International Journal of Transpersonal Studies

Volume 37 | Issue 1 Article 7

9-1-2018 Haridas Chaudhuri's Contributions to Integral Psychology Bahman Shirazi California Institute of Integral Studies, San Francisco, CA, USA

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Recommended Citation Shirazi, B. (2018). Haridas Chaudhuri's contributions to integral psychology. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 37 (1). http://dx.doi.org/https://doi.org/10.24972/ijts.2018.37.1.55

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 License. This Special Topic Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals and Newsletters at Digital Commons @ CIIS. It has been accepted for inclusion in International Journal of Transpersonal Studies by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ CIIS. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Haridas Chaudhuri’s Contributions to Integral Psychology

Bahman A. K. Shirazi California Institute of Integral Studies San Francisco, CA, USA

This article provides a summary of Haridas Chaudhuri’s contributions to the field of integral psychology. First an outline and a brief discussion of his principal tenets and triadic principle of integral psychology are presented, followed by a review of Chaudhuri’s critical reflections on some aspects of early transpersonal psychology. The article concludes with a reflection on recent trends in the field of transpersonal psychology and its evolution toward a whole person orientation compatible with integral psychology.

Keywords: Haridas Chaudhuri, Integral psychology, transpersonal psychology

he intricate relationship between psycho- integral philosophy in the 1940s, became the logical and spiritual development had main exponent of integral yoga and philosophy Talready been contemplated well before the in the United States in the early 1950s and beginnings of American transpersonal psychology onward. According to Paul Herman (personal in the mid-1960s. Some three decades earlier in communication, n.d.), who was asked by Chaudhuri Europe, Carl G. Jung (1875–1961) and Roberto in the early 1970s to create the first integral/ Assagioli (1888–1974), who were both trained transpersonal psychotherapy training program in in the scientific tradition as physicians and were the world, Chaudhuri had suspected that much early founders of depth psychology, expanded of the spiritual dilemmas and issues that he was the boundaries of Freudian psychoanalysis by consulted about were in fact psychological issues including the transpersonal dimensions of the in disguise. With this insight, as well as his own human experience in their systems of psychology personal knowledge and experience of psychology and psychotherapy. and spirituality, he affirmed that there is a profound In India, Sri Aurobindo (1872–1950), relationship between psychology and spirituality who referred to yoga as “nothing but practical and that spiritual growth and transformation is psychology,” developed integral yoga mainly in the inseparable from psychological development. last few decades of his life. Indra Sen (1903–1994), Chaudhuri devoted much of his efforts in a prominent Indian psychologist, coined the term the last few years of his life to developing his own Integral psychology with Sri Aurobindo’s consent creative approach to integral psychology. A short and developed workshops and classes in what may version of his unfinished work in this area was be called integral yoga psychology. Sen (1960, later published as a chapter titled “psychology” in 1986) extracted and placed the psychological the posthumously published work, The Evolution essence of Sri Aurobindo’s metaphysical and yogic of Integral Consciousness (Chaudhuri, 1977). The framework in the foreground of his work, which present article includes an outline of Chaudhuri’s was also informed by Western depth psychology principal tenets and the triadic principle of Integral and traditional Indian psychologies to create the psychology presented in Chaudhuri (1977) which first systematic approach to integral psychology. was based on an earlier unpublished monograph Haridas Chauduri (1913–1975), who written in the early 1970s (Chaudhuri, n.d.). It focused his doctoral dissertation on Sri Aurobindo’s will also review Chaudhuri’s early critique of

Chaudhuri’sInternational Contributions Journal of Transpersonal to Integral Psychology Studies, 37(1), 2018,International pp. 55–62 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 55 https://doi.org/10.24972/ijts.2018.37.1.55 transpersonal psychology and examine how his integral psychology anticipated and addressed • The wholeness of personality: The human be- some of the issues that challenged the field of ing is an onto-psycho-somatic continuum, or transpersonal psychology in later decades. In a spirit-mind-body unity which in the ultimate conclusion, this paper will argue that the field of analysis, is an indivisible whole. transpersonal psychology has evolved toward a • Different levels of consciousness: Conscious- whole person framework as well as integral themes ness is the basic structure of the psyche. Thus and insights and that the two fields might converge the various states below the waking con- in the coming decades. sciousness, as well as higher meditative states are worthy of investigation as valid dimen- Chaudhuri’s Approach sions of the total human experience. to Integral Psychology n an unpublished paper developed in the early • Importance of all phases and areas of experi- I1970s, Chaudhuri (n.d.) laid out the basic ence: Not only is it important to make direct framework for his own independent approach empirical observations of human experience, to Integral psychology in which he outlined it is imperative that all areas of human expe- about a dozen “principal tenets” that defined the rience be included in the process of inquiry. general parameters of his formulation. Some of Not only wakeful, conscious experiences, these principles share much with the essential but also dreams and deep sleep stages, al- assumptions of existential/phenomenological tered states of consciousness, and creative and humanistic/transpersonal psychologies imagination are important areas of research of the 1960s and 1970s; others are resonant with in integral psychology. Beside ordinary states principles of yoga psychology and integral yoga. of consciousness, pathological, paranormal, The “triadic principle” of uniqueness, relatedness and peak experiences must be considered. and transcendence is resonant with the three • Need for personal integration: A full experi- modes of the Self (Individual, Universal/Cosmic, ence of wholeness presupposes the full in- Transcendent) that form one of the pillars of Sri tegration of the diversified components and Aurobindo’s (1992) integral psychology. aspects of human personality. To this end it is Chaudhuri’s Principal Tenets essential to appreciate the role of understand- of Integral Psychology ing the self, because it is “only by following Chaudhuri’s approach to integral the inner light of one’s own self that the hu- psychology is not primarily concerned with man psyche can be comprehended in its full- extrapolation of psychological insights from Sri ness” (Chaudhuri, n.d., p. 24). Aurobindo’s overall teachings. Instead, it directly applies an integrative methodology to the domain • The concept of integral self-realization: In- of psychological knowledge in order to construct a tegral psychology holds that integral self-re- system of psychology that is phenomenologically alization is the profoundest potential for the oriented in its epistemological outlook, and human being. This achievement requires a that holds psychospiritual development and thorough integration and harmonization of transformation, as well as integration toward the personal, the social and the transcenden- wholeness, as its central objective. tal; and of the existential and the ontological In his effort to outline the basic concepts dimensions of existence. of integral psychology with a minimum of • The doctrine of transformation: In integral metaphysical assumptions, Chaudhuri (n.d.) psychology the doctrine of transformation re- proposed a number of “principal tenets” that form places the kind of transcendence which re- the basis for his approach to integral psychology. sults from withdrawal from, or negation of, The following is a brief list of selected principal the world. The lower spheres of conscious- tenets:

56 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Shirazi The uniqueness principle may be best ness (instincts, drives, etc.) are not escaped understood in terms of two ancient yogic principles from or suppressed, but are transformed into of Swabhava and Swadharma. Swabhava, the desirable qualities. Psychological transforma- unique state of an individual, refers to the fact that tion is achieved through a process of purifica- each individual human being is the resultant of a tion and psycho-ethical discipline. unique set of qualities and characteristics that are not replicable in their exact configuration. Indeed • The doctrine of ontomotivation: “In the no two objects or events are exactly the same in course of self-development ego drives are nature. Just as no two leaves of a tree or no two ultimately transcended and action becomes snowflakes are the same despite similarities, no a spontaneous outpouring of the creative joy two human beings can ever be identical in the of union with Being as the ultimate ground of exact configuration of genetic and physiological one’s own existence” (Chaudhuri, n.d. , p. 3). makeup, temperament, personality traits, cultural and historical conditions, context of personal • The methodology of integral experientialism: experience and potential for spiritual development. Integral psychology is comprehensive in its In this author’s view, the more one understands this survey of human experience. Critical, expe- profoundly meaningful reality the harder it becomes riential investigation and evaluation is en- to employ rational psychological categories and couraged in studying a vast range of states of typologies—including pathological categories and consciousness and modes and phases of expe- classifications. rience. External observations as well as intro- Swadharma implies that there is a unique spective approaches are equally valued in this path of development, growth and unfoldment methodology. for each individual which must be understood in The Triadic Principle of Integral Psychology terms of that person’s unique swabhava. Unlike hile the above foundational principles are some forms of perennial psychology, integral Wuseful in understanding the overall parame- psychology is sensitive to issues of individuality ters, scope and vision of Chaudhuri’s integral psy- and the path of individual psychological growth chology, his triadic principle of uniqueness, relat- and psychospiritual embodiment and evolution. edness, and transcendence provide another set of It is important to note here that most traditional guidelines for understanding the overall process of spiritual disciplines, especially those of the East, psychospiritual development, transformation and have de-emphasized the individual dimensions integration. Uniqueness, relatedness and transcen- of personal consciousness or equated it with dence correspond to the three domains of person- an illusory vision of reality. Individuality has al, interpersonal and transpersonal psychological often been associated with self-centeredness, inquiry and approximately parallel Sri Aurobin- egocentrism or selfishness, which are the antithesis do’s three modes of the Self: Individual, Universal of the basic tenet of selflessness advocated in (cosmic) and Transcendent (eternal). According to spiritual practice. Chaudhuri (1977): In this author’s analysis, misunderstanding of the uniqueness principle results in various forms Broadly speaking, there are three inseparable of narcissistic traits and, in some cases, narcissistic aspects of human personality: uniqueness, personality disorders. Narcissistic individuals or individuality, universality or relatedness, are likely to believe in their own uniqueness and transcendence. In different schools of (specialness), but would not grant others such a philosophy we find that there has been a privilege. Narcissism is indeed a strong impediment tendency to over-emphasize one aspect or to any kind of real psychological and spiritual another. It has not occurred to many people growth. that all these are very essential and interrelated Integral psychology promotes the idea of a aspects of our being. (p. 74) balanced and healthy ego development and affirms Chaudhuri’s Contributions to Integral Psychology International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 57 the role of sound ego-development in the initial psychology until the present has been concerned stages of psychospiritual growth. But the self must with what may be referred to as the body-mind first be understood as theprinciple of embodiment. configuration, or outer/surface personality. According to Sri Aurobindo the ego is only a However, the transcendental (non- temporary formation in the outer nature, required temporal) dimension is of equal importance during the early stages of individualization. The in Chaudhuri’s integral psychology which real center of embodied individuality is the soul recognizes the importance of the urge toward (the Psychic Being) which resides deep in the transcendence and wholeness. Historically the center of a human being behind the heart. This notion of transcendence has been the cornerstone Psychic Being is seen as a delegate of Atman (the of Eastern psychologies and Western mysticism. transcendent Self which remains immutably beyond Being so, the terminology often characteristic of manifestation) in matter. This is quite different from these systems has been categorically unacceptable the common definitions of the terms ego and self to mainstream Western psychology. On the other as defined technically within various schools of hand, traditional mysticism has had little or no Western psychology. concern with the conventional psychological As important as individuality may be, it growth and development of the human being. is not possible to understand the human being in Integral psychology recognizes and emphasizes terms of individuality alone. Relatedness or the both of these areas without neglecting either of interpersonal dimension— the relationship with all them. other beings, the earth and the physical universe— According to Chaudhuri (1977): is of equal importance in the triadic formulation. The essential significance of transcendence Obviously human beings are contextualized is that man in his inmost being is a child of within numerous holonically organized systems immortality, an imperishable spark of the such as families, cultures, societies, nations infinite. . . . As a mode of manifestation of and ultimately the earth and the entire cosmos. being, his ultimate goal is union with that Integral psychology holds the assumption that ground of existence, transcending all other individuals are microcosmic expressions of the limitations. (p. 76) greater macrocosm with infinite potential for spiritual realization. Just as an individual needs to The notion of transcendence, however, could maintain harmonious intrapsychic dynamics, she be misleading if taken in an ultimate or absolute or he needs to also maintain balance and harmony sense. In an article titled “Psychology: Humanistic with others and with nature. In this writer’s and Transpersonal”, Chaudhuri (1975) critiqued understanding of Integral psychology based on one of the early assumptions of transpersonal Chaudhuri’s framework and current western psychology—the notion of ultimate states—and psychology, unhealthy and lopsided growth in the that transpersonal psychology was concerned with interpersonal realm is likely to lead to enmeshment, recognition and realization of ultimate states. co-dependency, and borderline personality traits Chaudhuri did not believe in characteri- and disorders. zation of mystical experiences in terms of ultimate In integral psychology the human being states. Such characterization, he believed, creates is understood in terms of both the embodied- the “dichotomy of the ultimate and the preparatory, historical (temporal) and the transcendental, the transcendental and the phenomenal, . . . the formless/timeless (non-temporal) dimensions. dichotomy of the lower self and the higher self, Hitherto Western psychology has been concerned the flesh and the spirit, relative knowledge and only with the historical dimension of the human absolute knowledge, conditioned existence and being which includes: a) the genetic/biological/ unconditioned perfection” (Chaudhuri, 1975, neurological characteristics or the physical-vital p. 9). This problem arises when the principle of aspects, b) the emotional aspects, and c) the mental transcendence is treated in isolation from the aspects of human existence. In short, Western principles of uniqueness and relatedness. 58 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Shirazi consciousness experienced for a certain duration Chaudhuri’s Critique in time, whether induced by meditative techniques, of Early Transpersonal Psychology entheogens, spontaneously or otherwise. n the early issues of the Journal of Transpersonal Chaudhuri’s Integral psychology certainly foresaw IPsychology (JTP) it was stated that transpersonal the necessity of integration of such experiences psychology is concerned with “meta-needs, ultimate into the personal and social realms of existence in values, unitive consciousness, peak experiences, order for them to have any lasting or transformative ecstasy, mystical experience, B values, essence, effects. Moreover, a tendency for transcendence of bliss, awe, wonder, self-actualization, ultimate egocentric consciousness without proper somatic meaning, transcendence of the self, spirit” among grounding, or emotional transformation is likely to other related concepts in its statement of purpose result in spiritual bypassing, a problem that came (e.g., JTP, 1969, p. i). In his critique of transpersonal to the attention of transpersonal psychology much psychology, in the early years of its emergence later, in the mid-1980s. and differentiation from humanistic psychology, Chaudhuri (1975) was concerned that Chaudhuri (1975) wrote: “under the aegis of transpersonal psychology an unconscious revival may occur of the metaphysical It has been suggested that transpersonal transcendentalism and static ultimatism of the psychology goes beyond the ideals of “self- orient’s medieval mysticism” (p. 8), in that “instead actualization,” “being human,” or “being fully of dissipating the illusions which lie at the root of human.” It ventures forth into the transhuman so much neurotic behavior, medieval mysticism level of truly transpersonal experiences. But are tended to encourage and perpetuate the neurotic not transpersonal experiences still a specific urge of the human psyche for some ultimate mode of human experience, existentially condition of blissful but illusory self-realization” continuous even though qualitatively different? (p. 8). Don’t they represent a higher dimension of As stated earlier, Chaudhuri’s (n.d.) personal experience of the individual human doctrine of transformation replaces the kind of being? (p. 7) transcendence which results from withdrawal Here the emphasis seems to be on the fact from, or negation of, the world. The lower spheres that the transpersonal dimension is only one of the of consciousness (instincts, drives, etc.) are not three modes of self-consciousness suggested by Sri escaped from or suppressed, but are transformed Aurobindo and Haridas Chaudhuri (i.e., individual, into desirable qualities. Chaudhuri’s doctrine relational/universal, cosmic/transcendent). In of transformation is inspired by Sri Aurobindo, their eagerness to go beyond the traditional ego- who wrote about three types of transformation centered domain of Western psychology and (Psychic, Spiritual, Supramental) in integral yoga embrace mystical and spiritual experiences, early in The Life Divine (Sri Aurobindo, 1997, pp. 889– transpersonal psychologists may have unwittingly 918). Transformation refers to transformation of overlooked the importance of the personal and consciousness, which results in transformation of interpersonal dimensions of the self in a larger, personality: mind, emotions, and eventually the more holistic vision of psychology. body; and is intimately connected with other tenets Perhaps part of the problem is the phrase such as personal integration, integral self-realization “transpersonal”; what was likely meant by “meta- and ontomotivation. needs, ultimate values, unitive consciousness, peak experiences, ecstasy, mystical experience, B values, The Problem of Spiritual Bypassing essence, bliss, awe, wonder, self-actualization, haudhuri’s integral psychology anticipated the ultimate meaning, transcendence of the self, Cdilemma of spiritual bypassing, later introduced spirit...” (JTP, 1969, p. i) was trans-egoic realms and in the literature of transpersonal psychology experiences. However, trans-egoic experiences (Welwood, 1984). This tendency, especially could only be psychological or spiritual states of common among individuals with schizoid Chaudhuri’s Contributions to Integral Psychology International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 59 personality traits, is characterized by a wish to behavioral dimensions of personality. Without transcend the somatic and affective dimensions these steps the supramental transformation in through suppression or denial of the body and integral yoga is not possible. emotions in order to attain transcendental states of consciousness. It is true that mystical experiences The Evolution of Transpersonal Psychology attained in this fashion may have their proper place Toward a Whole Person Perspective in the process of psychospiritual development. But he origins of transpersonal psychology— when taken to an extreme, asceticism and denial of Twhich is often referred to as the fourth wave the physical-vital energies problematically become in the history of psychology—can be traced back the goal of spiritual practice. to Carl Jung’s analytical psychology and Roberto In traditional spiritual practices awakening Assagioli’s psychosynthesis in Europe in the 1930s. the metaphysical instincts has often been done at the In the United States it emerged from humanistic expense of suppressing the biological instincts—a psychology about three decades later in the process referred to as spiritual bypassing. The body 1960s. Both Jung and Assagioli, whose careers and its associated needs and desires are often spanned the empirical/scientific as well as depth regarded as impure and an obstacle to spiritual psychologies (the first two waves) and in their attainment. This could be rooted in a belief that life later works naturally embraced the humanistic and on Earth and in the body is a form of banishment transpersonal dimensions (third and fourth waves), from heavenly realms. In other instances, this were keenly interested in healing, integration, could be a result of an overly masculinized attitude and wholeness—that is, Jung’s individuation which holds a fear of the body and the senses and Assagioli’s psychosynthesis. In this way they and privileges transcendent consciousness over were quite compatible with integral psychology’s embodied existence. In such views the body is emphasis on these same central issues of healing, deemed subject to pain, decay and eventual death transformation, integration and wholeness. and thus ultimately unreliable and undesirable. Moreover, both Jung and Assagioli considered This tendency has been called spiritual bypassing the soul (i.e., Self, Higher/Transpersonal Self) which implies bypassing of embodied physical as the cardinal instrument for integration of the and related vital and emotional challenges through total psyche. This is strikingly parallel to Integral suppression of them in order to attain higher or Psychology’s notion of psychic transformation, or transcendent spiritual consciousness. the transformation of personality using the soul/ Integral psychology maintains that psyche as the catalyst. In all three systems it is before attempting to reach higher transcendental acknowledged that egocentric consciousness has states through spiritual bypassing, one must first specific psychological functions as well as certain properly deal with issues of psychological growth limitations and is incapable of integrating the and development, as well as with pathological whole person. tendencies and development of a relatively A review of the themes and trends in the healthy ego and personality. Transcendence, in history of American transpersonal psychology shows integral psychology, is replaced by the notion that over the course of several decades there has of psychospiritual transformation. The soul been a gradual evolution towards these same whole (Psychic Being) plays an important role in the person themes. Caplan, Hartelius, and Rardin (2003), process of psychic transformation in integral who mention a number of earlier studies reviewing yoga and psychology. Transcendence of the ego published definitions of transpersonal psychology is merely the first step in search of transpersonal and reflections on the field, presented dozens of experiences which generally involve experience of contemporary viewpoints from various scholars psychocentric consciousness in some individuals in the field. A few years later in Transpersonal and cosmocentric consciousness in others. The Psychology: Defining the Past, Divining the Future, next step involves the transformation of mental/ Hartelius, Caplan & Rardin’s (2007) analysis of the cognitive, emotional/affective, and physical/ last four decades revealed that: 60 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Shirazi continued to study the most important literature the major subject areas of the field can be and dialogued with key personalities of his time and summed up in three themes: beyond-ego had numerous spiritual experiences that informed psychology, integrative/holistic psychology, his outlook throughout his life. His insights into and psychology of transformation. Theme the nature of human psychospiritual development frequency analysis reveals that early emphasis and transformation were based on his own lived on alternative states of consciousness has experiences and spiritual accomplishments. moderated into a broader approach to human Chaudhuri focused much of his attention in transcendence, wholeness, and transformation. the last few years of his life on integral psychology This expanded definition of transpersonal and wrote extensively on related topics such as psychology suggests the field has much in yoga psychology, integral psychotherapy and common with integral psychology. (p. 1) integral self-realization. His untimely passing in The emergence of a whole person psychology 1975 interrupted his work in these areas and a is an exciting development for the field of psychology, number of his related articles remain unpublished; perhaps leading toward the evolution of a fifth wave thus, Haridas Chaudhuri was not an influential in the history of psychology. Inspired by Chaudhuri’s figure in the development of transpersonal approach to psychology, the current author defined psychology. Nevertheless, his timeless insights this new integral psychology as a: into the nature of human psyche and spirit and his well-informed formulation of a whole-person psychological system concerned with approach to psychology were inspired by the same exploring and understanding the totality of evolutionary spirit that is beginning to manifest, as the human phenomenon. . . . a framework he had foreseen, at the dawn of the 21st century. that not only addresses the behavioral, The same evolutionary spirit and momentum is affective and cognitive domains of the human no doubt guiding and informing numerous other experience within a singular system, but is figures in integral and transpersonal psychology concerned with the relationship among the whether or not they were aware of Chaudhuri’s key above-mentioned domains in the context of contributions to a new integral or whole-person human spiritual development. . . . a system orientation to human self-exploration and self- that, at its breadth, covers the entire body- knowledge. mind-psyche-spirit spectrum, while at its depth dimension, encompasses the previously References explored unconscious and the conscious dimensions of the psyche, as well as the supra- Caplan, M., Hartelius, G., & Rardin, M. (2003). conscious dimension traditionally excluded Contemporary viewpoints on transpersonal from psychological inquiry. (Shirazi, 2001, p. 1) psychology. The Journal of Transpersonal Haridas Chauduri was not a practicing Psychology, 35(2), 143–162. psychologist. He was trained as a philosopher in Chaudhuri, H. (n.d.). Integral psychology: Its outlook, India in the 1930s and 40s and was well conversed scope, and methodology. Unpublished manuscript. in Indian traditional yogas, philosophy and classics, Chaudhuri, H. (1975). Psychology: Humanistic and as well as both classic and contemporary Western transpersonal. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, philosophy and depth psychology. The topics on 15(1), 7–15. which he lectured ranged from yoga and mysticism, Chaudhuri, H. (1977). The evolution of integral to education, psychology and philosophy among consciousness. Wheaton, IL.: Quest Books. many other topics. Chaudhuri’s knowledge of Hartelius, G., Caplan, M., & Rardin, M. (2007). Integral yoga and philosophy qualified him for Transpersonal Psychology: Defining the personal approval by Sri Aurobindo to become the past, divining the future. The Humanistic main ambassador of integral yoga in the United Psychologist, 35(2), 1–26. https://doi. States during the last 25 years of his life. He org/10.1080/08873260701274017 Chaudhuri’s Contributions to Integral Psychology International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 61 Journal of Transpersonal Psychology. (1969). Statement of purpose. 1(2), p. i. Sen, I. (1960). The Indian approach to psychology. In H. Chaudhuri & F. Spiegelberg (Eds.), The Integral Philosophy of Sri Aurobindo (pp. 184– 191). San Francisco, CA: Cultural Integration Fellowship. Sen, I. (1986). Integral psychology: The psychological system of Sri Aurobindo. Pondicherry, India: Sri Aurobindo Ashram Trust. Shirazi, B. (2001). Integral psychology: Metaphors and processes of personal integration. In M. Cornelissen (Ed.), Consciousness and Its Transformation: Sri Aurobindo’s contribution. Pondicherry, India: Sri Aurobindo Ashram Trust. Retrieved from https://www.ipi.org.in/texts/ip2/ ConsciousnessAndItsTransformation-v5.pdf Sri Aurobindo. (1992). The synthesis of yoga. Pondicherry, India: Sri Aurobindo Ashram Trust. Sri Aurobindo. (1997). The life divine. Pondicherry, India: Sri Aurobindo Ashram Trust. Welwood, J. (1984). Principles of inner work: Psy- chological and spiritual. The Journal of Transper- sonal Psychology, 16(1), 63–73.

About the Author

Bahman A. K. Shirazi, PhD, has been an adjunct faculty member at CIIS for the past two and half decades. His main areas of interest are integral phi- losophy, yoga, and psychology and the process of psychospiritual development. He has published a number of book chapters and articles on various topics in integral psychology and integrative re- search methodology, and has served as guest edi- tor for ReVision and Integral Review journals. Email: [email protected].

About the Journal

The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a is a peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is sponsored by the California Institute of Integral Studies, published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the official publication of the International Transpersonal Association. The journal is available online at www. transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. lulu.com (search for IJTS).

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