Thermodynamic Patterns of Life: Emergent Phenomena in Reaction

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Thermodynamic Patterns of Life: Emergent Phenomena in Reaction THERMODYNAMICPATTERNSOFLIFE Emergent Phenomena in Reaction Networks jakob fischer Dissertation zur Erlangung des Akademischen Grades doctor rerum naturalium (Dr. rer. nat.) vorgelegt dem Rat der Fakultät für Mathematik und Informatik der Friedrich Schiller Universität Jena von Dipl. Phys. Jakob Fischer geboren am 25. Feb. 1986 in Saulgau, jetzt Bad Saulgau Juni 2017 betreuer: Prof. Dr. Peter Dittrich gutachter: 1. Prof. Dr. Peter Dittrich (Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena) 2. Prof. Dr. Daniel Merkle (University of Southern Denmark, Odense) tag der öffentlichen verteidigung: 20. August 2018 Jakob Fischer: Thermodynamic Patterns of Life, Emergent Phenomena in Reaction Networks, © Juni 2017 ABSTRACT Reaction networks are an important tool for the analysis of complex chemical reaction systems. They help us understand systems ranging from specific metabolisms to planetary atmospheres. This thesis de- velops methods for the analysis of living systems by using reaction networks with a focus on the inclusion of thermodynamic proper- ties. Existing methods for reaction pathway analysis are extended and the thermodynamics of reaction pathways is analysed to gain insight into thermodynamic structures. New methods for more realistic arti- ficial chemistries are developed using thermodynamic constraints. A model of evolvable artificial ecosystems is created to understand the effect of evolution and life on the flow of matter and energy through the system. To investigate general thermodynamic properties of large-scale re- action networks, artificial reaction networks are created with a sim- ple scheme for deriving thermodynamically consistent reaction rates. Linear and nonlinear networks using four different complex network models are simulated to their non-equilibrium steady state for vari- ous boundary fluxes. The distribution of entropy production of the individual reactions of the network follows a power law in the inter- mediate region with an exponent of circa −1.5 for linear and −1.66 for nonlinear networks. An elevated entropy production rate is found in reactions associated with weakly connected species. This effect is stronger in nonlinear networks than in linear ones. Increasing the flow through those nonlinear networks also increases the number of cycles and leads to a narrower distribution of chemical potentials. In the context of finding signs of life by detecting chemical dise- quilibrium, a photochemical model of the modern atmosphere and a model of the Archean atmosphere are compared. Calculating the reaction pathways that are most relevant for explaining their reaction network’s steady state with a new method allows for the detection of topological differences between the two models. Pathways of the modern Earth atmosphere are simpler (less reactions) and contain fewer cycles than their Archean counterparts. To compare thermody- namic properties of the found pathways, values for chemical poten- tials of most of the species are estimated. The Archean atmosphere is shown to be driven more by radiation, generally increasing the chemical energy of the matter it exchanges with its environment. In contrast, the matter fluxes of the modern atmosphere have a nega- tive net energy balance. An analysis of methane consuming pathways shows their importance in both atmospheres and, in agreement with previous work, allows for a quantification of the thermodynamics of methane oxidation for the modern atmosphere. A simple artificial chemistry model that incorporates thermody- namic constraints and mass conservation is build. To emphasize the analogy to planetary systems, the system is not driven to disequilib- iii rium by matter flow but by photoreactions. This technique, together with pathway analysis, is demonstrated for small example systems and is discussed in a broader context. Increasing the strength of the force that drives the system to (thermodynamic) disequilibrium concentrates the mass of the system in a smaller number of chemi- cal species. To model the influence of life on pathways, an artificial ecosystem model is developed. An artificial ecosystem is an artifi- cial chemistry build from a fixed anorganic part and interfacing or- ganisms. Organisms are evolved by successively replacing the organ- ism that is least active, measured by its mass and its reaction rates. Evolution of the reaction networks entails an evolution of reaction pathways towards simplicity, thus indicating that the presence of pro- nounced, relatively simple pathways in real systems is a consequence of an evolutionary mechanism. All in all, this thesis is meant to show how to analyse and char- acterise complex reaction systems using a network-oriented view on thermodynamics, thereby informing on the effect of life on chemical disequilibrium and the complexity of associated reaction networks. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Reaktionsnetzwerke sind ein wichtiges Werkzeug zur Analyse von komplexen chemischen Reaktionssystemen. Sie helfen beim Verständ- nis von Systemen der Größenordnung eines spezifischen Metabo- lismus bis hin zu Atmosphärenchemien. In dieser Abschlussarbeit werden Methoden zur Modellierung und Analyse lebender Syste- me durch Verwendung von Reaktionsnetzwerken und die Einbezie- hung thermodynamischer Eigenschaften entwickelt. Existierende Me- thoden zur Analyse von Reaktionspfaden werden erweitert und die Thermodynamik von Reaktionspfaden analysiert, um Einblick in ther- modynamische Strukturen zu gewinnen. Es werden neue Modelle für künstliche Chemien unter Einbeziehung thermodynamischer Rand- bedingungen entwickelt. Das Modell eines künstlichen Ökosystems wird entwickelt, um den Einfluss von Evolution und Leben auf che- mische Fließstrukturen besser zu verstehen. Zur Untersuchung allgemeiner thermodynamischer Eigenschaf- ten in großskaligen Reaktionsnetzwerken werden künstliche Reak- tionsnetzwerke mit thermodynamisch konsistenten Reaktionsraten erzeugt. Lineare und nichtlineare Reaktionsnetzwerke mit vier ver- schiedenen Modellen komplexer Netzwerke werden für verschiede- ne Randbedingungen in das Fließgleichgewicht simuliert. Die Ver- teilung der Dissipation der Einzelreaktionen des Netzwerks folgt ei- nem Potenzgesetz mit einem ungefähren Koeffizienten von −1.5 für lineare und −1.66 für nichtlineare Netzwerke. Für schwach verknüpf- te chemische Spezies wird eine vergleichsweise erhöhte Dissipation festgestellt. Der Effekt ist bei nichtlinearen Netzwerken stärker als bei linearen Netzwerken. Ein Erhöhen des Flusses durch nichtlineare Netzwerke erhöht die Anzahl der Zyklen und führt zu einer engeren Verteilung der chemischen Potentiale. iv Im Kontext der Detektion von Leben durch chemisches Nichtgleich- gewicht wird ein photochemisches Modell der modernen Atmosphä- re mit einem entsprechenden Modell der archaischen Atmosphäre der Erde verglichen. Durch das Berechnen der Reaktionspfade für das spezifische Fließgleichgewicht können Unterschiede zwischen den Modellen gefunden werden. Reaktionspfade der modernen Atmo- sphäre sind einfacher (weniger Reaktionen) und enthalten weniger Zyklen als ihre archaischen Gegenstücke. Eine Abschätzung der che- mischen Potentiale für die chemischen Spezies erlaubt eine genauere thermodynamische Charakterisierung der Reaktionspfade. Es zeigt sich, dass die archaische Atmosphäre stärker von Strahlungsenergie getrieben ist, welche in ihr in chemische Energie umwandelt wird, während die Materieflüsse der modernen Atmosphäre eine negative Energiebilanz haben. Die Analyse der Methan konsumierenden Re- aktionspfade zeigt deren Bedeutung in beiden Atmosphären und er- laubt es, die Thermodynamik der Methanoxidation für die moderne Atmosphäre in Übereinstimmung mit existierenden Publikationen zu quantifizieren. Ein Modell mit thermodynamischen Nebenbedingungen und Mas- senerhaltung wird erstellt. Um die Analogie zu planetaren Systemen hervorzuheben, wird die Chemie nicht durch Massenfluss, sondern durch Photochemie mit Energie versorgt. Dieses Modell wird zusam- men mit einer Reaktionspfadanalyse an kleinen Beispielsystemen prä- sentiert und für den weiterreichenden Kontext diskutiert. Eine stär- kere treibende Kraft in das thermodynamische Nichtgleichgewicht führt zu einer Konzentration der Masse des Systems bei weniger che- mischen Spezies. Um den biologischen Einfluss auf Reaktionspfade zu modellieren, wird ein Modell für künstliche Ökosysteme entwi- ckelt. Das bezeichnet eine künstliche Chemie, die aus organischen und anorganischen Modulen assembliert wird. Die organischen Kom- ponenten (Organismen) werden durch ein einfaches Evolutionssche- ma evolviert. Dies induziert eine Evolution auf Ebene der Reaktions- pfade hin zu einfacheren Reaktionspfaden. Ein Auftreten von heraus- gehobenen, einfachen Reaktionspfaden in realen Netzwerken kann dementsprechend als Folge eines evolutionären Prozesses verstanden werden. Insgesamt zeigt diese Arbeit also, wie komplexe Reaktionssyste- me mit einem netzwerkorientierten Blick auf ihre Thermodynamik unterschieden werden können. Dies ergibt einen neuartigen Blick auf den Effekt des Lebens auf das thermodynamische Nichtgleichgewicht und die Komplexität der assoziierten Reaktionsnetzwerke. v PUBLICATIONS Some ideas and figures presented in this thesis have appeared previ- ously in the following publication: [FKD15] J Fischer, A Kleidon, and P Dittrich. “Thermodynam- ics of Random Reaction Networks”. In: PLOS ONE 10.2 (2015), e0117312. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0117312. Parts of the software used and presented in this work has been explicitly released previously: [Fis16a] J Fischer. jrnf_R_tools: A tool for
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