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Overtime and Need for Recovery in Relation to Job Demands and Job Control

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Overtime and Need for Recovery in Relation to Job Demands and Job Control Journal of J Occup Health 2006; 48: 11–19 Occupational Health Overtime and Need for Recovery in Relation to Job Demands and Job Control Monique van der HULST1, Marc van VELDHOVEN2 and Debby BECKERS1 1Department of Work and Organizational Psychology, Radboud University Nijmegen and 2Department of Human Resource Studies, Tilburg University, The Netherlands Abstract: Overtime and Need for Recovery in the relationship between overtime, need for recovery Relation to Job Demands and Job Control: Monique and working conditions. van der HULST, et al. Department of Work and (J Occup Health 2006; 48: 11–19) Organizational Psychology, Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands—This study addressed Key words: Overtime, Psychosocial work the prevalence of working overtime in relation to characteristics, Need for recovery psychosocial work characteristics and need for recovery. More precisely, the aim of this study was to Long working hours and overtime have received find out (1) whether a relationship exists between considerable attention in recent literature. In a review working overtime and psychosocial work characteristics on the relationship between long working hours and (job demands and job control), (2a) whether a health, Van der Hulst1) concluded that long working hours relationship exists between working overtime and need are associated with adverse health as measured by several for recovery, and finally (2b) whether such a relationship 2, 3) 4) depends on job type (a specific combination of job indicators (e.g. cardiovascular disease , diabetes , 5, 6) demands and job control). The study sample (N=1,473) subjectively reported physical health and subjective consisted of a national random sample of office-based fatigue7–10)). According to Meijman and Mulder’s Effort- municipal administration employees who worked full- Recovery model11), the possible negative consequences time. These employees completed a questionnaire on of long working hours for health and well-being depend working conditions, overtime and need for recovery, on the possibilities for recovery in the course of the among other things. Overtime was especially common working day (internal recovery) and after work (external in jobs characterised by high demands. The analyses recovery). Working overtime implies that the duration showed that working overtime is not associated with a of effort investment is prolonged, whereas the time left higher need for recovery in the total study population. for external recovery is shortened. Moreover, the quality However, there was a positive relationship between of recovery after work may be poor due to spillover overtime hours and need for recovery in high strain 12–14) jobs (high demands, low control). Furthermore, there effects . In addition, overtime is likely to occur was a positive relationship between structural overtime especially in high demand situations, which means that and need for recovery in active jobs (high demands, the possibilities for internal recovery (short breaks from high control). The relationship between overtime and work) will be limited as well. These factors may cause need for recovery seems to be dependent upon working accumulation of fatigue and eventually affect health. Van conditions; indicators of overtime were associated with der Hulst’s review1) showed that there is indeed evidence a higher need for recovery only for employees who for insufficient (physiological) recovery in those who experienced high job demands. Longitudinal research work long hours. More particularly, long working hours within a heterogeneous sample will be necessary to are associated with short sleeping hours and, at least in draw firm conclusions about causality with respect to some circumstances, with a higher heart rate, higher blood pressure and decreased immunity. Received Jan 31, 2005; Accepted Oct 11, 2005 Against the background of the Effort-Recovery model Correspondence to: D. Beckers, Department of Work and one would expect a positive relationship between working Organisational Psychology, Radboud University Nijmegen, P.O. overtime and need for recovery, and eventually, adverse Box 9104, 6500 HE Nijmegen, The Netherlands health. Recent studies have shown that high working (e-mail: [email protected]) hours a day, high working hours a week and overtime 12 J Occup Health, Vol. 48, 2006 work were indeed associated with a higher need for overtime and psychosocial work characteristics (in recovery from work in both genders15, 16). In turn, a high particular job demands and job control)? [2] Is there a need for recovery is associated with neuroendocrine relationship between working overtime and need for reactivity17), subjective health complaints and future recovery, and does this relationship depend on job type sickness absence18, 19), and future cardiovascular disease20). (i.e. a specific combination of job demands and job An important gap in the literature concerns the control)? association between working hours and psychosocial work characteristics1, 21). First, little is known about the Method causes of overtime and the circumstances under which 1. Sample overtime is common. As was stated above, overtime is The study was conducted in a national random sample likely to be especially prevalent in high demand situations. of office employees in all Dutch municipalities (response Therefore, research concerning overtime should take into 52%). The study was part of a joint research project on account that overtime and high demands are often working conditions in municipalities by the Dutch associated and try to disentangle the effects of these two government, the Federation of Dutch municipalities and factors. Second, the effects of overtime are likely to worker unions. All data were collected by SKB (the depend on the circumstances under which it is carried Dutch foundation for quality in occupational health care) out. In other words, psychosocial work characteristics in May 2002. This data collection was conducted within may moderate the relationship between overtime and the scope of The Covenant on Health and Safety at Work work-related well-being. for municipalities. Complete data were available for An important model in the context of research 2,072 employees. In the current study, only fulltime (at concerning job characteristics, job strain and job least 36 h per wk) employees were selected. The study satisfaction is the Job Demand Control model22–24). population consisted of 1,473 fulltime employees. Table According to this model, there are two important 1 shows the number and percentage of individuals in psychosocial work characteristics that determine health different demographic groups in the current sample. As and well-being. The first determinant is job demands, can be seen from Table 1, the sample is skewed in the that is, pace and amount of work and work complexity. direction of high age groups, few females, high The second determinant is control (or decision latitude). educational levels and many years of employment in the Control comprises two constructs, i.e. decision authority current organisation. On the one hand, this is reflective (autonomy) and skill discretion (range of skills used). In of the workforce characteristics in municipalities, but on general, four job types are distinguished in the framework the other hand, it is also a consequence of selecting only of this model: low strain jobs (low demands and high full-time employees for this study. control), passive jobs (low demands and low control), active jobs (high demands and high control) and high 2. Measures strain jobs (high demands and low control). The JDC- Overtime was measured in terms of number of hours model predicts that the combination of high task demands per week and in terms of frequency (never, incidentally, and low control is associated with job strain. Furthermore, structurally). Job demands, job control and need for the combination of high demands and high control is recovery were measured by means of subscales of the thought to be associated with job satisfaction and learning Dutch Questionnaire on the Experience and Evaluation opportunities. of Work25–27). Job demands were assessed with scales The current study investigated the relationship between that measure work speed and quantity (11 items, example: working overtime and need for recovery in relation to “Do you have to work very fast?”, Cronbach’s alpha: Karasek’s demands and control dimensions. It was .88) and emotional load (7 items, example: “Does your hypothesised that overtime would be positively associated work demand a lot from you emotionally?”, Cronbach’s with job demands. No specific hypothesis was formulated alpha: .78). Job control was measured by means of two about the relationship between overtime and job control. scales: lack of variety (6 items, example: “Does your work Furthermore, it was hypothesised that the relationship require creativity?”, Cronbach’s alpha: .82) and lack of between overtime and need for recovery would be autonomy (11 items, example: “Do you have influence stronger in high-demand jobs because (according to the on the planning of your work activities?”, Cronbach’s Effort-Recovery model) the need for recovery is likely alpha: .88). Items were scored on four-point scales (never, to be especially strong in high demand situations and sometimes, often, always). Total scale scores were because working overtime means that the duration of transformed to have a minimum value of 0 and a exposure to negative work characteristics such as
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