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University of Calgary PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository Alberta Gambling Research Institute Alberta Gambling Research Institute 1978 Gambling, a review of the literature and its implications for policy and research : a Home Office research unit report Cornish, D. B. Her Majesty's Stationery Office http://hdl.handle.net/1880/539 book Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca I:i GAMBLING: A EVIEW OF THE LITEEm.TURE l 1- -- 9-7- d '':'Tyrr-- J ' . :H STUDY NO. 42 u'? p " * ,--<.< .. -7 : a review o A literature and its irn~licat~~Jt~r8~ A HOME OFFICE RESEARCH UNIT REPORT LONDON: HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE i FOI HOME Gad HOME OFFICE RESEARCH STUDIES 'Home Office Research Studies' comprise reports on research undertaken in the Home Office to assist in the exercise of its administrative functions, and for the information of the judicature, the services for which the Home Secretary Correc has responsibility (direct or indirect) and the general public. On the last pages of this report are listed titles already published in this series, and in the preceding series Studies in the Causes of Delinquency and the Treat- Page 4 ment of Offenders. Delete about Insert about Page Delet Inseri Page Inser (Rep licise Page Dele Pagr Delt betv Inse bet1 ISBN 0 11 340682 7 ii Foreword HOME OFFICE RESEARCH STUDY No. 42 Gambling: a review of the literature Corrections Page 44, para. 2, line 8 Delete: about gross figures enough; a thorough analysis would require information Insert: about whether excessive profits are being made-though the vagueness of this Page 59, para. 3, line 3 Delete: 'of' Insert: 'or' Page 74, para. 3, after line 1 l Insert: (Report, 1967) organised crime seemed poised for serious attack, while less pub- licised home-grown protection rackets were clearly already in full swing. Page 76, para. 3 Delete: lines 5 and 6 Page 91, para. 2, line 3 Delete: between competing gambles, is often viewed as if it were determined solely by Insert: between competing gambles, offered by the experimenter-as the main investi- I should like to thank Dr M.C. Dickerson, Principal Clinical Psychologist in the Department of Clinical Psychology, Royal Edinburgh Hospital, for permission to refer to his unpublished Ph.D. thesis, 'The Effect of Betting Shop Experience on Gambling Behaviour' (Birmingham University, 1974). I am also grateful to Social Surveys (Gallup Poll) Ltd., and N.O.P. Market Research Ltd. for permission to cite results from their surveys of gambling; to The Reverend Gordon Moody, Convener of the Consultations on 'Compulsive' Gambling, for letting me refer to their Proceedings; and to Dr David Downes, of the Department of Social Science and Administration, London School of Economics and Political Science, who kindly allowed me to read 'Gambling, Work and Leisure' before its publication. n D PADNTTCU Contents Foreword Acknowlednements Preface ONE: THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES 01 P A WaDTTNTO Chapter 1 The Moral and Social Acceptability of Gambling Chapter 2 Sources of Information about Gambling Introduction Turnover Expenditure Numbers and distribution of facilities Other information Chapter 3 The Economic Significance of Gambling - a General Perspective The current economic significance of gambling The economic significance of changes in overall gamblin~g turnover Changes in turnover for some different types of gamblling Chapter 4 The Major Forms of Gambling - Particips~tion, Outlay and Economic Consequences Introduction The football pools Off-course cash betting on he-- Gaming Bingo Gambling: all forms Conclusions Chapter 5 Broader Eronomi Some general considerations Profit-margins and profitability in off-course betting Growth and direction of growth in the gambling industry Attendance and betting at the racecourse Conclusions Chapter 6 The Major Forms of Gambling - Social Consequences Introduction The football pools Off-course cash betting Gaming Bingo Slot-machines Conclusions GAMBLING: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Chapter 7 The Relationship between Gambling and Crime Introduction Gambling as a cause of individual criminal acts The legalisation of some forms of gambling, and its effects upon illegal gambling Gambling environments as criminogenic settings Gambling as a medium for criminal activities Gambling and organised crime Chapter 8 Excessive Gambling Introduction: defining excessive gambling Estimating the number of those at risk Other estimates Chapter 10 Economic Motivation and Expectation Theories of Risky Decision-Making Introduction I Simple expectation theories 1 More complex expectation theories 5 Contributions and limitations of expectation theory 5 Conclusions 1 Chapter 11 Other Factors Influencing the Gambler's Evaluation of Probabilities and Payoffs Introduction 99 Judgmental heuristics 99 Creating an "illusion of control' 102 Manipulating people's expectati~ 104 An alternative model for investil 108 Conclusions 111 Chapter 12 The Relative Importance of Economic and Expressive Motivations Economic motivation and economic need 112 Expressive motivation and expressive needs 116 General accounts of gambling behaviour 116 Strengths and weaknesses of general theories of gambling 124 Accounting for participation in particular gambling activities 127 Some implications of sociological accounts of gambling 131 An alternative explanation of gambling motivation 133 Chapter 13 Situational Determinants of the Decision to Particlpate Introduction Ecologic opportunity Structural characteristics Conclusions Chapter 14 Individual Differences rs Determinants of Gambling Behaviour Introduction 142 The influence of some general personality and attitude traits 143 Studies of personality traits with greater theoretical relevance 145 Risk 148 Risk-seeking motives 150 The existence of pathological motives for gambling 152 GAMBLING: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Cnapter 15 Accounting for the Decision to Partidpate Summary A preliminary model of gambling behaviour Some implications of the model PART THREE: GAMBLING BEHAVIOUR: DETERMINANTS OF CONTINUED PARTI( Chapter 16 Introduction Chapter 17 The Role of Structural Charactedstic! Introduction The structural characteristics of gambling activities Structural characteristics atrd their consequences: gaming and betting Chapter 18 The Role of Learning Introduction The importance of previous outcomes Schedules of reinforcement Applications to real-life gambling Conclusions . Chapter 19 The Application of Learning Theory Pdnciples to Gambling Behaviour Introduction The induction of variable ratio schedules The subjective perceptions of the gambler The operation of additional reinforcers and schedules Implications of the operation of additional reinforcers Conclusions Chapter 20 An Analysis of Gambling Behavlour in a Real-Life Setting: the Betting Shop Introduction Betting-shop experiences and gambling behaviour: the work of Dickerson The "training" of punters by betting-shop stimuli Summary and coni~usions Chapter 21 The Determinants of Gambling Behaviour - an Overview The relative importance of personal and situational factors in determining gambling persistence Implications for the control of gambling behaviour PART FOUR: IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY AND RESEARCH Chapter 22 Introduction Chapter 23 The Assumptions behind Current Policies on Gambling Introduction A basic assumption and its alternative formulations Overall turnover and the issue of generalisation A twin-pronged policy: the Gaming Board Quantifying the basic assumption Conclusions Chapter 24 The Implications of the Research Findings for The Regulation of Gambling Introduction Exploitation and its regulation The regulation of excessive gambling vii GAMBLING: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Chapter 25 The Contdbntion of Research to Policg Introduction The aims of gambling policy Finding means appropriate to policy aims Conclusions The need for better information Use of existing sources Social monitoring Some modest oro~osals viii Preface wamming nas always ~er~ueuLU occupy au cqulvucal ~U~ILIUII111 uiluuual IUG, attracting both massive public participation and continuous criticism on moral, social and economic grounds. In the last seventy years three major government- sponsored inquiries (one Select Committee and two Royal Commissions) into its effects and the problems of control have reported. Yet, although it is estimated that some 80% of the population aged sixteen or over take part in one form of gambling or another, and although commercial gambling has an overall turnover in excess of £3,500 millions and employs over 90,000 full- and part-time workers, the amount and quality of information available about the activity is, with certain except This lack of knowledge has ha( consistent and defensible social policies in this area; second, it has been and remains hard to evaluate or, when necessary, counter claims about the alleged benefits or adverse consequences of gambling - claims which are constantly being pressed upon policy-makers by the many vested interests operating in this area. One consequence of the lack of informed discussion about gambling is that its critics have often tended to make sweeping condemnations of the pursuit without clearly defining the focus of their concern. The dangers of gambling as an activity perse have sometimes been confused with those arising primarily from its commercial development. When, in some cases, adverse social and economic consequences have been found, there has also been a tendency - prompted perhaps by moral concern about the intrinsic worth- lessness of gambling