Multiple Go to School: Educational Implications of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences Author(s): Howard Gardner and Thomas Hatch Source: Educational Researcher, Vol. 18, No. 8 (Nov., 1989), pp. 4-10 Published by: American Educational Research Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1176460 Accessed: 08/10/2010 18:01

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http://www.jstor.org MultipleIntelligences Go to School Educational Implicationsof the Theory of Multiple Intelligences

HOWARD GARDNER THOMAS HATCH

A new approachto the conceptualizationand assessmentof human intelligencesis de- tinued indefinitely, but, in fact, by the scribed.According to Gardner'sTheory of MultipleIntelligences, each human beingis late 70s, there were signs of a rewaken- capableof seven relativelyindependent forms of informationprocessing, with individuals ing of interest in theoretical and re- differingfrom one anotherin the specificprofile of intelligencesthat they exhibit. The search aspects of . With his rangeof humanintelligences is bestassessed through contextually based, "intelligence- focus on the information-processingas- fair" instruments.Three researchprojects growing out of the theory are described. pects of items in psychological tests, Preliminarydata securedfrom ProjectSpectrum, an applicationin earlychildhood, in- RobertSternberg (1977, 1982, 1985)was dicate that even 4- and 5-year-oldchildren exhibit distinctive profiles of strengthand perhaps the most importantcatalyst for weakness.Moreover, measures of the variousintelligences are largelyindependent and this shift, but researchers from a num- tap abilitiesother than those measuredby standardintelligence tests. ber of different areas of have joined in this rediscovery of the EducationalResearcher, Vol. 18, No. 8, pp. 4-10 centrality of intelligence (Baron, 1985; Brown & Campione, 1986; Dehn & Schank, 1982;Hunt, 1986;Jensen, 1986; swings of the pendulum most seasoned their concerns with a Laboratory of Comparative Human Despitebetween theoretical and applied practicalorientation. Thus Binet (Binet Cognition, 1982; Scarr & Carter- concerns, the concept of intelligence & Simon, 1916) and Terman (1916) de- Salzman, 1982; Snow, 1982). has remained central to the field of veloped the first general-purpose in- The of psychology. In the wake of the Darwi- telligence tests in their respective coun- Theory Multiple Intelligences nian revolution, when scientific tries; Yerkes (Yerkes, Bridges, & Hard- A decade ago Gardner found that his psychology was just beginning, many wick, 1915)and Wechsler(1939) created own research interests were leading scholars became interested in the de- their own influentialinstruments. Even him to a heightened concern with is- velopment of intelligence across spe- scientists with a strong theoreticalbent, sues of . This con- cies. The late 19th and early 20th cen- like Spearman (1927) and Thurstone cern grew out of two disparate factors, turies were punctuatedby volumes that (1938), contributedeither directly or in- one primarily theoretical, the other delineated levels of intelligence across directly to the devising of certain mea- largely practical. species and within the human species surement techniques and the favoring As a result of his own studies of the (Baldwin, 1895; Hobhouse, 1915; Ro- of particular lines of interpretation. development and breakdown of cog- manes, 1892). FrancisGalton (cousin of By midcentury, theories of intelli- nitive and symbol-using capacities, Charles Darwin) was perhaps the first gence had become a staple of psy- Gardner (1975, 1979, 1982)became con- psychologically oriented scientist to try chology textbooks, even as intelligence vinced that the Piagetian (Piaget, 1970) to measure the intellect directly. tests were taken for granted in many in- view of intellect was flawed. Whereas Though Galton (1870)had a theoretical dustrialized countries. Still, it is fair to Piaget (1962) had conceptualized all interest in the concept of intelligence, say that, within scientific psychology, his work was by no means unrelated to interest in issues of intelligence waned practical issues. A committed eugeni- to some extent. Although psychometri- cist, he sought to measure intelligence cians continued to perfect the instru- and hoped, through proper "breed- ments that purported to measure hu- HOWARDGARDNER, Professor of Educa- ing," to increase the overall intelligence man intellect and some new tests were tion, HarvardGraduate School of Educa- of the population. introduced (Guilford, 1967), for the tion, LongfellowHall, Cambridge,MA During the following half century, most part, the burgeoning interest in 02138, specializesin developmentalpsy- many of the most gifted and influential cognitive matters bypassed the area of chologyand . psychologists concerned themselves intelligence. THOMASHATCH, doctoral candidate, Har- with the nature of human intelligence. This divorce between mainstreamre- vard GraduateSchool of ,Long- a few in- Although investigators were search psychology and the "applied fellow Hall, Cambridge,MA 02138, spe- terested principallyin theoreticalissues, area" of intelligence might have con- cializesin humandevelopment.

4 EDUCA TIONAL RESEARCHER aspects of symbol use as part of a single stone, 1938). Most definitions of in- summarized in several other publica- "semiotic function," empiricalevidence telligence focus on the capacities that tions (Gardner, 1987a, 1987b; Walters was accruingthat the human mind may are important for success in school. & Gardner, 1985). Gardner's provi- be quite modular in design. That is, Problem solving is recognized as a sional list includes seven intelligences, separate psychological processes ap- crucial component, but the ability to each with its own component processes pear to be involved in dealing with fashion a product-to write a sym- and subtypes (see Table 1). It is claimed linguistic, numerical, pictorial,gestural, phony, execute a painting, stage a play, that, as a species, human beings have and other kinds of symbolic systems build up and manage an organization, evolved over the millennia to carry out (Gardner, Howard, & Perkins, 1974; carry out an experiment-is not in- at least these seven forms of thinking. Gardner & Wolf, 1983). Individuals cluded, presumably because the afore- In a biological metaphor, these may be may be precocious with one form of mentioned capacities cannot be probed thought of as differentmental "organs" symbol use, without any necessary adequately in short-answertests. More- (Chomsky, 1980); in a computational carryover to other forms. By the same over, on the canonical account, in- metaphor, these may be construed as token, one form of symbol use may be- telligence is presumed to be a univer- separate information-processing come seriously compromised under sal, probably innate, capacity, and so devices (Fodor, 1983). Although all conditions of brain damage, without the diverse kinds of roles valued in dif- humans exhibit the range of in- correlative depreciation of other sym- ferent cultures are not considered ger- telligences, individuals differ-pre- bolic capacities (Wapner & Gardner, mane to a study of "raw intellect." sumably for both hereditary and envi- 1979). Indeed, different forms of sym- For the most part, definitions and ronmental reasons-in their current bol use appear to be subserved by dif- tests of intelligence are empirically profile of intelligences. Moreover, there ferent portions of the cerebral.cortex. determined. Investigators search for is no necessary correlationbetween any On a more practical level, Gardner items that predict who will succeed in two intelligences, and they may indeed was disturbed by the nearly exclusive school, even as they drop items that fail entail quite distinct forms of perception, stress in school on two forms of sym- to predict scholastic success. New tests memory, and other psychological bol use: linguistic symbolization and are determined in part by the degree of processes. logical-mathematicalsymbolization. Al- correlationwith older, already accepted Although few occupations rely en- though these two forms are obviously instruments. In sharp contrast, existing tirely on a single intelligence, different important in a scholastic setting, other psychometric instruments play no role roles typify the "endstates" of each in- varieties of symbol use also figure in Gardner's formulation. Rather, a telligence. For example, the "linguistic" prominently in human cognitive activ- candidate ability emerges as an intelli- sensitivity to the sounds and construc- ity within and especially outside of gence to the extent that it has recurred tion of language is exemplified by the school. Moreover, the emphasis on lin- as an identifiable entity in a number of poet, whereas the interpersonal ability guistic and logical capacities was over- different lines of study of human to discern and respond to the moods whelming in the construction of items cognition. and motivations of other people is rep- on intelligence, aptitude, and achieve- To arrive at his list of intelligences, resented in the therapist. Other occu- ment tests. If different kinds of items Gardner and his colleagues examined pations more clearly illustratethe need were used, or different kinds of assess- the literature in several areas: the for a blend of intelligences. For in- ment instruments devised, a quite dif- development of cognitive capacities in stance, surgeons require both the acu- ferent view of the human intellect normal individuals; the breakdown of ity of spatial intelligence to guide the might issue forth. cognitive capacitiesunder various kinds scalpel and the dexterity of the bodily- These and other factors led Gardner of organic pathology; the existence of kinesthetic intelligence to handle it. to a conceptualization of human in- abilities in "special populations," such Similarly, scientists often have to de- tellect that was more capacious. This as prodigies, autistic individuals, idiots pend on their linguistic intelligence to took into account a wide variety of savants, and learning-disabledchildren; describe and explain the discoveries human cognitive capacities, entailed forms of intellect that exist in different made using their logical-mathematicin- many kinds of symbol systems, and in- species; forms of intellect valued in dif- telligence, and they must employ inter- corporated as well the skills valued in ferent cultures; the evolution of cogni- personal intelligence in interactingwith a variety of cultural and historical set- tion across the millennia; and two colleagues and in maintaining a pro- tings. Realizing that he was stretching forms of psychological evidence-the ductive and smoothly functioning the word intelligence beyond its results of factor-analytic studies of laboratory. in educational human and the out- customary application cognitive capacities The Education and Assessment of psychology, Gardner proposed the ex- come of studies of transfer and gen- istence of a number of relatively auton- eralization. Candidate capacities that Intelligences omous humanintelligences. He defined turned up repeatedly in these disparate Until this point, we have been review- intelligence as the capacity to solve literaturesmade up a provisional list of ing the history of intelligence research, problemsor to fashion productsthat are human intelligences, whereas abilities admittedly from the perspective of the valued in one or more cultural settings that appeared only once or twice or Theory of Multiple Intelligences (here- and detailed a set of criteria for what were reconfigureddifferently in diverse after MI Theory). Since the publication counts as a human intelligence. sources were abandoned from consid- of Framesof Mind (Gardner, 1983), we Gardner's definition and his criteria eration. and our colleagues have been involved deviated significantly from established The methods and the results of this in investigating its implications.On the practices in the field of intelligence massive survey are reported in detail in one hand, we seek to determine the (however, see Guilford, 1967; Thur- Frames of Mind (Gardner, 1983) and scientific adequacy of the theory (for a

NOVEMBER 1989 5 - reportabout the actionsthey are taking, TABLE 1 little verbalskill is necessary (or helpful) for successful performance on such a The Seven Intelligences task. Whereas most standard End-States Core Components approaches Intelligence treat in isolation from the Scientist and to intelligence Logical-mathematical Sensitivityto, capacity discern, logical activities of a MI Mathematician or numericalpatterns; ability to handle particular culture, long chains of reasoning. theory takes a sharply contrastingtack. Intelligences are always conceptualized Linguistic Poet Sensitivityto the sounds, rhythms, and and assessed in terms of their cultural Journalist meanings of words; sensitivityto the dif- manifestation in domains of ferent functionsof language. specific endeavor and with reference to partic- Musical Composer Abilitiesto produceand appreciaterhythm, ular adult "end states." Thus, even at Violinist pitch, and timbre;appreciation of the the level, language capacity forms of musical preschool expressiveness. is not assessed in terms of vocabulary, definitions, or similarities,but ratheras Spatial Navigator Capacitiesto perceivethe visual-spatial Sculptor world accuratelyand to performtransfor- manifest in story telling (the novelist) mations on one's initial perceptions. and reporting (the journalist). Instead of to assess skills in Abilitiesto controlone's movements attempting spatial Bodily-kinesthetic Dancer body isolation, we observe children as Athlete and to handle objects skillfully. they are drawing (the artist) or taking apart Interpersonal Therapist Capacitiesto discern and respond ap- and putting together objects (the Salesman propriatelyto the moods, temperaments, mechanic). and desires of other motivations, people. Ideally, one might wish to assess an in a Intrapersonal Person with Access to one's own feelings and the ability intelligence culture-independent detailed, to discriminateamong them and draw way, but this goal has proved to be accurate upon them to guide behavior;knowledge elusive and perhaps impossible to self-knowledge of one's own strengths, weaknesses, achieve. Cross-cultural research and desires, and intelligences. studies of cognition in the course of or- dinary activities (Brown, Collins, & discussion of some of the scientific intelligences at different age levels. In Duguid, 1989; Laboratoryof Compar- questions raised by the theory, see addition, we report some preliminary ative Human Cognition, 1982; Lave, Gardner, 1983, chapter 11, and Walters findings from one of our projects and 1988;Rogoff, 1982;Scribner, 1986) have & Gardner, 1986). On the other hand, their implications for the confirmation demonstratedthat performancesare in- in our view, a principal value of the (or disconfirmation) of MI Theory. evitably dependent on a person's famil- multiple intelligence perspective-be it If, as argued, each intelligence dis- iarityand experience with the materials a theory or a "mere" framework--lies plays a characteristic set of psycho- and demands of the assessments. In in its potential contributions to educa- logical processes, it is important that our own work, it rapidly became clear tional reform. In both cases, progress these processes be assessed in an "in- that meaningful assessment of an in- seems to revolve around assessment. telligence-fair" manner. In contrast to telligence was not possible if students To demonstrate that the intelligences traditionalpaper-and-pencil tests, with had little or no experience with a par- are relatively independent of one their inherent bias toward linguisticand ticular subject matter or type of another and that individuals have dis- logical skills, intelligence-fairmeasures material.For example, our examination tinct profiles of intelligences, assess- seek to respect the different modes of of bodily-kinestheticabilities in a move- ments of each intelligence have to be thinking and performance that dis- ment assessment for preschoolers was developed. To take advantage of stu- tinguish each intelligence. Although confounded by the fact that some dents' multiple intelligences, there spatial problems can be approached to 4-year-olds had already been to ballet must be some way to identify their some degree through linguistic media classes, whereas others had never been strengths and weaknesses reliably. (like verbal directions or word prob- asked to move their bodies expressive- Yet MI Theory grows out of a convic- lems), intelligence-fairmethods place a ly or in rhythm. This recognition rein- tion that standardized tests, with their premium on the abilities to perceive forced the notion that bodily-kinesthetic almost exclusive stress on linguistic and and manipulate visual-spatial informa- intelligence cannot be assessed outside logical skills, are limited. As a result, the tion in a direct manner. For example, of a specific medium or without further development of MI Theory re- the spatial intelligence of children can reference to a history of prior quires a fresh approach to assessment, be assessed through a mechanical ac- experiences. an approach consistent with the view tivity in which they are asked to take Together, these demands for assess- that there are a number of intelligences apart and reassemble a meat grinder. ments that are intelligence fair, are that are developed-and can best be de- The activity requires them to "puzzle based on culturally valued activities, tected-in culturallymeaningful activi- out" the structure of the object and and take place within a familiarcontext ties (Gardner, in press-a). In the re- then to discern or remember the spatial naturallylead to an approachthat blurs mainder of the paper, we describe our information that will allow reassembly the distinctions between curriculum approach to assessment and broadly of the pieces. Although linguisticallyin- and assessment. Drawing information survey our efforts to assess individual clined children may produce a running from the regular curriculum ensures

- 6 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHER - that the activities are familiar;introduc- or "Changes in Time and Space." and off a bus. Adults and children and ing activities in a wide range of areas These projectsare presented and video- on and off constitute two different makes it possible to challenge and ex- taped for subsequent study and analy- dimensions. Thus, a child can receive amine each intelligence in an appro- sis. A team of researchersfrom Harvard one of the following scores: 0-no priate manner. Tying the activitiesto in- Project Zero is now engaged in de- dimensions recorded; 1-disorganized viting pursuits enables students to dis- veloping a set of criteriawhereby these recording of one dimension (either cover and develop abilities that in turn videotaped projects can be assessed. adults and children or on and off); increase their chances of experiencing Among the dimensions under consid- 2-labeled, accurate recording of one a sense of engagement and of achiev- eration are projectconceptualization, ef- dimension; 3-disorganized recording ing some success in their society. fectiveness of presentation, technical of two dimensions; 4-disorganized quality of project, and originality, as recording of one dimension and la- Putting Theory Into Practice well as evidence for cooperative efforts beled, accuraterecording of one dimen- In the past 5 years, this approach to and distinctive individual features. sion; or 5-labeled, accurate recording assessment has been explored in proj- A third effort, Project Spectrum, co- of two dimensions (for furtherinforma- ects at several differentlevels of school- directed by David Feldman of Tufts tion, see Krechevsky, Feldman, & ing. At the junior and senior high University, has developed a number of Gardner, in press). school level, Arts PROPEL, a collabo- curriculum activities and assessment We have also created a related instru- rative project with the Educational options suited to the "child-centered" ment, the Modified Spectrum Field In- Testing Service and the PittsburghPub- structure of many preschools and kin- ventory, that samples several intelli- lic School System, seeks to assess dergartens (for details, see Hatch & gences in the course of two 1-hour ses- growth and learningin areas like music, Gardner, 1986;Krechevsky & Gardner, sions. Although this inventory does not imaginative writing, and visual arts, in press; Malkus, Feldman, & Gardner, draw directly from the curriculum, it is which are neglected by most standard 1988;Ramos-Ford & Gardner, in press; based on the kinds of materials and ac- measures (for further details, see Gard- Wexler-Sherman,Feldman, & Gardner, tivities that are common in many pre- ner, in press-b; Wolf, 1989; Zessoules, 1988). At present, there are 15 different schools. In addition, related materials Wolf, & Gardner, 1988). Arts PROPEL activities, each of which taps a par- from the Spectrum curriculum can be has developed a series of modules, or ticular intelligence or set of intelli- implemented in the classroomto ensure "domain projects," that serve the goals gences. Throughout the year, a Spec- that the children will be familiar with of both curriculum and assessment. trum classroom is equipped with "in- the kinds of tasks and materials used These projects feature sets of exercises telligence-fair" materials. Miniature in the inventory. and curriculum activities organized replicas and props invite children to Results From around a concept centralto a specificar- deploy linguistic intelligence within the Preliminary Project tistic domain-such as notation in context of story telling; household ob- Spectrum music, character and dialogue in play jects that children can take apart and Although none of these programs is in writing, and graphiccomposition in the reassemble challenge children's spatial final form, and thus any evaluation visual arts. The drafts, sketches, and intelligencein a mechanicaltask; a "dis- must be considered preliminary and final products generated by these and covery" area including natural objects tentative, the results so far at the pilot other curriculumactivities are collected like rocks, bones, and shells enables sites seem promising. The value of rich in portfolios (sometimes termed "pro- children to use their logical abilities to and evocative materialshas been amply cess-folios"), which serve as a basis for conduct small "experiments," com- documented. In the classrooms in Pitts- assessment of growth by both the parisons, and classifications;and group burgh, Indianapolis,and Boston, teach- teacher and the student. Although the activities such as a biweekly creative ers reportheightened motivationon the emphasis thus far has fallen on local movement session can be employed to part of the students, even as students classroom assessments, efforts are also give children the opportunity to exer- themselves appreciate the opportunity under way to develop criteriawhereby cise their bodily-kinestheticintelligence to reflect on their own growth and de- student accomplishment can be eval- on a regular basis. velopment. Moreover, our programs uated by external examiners. Provision of this variety of "high- with both older and younger children At the elementary level, Patricia affordance"materials allows childrento confirm that a consideration of a Bolafios and her colleagues have used gain experiences that engage their sev- broader range of talents brings to the MI theory to design an entire public eral intelligences, even as teachers have fore individuals who previously had school in downtown Indianapolis (O1- the chance unobtrusively to observe been considered unexceptional or even son, 1988). Through a variety of special and assess children's strengths, in- at risk for school failure. classes (e.g., computing, bodily- terests, and proclivities. More formal As for the assessment instruments kinesthetic activities) and enrichment assessment of intelligences is also pos- under development, only those of Proj- activities (a "flow" center and ap- sible. Researchers can administer spe- ect Spectrum have been field tested in prentice-like "pods"), all children in cific games to children and apply de- classrooms. In 1987-1989, we used the Key School are given the opportu- tailed scoring systems that have been these instruments in two different set- nity to discover their areas of strength developed for research purposes. For tings to investigate the hypothesis that and to develop the full range of intelli- instance, in the bus game, children's the intelligences are largely indepen- gences. In addition, over the course of ability to organize numerical informa- dent of one another. To examine this a year, each child executes a number of tion is scored by noting the extent to hypothesis, we sought to determine (a) projects based on schoolwide themes which they can keep track of the num- whether young children exhibit distinct such as "Man and His Environment" ber of adults and children getting on profiles of intellectual strengths and

NOVEMBER 1989 7- weaknesses and (b) whether or not per- small sample size also may have con- weaknesses in three areas. Of the kin- formances on activities designed to tap tributedto the absence of powerful cor- dergartners, only two showed any different intelligences are significantly relations among measures. strengths, with all but one of the other correlated. In the 1987-1988 academic A comparison of the Spectrum and children showing at least one weak- year, 20 childrenfrom a primarilyWhite Stanford-Binetassessments revealed a ness. Quite possibly, these results upper middle-income population took limited relationshipbetween children's reflect differences in developmental part in a yearlong Spectrum program. performances on these different in- level, and perhaps gender differences In the 1988-1989 academic year, the struments. Spearman rank-order cor- as well, that did not obtain in the Modified SpectrumField Inventorywas relations showed that only perfor- preschool sample and that may have piloted with 15 children in a combined mances on the number activities were overpowered certain individual dif- kindergartenand first-gradeclassroom. significantly correlated with IQ (dino- ferences. It is also conceivable that a This classroom was in a public school saur game, r = .69, p < .003;bus game, more extended exposure to, and greater in a low-to-middle-income school r = .51, p < .04). With its concentration familiaritywith, the Spectrummaterials district. on logical-mathematic and linguistic and activities, as in the yearlong Spec- In the preschool study, children were skills, one might have expected a trum program, may have made the in- assessed on 10 differentactivities (story significant correlation with the Spec- dividual differences among younger telling, drawing, singing, music percep- trum language activity as well. Con- children more visible. tion, creative movement, social analy- ceivably, there was no significant cor- Nonetheless, an examination of chil- sis, hypothesis testing, assembly, cal- relation because the Stanford-Binet dren's ranks on each of the activities culationand counting, and number and measures children's vocabulary and revealed a more complex picture. Al- notationallogic) as well as the Stanford- comprehension, whereas Spectrum though the first-grade girls dominated Binet IntelligenceScale, FourthEdition. measures how children use language the rankings, all but two childrenin the To compare children's performances within a story-telling task. sample were ranked among the top five across each of the activities, standard In the second study, eight kindergart- on at least one occasion. All but one deviations were calculated for each ac- ners (four boys and four girls) and child also scored in the bottom five on tivity. Children who scored one or seven first graders (five girls and two at least one activity. Considered in this more standard deviations above the boys) were assessed on the seven ac- way, children did exhibit relative mean were judged to have a strength tivities of the Modified Spectrum Field strengths and weaknesses across the on that activity; those who scored one Inventory (MSPFI). This inventory, seven activities. or more standard deviations below the based on the activities developed for To determine whether or not perfor- mean were considered to have a weak- the yearlong Spectrum assessments of mance on one activitywas independent ness on that activity. This analysis preschoolers,consists of activitiesin the of performance on the other activities, revealed that these childrendid not per- areas of language (storyboard), we standardizedeach of the scores with form at the same level across activities numbers and logic (bus game), a mean = 0 and standard deviation = and suggested that they do have dis- mechanics (assembly), art (drawing), 1 (Sattler, 1988) and performed Spear- tinct intellectual profiles. Of the 20 music (xylophone games), social analy- man rank-ordercorrelations. Because of children, 15 demonstrateda strengthon sis (classroom model), and movement the superior performance of the first- at least one activity, and 12 children (creative movement). These assess- grade girls, the performancesof kinder- showed a weakness on one or more ac- ments were administeredin two 1-hour gartners and first graders were com- tivities. In contrast, only one child was sessions. Each activity was videotaped, puted separately. Consideration of the identified as having no strengths or and children were scored by two inde- kindergartnersalone revealed only one weaknesses, and her scores ranged pendent observers. Spearman rank- correlation, between art and social from -.98 to +.87 standard deviations order correlationsbetween the scores of analysis, that approached significance from the mean. the two observers ranged from .88 (r = .66, p < .071). For the sample of These results were reinforced by the (language) to .97 (art) and demon- first graders, including the fact that, for the most part, children's strated the interraterreliability of these "high"-scoring girls, there were a performances on the activities were in- scores. number of significant correlations: dependent. Using Spearman rank-or- As in the first study, strengths and language and assembly (r = .77, der correlations, only the number ac- weaknesses were estimated using stan- p < .04), language and numbers (r = tivities, both requiring logical-mathe- dard deviations. Unlike the findings .81, p < .027), movement and social matical intelligence, proved signifi- from the earlier study, however, these analysis (r = .77, p< .04), and cantly correlatedwith one another (r = results revealed that some children per- assembly and numbers (r = .79, .78, p < .01). In the other areas, music formed quite well and others per- p < .034). and science, where there were two formed quite poorly across many of the With the exception of the perfor- assessments, there were no significant activities. It appears that the small sam- mance of the first graders in the second correlations. Conceivably, this result ple size and wide age ranges may have study, these results are reasonablycon- can be attributed to the fact that the contributed to this result. Of the five sistent with the claims of MI Theory. number activities, both of which in- first-grade girls, none demonstrated a For younger children, performanceson volved calculation, shared more weakness in any area; all showed at the Spectrum activities were largely in- features than the music activities (sing- least one strength, with one girl having dependent, relative strengths and ing and music perception) or the strengths in six of the seven areas. The weaknesses were uncovered, and there science activities (hypothesis-testing two first-grade boys showed no was a significant correlation between and mechanical skill). Of course, the strengths, and both demonstrated preschoolers' performances on the

8 EDUCA TIONAL RESEARCHER Spectrum activities and the Stanford- of the Spectrum materials and assess- Gardner, H. (1979). Binet in one of the two areas where it ment instruments in the classroom. after Piaget: An approach in terms of sym- would be Further Some critics have that MI bolization. Human Development,15, 570-580. expected. investiga- suggested Gardner, H. (1982). Art, mind and brain. New tions need to be conducted to establish Theory cannot be disconfirmed. The York: Basic Books. norms, to identify strengths and weak- preliminary results presented here in- Gardner, H. (1983). Framesof mind. New York: nesses consistently, and to examine dicate some of the ways in which its Basic Books. H. fully the effects of age and gender on central claims can indeed be chal- Gardner, (1987a). Symposium on the theory the activities. If future assessments do not of multiple intelligences. In D. N. Perkins, Spectrum lenged. & C. Think- reveal and weaknesses within J. Lockhead, J. Bishop (Eds.), Conclusion strengths ing: The second internationalconference (pp. a population, if performances on dif- 77-101). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. In this essay, we have sketched the ferent activities prove to be system- Gardner, H. (1987b). Developing the spectrum and the claims of a and if constructs of human intelligence. Harvard Education background major atically correlated, 187-193. new to the like the Review, 57, approach conceptualization (and instruments) IQ explain Gardner, H. (in press-a). Assessment in con- and assessment of human intelligence. the preponderance of the variance on text: The alternative to standardized testing. Put forth in 1983, the theory of multi- activities configured to tap specific in- In B. Gifford (Ed.), Reportof the commission on and ple intelligences has inspired a number telligences, then MI Theory will have to testing public policy. be Even the Gardner, H. (in press-b). Zero-based arts educa- of research-and-development projects revamped. so, goal of de- tion: An introduction to Arts PROPEL. that are taking place in schools ranging tecting distinctive human strengths, Studies in Art Education. from preschool through high school. and using them as a basis for engage- Gardner, H., Howard, V., & Perkins, D. (1974). Until now, our focus has fallen largely ment and learning, may prove to be Symbol systems: A philosophical, psycho- on the of instrumentsthat of the scientific logical and educational investigation. In D. development worthwhile, irrespective Olson Mediaand can assess and weaknesses in fate of the (Ed.), symbols(pp. 37-55). strengths theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. an "intelligence-fair" way. This re- Gardner, H., & Wolf, D. (1983). Waves and search-and-development process has streams of symbolization. In D. R. Rogers Note & A. Sloboda The proved time consuming and costly. The J. (Eds.), acquisitionof sym- measures must involve materials that The research described in this articlehas been bolic skills (pp. 19-42). London: Plenum. Guilford, J. P. (1967). The nature of human in- are and familiar to children; generously supported by the Grant Foundation, appealing the Lilly Endowment, the Markle Foundation, telligence. New York: McGraw-Hill. there is little precedent for developing the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, the Rockefeller Hatch, T., & Gardner, H. (1986). From testing to A scoring systems that go beyond lin- Foundation, the Spencer Foundation, the Ber- intelligence assessing competences: and and materials nard Van Leer Foundation, and the Office of pluralistic view of intellect. RoeperReview, guistic logicalcriteria; 8, 147-150. for one Educational Research and Improvement's Cen- appropriate age group, gender, Hobhouse, L. T. Mind in evolution.Lon- or social class not be ter for Technology in Education at the Bank (1915). may appropriate Street College of Education. We thank our col- don: Macmillan. for others. Of course, it should be leagues at the Eliot-Pearson Children's School Hunt, E. (1986). The heffalump of intelligence. recalled that huge amounts of time and and in the Somerville Public School system for In R. J. Sternberg & D. Detterman (Eds.), have been invested in their collaboration. For comments on an earlier Whatis intelligence?(pp. 101-107). Hillsdale, money already draft of this we are to Robert NJ: Erlbaum. standard instruments, paper, grateful psychometric Glaser, , Joseph Walters, and Jensen, A. R. (1986). Intelligence: "Definition," whose limitationshave become increas- an anonymous reviewer. measurement, and future research. In R. J. ingly evident in recent years. Sternberg & D. Detterman (Eds.), What is Once adequate materials have been intelligence? (pp. 109-112). Hillsdale, NJ: References Erlbaum. developed, it becomes possible to begin & H. to address some of the theoretical Baldwin, J. M. (1895). Mental developmentin the Krechevsky, M., Feldman, D., Gardner, child and the race. New York: Macmillan. (in press). The Spectrumhandbook. claims that grow out of MI Theory. We & H. The Baron, J. (1985). Rationalityand intelligence.New Krechevsky, M., Gardner, (in press). have here some and nurturance of in- presented preliminary York: Cambridge University Press. emergence multiple In M. A. Howe En- findings from one of our current proj- Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1916). The development telligences. J. (Ed.), the abilities ects. These results some support of intelligence in children. Baltimore, MD: couraging developmentof exceptional give and talents. to the major claims of the theory, in- Williams & Wilkins. asmuch as children from Brown, A. L., & Campione, J. C. (1986). Aca- Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition. ranging in age and In Culture and In R. Stern- 3 to 7 do exhibit of relative demic intelligence learning potential. (1982). intelligence. profiles R. J. Sternberg & D. Detterman (Eds.), What berg (Ed.), Handbookof human intelligence strength and weakness. At the same is intelligence? (pp. 39-49). Hillsdale, NJ: (Vol. 2, pp. 642-722). New York:Cambridge time, even these preliminary data in- Erlbaum. University Press. final on Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Lave, J. (1988). Cognitionin practice.Cambridge, dicate that the story Multiple Situated and the culture of learn- turn out to be more cognition England: Cambridge University Press. Intelligences may ing. EducationalResearcher, 18(1), 32-42. Malkus, U., Feldman, D. H., & Gardner, H. complex than we envisioned. Thus, the Chomsky, N. (1980). Rules and representations. (1988). Dimensions of mind in early child- rather different profile of results ob- New York: Columbia University Press. hood. In A. D. Pellegrini (Ed.), Psychological tained with our two young populations Dehn, N., & Schank, R. C. (1982). Artificialand basesofearly education (pp. 25-38). New York: indicates that, in future research, we human intelligence. In R. Sternberg (Ed.), Wiley. Handbookof human intelligence(Vol. 1, pp. Olson, L. (1988). Children flourish here: 8 must pay closer attention to three fac- 352-391). New York: Cambridge University teachers and a theory changed a school tors: (a) the developmental appro- Press. world. EducationWeek, 18(1), 18-19. priateness of the materials;(b) the social Fodor, J. (1983). The modularityof mind. Cam- Piaget, J. (1962). Play, dreams and imitation in class which well ex- bridge, MA: MIT Press. childhood(C. Gattegno & F. M. Hodgson, background, may F. New York: New York: Norton. ert an influence on a child's and Galton, (1870). Hereditarygenius. Trans.). ability Appleton. Piaget, J. (1970). Science of education and the willingness to engage with diverse Gardner, H. (1975). The shattered mind. New psychologyof the child (D. Coltman, Trans.). materials;and (c) the exact deployment York: Knopf. New York: Orion.

- NOVEMBER 1989 9 - Ramos-Ford, V., & Gardner, H. (in press). Giftedness from a multiple intelligences perspective. In N. Colangelo & G. Davis (Eds.), The handbookof gifted education. CALLS FOR NOMINATIONSRogoff, B. (1982). Integrating context and cognitive development. In M. Lamb & A. Brown (Eds.), Advances in developmental psychology(Vol. 2, pp. 125-169). Hillsdale, Forthe Editorshipof NJ: Erlbaum. Romanes, G. J. (1892). Animal intelligence.New EducationalEvaluation and Policy Analysis York: Appleton. Sattler, J. M. (1988). Assessmentof children. San Vols. 14-16 Diego, CA: Author. Scarr, S., & Carter-Saltzman, L. (1982). To ensure that the search for a new editor will be open, the Publications Com- Genetics and intelligence. In R. Sternberg mittee is this call for nominations to candidates (Ed.), Handbookof human intelligence(Vol. 2, publishing prior recommending New York: Uni- to the AERAPresident role it is to the pp. 792-896). Cambridge (whose appoint editor). versity Press. Nominations are being sought for the 1992-1994 editorship of Educational Scribner, S. (1986). Thinking in action: Some Evaluationand Policy Analysis (EEPA).The journal focuses on educational evalua- characteristics of practical thought. In R. & R. K. Practical tion and educational policy analysis (emphasizing practical as well as theoretical Sternberg Wagner (Eds.), and issues) and examines the between these two intelligence:Origins of competencein the ever- methodological relationship world. New York: Universi- activities. day Cambridge ty Press. Responsibilities and duties include ultimate responsibility for accepting and Snow, R. E. (1982). Education and intelligence. rejecting manuscripts on the basis of the quality of the research presented and In R. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbookof human in- New the of the matter for EEPA, the telligence(Vol. 2, pp. 493-585). York: suitability subject guiding manuscripts through Press. review revisions, issues, and occasional Cambridge University process, overseeing planning writing Spearman, C. E. (1927). Theabilities ofman: Their editorials. nature and measurement. New York: The Association provides the editor with a $10,000 discretionary grant. Addi- Macmillan. tionally, there is reimbursement for direct costs, such as postage, telephone, Sternberg, R. (1977). Intelligence,information pro- and cessing,and analogicalreasoning. Hillsdale, NJ: photocopying. Erlbaum. Nominees should be scholars with and interest recognized background ap- Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (1982). Handbookof human propriate for EEPA.Nominees also should possess managerial and organiza- intelligence.New York: Cambridge Univer- tional skills and be interested in the maintenance and development of the high- sity Press. quality scholarship within the journal. The editor should plan to begin receiv- Sternberg, R. J. (1985). BeyondIQ. New York: Press. ing manuscripts in the fall of 1990. Cambridge University Terman, L. M. (1916). The measurement in- Send letter of nomination (both nominations of others and self-nominations of telligence. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. are welcome) to Publications Committee, EEPANomination, AERA,1230 17th Thurstone, L. L. (1938). Primarymental abilities. Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036-3078. The deadline for submissions is Chicago: University of Chicago Press. December 15, 1989. Walters, J., & Gardner, H. (1985). The develop- ment and education of intelligences. In F. Link (Ed.), Essays on the intellect(pp. 1-21). For the Editorshipof the Washington, DC: Curriculum Development Associates. Review of Researchin Education Walters, J., & Gardner, H. (1986). The theory of multiple intelligences: Some issues and Vols. 19-21 answers. In R. Sternberg & R. Wagner (Eds.), Practicalintelligence: Origins of com- To ensure that the search for a new editor will be open, the Publications Com- petence in the everday world (pp. 163-182). mittee is publishing this call for nominations prior to recommending candidates New York: Cambridge University Press. to the AERAPresident (whose role it is to the editor). Wapner, W., & Gardner, H. (1979). A study appoint of in Brain and Nominations are for the 1993-1995 of the Review spelling aphasia. Language, being sought editorship 7, 363-374. of Research in Education RRE an overview (RRE). provides and descriptive Wechsler, D. (1939). The measurementof adult in- analysis of selected areas of relevant research through critical and synthesiz- telligence. Baltimore, MD: Williams & ing essays. Wilkins. The editor of RRE,in close consultation with the EditorialBoard, plays a critical Wexler-Sherman, C., Feldman, D., & Gardner, H. (1988). A view of intellect: The role in and the current state of in the field. pluralistic reviewing defining knowledge Project Spectrum approach. TheoryInto Prac- Nominees should be recognized scholars in the field of education. They also tice, 28, 77-83. should possess managerial and organizational skills and be interested in the Wolf, D. P. (1989, April). What's in it?: Examin- maintenance and development of the high-quality scholarship within the jour- ing portfolio assessment. Educational nal. The editor should plan to begin work during the summer of 1990. Leadership. Yerkes, R. M., J. W., & The Association the editor with a in Bridges, Hardwick, provides modest, discretionary grant ad- R. S. (1915). A point scalefor measuringmen- dition to reimbursement for direct costs, such as postage, telephone use, and tal ability. Baltimore, MD: Warwick and photocopying. York. Send letter of nomination (both the nominations of others and self- Zessoules, R., Wolf, D., & Gardner, H. (1988). A better balance: Arts PROPEL as an alter- nominations are welcome) to Publications Committee, RRENomination, AERA, 1230 17th native to discipline-based art education. In Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036-3078. The deadline for submis- J. Burton, A. Lederman, & P. London sion is December 15, 1989. (Eds.), Beyond discipline-basedart education. University Council on Art Education.

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