Virginia Commonwealth University VCU Scholars Compass Theses and Dissertations Graduate School 2012 Changing the Game: Corporate Social Responsibility in Women's Professional Sport Lorie Coker Virginia Commonwealth University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/etd Part of the Public Affairs, Public Policy and Public Administration Commons © The Author Downloaded from https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/etd/2902 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at VCU Scholars Compass. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of VCU Scholars Compass. For more information, please contact [email protected]. © Lorie Coker 2012 All Rights Reserved CHANGING THE GAME: CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN WOMEN’S PROFESSIONAL SPORT A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Public Policy and Administration at Virginia Commonwealth University by Lorie Coker BA, Sociology and African American Studies, University of Virginia, 2004 MEd, Social Foundations of Education, University of Virginia, 2008 Director: Janet R. Hutchinson, Ph.D. Professor, Public Policy and Administration Chair, Department Gender, Sexuality, and Women’s Studies Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, Virginia December 2012 Acknowledgements The dissertation journey is a long process and one that draws on support from many different sources. I have many people to thank, some of whom contributed directly to this process, and other who contributed indirectly or unknowingly. First, I would like to acknowledge and thank my advisor, Dr. Janet R. Hutchinson, for her strong support and insightful comments, syntheses, and suggestions. Thank you for making time for me. I would also like to thank Dr. Lisa Abrams, Dr. Carrie LeCrom, and Dr. Bill Bosher for their guidance, suggestions, and time. Additionally, I would like to thank the participants in this study from the Ladies Professional Golf Association, Women’s National Basketball Association, Women’s Tennis Association, and Women’s Professional Soccer. I appreciate your time, insight, and the work you do for women’s sport locally and abroad. Throughout this process, I have drawn motivation from my own playing days as both an amateur and collegiate athlete. I would like to thank my James River Rapids AAU friends for their friendship and support. First rivals and then teammates: If you can’t beat them join them. Thank you to the 2000 ODU Field Hockey team. It is an honor to have played with such a wonderful group of women and for the winningest Division I Field Hockey coach in NCAA history, Beth Anders. Thank you to my 2 U and JM friends for your friendship and support. Thank you to Coach Lindsey for always reminding me of the power of an intelligent and determined woman in an industry that is dominated by men. Thank you to Theresa and Yussuf for your help with this project and your willingness to help me any way you can. Thank you to HTNL for your constant support through each stage of this long process. Finally, I would like to thank my family for their love and support. To my mom and dad, thank you for all of the wonderful opportunities you have given me and always having my best interest at heart. You are both wonderful examples of parents, friends, partners, and community servants—I am eternally grateful. To my sister, you are the best sister and friend one could hope for—I wish everyone could have a sister like you! To my brother, I am thankful I was able to play sports with you and your friends! Playing with you and going to all of your games has influenced my perspective on the power of sport in breaking down barriers and creating opportunities for all. Thank you to my extended family for your love and support, as blood and sports are two strong bonds that tie our family together and I would have it no other way. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables vi Abstract vii Chapter One: Introduction 1 Overview 3 The Concept of Intersectionality 9 Importance of Intersectionality 5 Intersectionality and Sport 7 Matrix of Domination 10 Policy and Intersectionality 10 Corporate Social Responsibility in Professional Sport 11 Title IX, the Benefits of Sport for Females, and CSR 15 Gap in Literature 18 Rationale for Study 19 Objective of Study 20 Statement of the Problem 21 Research Questions 22 Conclusion 23 Chapter Two: Review of Literature 26 Introduction 26 Intersectionality: Race, Class, and Gender Theory 27 Matrix of Domination 30 Gender Discrimination 30 Racial Discrimination 32 Class Discrimination 35 Media Discrimination 36 Intersections of Race, Class, Gender, Media, and Women’s Sport 39 Intersectionality, CSR, and Women’s Professional Sport 46 Chapter Three: Research Methodology 49 Introduction and Purpose of Study 49 Research Design 50 Qualitative Method: Interviews and Content Analysis 53 Data Collection and Data Analysis 54 iii Content Analysis: Public Organizational Documents 55 Interviews 56 Data Analysis 57 Quantitative Method: Content Analysis of New York Times 60 Coding and Analysis 62 Issues of Trustworthiness 65 Reporting the Findings 68 Ethical Considerations 68 Researcher’s Role 69 Possible Limitations 71 Chapter Four: Findings 73 Introduction 73 Finding 1: CSR in Women’s Professional Sport 75 Finding 2: Race, Class, and Gender and CSR 82 Gender 84 Class 96 Race, Ethnicity, and Nationality 97 Sexual Preference 103 Media Coverage 107 New York Times Content Analysis 108 Finding 3: Combating Stereotypes 117 Finding 4: Reasons Leagues and Teams Engage in CSR 120 Finding 5: CSR: Microcosm of Women’s Sport 123 Summary of Findings 123 Chapter Five: Analysis, Synthesis, and Discussion of Findings 126 Analytic Category 1: Intersectionality and Sport 129 Intersectionality and Sport 130 Structural Domain 132 Disciplinary Domain 136 Standing on the Shoulders of Giants 126 More Than What Meets the Eye 140 Modern Day Prostitution? 146 The New Scarlett Letter—L 151 Getting Lost in the Cornrows 155 This Land is Your Land, This Land is My Land 157 Length Matters 162 Interpersonal Domain 162 Hegemonic Domain 166 Analytic Category 2: Engaging in CSR 168 Summary of Findings 173 Chapter Six: Conclusions and Recommendations 177 Engaging in CSR 177 iv Race, Class, Gender, and CSR 178 Combating Stereotypes and Oppression 179 Meanings and Importance of CSR 180 CSR: Microcosm of Women’s Sport 181 Study Limitations 181 Concluding Statement 182 Recommendations for Future Research 183 References 185 Appendix 201 Appendix A: Letter of Consent 201 Appendix B: Interview Protocol 202 Appendix C: Document Summary Form 204 Appendix D: Participant Summary Form 205 Appendix E: Data Summary Charts 206 Appendix F: Content Analysis Code Book 212 Appendix G: Images 214 Women’s Tennis Association 214 Strong Is Beautiful Campaign 215 Ladies Professional Golf Association 216 Women’s National Basketball Association 220 Women’s Professional Soccer 223 v LIST OF TABLES Table 1: CSR in Women’s Professional Sport: Categories & Frequencies 225 Table 2: Women’s Tennis Association CSR Initiatives 226 Table 3: Ladies Professional Golf Association CSR Initiatives 227 Table 4: Women’s National Basketball Association CSR Initiatives 228 Table 5: Women’s Professional Soccer Team CSR Initiatives 229 Table 6: Factors Shaping CSR Initiatives: Categories and Frequencies 230 Table 7: NYT Media Coverage of Women’s Professional Sport 231 Table 8: NYT Article Type of Women’s Professional Sport 232 Table 9: NYT Photo Type of Women’s Professional Sport 233 Table 10: NYT Coverage: Race of Individual in Photo or Described in Article 234 Table 11: Combating Oppression with CSR in Women’s Professional Sport: Categories & Frequencies 235 Table 12: Purposes for Engaging In CSR: Themes & Frequencies 236 vi ABSTRACT CHANGING THE GAME: CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN WOMEN’S PROFESSIONAL SPORT Lorie Coker, MEd A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Public Policy and Administration at Virginia Commonwealth University Virginia Commonwealth University, 2012 Director: Dr. Janet R. Hutchinson Professor, Public Policy and Administration Chair, Department Gender, Sexuality, and Women’s Studies Research indicates that female athletes have long occupied marginal and sometimes invisible positions in sport settings and mainstream media. The focus of this study is on understanding and analyzing how race, class, gender, and other forms of oppression shape women’s professional sport using as the focal point, corporate social responsibility (CSR) and the type of mainstream media coverage it receives. The researcher believes that a better understanding of these varied experiences would add depth and knowledge to research on CSR in sport, women and sport research, as well as vii allow professional leagues and teams to move forward with a more informed perspective regarding design, delivery, and overall purpose of CSR in women’s professional sport. The purposefully selected sample includes six semi-structured interviews with league and team executives from the Women’s Tennis Association, Ladies Professional Golf, Women’s National Basketball Association, and Women’s Professional Soccer. Additionally, this study includes content analysis of 218 public organizational documents and a content analysis of the New York Times Sports sections. The data was coded and organized according to the research questions. Analysis and interpretation of findings were organized by way of two analytic categories that were based on the study’s conceptual framework: (a) Intersectionality and sport, and (b) How and why women’s professional sport leagues and teams engage in CSR. Ultimately, this study is important because CSR initiatives often serve as a way to connect with the community, bring attention to socially relevant issues, and highlight athletes who serve as positive role models for youth. Race, class, and gender discrimination by the sporting public negatively impacts the level of interest in women’s sport, which, in turn affects the ability of women’s professional sport leagues and teams to effectively engage in CSR.