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Cultural Imperatives in Foreign Policy: The Case of Nigeria
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3
CULTURAL IMPERATIVES IN FOREIGN POLICY: THE CASE OF NIGERIA
Benjamin Uchenna Anaemene, Ph.D. Redeemer’s University, Ede, Osun State, Nigeria.
Introduction Cultural exchange has been intertwined with the pursuit of foreign relations since the 19 th century. The practice was highly informed by the belief that culture in diplomacy possesses potentials for enormous influence. This is because it attempts to bypass commercial media images by appealing directly to the people on a non-political level. Thus, “knowing who is the other and explain to him who we are, is the only way to use diplomacy successfully”. 1 It has been argued that a principal tool with which the world can instill the culture of peace and diminish the culture of war is cultural diplomacy. Historically, the art of using culture as a diplomatic tool was a French invention in the late 19 th century. Following its defeat in the Franco-Prussian war, 1870-1871, the French government sought to repair the nation’s shattered prestige by promoting its language
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. and literature through L’Alliance Francaise created in 1883. The projection of French culture abroad thus became a significant component of French diplomacy. Other countries such as Italy, Germany, Britain and the United States followed suit. For instance, the activities of the British Council; German Goethe Institute;
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Cultural Imperatives in Foreign Policy 63
United States Information Service (USIS) (now defunct), were all aimed at penetrating host countries through lectures, films, libraries, press, cultural and academic exchanges and other means without having to go through the rigors of normal diplomatic practice. The cultural foundation of Nigeria’s foreign policy was actually laid in 1960. It is true that foreign policy is usually the last function to be handed over to an independent government. Foreign policy has been defined as the strategy used by governments to guide their actions in the international arena. 2 Through foreign policy, a country seeks to promote and protect its national interest in the course of interaction with the outside world and with regard to relationships with specific countries in the international system. In the process, countries react to situations in the international system in ways conducive to their interest and in accordance with their perception of the world order. The reaction is usually guided by certain principles formulated during the process of the evolution of the country as a player on the international scene. In other words, Nigeria has recognized the importance of culture and cultural diplomacy after her independence in 1960. This was aptly demonstrated by Nigeria’s Prime Minister, Sir Abubarka Tafawa Balewa in his maiden address to the United Nations General Assembly on October 7, 1960 where he articulated Nigeria’s foreign policy. According to him; It is the desire of Nigeria to remain on friendly terms with all nations and to participate in the work of the
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United Nations, Nigeria a large and populous nation has absolutely no territorial or expansionist ambitions. We are committed to uphold the principles upon which the United Nations is founded. Nigeria hopes to work with other African states for the progress of Africa and assist in bringing all African countries to a state of independence. 3
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64 Benjamin U. Anaemene
For over fifty years, the government defined Nigeria’s foreign policy in accordance with the principles of non-alignment, legal equality of states, non-interference in the internal affairs of other states, multilateralism and Africa as cornerstone. As Iyorwuese Hagher rightly pointed out, ‘a country with the above set of values, which had in its policy the core values of peace, neutrality, respect for territorial integrity of all nations and friendship among the world’s peoples had set out on a higher road less travelled by other nations’. 4 The choice of soft power or cultural diplomacy as the goal of her foreign policy meant that Nigeria was determined to foster common cultural ties with other African states and show her identity to the world. Accordingly, since 1960 when Nigeria became an independent state, culture has been part of its diplomatic tool. Cultural exchanges, festivals, movies, music, sports and tourism have become platforms for Nigeria to project her image. Nigeria has also learned to use culture to ease external concerns and gain appeal. It is against this background that this chapter examines the significance of culture and cultural diplomacy as the key foreign policy strategy of Nigeria since independence.
Conceptual Underpinnings Two basic concepts are central to the subject matter of this paper; culture and cultural diplomacy. To start with, it is worth reflecting on the concept of culture, which will make it easier to analyse the concept of cultural diplomacy.
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Culture The concept of culture has been defined severally by various scholars and authors. For instance, Ruth Benedict defined culture as ‘a pattern of thinking and doing that runs through activities of a people and distinguishes them from other people’. 5 E. B. Taylor, an
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Cultural Imperatives in Foreign Policy 65
English anthropologist, had earlier defined culture ‘as that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society’. 6 From Taylor’s definition, it can be adduced that culture is everything that people have learned and preserved from past collective experience. However, for the purpose of this study, we shall adopt the definition of culture, precisely that given in the Nigerian Cultural Policy of 1988, which defined culture as; the sum total of the people’s way of life, comprising material and non- material components. The material comprising technology clothing, food, machines, buildings, airport etc, while non-material culture, comprises the political, social, legal and economic institutions, which sustain material and spiritual wellbeing. Culture also comprises the philosophical which embraces ideas, beliefs, manners attitudes as well as creativity. 7 From the aforementioned, culture then is a way of life of a people in a given society. It is the set of practices that create meaning for society and it has many manifestations. 8 It incorporates a wide mixture of issues including laws, knowledge, crafts, tradition and all possible man-made practices. 9 One important aspect of culture that needs to be emphasized is its dynamism. This is because it is a product of ever changing historical circumstances, consistently affected by a number of factors such as population movements,
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. contact between societies, new ideas, wars, and general developments on the global, continental or national scene. Traditionally, the cultural part of diplomacy meant high culture such as virtual arts, literature, theatre, dance and music, cultural expressions that have been the preserve of the intellectual elite. Today, this assumption has changed. Cultural diplomacy now
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66 Benjamin U. Anaemene includes popular culture- cultural activities that attract mass audience.
Cultural Diplomacy Diplomacy is the act, institution and practice of conducting relations between or among states and between states and other actors. A country practices its diplomacy in the process of implementing the objectives of foreign policy. Cultural diplomacy, as a form of diplomacy, has attracted little attention despite its intersection with a range of subjects, its long history and a substantial investment by some practitioners. The lack of adequate scholarly attention accorded to cultural diplomacy is attributable to several reasons. First, politicians and diplomats have regarded cultural diplomacy as a lesser tool of diplomacy, which in turn is regarded by some as a lesser tool of foreign policy. Shaun Riordian noted that cultural promotion, as undertaken by practitioners of cultural diplomacy such as the British Council, the Goethe Institute and the now defunct United States Information Service, is not regarded as a serious aspect of diplomacy. 10 It is significant to note that the deployment of state’s culture in support of its foreign policy goals or diplomacy was very much pronounced in the Cold War, at least for the two main antagonists – United States and the Soviet Union. However, once the Cold War ended, the United States’ support for cultural diplomacy declined in the period 1999-2003. A glaring manifestation is that overall funding for US government sponsored
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. cultural and educational programmes abroad fell by one third despite calls for increase in funding. Secondly, the low priority given to cultural diplomacy is worsened by the difficulty in determining cultural diplomacy’s long term impact on the behavior of audiences. Another reason, and perhaps the most significant for a lack of scholarly attention to
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Cultural Imperatives in Foreign Policy 67 cultural diplomacy, is the lack of clarity about what precisely the practice entails. There is wide range of definitions of cultural diplomacy. There is no general agreement among scholars about cultural diplomacy’s relationship to the practice of diplomacy, its objectives, practitioners, activities, timeframe or whether the practice is reciprocal or not. While some regard cultural diplomacy as a synonym of public diplomacy, international cultural relations, or a state’s foreign cultural missions, others regard this as distinct practices. Many scholars also assume that cultural diplomacy is a subset of diplomacy with little explanation provided as to why. Nevertheless, the definition of cultural diplomacy by the American scholar, Milton Cummings, brings together many of these components. Cummings defines cultural diplomacy as the exchange of ideas, information, art and other aspects of culture among nations and their peoples in order to foster mutual understanding which can also be more of a one way street than a two way exchange, as when one nation concentrates its efforts on promoting the national language, explaining its policies and point of view or telling its story to the rest of the world. 11 Despite the increasing authority of Cummings definition, it nevertheless raises several questions such as, where do the boundaries between cultural diplomacy and public diplomacy lie? It also raised the issue of mutuality but leaves the meaning unresolved. Simply put, cultural diplomacy is the deployment of a state’s culture
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License .
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. in support of its foreign policy goals or diplomacy.12 In other words, it is the art of winning the hearts and minds of others by attracting them through cultural activities and exchanges that include art, beliefs, way of life and customs. 13 It provides a meeting point between culture and policy. It seeks to propagate a positive image towards a better mutual understanding. It is also the preferred
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68 Benjamin U. Anaemene alternative to the conventional diplomacy with emphasis on military might, political leverage and economic power. This is so because it encourages dialogue and value sharing. It is multidimensional, comprising public diplomacy, information management and relationship building. In terms of its objectives, cultural diplomacy is undertaken for several purposes. Traditional governments undertake cultural diplomacy to achieve idealistic purposes – to develop mutual understanding, combat ethnocentrism and stereotyping and prevent conflict. The functional objectives of cultural diplomacy include advancing trade, political, diplomatic and economic interests, developing bilateral relationships across the board, connecting with groups abroad that are important to the cultural diplomacy practitioners such as diasporas and helping to maintain bilateral relationships in times of tension. Cultural diplomacy can also advance the interest of other countries not just the interest of the country carrying out the diplomacy. Cultural diplomacy can be achieved through direct and indirect, formal and informal processes. The formal vehicles are bilateral agreements; the establishment of corps of attaches who are part of the embassy or operatives in cultural centres, which are operated via notes verbales or privately organized expositions involving friendship associations of private entrepreneurs. It can also be achieved through arrangements or agreements between countries
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. or through active participation in international conferences, intergovernmental institutions such as UNESCO, the African Cultural Institute, the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO), or in nongovernmental organizations. Its main vehicles are exhibitions in the visual, literary and performing arts, interpersonal communication achieved through exchanges of
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Cultural Imperatives in Foreign Policy 69 artists, journalists, writings, film makers, cultural workers, teachers and instructors or through lectures, symposia, seminars conferences, competitions and accession to treaties designed to promote mutual interests and improve understanding.
Major Actors and Institutions in the Cultural Diplomacy Arena
Geoffrey Wisemann has argued that cultural diplomacy is a diplomatic practice of governments, mostly single governments; group of governments such as European Union and sub-national governments. 14 This assertion is in tandem with the argument by Fox that the term cultural diplomacy implies the involvement of government to whatever extent in the business of projecting the nation’s image abroad. 15 Indeed, the government is the major actor as cultural diplomacy is carried out in support of government foreign policy or diplomacy. In Nigeria, the domestic institutions of culture that underpin and give expression to Nigeria’s cultural policy and cultural diplomacy are the Ministries of Foreign Affairs, Culture and Tourism, Information and Communications. Others include the country’s diplomatic missions, the National Council for Arts and Culture, the Ministries of Culture of each state. In addition are the Nigerian Television International and external broadcast of the Voice of Nigeria. There are also the National Troupe, the Copyright Commission, the Universities, the Film Institute, the National Theatre, National Museum and the Centre for Black and African
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Arts and Civilization. These public institutions are supported by the civil society of artists, arts and crafts guilds, traditional festivals, tourist destinations and organizations like Society of Nigerian Theatre Artists and Radio and Television Workers’ Union. It is important to stress that the history of the management and promotion of Nigeria’s image abroad from 1960 to 2010 was a
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70 Benjamin U. Anaemene chequered one. This was because of the wrong impression that no special institution is needed to manage the country’s image abroad. However, since 2010 the country has recorded tremendous success in cultural activities with the various festivals and carnivals held both at home and abroad. Some of these domestic institutions have gone as far as collaborating with Nigeria’s foreign missions with a view to projecting the image of Nigeria abroad. Clear example is the collaboration between the Nigeria Embassy in Washington and the Centre for Black and African Arts and Civilization (CBAAC). The major aim was to promote and preserve African cultures so as to advance the objectives of Nigerian foreign policy in the United States and the Americas. The collaboration set out to achieve the protection and promotion in particular of Nigeria's national interest; and advancing Nigeria's artistic and cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue. Specific areas of cooperation that were identified include: colloquia on the role of culture and Nollywood in the new Nigerian diplomacy, exhibitions in the United States to be jointly sponsored by CBAAC and the Nigerian Embassy in Washington, concerts where Nigerian musicians would be invited to perform in the United States and an annual roundtable conversations on Nigerian culture in the Americas.
Cultural Diplomacy and its Manifestations in Nigeria This section examines the manifestations of cultural diplomacy in Nigeria since independence in 1960. As shown in the discourse
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. below, cultural diplomacy has manifested in various ways as a very potent tool in the conduct of Nigeria’s foreign policy.
Cultural Diplomacy as Soft Power There is no doubt that Nigeria employs its culture as a diplomatic platform to project its soft power. Cultural diplomacy has been
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Cultural Imperatives in Foreign Policy 71 adjudged the best form of soft power and a key diplomatic tool in today’s multicultural world. Soft power refers to the ability to get what you want through attraction. 16 It departs from the conventional emphasis on military might, political leverage and economic power with its emphasis on ideology, diplomatic conduct and culture. Accordingly, Nigerian leaders believe that Nigeria’s rise should be based not only on its economic, political and military power but also on its soft power. The historical link between the peoples of Nigeria and those of other countries in the continent of Africa and the existence of a culture of being ‘our brother’s keeper’ explains Nigeria’s preoccupation with decolonization, regional integration and the general promotion of African unity. In this wise, Nigeria has attempted to strengthen existing relations among its peoples and those outside its borders. For instance, it was based on the strong cultural affinities amongst the people of the region that Nigeria appealed for closer economic cooperation among the West African states. This proved an effective counter to the subtle objections of the French to the establishment of Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) as well as France’s economic influence on Francophone West African countries. Nigeria has been supportive of the African Union and ECOWAS in the area of conflict resolution. In other words, Nigeria has become foremost peace builder in the African continent and the world. The country has participated in peacekeeping in the Congo,
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Rwanda, Liberia, Lebanon, Yugoslavia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Sierra Leone, Chad, Darfur, Somalia, Cote d’Ivoire and Angola. Nigeria is also instrumental in creating the first regional peacekeeping force, the ECOMOG. The country has been promoting South-South cooperation and reinforced its cultural credentials. Rather than intimidation and coercion, Nigeria has
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72 Benjamin U. Anaemene reversed coup d’états in Sao Tome and Principe, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Guinea and Sierra Leone. It should be noted that the African culture of looking after one another and solving all disputes by arbitration and conciliation informed Nigeria’s attachment to peaceful resolution of all African conflicts. Nigeria’s inexorable search for peace was expressed by former President Olusegun Obasanjo who believes that “peace is an end in itself, a life without peace is not worth contemplating. The greater and the most enduring legacy is peace. Peace is the foundation of all developments and progress. There is no substitute for peace. And any sacrifice is 17 worth making for peace”. More significantly, Nigeria helped in dismantling apartheid in South Africa, not only through the United Nations and diplomatic channels but also through her support as a frontline state for the African National Congress, ANC members who were provided with economic and logistical support to resist the apartheid regime. Nigeria also trained South African black manpower in Nigerian educational institutions. The recognition by the African states of Nigeria’s contribution as a frontline state, a measure of her struggles and assistance to Africa’s decolonization and the dismantling of apartheid is a demonstration of its soft power activity. The Technical Aid Corp (TAC) is perhaps the greatest manifestation of Nigeria’s commitment to Africa’s cultural response expressing communal solidarity. Nigeria established the TAC in 1987
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. to share her know-how and expertise with other African, Caribbean and Pacific countries. Since then, Nigerian professionals, including doctors, engineers, accountants, teachers, agriculturists and others, continued to go out to assist these countries as a demonstration of Nigeria’s soft power. The success of the TAC programme increased and strengthened the reservoir of goodwill for
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Cultural Imperatives in Foreign Policy 73
Nigeria in Africa and Caribbean countries. Moreover, many countries in the Diaspora came to realize through TAC how developed and sophisticated Nigeria is and that aid can also come from their big brother in Africa. In keeping abreast with newer realities where most of African countries are free and independent, Nigeria has charted a new course for Africa through the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD). By playing a leading role in the establishment of NEPAD, Nigeria is expanding the concept of cultural diplomacy involving trade in cultural products from Africa in partnership with the United States, Europe, Asia and other development partners. NEPAD emerged as a comprehensive programme to move Africa forward not as aid dependent entity, but as a partner in human development, where the partnership is based on the promotion of bilateral and multilateral relations anchored on mutual interests, mutual respect, trust and mutual benefits. From the aforementioned, it is pertinent to state that Nigeria in the spirit of African solidarity understates its soft power and donor status, because the aim is not to impose Nigeria on these nations nor boast about rich resources. The assistance was given despite Nigeria’s environmental, infrastructural and sometimes severe financial challenges.
Cultural Festivals and Cultural Diplomacy
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Cultural festivals have consistently projected Nigeria’s cultural diplomacy. Some of these festivals include Argungu fishing festival, Osun Oshogbo festival, Durbar, Eyo festival, Black heritage festival, and Igue festival, among others. These festivals attract participants and spectators, including tourists from different parts of the world. Nigerians have used these festivals to showcase their rich culture. One notable cultural festival held in Nigeria was the global Festival
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74 Benjamin U. Anaemene of Arts and Culture (FESTAC) in 1977 where all black peoples of the world came to Nigeria to celebrate the black culture. Africa, North America, the Middle East, Asia and Australia, where blacks and peoples of African descent were dispersed all came together in Nigeria to reaffirm their common destiny and human dignity. It is interesting to note that the focus of Nigeria’s cultural diplomacy encompassed not just Africa as the centerpiece of her foreign policy, but also the Black World. Nigeria considered it in her national interest, the “protection of the dignity of black peoples”. This doctrine was formulated to buttress the inevitable link between Nigeria and the destiny of all black people. As Joy Ogwu rightly stated, “Nigeria shares a destiny with blacks all over the world and any quest for the preservation of its own values and aspirations was bound to encompass the values and aspirations of other members of the black world”. 18 Therefore, the hosting of FESTAC could be seen as a faithful implementation of one of the principles of Nigeria’s foreign policy. Furthermore, the Calabar carnival is another interesting novelty in the way Nigeria’s culture is projected abroad. The Calabar carnival is regarded as the biggest street party in Africa. Over one million revelers gather in the city to dance along a mile-long carnival parade that features hundreds of decorated floats and about fifty thousand costumed participants. Nigeria’s reputation as one of the continent’s most cultural hubs is well reflected in the arts festival
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. held across the country. A dynamic form of cultural diplomacy is also emerging from the private sector where telecommunication companies, oil companies, banks and others are beginning to sponsor cultural and artistic festivals. In the literary world, Professor Wole Soyinka status as Nobel laureate and Chinua Achebe’s literary accomplishments distinguished them and set Nigeria on the literary
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Cultural Imperatives in Foreign Policy 75 map. The young and upcoming writers like Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie are also worthy cultural ambassadors. The performance of these individuals has continued to reflect positively on Nigeria’s overall image abroad.
Nollywood and Cultural Diplomacy Films have been considered as important art tool for educating and indoctrinating citizens. It is one of the most influential media in the society that has helped in promoting the nation’s cultural values as well as laundering the image of the country abroad. 19 Nigeria’s Nollywood industry is today the most powerful medium to provide the Nigerian cultural narratives about Nigeria to the world. It is a counter narrative of Western films about Africa as the land of jungles and apes. A typical example of such Western films was Hollywood film ‘District 9’ produced by Sony Corporation 2010. In this film Nigerians were portrayed as less than humans to the world. This coupled with Cable Network News, CNN images of how to rob a bank and a film released by a Canadian, ‘419 scam’, seriously injured the already battered image of Nigeria. Nollywood films have become Nigeria’s primary cultural tool. These films are all over Africa, the United States, Canada and the Caribbean. They showcase the good, the bad and the ugly side of life in Nigeria. Indeed, Nigerian films have been major diplomatic tool. A former Minister of Information and Communications, Prof. Dora Akunyili, enlisted Nollywood in 2009 to serve as part of the then rebranding project.
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Some of these films have been deployed by the Nigerian missions abroad to respond to the negative perceptions about Nigeria. Nollywood is now a multimillion dollar industry. By and large, the films have been described as promoting social, economic, political and cultural development of the country. Following these diplomatic successes, it is believed that the Nigerian government will as a matter
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76 Benjamin U. Anaemene of necessity continue to employ Nollywood as a cultural diplomatic tool in order to attract more goodwill and friendship as a regional power and an aspiring continental power in the 21th century.
Music and Cultural Diplomacy Music is another tool of cultural diplomacy in Nigeria. Nigerian music has become a global phenomenon. Nigerian arts and music are increasingly exported, shedding light on the rich cultural diversity of the country. Several new Nigerian musicians such as 2face Idibia, Psquare, Dbanj, Kerewa, Lagbaja, and Wizkid, among others have projected Nigeria’s image outside her borders. Over the past five decades, Nigerian musicians have toured the world and showcased Nigerian talents. The late Afro king Fela Anikulapo, and his son, Femi Anikulapo Kuti, were the pioneers of Afro-beats popularizing blackness and Africanness in a world where being black and African was considered demeaning. Other veterans of the Nigerian music scene who can also be referred to as cultural ambassadors include Ebenezer Obey, Victor Olaiya, Sunny Ade, Victor Uwaifo, and Sunny Okosun, among others. In addition, the National Troupe of Nigeria and the Benue Dance Troupe have consistently toured and performed in foreign countries, extending a hand of friendship to the world. The impact of their tours was aptly demonstrated during the Benue Dance Troupe tour to Mexico. The dance enticed a Mexican choreographer, Maria Carmen, who left Mexico and lived in Nigeria for twelve months. 20
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On return to Mexico, she replicated this and became a Nigerian dance expert at the Safari Resort, Puebla Mexico, achieving a synthesis of Mexican and Nigerian performative idiom. These performances were able to register Nigeria’s identity in Mexican consciousness as friendly and entertaining. The National Troupe has represented the country in cultural festivals in Africa and beyond. In
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Cultural Imperatives in Foreign Policy 77
1985, the Nigerian Troupe toured some countries in the Caribbean including Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. Between 1992 and 1995, the National Troupe received invitations to perform in the United States and the United Kingdom where the troupe received accolades for her spectacular performance. Consequently, through her national and international performances, the National Troupe has consistently propagated the values of Nigerian culture. 21
Sports and Cultural Diplomacy Apart from arts, sports have been a major cultural tool. Nigerian footballers have been celebrated all over the world. The country has won several international sports competition and football has become a national ideology for unity. Some of the sports figures and Nigeria’s cultural ambassadors include Kanu Nwankwo, J.J. Okocha, Mary Onyali Omagbemi and Blessing Okagbare. In furtherance of Nigeria’s avowed commitment to sports development in Africa, she has hosted the All African Games twice (1973 and 2003) since its inception in 1965, in addition to hosting other international sports events. The projection of Nigeria’s image through sports is not only effective but also cheap. The benefits of investing in sports are incalculable. Jamaica and old East Germany demonstrated the extent of the benefits derivable from investment in sports. 22 It is interesting to note the old East Germany got international recognition through sports.
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Food and Cultural Diplomacy One major and important cultural form of exchange is food. Thailand, for example, has taken advantage of this and uses restaurants to promote its tourism and culture. The ‘Global Thai’ plans to increase the amount of Thai restaurant far and wide across the universe in an attempt to drive tourism and promote
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78 Benjamin U. Anaemene consciousness about Thailand. It was propelled by government in 2003. Nigerian foods and cuisine are part of the cultural heritage of the nation. Nigerian indigenous foods are natural with all their nutritional benefits intact. This is different from Western cuisine, which are mostly canned foods with their attendant negative effects on the body systems. 23 Nigerian foods are not only appealing to her citizens but also to foreigners. This explains why a large number of Nigerian fast foods establishments like Tantalizers, Mama Cass, Tastees, Chicken Republic, and Mama Calabar among others have overtaken the foreign-owned ones. It should be noted that some private enterprises owned by Nigerians in the Diaspora have various outlets where they display and sell some Nigerian cuisine. However, Nigeria is yet to effectively project her food and cuisine abroad. It is therefore, in her own interest that Nigeria employs her citizens in the Diaspora to serve as cultural ambassadors, in promoting Nigeria’s indigenous cuisine in the countries where they reside by establishing Nigerian kitchens.
Conclusion This chapter has demonstrated that cultural diplomacy plays a vital role in building relations among states in contemporary international relations. In other words, it serves as an effective instrument in supporting country’s foreign policy, yet Nigeria has not adequately explored it. For Nigeria’s cultural diplomacy to continue to be
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. relevant, it must adopt best practices. The future of Nigeria’s cultural diplomacy is not sustainable without a robust overhaul of the domestic institutions of culture. The Foreign Affairs Ministry should emulate the German example where the German foreign policy is culture oriented. More than half of the budget of German Foreign Ministry is spent on cultural diplomacy. Nigeria should also imbibe
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Cultural Imperatives in Foreign Policy 79 the practice of appointing leading artists as diplomats. Latin America and India have used their finest artists as diplomats. In the final analysis, it is apposite to assert that for over five decades of Nigeria’s existence as an independent state, culture has remained one of the key areas where diversity has been a blessing rather than a curse. Nigeria has provided costumes to many African nations overrun by foreign culture and values. The huge successes Nigeria has recorded in the literary world, music, sports and Nollywood should be explored to the fullest as areas of comparative advantage.
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80 Benjamin U. Anaemene
Endnotes 1. Evolution of Cultural Diplomacy Available at http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/pdf/case- studies/Gerome-Evolution-of-Cultural-Diplomacy.pdf Accessed on 10 June 2014. 2. Joshua Goldstein, International Relations , Sixth Edition (New Delhi, Pearson Education, 2008), 169. 3. Olu Adeniyi, Essays on Nigeria Foreign Policy, Governance and International Security (Ibadan: Dokun Publishers, 2001), 6. 4. Iyorwuese Hagher, “The Importance of Culture and Cultural Diplomacy in the Foreign Policy of Nigeria” Paper Presented at the Institute of Cultural Diplomacy, Berlin Germany, July 16, 2011 5. Ruth Benedict, Encyclopedia Americana , vol 8. 315-318 6. E.B. Taylor, Primitive Culture (London: Murray, 1891). 7. Federal Government of Nigeria, Cultural Policy for Nigeria (Lagos: Federal Government Press, 1988). 8. Joseph Nye Jr, “Public Diplomacy and Soft Power” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 616, 94 (2008): 96. 9. Ade Adefuye, Culture and Foreign Policy: The Nigerian Example (Lagos: Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, 1992), 1. st 10. Shaun Riordian, The New Diplomacy: Themes for the 21 Century (Cambridge: Polity, 2003), 121.
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11. Milton Cummings, Cultural Diplomacy and the United States Government: A Survey (Washington DC: Centre for Arts and Culture, 2003), 1. 12. Simon Mark, ”A Greater Role for Cultural Diplomacy”, Discussion Papers in Diplomacy, Netherlands Institute for International Relations, April 2009.
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Cultural Imperatives in Foreign Policy 81
13. Iyorwuese Hagher, “The Importance of Culture and Cultural Diplomacy in the Foreign Policy of Nigeria”2011, .cited above 14. Geofrey Wisemann, “Pax Americana: Bumping into Diplomatic Culture” International Studies Perspectives no 6 (2005):409-430. 15. Robert Fox, Cultural Diplomacy at the Crossroads: Cultural Relations in Europe and the Wider World (London: The British Council, 1999), 2. 16. Joseph Nye Jr, ”Hard Power, Soft Power and the War on Terrorism” in American Power in the 21 st Century ed. David Held and Mathais Koenig-Archi Bugi (Cambridge: Polity, 2004) 17. Federal Ministry of Information and National Orientation, Selected Speeches of President Olusegun Obasanjo (Lagos: Federal Government Press, 2003), 3. 18. Joy Ogwu, “African and the Diaspora in the Strategies of Cultural Diplomacy”. Paper Presented at the National Workshop on Culture, Lagos. 1991. 19. See Gloria Felicia, “Nollywood: A Viable Vehicle of Public Diplomacy New Media and Mass Communication” vol 11, (2003); Kanayo. O. Kanayo, Paper Presented at a Roundtable on Culture as Instrument of Diplomacy, Organised by Centre for Black and African Arts & Civilisation (CBAAC), on January 17, 2014, in Washington DC, USA.
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20. Iyorwuese Hagher, ”The Importance of Culture and Cultural Diplomacy in the Foreign Policy of Nigeria”2011, cited above 21. Federal Ministry of Information, Culture and its Manifestations (Lagos: Wazad International Press, 1991), 2.
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82 Benjamin U. Anaemene
22. Akinjide Osuntokun, Domestic and Foreign Dimensions of Nigeria’s Foreign Politics (Ado Ekiti: Ekiti State University Press, 2013), 157. 23 Baclays Foubiri Ayakoroma, Diasporas as Agents in the Promotion of Nigeria’s Cultural Diplomacy; A Food for Thought (Abuja; National Institute for Cultural Orientation, 2013), 5.
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