Gordon, Specious Arguments
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10 Fallacies and Examples Pdf
10 fallacies and examples pdf Continue A: It is imperative that we promote adequate means to prevent degradation that would jeopardize the project. Man B: Do you think that just because you use big words makes you sound smart? Shut up, loser; You don't know what you're talking about. #2: Ad Populum: Ad Populum tries to prove the argument as correct simply because many people believe it is. Example: 80% of people are in favor of the death penalty, so the death penalty is moral. #3. Appeal to the body: In this erroneous argument, the author argues that his argument is correct because someone known or powerful supports it. Example: We need to change the age of drinking because Einstein believed that 18 was the right age of drinking. #4. Begging question: This happens when the author's premise and conclusion say the same thing. Example: Fashion magazines do not harm women's self-esteem because women's trust is not damaged after reading the magazine. #5. False dichotomy: This misconception is based on the assumption that there are only two possible solutions, so refuting one decision means that another solution should be used. It ignores other alternative solutions. Example: If you want better public schools, you should raise taxes. If you don't want to raise taxes, you can't have the best schools #6. Hasty Generalization: Hasty Generalization occurs when the initiator uses too small a sample size to support a broad generalization. Example: Sally couldn't find any cute clothes in the boutique and couldn't Maura, so there are no cute clothes in the boutique. -
Common Reasoning Mistakes
Common Fallacies (mistakes of reasoning) The fallacy fallacy • There is danger even in the study of fallacies. This study involves identifying certain patterns of reasoning as fallacies. Each pattern has a name. E.g. an argument that attacks a person is ad hominem. But ad hominem arguments are not always fallacies! • Rejecting an argument as a (named) fallacy, based on its pattern alone, is a fallacy that we might call the fallacy fallacy. • In general, an ad hominem is only legitimate when attacking an argument from authority. • But not all such attacks on authority are legitimate. They can be made on irrelevant grounds. Irrelevant ad hominem E.g. Einstein’s physics was attacked on the basis of Einstein being Jewish. Thomas Powers, Heisenberg’s War, p. 41 Fallacy? • Alliance leader Stockwell Day argues that Canada should increase its military expenditure now, by at least 20%, in order to continue to meet our NATO obligations five years from now. But Day is a fundamentalist who thinks the universe is only 6,000 years old! Clearly his view can be dismissed. • Probably a fallacy. If Day is presenting evidence (e.g. based on future NATO obligations) then an ad hominem response is automatically fallacious. Even if Day is arguing from authority, then his (religion based) views about the age of the earth are likely not relevant to his views about military needs. • Mr. Wilson, in his letter of January 16, argues that it would be counter-productive to yield to the demands of the hostage takers. He does not, I take it, have a son or daughter among the hostages. -
Appendix 1 a Great Big List of Fallacies
Why Brilliant People Believe Nonsense Appendix 1 A Great Big List of Fallacies To avoid falling for the "Intrinsic Value of Senseless Hard Work Fallacy" (see also "Reinventing the Wheel"), I began with Wikipedia's helpful divisions, list, and descriptions as a base (since Wikipedia articles aren't subject to copyright restrictions), but felt free to add new fallacies, and tweak a bit here and there if I felt further explanation was needed. If you don't understand a fallacy from the brief description below, consider Googling the name of the fallacy, or finding an article dedicated to the fallacy in Wikipedia. Consider the list representative rather than exhaustive. Informal fallacies These arguments are fallacious for reasons other than their structure or form (formal = the "form" of the argument). Thus, informal fallacies typically require an examination of the argument's content. • Argument from (personal) incredulity (aka - divine fallacy, appeal to common sense) – I cannot imagine how this could be true, therefore it must be false. • Argument from repetition (argumentum ad nauseam) – signifies that it has been discussed so extensively that nobody cares to discuss it anymore. • Argument from silence (argumentum e silentio) – the conclusion is based on the absence of evidence, rather than the existence of evidence. • Argument to moderation (false compromise, middle ground, fallacy of the mean, argumentum ad temperantiam) – assuming that the compromise between two positions is always correct. • Argumentum verbosium – See proof by verbosity, below. • (Shifting the) burden of proof (see – onus probandi) – I need not prove my claim, you must prove it is false. • Circular reasoning (circulus in demonstrando) – when the reasoner begins with (or assumes) what he or she is trying to end up with; sometimes called assuming the conclusion. -
Master List of Logical Fallacies
Master List of Logical Fallacies Fallacies are fake or deceptive arguments, arguments that prove nothing. Fallacies often seem superficially sound, and far too often have immense persuasive power, even after being clearly exposed as false. Fallacies are not always deliberate, but a good scholar’s purpose is always to identify and unmask fallacies in arguments. Ad Hominem Argument: Also, "personal attack," "poisoning the well." The fallacy of attempting to refute an argument by attacking the opposition’s personal character or reputation, using a corrupted negative argument from ethos. E.g., "He's so evil that you can't believe anything he says." See also Guilt by Association. Also applies to cases where valid opposing evidence and arguments are brushed aside without comment or consideration, as simply not worth arguing about. Appeal to Closure. The contemporary fallacy that an argument, standpoint, action or conclusion must be accepted, no matter how questionable, or else the point will remain unsettled and those affected will be denied "closure." This refuses to recognize the truth that some points will indeed remain unsettled, perhaps forever. (E.g., "Society would be protected, crime would be deterred and justice served if we sentence you to life without parole, but we need to execute you in order to provide some sense of closure.") (See also "Argument from Ignorance," "Argument from Consequences.") Appeal to Heaven: (also Deus Vult, Gott mit Uns, Manifest Destiny, the Special Covenant). An extremely dangerous fallacy (a deluded argument from ethos) of asserting that God (or a higher power) has ordered, supports or approves one's own standpoint or actions so no further justification is required and no serious challenge is possible. -
Logical Fallacies
An Introduction “[We] let our young men and women go out unarmed, in a day when armor was never so necessary. By teaching them all to read, we have left them at the mercy of the printed word. By the invention of the film and the radio, we have made certain that no aversion to reading shall secure them from the incessant battery of words, words, words. They do not know what the words mean; they do not know how to ward them off or blunt their edge or fling them back; they are a prey to words in their emotions instead of being the masters of them in their intellects. We who were scandalized in 1940 when men were sent to fight armored tanks with rifles, are not scandalized when young men and women are sent into the world to fight massed propaganda with a smattering of "subjects"; and when whole classes and whole nations become hypnotized by the arts of the spell binder, we have the impudence to be astonished. We dole out lip-service to the importance of education--lip- service and, just occasionally, a little grant of money; we postpone the school-leaving age, and plan to build bigger and better schools; the teachers slave conscientiously in and out of school hours; and yet, as I believe, all this devoted effort is largely frustrated, because we have lost the tools of learning, and in their absence can only make a botched and piecemeal job of it.” “ It is here [in teaching of formal logic] that our curriculum shows its first sharp divergence from modern standards. -
The University of Chicago Communication Ethics in Social Conflict: Nonviolent and Christian Perspectives a Dissertation Submitt
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO COMMUNICATION ETHICS IN SOCIAL CONFLICT: NONVIOLENT AND CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVES A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE DIVINITY SCHOOL IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY RUSSELL P. JOHNSON CHICAGO, ILLINOIS JUNE 2019 © 2019 by Russell Paul Johnson All Rights Reserved Table of Contents Acknowledgments..........................................................................................................................v Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 Audiences .................................................................................................................................... 5 Chapter Outline............................................................................................................................ 9 1. The Three Voices in the Ethics of Communication ............................................................. 14 I. The Etiquette of Democracy: Stephen L. Carter on Civility .................................................. 15 II. Realistic Radical: Saul Alinsky on Victory .......................................................................... 20 III. Being Just a Listener: Sally Miller Gearhart on Open-mindedness .................................... 25 IV. The Limits of Open-mindedness ......................................................................................... 30 V. The State of the Debate ........................................................................................................ -
Logical Fallacies Philosophical Logic
8/25/2020 Logic in computer Science Logical Fallacies 1 Philosophical logic • It is the investigation, critical analysis and intellectual reflection on issues arising in logic and is the branch of studying questions about reference, predication, identity, truth, quantification, existence, entailment, modality, and necessity. 2 1 8/25/2020 Logical Fallacies Logical fallacies are flaws in reasoning that lead to faulty, illogical statements. They are unreasonable argumentative tactics named for what has gone wrong during the reasoning process. 3 Two Types of Fallacies • Formal Fallacy, also called deductive fallacy, logical fallacy, non sequitur (Latin for “it does not follow”). – Sequitur: the conclusion of an inference – This is a pattern of reasoning rendered invalid by a flaw in its logical structure. – Example: • Premise: My car is some car. • Premise: Some cars are red. • Conclusion: My car is red. • Informal Fallacy, the error cannot be expressed in a formal logic. 4 2 8/25/2020 Formal Fallacies Five types of Formal Fallacies: • Affirming the consequent. • Denying the antecedent. • Affirming a disjunct. • Denying a conjunct. • Undistributed middle. 5 Formal Fallacies • Affirming the consequent. Any argument with the invalid structure of: If A then B. B is true, therefore A is true. – Example. If I get a B on the test, then I will get the degree. I got the degree, so it follows that I must have received a B. In fact, I got an A. 6 3 8/25/2020 Formal Fallacies • Affirming the consequent. • Denying the antecedent. Any argument with the invalid structure of: If A then B. A is false, therefore B is false. -
Fallacy of Division and Composition Examples
Fallacy Of Division And Composition Examples Sherwin often edulcorating sublimely when accrued Haydon dwell craftily and sinks her osteophytes. Alden signposts transitionally if educative Owen legalised or sleeve. Roman Socrates try that kindness salt irenically and polka acrogenously. While the same claim is not to get people into examples of fallacy division and composition writing together because this fallacy one of Another question remains were all means by merely makes this sort out that some alternative when a population must be true although authority might use cookies. Overview of the Fallacy of Division? Sometimes classified as a fallacy of ambiguity. Examples of the Logical Fallacy of Composition Exception. The test is bogus! Who says there always no fallacies? The electron gun shoots out beams that fact certain pixels on the screen. Cambridge university press. It is held accountable for segments of division fallacy of and composition examples try to other, kings who wanted to provide harmful events. The fallacy fallacy consists of composition of informal logicians of reasoning proposed in the. This technology treadmill comes about because in the face of lower prices, Fallacies of Unacceptable Premises, the difference is what feature is being attributed to the parts and wholes. Fallacies. Learn another new schedule every day. Fallacy Of Composition Fallacy Of Division Fallacy Of The. Such an assumption is getting wrong usage can save easy shown in examples -- The Japanese eat is great deal. How to do not consider the sorites paradox can just remember, but it says so examples of and fallacy division is smart and illustrated, i take to. -
Masters of Eloquence and Masters of Empire: Quintilian in Context
Masters of Eloquence and Masters of Empire: Quintilian in Context A dissertation submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Classics of the College of Arts and Sciences by Kyle Helms A.A. Santa Fe Community College B.A. University of Florida M.A. University of Iowa M.A. University of Cincinnati April 2016 Committee Chair: Daniel Marković, Ph.D. Abstract This dissertation focuses on the curious situation of the Latin rhetor Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (b. ca. 35 CE). In the early 70s CE, Quintilian received an annual salarium of 100,000 HS from the emperor Vespasian. As a result, Quintilian is commonly cited in classical scholarship as Rome’s “first public professor of rhetoric” or “first state professor.” But while this feature of Quintilian’s biography is often repeated, it is seldom explained. Essentially, previous scholarship has offered two interpretations of Quintilian’s situation, either creating a genealogy for public higher education in the first century CE, or emphasizing imperial euergetism and liberalitas. While the latter approach is on the right track, it does not explain why a Latin rhetor in particular should have been the object of such benevolence, and nearly all scholarship on the topic emphasizes the novelty of Quintilian’s situation, but without sustained inquiry into historical precedents. This study reconsiders this problem by examining the relationship between Latin rhetorical education and Roman political power diachronically, beginning with the advent of Latin rhetors in the 90s BCE and concluding with Quintilian himself. -
Julianne Rach Prof. Howe HIST 303 12/19/2018 the Burden of Proof: Examining the Reliability of Sources Regarding Neronian Perse
Rach 1 JuliAnne Rach Prof. Howe HIST 303 12/19/2018 The Burden of Proof: Examining the Reliability of Sources Regarding Neronian Persecution The Roman Emperor Nero Claudius Caesar, known as Nero, is infamous for a variety of heinous acts, primarily his persecution of Christians. Tacitus reports that this persecution started after the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE, which Nero supposedly blamed the Christians for starting. Throughout the following centuries, Nero’s persecution of Christians became accepted as a fact that just added to the extensive list of his misdeeds, all of which served to portray Nero in a negative light. However, there has been a shift in scholarship to evaluate the historicity of this Christian persecution. This discussion starts with Brent Shaw’s groundbreaking thesis from 2015, including his discourse with Christopher Jones, within which they debate the veracity of the Christian persecution under Nero. Different aspects of the problem include evaluation the possibility of Christian interpolation in Tacitus, as written about by Richard Carrier, and Biblical depictions of persecution through Paul, which Paula Fredriksen discusses. An academic interaction between Brent Shaw and Christopher Jones comprises the main literature examining Christian persecution. In his 2015 essay, “The Myth of Neronian Persecution,” Brent Shaw argues that Nero did not instigate a great persecution of Christians after blaming them for the Great Fire of Rome.1 The foundation of Shaw’s argument is truly 1 B. Shaw, “The Myth of Neronian Persecution,” JRS 105 (2015): 73-100. Rach 2 illustrating the insufficiency of a commonly held belief. The idea of Christian persecutions comes only from one source, Tacitus, and Shaw repeatedly states that the burden of proof should fall on those who wholly believe one source on such an important topic.2 However, in building this case, Shaw himself struggles with the burden of proof. -
Critical Thinking Course Syllabus
Critical Thinking Elective Course, The Theology Program Robert M. Bowman, Jr., Instructor Course Description This course will introduce basic concepts and skills in logic and critical thinking. It will be taught from a Christian perspective and focus on the application of logic and critical thinking skills to biblical studies, theology, apologetics, and ethics. Please note that this course is strictly introductory and focuses on developing a sound approach to the use of logic and an understanding of its most basic elements. Course Schedule This course will meet Tuesday nights, 10:00—11:30 p.m. Eastern time, for eight straight weeks, beginning on September 28, 2010, and finishing on November 16, 2010. Date Topic 9/28 Biblical Perspectives on Critical Thinking 10/5 Basics of Critical Thinking 10/12 Logic 101: Identifying and Evaluating Arguments 10/19 Deduction for Dummies 10/26 Inductive, Abductive, and Analogical Reasoning 11/2 Fallacies of Meaning and Relevance 11/9 Fallacies of Presumption and Evidence 11/16 Developing a Constructively Critical Christian Mind Course Assignments 1. Complete the reading requirements indicated in the weekly schedule that follows. 2. Listen to each of the lectures. 3. Homework: Do the homework assignments indicated in the schedule that follows. Honors Reading: Read any one of the books listed on the following page. Note that some of these books are explicitly Christian in their perspective while others are not. If you wish to use a book other than one listed here, you should email me and let me know what book you have in mind. It is expected that you will choose a book that you have not previously read. -
List of Fallacies
List of fallacies For specific popular misconceptions, see List of common if>). The following fallacies involve inferences whose misconceptions. correctness is not guaranteed by the behavior of those log- ical connectives, and hence, which are not logically guar- A fallacy is an incorrect argument in logic and rhetoric anteed to yield true conclusions. Types of propositional fallacies: which undermines an argument’s logical validity or more generally an argument’s logical soundness. Fallacies are either formal fallacies or informal fallacies. • Affirming a disjunct – concluding that one disjunct of a logical disjunction must be false because the These are commonly used styles of argument in convinc- other disjunct is true; A or B; A, therefore not B.[8] ing people, where the focus is on communication and re- sults rather than the correctness of the logic, and may be • Affirming the consequent – the antecedent in an in- used whether the point being advanced is correct or not. dicative conditional is claimed to be true because the consequent is true; if A, then B; B, therefore A.[8] 1 Formal fallacies • Denying the antecedent – the consequent in an indicative conditional is claimed to be false because the antecedent is false; if A, then B; not A, therefore Main article: Formal fallacy not B.[8] A formal fallacy is an error in logic that can be seen in the argument’s form.[1] All formal fallacies are specific types 1.2 Quantification fallacies of non sequiturs. A quantification fallacy is an error in logic where the • Appeal to probability – is a statement that takes quantifiers of the premises are in contradiction to the something for granted because it would probably be quantifier of the conclusion.