é estabelecido como sendo uma relação entre o estado emocional de uma pessoa e o seu desempenho, fomentando-se o seu equilíbrio para proporcionar experiências agradáveis. Diversos factores podem fomentar este estado: os desafios inerentes do jogo, a destreza do jogador, o suporte social oferecido ou a existência de recompensas aquando da concretização de determinados objectivos. A forma como estes elementos influenciam um jogador, porém, não é totalmente determinística nem linear. Idealmente, um jogador deveria permanecer num estado de flow. No entanto, no decorrer do mesmo existem flutuações e desvios que, potencialmente, podem fazer com que o jogador peca o interesse, se aborreça, ou simplesmente conclua que a dificuldade do jogo eclipsa as suas capacidades. Os criadores de videojogos usam uma panóplia de instrumentos capazes de mitigar estas situações na tentativa de levar os jogadores a um estado de experiência óptima. O leque de instrumentos disponíveis para potenciar o estado de flow pode ser mais ou menos alargado. No entanto, existe um conjunto particular cujas características enfatiza a sua relevância para este tema: os mecanismos de persuasão. O principal objectivo destes mecanismos consiste na alteração de comportamentos e / ou crenças de um público-alvo. Nos videojogos, os mecanismos persuasivos são usados de forma a prolongar (por vezes, artificialmente) o tempo de vida de um jogo ou de forma a motivar um jogador a melhorar o seu desempenho de forma consistente. Desta forma é possível estabelecer uma relação que une os três temas apresentados: os videojogos integram mecanismos persuasivos que, iii por sua vez, afectam os jogadores de forma a providenciar uma experiência óptima durante o período de jogo. Apesar de ser possível estabelecer esta relação, o conhecimento existente sobre a forma como alguns destes conceitos se relacionam é escasso. Por exemplo, o impacto que diferentes estratégias ou mecanismos persuasivos têm nos jogadores (quer a nível comportamental, quer a nível emocional) não é documentado na literatura existente. Uma análise superficial sobre as características do estado de experiência óptima sugere que este é, tipicamente, atingido a partir de dois estados emocionais distintos: . Estado de excitação – caracterizado por uma batida cardíaca acelerada. Tal efeito pode provir da ansiedade gerada por um grau de dificuldade inerente ao desafio imposto pelo jogo que ultrapassa as capacidades do jogador, fazendo-o(a) sentir-se frustrado(a) por não atingir os seus objectivos. O desempenho também reflecte este mesmo estado, dado que nestas situações este fica aquém do que seria realmente esperado. Estado de relaxamento – o oposto do estado anterior é caracterizado por uma batida cardíaca mais relaxada, também gerada por uma discrepância entre a dificuldade do jogo e as capacidades do jogador. Porém, neste caso, a dificuldade é suficientemente reduzida para que o indivíduo se sinta em pleno controlo dos desafios que lhe são propostos. Reflectindo esta tendência, o desempenho do jogador pode assim ultrapassar aquilo que seria normalmente esperado. Ainda que existam modelos cujo objectivo se centra em identificar que tipo de mecanismos e instrumentos podem ser utilizados para promover um estado de experiência óptima, o verdadeiro impacto que estes exercem na experiência dos utilizadores ainda está por desvendar. Em particular, o efeito da utilização de mecanismos persuasivos que são encontrados em qualquer videojogo não está documentado, dificultando assim não só a compreensão dos mesmos, mas também o desenho adequado de videojogos. Adicionalmente, o tipo de estratégias utilizadas no domínio dos videojogos pode ser considerado algo estanque. As abordagens mais populares envolvem a utilização de mecanismos de retorno, recompensas ou reforço de modo a transmitir um sentimento de progresso aos jogadores. No entanto, existem outras estratégias que foram utilizadas noutros domínios com sucesso. Entre as quais, surge uma que, nos últimos anos, tem gerado algum interesse por parte da comunidade académica: a dissimulação ou engodo. iv Trata-se de uma técnica em que o alvo da persuasão é levado a acreditar num conjunto de conceitos que não são verdadeiros, mas que produzem um efeito persuasivo suficientemente forte para que a pessoa altere o seu comportamento e / ou crenças. Esta abordagem é tipicamente associada a esquemas perversos nos quais os alvos são notoriamente prejudicados. Com o intuito de desmistificar esta conotação negativa, alguns investigadores começaram a explorar a potencialidade desta estratégia ser utilizada com objectivos benevolentes. A dissimulação benevolente mostrou já ter sido bem-sucedida, sendo usada em aplicações online, em procedimentos terapêuticos ou no tratamento de condições de foro psicológico através da administração de medicamentos placebo. A validação se esta estratégia constitui alternativa para o domínio dos videojogos é uma tarefa que ainda se encontra por cumprir. Com base neste panorama, os principais objectivos deste trabalho foram delineados com o intuito de: . Obter um conjunto de provas empíricas relacionando o impacto de diferentes mecanismos persuasivos e o comportamento dos jogadores. Obter um conjunto de dados empíricos que consigam relacionar o impacto de diferentes tipos de mecanismos persuasivos e o seu estado emocional. Averiguar a viabilidade de utilização de
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