Curbing Excessive Pornography Consumption Using Traditional, Relationship, and Religious
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Curbing Excessive Pornography Consumption Using Traditional, Relationship, and Religious Identity-Based Extended Parallel Process Model Messages A dissertation submitted to the College of Communication and Information of Kent State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Krishnamurti Murniadi July, 2018 Dissertation written by Krishnamurti Murniadi B.A., University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, 2002 M.A., Western Kentucky University, 2008 Ph.D., Kent State University, 2018 Approved by __________________________________, Chair, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Dr. Nichole Egbert __________________________________, Member, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Dr. Mei-Chen Lin __________________________________, Member, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Dr. Xueying Zhang __________________________________, Member, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Dr. Susan Roxburgh Accepted by __________________________________, Chair, School of Communication Studies Dr. Elizabeth Graham __________________________________, Dean, College of Communication and Information Dr. Amy Reynolds Table of Contents Page TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………… iii LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………. v LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………... vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………………. viii CHAPTERS I. BACKGROUND…………………………………………………………. 1 Statement of Problem……………………………………………... 2 Statement of Purpose……………………………………………… 4 Theoretical Framework……………………………………………. 4 II. LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………. 11 The Extended Parallel Process Model…………………………….. 20 Social Identity Theory…………………………………………….. 30 Social Categorization Theory……………………………………… 32 Identity Theory……………………………………………………. 33 Identity Importance, Salience, and Commitment…………………. 36 Social Identity and Behaviors …………………………………….. 38 Health EPPM and Identity-Based EPPM…………………………. 52 Research Questions and Hypotheses……………………………… 55 III. METHODOLOGY...................................................................................... 65 A. Pretest…………………………………………………………. 65 B. Main Experiment……………………………………………… 74 IV. RESULTS…………………………………………………………………. 82 Research Questions and Hypotheses Testing……………………... 93 V. DISCUSSION S…………………………………………………………… 110 DEFINITION OF TERMS………………………………………………………………... 127 APPENDICES A. Health EPPM message…………………………………………………………. 130 B. Relationship EPPM message…………………………………………………… 131 (being a husband/boyfriend as a social identity) iii C. Faith EPPM message…………………………………………………………… 132 (being a Christian as a social identity) D. Meyer (1998) and West (1994) Channel Credibility Index……………………. 133 E. Social Identity Stimulus Check………………………………………………… 134 F. Social Identity Stimulus Check for the Control Group………………………… 138 G. Demographic Questions………………………………………………………... 141 H. Pornography Use……………………………………………………………….. 142 I. Witte, et al. (1996) Risk Behaviors Diagnosis Scale……………………………. 143 J. Adjusted Sellers et al. (1997) Multidimensional Inventory…………………….. 145 of Black Identity (MIBI) centrality dimension scale for being a boyfriend/husband as a social identity K. Adjusted Sellers et al. (1997) Multidimensional Inventory…………………… 146 of Black Identity (MIBI) centrality dimension scale for being a Christian as a social identity L. Rise, Kovac, Kraft, & Moan (2008) Behavioral Intention Scale………………. 147 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………. 148 iv List of Figures Figure Page 1. Diagram of Witte’s (1992) health EPPM…………………………………………. 26 2. Presenting threat in identity-based EPPM………………………………………… 46 3. Presenting efficacy in identity-based EPPM……………………………………… 52 4. Diagram of identity-based EPPM…………………………………………………. 54 5. Social identity and fear……………………………………………………………. 57 6. Diagram of social identity and threat……………………………………………... 59 7. Diagram of social identity and efficacy………………………………………….... 61 v List of Tables Table Page 1. Descriptive Statistics and Reliability for All Scales Used In the Study……………….. 79 2. Description of Key Analytic Variables across Three Groups………………………….. 83 3. Description of Key Analytic Variables in Health EPPM Condition…………………… 84 4. Description of Key Analytic Variables in Relationship EPPM Condition …………….. 85 5. Description of Key Analytic Variables in Faith EPPM Condition……………………... 87 6. Factor Analysis for Relationship Identity Scale………………………………………... 90 7. Final Exploratory Factor Analysis Factor Solution for Relationship Identity Scale……………………………………………………………………… 91 8. Factor Analysis for Faith Identity Scale………………………………………………... 92 9. Exploratory Factor Analysis Factor Solution for Faith Identity Scale…………………. 93 10. Relationships between Perceived Threat/Efficacy and Behavioral Intention Among Individuals Receiving Health EPPM Message…………………………… 95 11. Relationships between Perceived Threat/Efficacy and Behavioral Intention Among Individuals Receiving Relationship EPPM Message …………………….. 97 12. Relationships between Perceived Threat/Efficacy and Behavioral Intention .Among Individuals Receiving Faith EPPM Message……………………………………. 100 13. Relationships between Perceived Threat/Identity and Behavioral Intention Among Individuals Receiving Relationship EPPM Message …………………….. 101 14. Relationships between Perceived Efficacy/Identity and Behavioral Intention Among Individuals Receiving Relationship EPPM Message …………………….. 103 15. Relationships between Perceived Threat/Efficacy and Behavioral Intention vi Among Individuals Receiving Faith EPPM Message …………………………….. 105 16. Relationships between Perceived Threat/Efficacy and Behavioral Intention Among Individuals Receiving Health EPPM Message…………………………… 107 17. Correlations matrix among participants who received the health EPPM Message…………………………………………………………………………… 108 18. Correlations matrix among participants who received the relationship EPPM message…………………………………………………………………….. 108 19. Correlations matrix among participants who received the faith EPPM message……... 108 20. Summary of Research Questions and Hypotheses…………………………………….. 109 \ vii Acknowledgements This dissertation is for my wife, my son, my parents, my brother, my sister-in-law, my aunts, my American mother Annis Hickman, and the rest of my adoptive family in Northeast Oklahoma. Without your love and prayers, this paper would not exist. I would also like to thank first to my advisor, Dr. Nichole Egbert, and my committee members - Dr. Mei-Chen Lin, Dr. Catherine Goodall, Dr. Maria Zhang, and Dr. Susan Roxburgh - for your time, assistance, constant support, valuable advices and insightful criticism. Thank you to Kristin Yeager from the Statistical Consulting at Kent State University Library, thank you to Dr. Setyo Hari Wijanto from the School of Business Administration and Sofyan Cholid from the Faculty of Social Welfare, both of the University of Indonesia, for helping me with the statistical analyses. Thank you to Portugal National Football Team for their performance in Euro 2016, which very much inspired me to succeed, as I always see myself as an underdog during my college experience. Thank you to the staffs at Tree City Coffee and Pastry in Kent, Ohio; Metronome Coffee in Tacoma, Washington; Thump Coffee in Denver, Colorado; Café Jen in Prague, Czech Republic; and Mata Kopi in Tangerang, Indonesia, who allowed me to use your comfortable space and Wi-Fi all day for the price of one cup of coffee. Finally, thank you to every single person who helped me to be where I am today in terms of my academic endeavor. This includes but not limited to the current and previous faculty, staff, and fellow graduate students at the College of Communication and Information, my friends and colleagues in Kent, and my former advisors and professors at Western Kentucky University. viii 1 Chapter I Background The advent of Internet technology has opened avenues for communication activities that traditionally take place offline to move online (Walther, Gay, & Hancock, 2005). These activities range from communicating with the loved ones, playing games, to conducting a meeting. One controversial communication activity that is becoming more popular online is media-related sexual activity (Cooper, 1998; Cooper, Galbreath, & Becker, 2004; Goodson, McCormick, & Evans, 2000). The most popular form of media-related sexual activity is Internet pornography, which refers to “written or pictorial matter intended to arouse sexual feelings” (Boyer et al., 1983, p. 534; Fisher & Barack, 2001). Internet pornography is widely consumed by the general population, particularly males. The Huffington Post reported that 70% of men surveyed admitted that they spent a significant amount of their time visiting pornographic sites, with the average amount of 12 minutes spent on one site (“Porn Sites”, 2013). In 2008, 86% of male college students aged 18 to 26 reported that they used Internet pornography at some level in the past year. Among those pornography users, 16% reported using pornography three to five days a week and 5% admitted using pornography every day (Carroll et al., 2008). Bartlein (2004) reported that people are more likely to visit an Internet pornography website than to visit any of the top three search engines (Google, Yahoo!, and MSN). In addition, when using search engines, people listed pornographic-related words in one out of four inputs, with approximate hits of 68 million (Carroll et al., 2008). Pornography is the number one entry in Bing and, the second most popular search engine after Google (Dickson, 2 2014; O’Neill, 2015). Pornography is so popular that there is a search engine created solely