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Information Visualization Principles, Techniques, and Software

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Information Visualization Principles, Techniques, and Software Chapter 2 Information Visualization Principles, Techniques, and Software Perceptual Properties Of all the human senses, vision is considered a pri- mary and powerful channel of input. It takes in everything from the world around us and transmits this information to the brain for an instant analysis of what it means. With this intimate connection that vision has with cognition comes the first step toward learning and creating visual designs, which is through understanding how human visual perception works. Visual perception is relative, constantly scanning, constantly adjusting focus, and constantly adapting. A well-known example, which is presented in figure 2.1, demonstrates how written words are perceived in a way that is different from what most people may initially think. According to research in word recogni- tion and how the human brain reads letters, the order of letters in a word does not matter; the only impor- tant thing is that the first letter and last letter are in April 2017 April the right place.1 Our vision relays the information to Figure 2.1 our brain, which takes care of processing what has Word recognition: how our brain reads letters (from Jinxi Caddel, “Word Recognition: How Our Brain Reads Letters,” been seen. Even when an entire paragraph contains Learn, Think, Inspire [blog], February 4, 2010, www.jinxi numerous spelling errors, people can still comprehend boo.com/blog/2010/2/4/word-recognition-how-our-brain it without any problems and often without even real- -reads-letters.html). izing that there are any errors in the text. Figure 2.1 alatechsource.org Pre-attentive Processing serves as a nice demonstration of how human vision and cognition interact: the human mind does not read every letter by itself; instead, it processes the word Pre-attentive visual processing, which takes place as a whole. This example also illustrates the complex in the sensory memory, is fundamental for creating and mysterious nature of human vision. Even more, visual representations. Pre-attentive visual attributes it creates extensive opportunities for visual designers are perceived by viewers almost instantaneously and to take advantage of human visual perception as it without the intervention of consciousness. One of the pertains to information visualization. Among all the key issues in the study of information visualization is unique characteristics of vision, two perceptual prop- to investigate how the human visual system processes Library Technology ReportsLibrary Technology erties are commonly applied in information visualiza- and analyzes an image. An important initial result tion: pre-attentive processing and the Gestalt Laws. of this research was that a small number of visual 8 Information Visualization Hsuanwei Michelle Chen Figure 2.2 Search for a target red circle based on a difference in hue (from Christopher G. Healey, “Perception in Visualization,” North Carolina State University, Department of Computer Science, last modified September 24, 2016, https://www .csc.ncsu.edu/faculty/healey/PP/index.html). properties can be detected rapidly and accurately sim- ply by the “low-level” visual system. These properties were termed pre-attentive since their detection appears to precede focused attention.2 It may be difficult to fully perceive the value of this insight, but understand- ing pre-attentive processing is important for visualiza- Figure 2.3 tion design. In particular, by exploiting pre-attentive Gestalt Laws: the faces-vase drawing (from Edgar Rubin, processing capability, several important design ques- “Figure and Ground,” in Visual Perception: Essential Read- tions can be answered, such as, What can be perceived ings, ed. Steven Yantis [Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press, immediately? Which visual properties are good dis- 2000], 225–29). criminators? What can mislead viewers? How can one design the information so that it pops out? One of the well-known Gestalt Laws is known as Christopher G. Healey from North Carolina State “figure and ground,” also called the “faces-vase” draw- University has created a website to demonstrate what ing, shown in figure 2.3.6 The foreground of this image pre-attentive processing means in regard to the expe- is the “figure,” while “ground” is what is behind. This rience of information visualization.3 One of his exam- drawing exemplifies one of the key aspects of the fig- ples is given in figure 2.2. This figure shows how to ure-ground organization and edge assignment, along search for a target circle based on a difference in col- with its effect on shape perception. One can notice ors—the darker circle pops out immediately among that in the faces-vase drawing, the perceived shape all the lighter circles. This is a basic, yet common use depends critically on the direction in which the bor- of pre-attentive processing. Some other basic tools der between the black and white regions is assigned. used in pre-attentive design include length, width, The perception of figure, as opposed to ground, can be ReportsLibrary Technology and intensity. There are also more advanced symbols, thought of as part of the fundamental perceptual act which include lighting and motion direction. of identifying objects. It must be acknowledged that Gestalt Laws play Gestalt Laws a significant role in information visualization. These laws apply in the creation of graphs in which visual Gestalt Laws, which are also known as the Law of elements are designed so as not to interfere with Simplicity and the Law of Pragnanz (which entails the each other. Specifically, according to Gestalt Laws, entire visual), describe how to arrange visual symbols the design of visualizations should avoid unexpres- in a graphical display that is optimized to achieve a sive marks, use perceptually effective encodings, and alatechsource.org better, more effective visualization. These laws focus not distract the audience. Creating an effective and on how people interpret the world, providing relevant expressive visual design with a truthful message is a principles in relation to perceptual organization. high priority in information visualization. Gestalt Laws were first proposed by German psycholo- 4 gists in the early 1900s. Their primary purpose was to assist in understanding pattern perception, while Information Visualization 2017 April also providing clear descriptions of many basic per- and Cognition ceptual phenomena. While psychologists call them laws, these principles are more like heuristics, which In one of the definitions of information visualiza- are mental shortcuts for solving problems.5 tion, it is stated that “the use of computer-supported, 9 Information Visualization Hsuanwei Michelle Chen interactive visual representations of data to amplify itself, should be directly proportional to the quanti- cognition” is necessary.7 This close connection ties represented. Another design principle that Tufte between information visualization and human cogni- introduced was the “data-ink ratio.”11 Tufte referred tion is emphasized. One of the noted benefits of graph- to data-ink as “the non-erasable core of a graphic, the ics is to help simplify the search for information that is non-redundant ink arranged in response to variation needed for task completion through the aid of human in the numbers represented.”12 By definition, non- vision. In particular, in order to crystalize knowledge, data-ink is the ink that does not convey information data is needed. When data alone is not able to easily but is used for scales, labels, and edges. To further provide information, the use of information visualiza- expand on this, the data-ink ratio is “the proportion of tion can help. Visualization aids cognition due to the ink that is used to present actual data compared to the ways that it increases memory and the processing of total amount of ink (or pixels) used in the entire dis- resources available through pre-attentive properties, play.”13 The lesson in all of these details and objectives Gestalt Laws, and many other perceptual properties. is that good graphics should include only data-ink; all By simplifying the search for information and enhanc- non-data-ink should be deleted whenever possible ing the recognition of patterns, visualization enables to avoid drawing attention to distracting, irrelevant perceptual inference operations. elements in the presentation. The goal is to design a display with the maximum possible data-ink ratio without eliminating something that is necessary for Tufte’s Principles for effective communication. Information Visualization The non-data-ink concept also leads to the discus- sions of avoiding “chart junk.” Chart junk is all the Edward Tufte is the man the New York Times called visual elements in charts and graphs that are not nec- “the da Vinci of data” because of his concisely writ- essary for the viewer to comprehend the information ten and artfully illustrated books on the visual display represented on the graph or that distract the viewer of data.8 In addition to being noted for his writings from this information.14 Examples of unnecessary ele- on information design, Tufte is also a pioneer in the ments that are chart junk include heavy or dark grid field. Through his work, he proposed key principles in lines, unnecessary text, or inappropriately complex designing visualizations, which have offered substan- font faces. In addition, ornamented chart axes and dis- tive and important insights into displaying informa- play frames, pictures or icons within data graphs, and tion for maximum effect
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