EXERCISE

The common in the Pacific Northwest belong to the following genera*: Abies, , , Juniperus, Larix, Picea, Pinus, Pseudotsuga, , , and Tsuga. Most of the common species of these genera are provided in the laboratory. Secure a labeled sample of each of the specimens and, as you examine and study the leafy twigs, answer the questions and fill in the blanks in the following exercise. The materials provided will include most (if not all) of the following species, which are classified in the families , Pinaceae, and Taxaceae. In this exercise, diagnostic vegetative features of the leaves and stem are emphasized first, followed by an examination and comparison of cones (reproductive structures) and by a fill-in key to the common conifers.

Cupressaceae (Incense cedar; does not occur naturally north of Mt. Hood, OR) Xanthocyparis nootkatensis (Alaska cedar) – formerly nootkatensis () (Western red cedar)

Pinaceae Abies amabilis (Pacific or Amabilis ) Abies grandis (Grand fir) Abies lasiocarpa (Alpine or Subalpine fir) Abies procera (Noble fir) Larix occidentalis (Western ) Picea sitchensis (Sitka ) Pinus contorta (Lodgepole ) Pinus monticola (Western white pine) Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa or Yellow pine) Pseudotsuga menziesii () Tsuga heterophylla (Western hemlock) Tsuga mertensiana (Mountain hemlock)

Taxaceae Taxus brevifolia (Pacific yew) VEGETATIVE FEATURES

1. CUPRESSACEAE ( family) Four of the genera have scale-like (as contrasted to needle-like) leaves. These four genera are ______, ______, ______, and ______. Consider these four specimens only (there is one representative in each ). One usually will have round twigs (=stems) with 2 scale leaves opposite each other or 3 to 4 scale leaves in a whorl (arising from the same node or part of the stem), while the others appear to have flattened twigs with 2 scale leaves opposite or 4 scale leaves in a whorl. Which has "round" twigs with the scale leaves in 2's or 3's? ______

Considering the specimens with flattened twigs and with scale leaves in 2's or 4's, identify the following sketches of the leaves.

Label: ______

The ovulate (=seed) cones of these four genera are distinctive. In general, they are small, often nearly globose or slightly cylindrical, and composed of 2-12 scales (the structures that bear the seeds). The cones of the Cupressaceae are generally smaller than those to be found in the other conifers, especially those in the Pinaceae.

Which has a nearly globose, dry cone with the cone scales enlarged and thickest at the end? ______

Which has a usually bluish, often fleshy cone that does not open to shed the seeds? ______

The other two genera have more elongate, dry cones with several scales. The one with only 4 to 6 scales is ______; the other with about 10 to 12 scales is ______Which of these has the larger cones? ______2. PINACEAE (Pine family) The species in the Pinaceae have needle-like leaves, and usually rather large cones that are composed of numerous, spirally arranged cone scales. Some genera have the needles borne singly along all the twigs, usually in a spiral arrangement, others have the needles borne in small clusters or bundles of 2, 3, or 5 along the twigs, whereas others have the needles borne in terminal tufts at the tips of very short, lateral (spur) branches.

Select the four species that have needles in bunches of 2 to 5, or in tufts or spur shoots. Those that have the needles in 2's, 3's, or 5's are in the genus Pinus (); the other, which has brush-like tufts of needles at the end of spur shoots, is ______

This is a very distinctive conifer, the only one in the Pacific Northwest that is deciduous (meaning that the leaves are all shed each fall). Note that the leaves or needles of this are young, soft, and obviously freshly grown.

Identify the other three species as follows:

Needles 2 per bundle______

Needles 3 per bundle______

Needles 5 per bundle______

All the other needle-bearing species have the needles borne singly. Two genera are peculiar in that the leaves are shed rather quickly when the tree (or branches thereof) is cut; therefore, never try to use either of them as a Christmas tree! Both of these genera have evergreen leaves that, when shed, leave a tiny remnant of the leaf-base on the twig; a remnant that can be described as peg-like. In one, the pegs stand out at right angles to the stem and, in the other, they project forward. Separate the two genera with peg-like leaf scars (there are three such species).

Of these three species, one has sharp, stiff, and more or less (in cross-section) leaves. What is the genus and species? ______The other two have flat, blunt needles. Note that the leaves of one of these are very white beneath, but green above. Examine these leaves under your microscope and note that the whiteness is due to the presence of several rows of white dots (pores or stomata--singular, stoma). The other species is almost the same color on both surfaces (having stomata almost equally numerous on both surfaces). The first species also will have the needles tending to spread in a horizontal , in contrast to the other, where the needles tend to spread in all directions. Identify the two species.

Needles spreading in one plane, gray beneath, green above, very unequal in length

______

Needles spreading in all directions, about the same color on both surfaces, not markedly different in length

______

Now you should have left only the species of Pseudotsuga and Abies, all of which have comparatively smooth twigs where the needles have been shed. Examine the leaf scars carefully. Some scars are nearly circular, or slightly elongate (with reference to the axis of the branch), whereas at least one of the species has the scars broader than long and somewhat crater-like or umbilicate (navel-like). Recognize the genera as represented in the following two sketches. (This is not a hard and sharp distinction, and does not always "work".)

Genus ______Genus ______

"A" has pointed and almost sharp buds, in contrast to those of "B", which are more blunt. "A" tends to have less regular opposite branching than does "B". What is species "A"? ______Cheer up, if you cannot recognize it from the leaves, you surely can from the cones, as they are perhaps the most distinctive cones found among our conifers, having a 3- cornered bract extending past each seed-bearing scale.

To repeat, the species is ______

There are four species with leaf scars as shown in "B", all in the genus ______. The species of this genus usually cannot be distinguished by the cones, since a peculiarity of this genus is that the cones are never shed in their entirety, but only scale by scale, leaving the axis of the cone on the tree, standing stiffly erect. These four species can be distinguished, though, by the presence of stomates on one or two surfaces, by differences in the arrangement and attachment of leaves, and by differences in positioning of resin ducts in the leaves. Two species, namely ______and ______have stomata on the lower side of the leaves, but not on the upper side (hence the leaves are gray beneath but green above). Of these two species without stomata on the upper surface, one has the needles practically all spreading in a horizontal plane, the upper and lower surfaces of the twigs being similarly exposed, while the other species has the needles on the upper side of the twigs appressed and pointing forward, well covering the top of the twig. On this basis, identify the two species as illustrated below.

______The other two species in the same genus (with leaf scars as shown in "B") have stomata on both leaf surfaces. These two species are

______and ______.

One of these, namely ______, has ± straight leaves with one broad central row of stomata on upper leaf surface.

The other species, ______, has leaves with a sharp curve near the point of attachment to the twig (the leaves of this species resemble hockey sticks). Stomata on upper leaf surface are in two distinct rows with evident green midvein.

With a single-edge razor blade, cut very thin leaf cross- sections of all four species and examine under the microscope. Three look like the top sketch, having very small resin ducts just within the lower epidermis; these three species are

______,

______, and

______.

The fourth species, ______resembles the lower sketch, in which the resin ducts are much larger and located midway between the midvein and the edge of the leaf and midway between the upper and lower epidermis. As with the scale-leaved species, many of the needle-leaved conifers can be recognized by their cones alone. Consider the following features:

Two genera have cones with a 3-pointed bract arising from beneath each cone scale; the bracts may be about as long as the cone scales (barely visible) or considerably longer than the cone scales.

Which of these has the larger cone? ______and which the smaller? ______. Two cones have sharp hooks or spines near the tip of the scales. One of these has somewhat lopsided, smaller cones; it is ______. The other has a much larger, symmetrical cone; it is ______. The third species in this genus has the largest (or at least the longest) cones of our native conifers; it is ______.

Of the three genera--Abies, Tsuga and Picea--the species of Abies do not shed their cones as a whole, and we shall make no attempt to distinguish between them (other than to mention that Abies procera has very large cones with conspicuous, exserted, but not 3-cornered, bracts; these cones are scarcely ever seen except toward the tops of the ). Our species of Picea and Tsuga have smaller, somewhat woody cones that range in length from about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in Tsuga heterophylla, to 1-2 1/4 inches (3-6 cm) in Tsuga mertensiana, to 2 1/4-4 inches (6-10 cm) in Picea sitchensis. 3. TAXACEAE (Yew family) The species in this family are characterized by the lack of woody cones; the seeds are borne singly and are surrounded by a fleshy, reddish, berry-like aril. The one native species in this family is a shrub or small tree of the forest understory. The leaves are flat, pointed, and arranged in two rows (two-ranked) on the branches and abruptly tapered to a short, petiole-like, decurrent base. What is the genus and species?

______KEY TO COMMON CONIFERS

To summarize your study of the conifers, fill in the blanks in the following key with the proper generic and specific names. Start with the first couplet (1a and 1b). Read both leads before making a decision regarding which of the two to follow. After making a decision, proceed in like manner through the rest of the key. You are expected to recognize these species of conifers by the twigs as well as by the cones.

1a. Leaves deciduous each fall, borne in tufts of 20-50 on short lateral (spur) shoots; cones with 3-cornered bracts visible between the scales ______

1b. Leaves persistent from year to year, not borne in tufts on short lateral shoots; cones (with one exception) without visible 3-cornered bracts

2a. Leaves scale-like

3a. Twigs usually round; cones fleshy, globose, usually bluish, the cone scales not separating when the seeds mature ______

3b. Twigs flattened; cones dry, globose or slightly cylindrical, not bluish, the cone scales separating when the seeds mature

4a. Cones globose; cone scales thickened and knob-like at the tips ______

4b. Cones cylindrical or slightly so; cone scales not thickened at the ends

5a. Cones with 10-12 scales; leaves obviously in pairs along the twigs, the tips of the dorsal and ventral pair of leaves at a different level than the tips of the lateral pair of leaves ______

5b. Cones with 4-6 scales; leaves apparently in whorls or 4, the dorsal and ventral pair of leaves about the same length as the lateral pair of leaves ______

2b. Leaves needle-like

6a. Needles in fascicles of 2, 3, or 5

7a. Needles 5 per fascicle ______

7b. Needles 2-3 per fascicle 8a. Fascicles containing 2 needles ______

8b. Fascicles containing 3 needles ______

6b. Needles borne singly, not in fascicles

9a. Leaf scars raised, the twigs roughened by the peg-like projections

10a. Needles square, sharp, and stiff ______

10b. Needles flat, blunt, and pliable

11a. Needles much more whitish on the lower surface than on the upper, tending to spread in one plane, very unequal in length ______

11b. Needles almost the same color on the two surfaces, tending to spread in all directions except perhaps on the lower surface of the twig, not markedly different in length ______

9b. Leaf scars not raised, either smooth or umbilicate (navel-like) or leaf scars hidden by the decurrent leaf bases

12a. Leaf bases decurrent; leaves mucronate at the apex; seeds borne singly, surrounded by a fleshy aril ______

12b. Leaf bases not decurrent; leaves obtuse to rounded at the apex; seeds borne in woody cones

13a. Needle scars broader than long (with reference to the axis of the twigs); buds pointed; branches alternate or opposite ______

13b. Needle scars usually at least as long as broad; buds blunt; branches regularly opposite

14a. Needles without stomata on the upper surface

15a. Needles nearly all spreading in a horizontal plane, the upper surface of the twig (as well as the lower) not concealed by needles ______15b. Needles on the upper side of the twig appressed and pointing forward, largely concealing the twig ______

14b. Needles with stomata (and thus whitish) on both surfaces

16a. Resin ducts nearly half as thick as the midvein, located midway between the upper and lower epidermis; leaves +/- straight with 1 broad central row of stomata on upper surface ______

16b. Resin ducts scarcely one-fourth as thick as the midvein, located just within the lower epidermis; leaves shaped like hockey sticks with 2 distinct rows of stomata on upper surface ______